Chapter 2
Data Communication Layers
1. What is OSI reference model?
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes computing functions
into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support interoperability between different
products and software. In the OSI reference model, the communications between a computing
systems are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport,
Session, Presentation, and Application.
Created at a time when network computing was in its infancy, the OSI was published in 1984 by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Though it does not always map directly
to specific systems, the OSI Model is still used today as a means to describe Network Architecture.
It is conceptual frame work internet architecture which comprises 7 different layers. It was
developed by a non-governmental organization that forms a bridge between the public and private
sectors an international standardization organization (ISO) for simplification of network
understand.
The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide technology vendors and developers so the
digital communications products and software programs they create can interoperate and to
promote a clear framework that describes the functions of a networking or telecommunications
system that's in use.
The objectives of layered communication (OSI)
❖ To reduce complexity of communication task
❖ Assists for protocol design
❖ In order not to affect other layers when change of one layer
❖ For enabling us to easily understand the big picture of network.
❖ For understanding how hardware and software work together.
❖ To understand new technologies as they are developed.
1 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
❖ For easily troubleshooting of separate networks.
❖ To understand basic functional relationships on different networks.
2. Motivation
When communication is desired among computers from different vendors, the software
development effort can be very difficult. Different vendors use different data formats and data
exchange protocols that do not allow computers to communicate with one another. Recognizing
the problem, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops a communications
architecture known as the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model that defines standards for
linking heterogeneous computers.
3. The seven (7) OSI Layers
Physical
Concerned with transmission of unstructured bit stream over the physical link. It invokes such
parameters as signal voltage swing and bit duration. It deals with the mechanical, electrical,
procedural characteristics to establish, maintain and deactivate the physical link.
Data link
Provides for the reliable transfer of data across the physical link. It sends blocks of data (frames)
with the necessary synchronization, error control and flow control.
Network
Provides upper layers with independence from the data transmission and switching technologies
used to connect systems. It is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating
connections.
Transport
Provides reliable, transparent transfer of data between end points. It provides end-to-end error
recovery and flow control.
2 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Session
Provides the control structure for communication between applications. It establishes, manages
and terminates connections (sessions) between cooperating applications.
Presentation
Performs generally useful transformations on data to provide a standardized application interface
and to provide common communications services. It provides services such as encryption, text
compression and reformatting.
Application
Provides services to the users of the OSI environment. It provides services for FTP, transaction
server, network management, etc.
❖ When data is sent from one device to another, the data must travel down through each layer
on the sending device and then up through the layers on the receiving end.
Encapsulation
3 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
For example, a TCP/IP packet contained within an ATM frame is a form of encapsulation. Also it
define as adding of protocol information the data. Its main advantage is taking data from one
protocol and translating it into another protocol, so the data can continue across a network. On the
other hand, de-encapsulation refers to a process in which information added through the
encapsulation process is removed. Data that should be transferred to a new location must go
through each layer. When each layer is reached, the information is added to the data. This is called
encapsulation. When the data reaches the destination, the added information is decompressed in
each layer. This process is called de-capsulation. Generally, Encapsulation is a process by which
a lower-layer protocol receives data from a higher-layer protocol and then places the data into the
data portion of its frame. Thus, encapsulation is the process of enclosing one type of packet using
another type of packet.
4 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
4. Internetworking with TCP/IP suits
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and is a suite of
communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet because TCP and
5 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
IP are the two main protocols, though others are included in the suite. The two main protocols in
the IP suite serves specific functions. TCP defines how applications can create channels of
communication across a network. It also manages how a message is assembled into smaller packets
before they are then transmitted over the internet and reassembled in the right order at the
destination address. On the other hand, IP defines how to address and route each packet to make
sure it reaches the right destination. Each gateway computer on the network checks this IP address
to determine where to forward the message. TCP/IP is also used as a communications protocol in
a private computer network (an intranet or extranet).
TCP/IP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet by providing end-to-end communications
that identify how it should be broken into packets, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at
the destination. TCP/IP requires little central management and is designed to make networks
reliable with the ability to recover automatically from the failure of any device on the network.
It is a model defines how devices should transmit data between them and enables communication
over networks and large distances. The model represents how data is exchanged and organized
over networks. It is split into four layers, which set the standards for data exchange and represent
how data is handled and packaged when being delivered between applications, devices, and
servers.
Why is TCP/IP important?
TCP/IP is nonproprietary and, as a result, is not controlled by any single company. Therefore, the
IP suite can be modified easily. It is compatible with all operating systems (OSes), so it can
communicate with any other system. The IP suite is also compatible with all types of computer
hardware and networks.
TCP/IP is highly scalable and, as a routable protocol, can determine the most efficient path through
the network. It is widely used in current internet architecture.
The four layers of the TCP/IP model are as follows:
6 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
[Link] link layer: The data link layer defines how data should be sent, handles the physical act
of sending and receiving data, and is responsible for transmitting data between applications or
devices on a network. This includes defining how data should be signaled by hardware and
other transmission devices on a network, such as a computer’s device driver, an Ethernet cable,
a network interface card (NIC), or a wireless network. It is also referred to as the link layer,
network access layer, network interface layer, or physical layer and is the combination of the
physical and data link layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which
standardizes communications functions on computing and telecommunications systems.
[Link] layer: The internet layer is responsible for sending packets from a network and
controlling their movement across a network to ensure they reach their destination. It provides
the functions and procedures for transferring data sequences between applications and devices
across networks.
[Link] layer: The transport layer is responsible for providing a solid and reliable data
connection between the original application or device and its intended destination. This is the
level where data is divided into packets and numbered to create a sequence. The transport layer
then determines how much data must be sent, where it should be sent to, and at what rate. It
ensures that data packets are sent without errors and in sequence and obtains the
acknowledgment that the destination device has received the data packets.
4.4. Application layer: The application layer refers to programs that need TCP/IP to help them
communicate with each other. This is the level that users typically interact with, such as email
systems and messaging platforms. It combines the session, presentation, and application layers
of the OSI model.
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) defines and codifies the concept of
layered network architecture. Abstraction layers are used to subdivide a communications
system further into smaller manageable parts. A layer is a collection of similar functions that
provide services to the layer above it and receives services from the layer below it
5. Architecture
7 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Network architecture is a design of communication networks for specification of a network’s
physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operation principles
and procedures as well as data formats use.
[Link]-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead
to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system. Therefore,
it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
[Link]/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
8 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission.
The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2
Advantages Of Client/Server network:
o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore, we can back up the
data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of
the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the shared
resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients,
but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
9 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
6. What are protocols and standards?
It is set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a network as language.
Also, it is a standard set of rules that allow electronic devices to communicate with each other. A
network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate
with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.
Network protocols are the reason you can easily communicate with people all over the world, and
thus play a critical role in modern digital communications.
Similar to the way that speaking the same language simplifies communication between two people,
network protocols make it possible for devices to interact with each other because of predetermined
rules built into devices’ software and hardware. Neither local area networks (LAN) nor wide area
networks (WAN) could function the way they do today without the use of network protocols.
These rules includes: What type of data may be transmitted, what commands are used to send and
receive data, and how data transfers are confirmed.
The key features of protocol are:
✓ Syntax – data block format
✓ Semantics - control info. & error handling
✓ Timing - speed matching & sequencing
It is also defined that is a set of rules for formatting and processing data. Network protocols are
like a common language for computers. The computers within a network may use vastly different
software and hardware; however, the use of protocols enables them to communicate with each
other regardless.
Standardized protocols are like a common language that computers can use, similar to how two
people from different parts of the world may not understand each other's native languages, but they
can communicate using a shared third language. Protocols make these networking functions
possible. For instance, the Internet Protocol (IP) is responsible for routing data by indicating where
10 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
data packets come from and what their destination is. IP makes network-to-network
communications possible. Hence, IP is considered a network layer (layer 3) protocol.
As another example, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures that the transportation of
packets of data across networks goes smoothly. Therefore, TCP is considered a transport layer
(layer 4) protocol.
A packet is a small segment of data; all data sent over a network is divided into packets.
Application layer protocols
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP governs the transmission of mail messages and attachments. SMTP is used to manage the
outgoing messages in transmission. But POP3 and IMAP4 are needed and available to manage
incoming messages. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) is the older protocol. IMAP4 (Internet
Mail Access Protocol version 4) is the more advanced protocol.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
It is actually lets us to transfer files, and it can accomplish this between any two machines using
it. Authentication need to be done initially to validating users by username and password to restrict
access. When a FTP client requests to connect to the FTP server, a TCP connection is being
established to the FTP server’s port 21. After authentication is done, another TCP connection is
being established for the actual data transfer on port number 20. So, FTP depends on TCP, is
connection oriented, and provides reliable control communication.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
It is fast and easy protocol to use that FTP b/c of UDP and it does not provide user authentication
and other useful features supported by FTP. Since TFTP uses UDP while FTP uses TCP. As TFTP
is unreliable protocol due to UDP with port number 69.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
11 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
It a protocol that collecting and organizing information about managed devices on networks with
UDP port 161. SNMP is widely used in network management for network monitoring. It uses
network management system (NMS) that are a piece of software that can communicate with the
SNMP agent (such as Nagios or Icinga). So, SNMP polling information about devices from the
network by NMS and alert to administrator to take necessary measurement. Generally, this
protocol can also stand as a watchdog over the network, quickly notifying managers of any sudden
problems happen to network devices.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
It’s used to manage communications between web browsers and web servers and
It helps to open the right resource when you click a link, wherever that resource may actually
reside.
Your browser can understand what you need when you enter a Uniform Resource Locator (URL),
which we usually refer to as a web address, e.g. [Link]
Web browser
Internet Web server
E.g. Firefox protocols E.g. google
Facilitate communication
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is also known as Secure Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. It uses Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). Sometimes you’ll see it referred to as SHTTP or S-
HTTP, which were slightly different protocols, but since Microsoft supported HTTPS, it became
the de facto standard for securing web communication.
12 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Some presentation layer protocols
Apple Filing Protocol (AFP):
AFP protocol is designed by Apple company for sharing all files over the entire network. External
Data Representation (XDR):
This protocol provides the description and encoding of entire data, and its main goal is to transfer
data in between dissimilar (different) computer architecture.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL):
the SSL protocol provides security to the data that is being transferred between the web browser
and web server. (Encryption and decryption)
Some session layer protocols
AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol (ADSP): for self-configuring in network for apple machines at
OSI model.
Real-time Transport Control Protocol (RTCP): Real-time data is that it is data that is not kept
or stored, but is passed along to the end user as quickly as it is gathered.
Since real time data such as video, audio is need high quality of service (QoS) in media distribution
for streaming multimedia session it is done by RTCP.
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP):
Used to provides a method for implementing virtual private networks (VPN) since VPN is used
protect data traffic online from external access. This protocol is developed by Microsoft company
for creating VPN for dial up networks.
Password Authentication Protocol (PAP): It is password-based authentication protocol which
occurs only one time at the beginning of a session establishment process.
13 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Similarities b/n OSI model and TCP/IP suits
Similarities include:
✓ Both have layers.
✓ Both have application layers
✓ Both have comparable transport and network layers.
✓ Both assume packets are switched.
✓ This means that individual packets may take different paths to reach the same destination.
Differences include:
✓ TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
✓ TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer
(network interfaces).
✓ TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
Network Architecture
Network architecture is a design of communication networks for specification of a network’s
physical components and their functional organization and configuration of this network,
Operation principles and procedures of this network as well as data formats use. Examples: peer
14 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
to peer and client/server. Based on designing model there are two types of architecture such as flat
model and hierarchical model
❖ Flat model– it is single collision domain and not hierarchical divided.
❖ It has some advantage:
▪ Easy to design
▪ Easy to implement
▪ It good for small network
▪ East to maintain and diagnosis
Fig: Flat switch network
➢ It has some disadvantage:
✓ Poor security
✓ No redundancy
✓ Less speed
✓ No scalability
✓ No networks layers (such as access, core or distribution)
Hierarchical model– it is a network model that has three network layers or divisions and each
layers has their own specific functions
15 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Fig: hierarchical design model
❖ The three layers are:
1. Access layer: used for service availably port security on layer 2 switch
2. Distribution layer:
▪ Aggregate data received from access layer and switches from sending to core layer,
▪ Has redundancy and load balancing functions
▪ Control broadcast domain from core layer
3. Core layer: it is network backbone, its fast speed layer it connects multiple campus
network and data center.
Some advantage of hierarchical model:
✓ more security
✓ Better speed or performances
✓ Facilitate scalable performance of network
✓ Good for big network
✓ Easy to troubleshoot
Some disadvantage of hierarchical model:
✓ Difficult to design
✓ Difficult to implement
Standards
16 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and creative market for the equipment
manufacturers and they also guarantee the national and international interoperability of the data,
telecommunication technology, and process. Or it is defined as the rules for data communications
that are needed for interoperability of networking technologies and processes.
Standards are mainly used to provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies,
and also to other service providers in order to ensure the kind of interconnectivity that is necessary
for today's marketplace and also in international communications.
Data communication standards mainly fall into two categories: -
de facto (which means "by fact"/ "by convention") Those standards have not been approved by an
organized body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use. These types of
standards are often established originally by the manufacturers who just seek to define the
functionality of their new product or technology. For example : Apple and Google are two
companies which established their own rules on their products which are different . Also they use
some same standard rules for manufacturing for their products.
de jure (which means "by law" /"by regulation") de jure standards are those standards that have
been legislated by an officially recognized body.
Standard Organizations
Standards are mainly developed through the cooperation of Standard creation committees,
government regulatory agencies, and forums.
Some Standard Creation committees are:
❖ International Organization of Standardization (ISO)
❖ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
❖ Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
❖ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
17 | P a g e : Sources: Top-down 6th edition by James Kurose; Data Communications and Networking
fourth edition By Behrouz A. Forouzan; Data & [Link].8e. William Stallings
Prepared by Endale M.