National

Search and Rescue

Manual

Published by AMSA on behalf of the Australian National Search and Rescue Council

© This publication is copyright. The reproduction of this work in whole or in part is

invited for search and rescue purposes other than commercial purposes provided
due acknowledgment is given to the Australian National Search and Rescue Council.

For further information contact the Council Secretary at:

Secretary
National Search and Rescue Council
GPO Box 2181
Canberra ACT 2601

Version 0301 – 4 November 2003

Foreword

Foreword
Search and Rescue (SAR) comprises the search for and provision of aid to persons who are, or
are believed to be in imminent danger of loss of life. The two operations – search and rescue –
may take many forms, depending on whether they are both required or not, on the size and
complexity of the operation and on the available staff and facilities. Search and rescue does not
include salvage or the saving of property except where the action is indivisible from that of
safeguarding life.
It is necessary that the available resources are organised and coordinated so that effective and
expeditious search and/or rescue operations can be assured. This requires the establishment
of a national SAR organisation provided with SAR plans and the means for carrying them into
effect. Dedicated SAR assets are limited in Australia and when necessary, other government,
private and commercial assets are diverted from their primary function by charter, arrangement
and request. For provision of military or police assets, the SAR Mission Coordinator (SMC)
must coordinate with the appropriate SAR authority.
The National Search and Rescue Manual is the standard reference document for use by all
Australian Search and Rescue authorities and promulgates the agreed methods of coordination
through which search and rescue operations are conducted within Australia. The manual is
supplemented by various legal, informative and instructional documents used within and
between organisations concerned with search and rescue. The manual is consistent with the
relevant International Conventions to which Australia is a party. It has been developed with due
regard to the International Aviation and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual (IAMSAR). For
more detailed information on land SAR operations, readers should refer to the Land Operations
Manual produced by Emergency Management Australia.
A search and rescue operation requires a single SAR Authority to have overall coordination for
a SAR event. This manual envisages a requirement for the coordinating authority to seek
assistance from another, e.g. the coordinating authority of a marine operation seeking an air
search or police seeking assistance in a search for lost hikers.
In providing a search and rescue response, nothing in the content of the manual precludes
properly qualified officers from using their initiative in providing a SAR response in
circumstances where these procedures are judged to be inappropriate. In so doing, however,
officers’ actions should conform as closely as possible to those instructions contained in the
manual most closely pertinent to the circumstances and keep all other parties involved
informed.
When developing Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) at the organisational level, care
should be taken to ensure that procedures are written in accordance with the National SAR
Manual. Should an SOP be identified that would benefit the SAR community, it is
recommended that the issue is raised with the National SAR Council so that inclusion of the
procedure into the National SAR Manual can be considered.
Users are encouraged to offer suggestions for the improvement of this manual. Furthermore, it
is the users’ responsibility to notify:
The Secretary of the National SAR Council
AusSAR
GPO Box 2181
Canberra ACT 2601
of any perceived errors. At the same time, the manual must be interpreted with common sense,
for no set of instructions can answer every SAR situation. The practicality of every proposed
amendment should be assessed against the need for a functional procedure in a realistic
situation. Any amendment that does not meet this standard would serve no other purpose than
to cloud the issues and confuse matters.
This manual is promulgated on the Internet for the use of all search and rescue practitioners.
The Internet version is the controlled document and is the latest version of this manual. It
should always be referred to as it contains the most up to date information.
Contents

Contents
Title page
Foreword
Contents
Abbreviations and Acronyms
Glossary
Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue System
1.1 Organisation and Arrangements
1.2 SAR Management
1.3 SAR Responses and Coordination in Australia
1.4 Search and Rescue Resources
1.5 Provision for entry of foreign aircraft during SAR operations
1.6 Public Relations
Chapter 2 – Communications
2.1 Overview
2.2 Distress and Emergency Signals
2.3 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
2.4 Emergency Signalling Devices
2.5 COSPAS-SARSAT Distress Beacon Detection System
2.6 Inmarsat-E (L-Band) EPIRB
2.7 Radar SAR Transponder (SART)
2.8 Communications in support of SAR operations
2.9 Communications Facilities
Chapter 3 – Awareness and Initial Action
3.1 Awareness and Notification
3.2 SAR Stages
3.3 SAR Incidents
3.4 Emergency Phases
3.5 Awareness Stage
3.6 Sequence of SAR Events
3.7 Communication Checks
3.8 Intelligence Gathering and Assessment
Chapter 4 – Search Planning and Evaluation
4.1 Overview
4.2 Search Planning Steps
4.3 Datum Definition
4.4 Search Stages
4.5 Factors Affecting Initial SAR Response
4.6 Basic Search Planning
4.7 Determination of Search Areas
4.8 Coastal Search Planning
Chapter 5 – Search Techniques and Operations
5.1 Overview
5.2 General Guidelines for Searches
5.3 Search Area Coverage
5.4 Search Patterns
5.5 Visual Search
5.6 Flare Searches
5.7 Electronic Searches
5.8 SAR Unit Selection and Characteristics
5.9 Search Unit Allocation
5.10 SAR Crew Briefing
5.11 SAR Crew Debriefing
Contents

Chapter 6 – Rescue Planning and Operations

6.1 General
6.2 Preparation
6.3 Medical assistance
6.4 Crashed Aircraft
6.5 Rescue on land
6.6 Rescue at sea
6.7 Supply dropping and delivery of survival equipment
Chapter 7 – Conclusion of SAR Operations
7.1 General
7.2 Conclusion of a successful SAR action
7.3 Suspension of a search when the target is not found
7.4 Reopening a suspended search
7.5 Records and reports
7.6 Case studies
7.7 Performance improvement
Chapter 8 – Training and Exercises
8.1 General
8.2 National Training Framework
8.3 Search and Rescue Exercises
8.4 Training of search and rescue units
8.5 Photographic Records
8.6 Liaison Visits
Chapter 9 – Emergency Assistance and Services, other than Search and Rescue,
provided by RCC Australia
9.1 General
9.2 Safety Information
9.3 Unlawful Acts
Appendix A – Australian Search and Rescue Region
Appendix B – Search and Rescue functions and responsibilities
Appendix C – Commonwealth/State Arrangements
Appendix D – Transfer of Coordination
Appendix E – Distress and Emergency Signals
Appendix F – Maritime SAR Recognition Code (MAREC)
Appendix G – Plotting symbols
Appendix H – Sighting & Hearing (SHR) Techniques
Appendix I – Tables and graphs
Appendix J – Probable errors of position
Appendix K – Worksheets
Appendix L – Aircraft accident site precautions
Appendix M – Tier capabilities
Appendix N – RAAF SAR equipment and aircraft capabilities
Appendix O – RAN response
Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations and Acronyms

A area or search area
ACA Australian Communications Authority
ACFT aircraft
AFTN aeronautical fixed telecommunications network
ADF Australian Defence Force
ALRS Admiralty List of Radio Signals
AM amplitude modulation
AMVER Automated Mutual-assistance Vessel Rescue
AMSA Australian Maritime Safety Authority
ASRK Air Sea Rescue Kit (RAAF)
ATA actual time of arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATD actual time of departure
ATS Air Traffic Services
ATSB Australian Transport Safety Bureau
AUMCC Australian Mission Control Centre
AULUTE Australian Local User Terminal East
AULUTW Australian Local User Terminal West
AUSREP Australian Ship Reporting System
C Coverage Factor
C/C cabin cruiser
CRS coast radio station
CSS coordinator surface search (maritime)
D datum
D diameter
De total drift error
DF direction finding
DR dead-reckoning
DGPS Differential GPS
DSC digital selective calling
dwt dead weight tonnes
E East longitude
E total probable error of position
ELR extra long range aircraft
ELT emergency locator transmitter
EMA Emergency Management Australia
EPIRB emergency position indicating radio beacon
ETA estimated time of arrival
ETD estimate time of departure
F/V fishing vessel
Fig figure
FIR flight information region
FLIR forward looking infrared
FM frequency modulation
GHz GigaHertz
GMDSS Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
GPS Global positioning system
GS Ground speed
gt Gross tonnes
h hours
HDG heading
HPA Hectopascals
HEL-H heavy helicopter
HEL-L light helicopter
HEL-M medium helicopter
HF high frequency
HQAC Headquarters Air Command (Air Force)
Abbreviations and Acronyms

HQAST Headquarters Australian Theatre

I/B inboard motor
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
IMO International Maritime Organization
Inmarsat International Maritime Satellite Organisation
INTERCO International Code of SIGNALS
JRCC joint (aviation and maritime) rescue coordination centre
KHz kiloHertz
kt knot (nautical mile per hour)
L or l length
LCRS Limited Coast Radio Station
LES land earth station
LHQ Land Headquarters (Army)
LKP last known position
LRG long range
LUT local user terminal
LW leeway
m metres
M degrees magnetic
MHQ Maritime Headquarters (Navy)
MAREC Maritime SAR recognition code
MAX maximum
MCS Maritime Communications Station
MIN Minimum
MPD miles per day
MPP most probable position
MSC marine supply container (RAAF)
M/V merchant vessel
MCC mission control centre
MEDEVAC medical evacuation
MF medium frequency
MHz megaHertz
MMSI Maritime mobile service identity
MRG Medium range
MSI Maritime safety information
MTS Mean track spacing (sector search)
n number of required track spacings
N North Latitude
NAVAREA X Navigational warning area Navigation warning area X (Ten)
NM nautical mile
NOTAM notice to airmen
NTES Northern Territory Emergency Service
NVG night vision goggles
O/B outboard motor
OSC on-scene coordinator
PADS Precision aerial delivery system
PAW Police Air Wing
P/C pleasure craft
PIW person in water
PLB personal locator beacon
POB persons onboard
POD probability of detection
PR public relations
R radius
RAAF Royal Australian Air Force
RAN Royal Australian Navy
RB rescue boat
RC river current
RCC Rescue Coordination Centre
Abbreviations and Acronyms

RFDS Royal Flying Doctor Service

S TRACK SPACING
S South latitude
S/V sailing vessel
SAR search and rescue
SART search and rescue transponder
SC Sea current
SDB SAR Datum Buoys
SES State Emergency Service
SITREP situation report
SMC Search and rescue mission coordinator
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
SOPs Standard Operating Procedures
SP splash point
SPOC search and rescue point of contact
SRG short range
SRR search and rescue region
SRS single raft system
SRU Search and Rescue Unit
SURPIC surface picture
T degrees True
T search time available
TAS true air speed
TC tidal current
TCA time of closest approach
TELEX teletype
TWC total water current
u wind speed
UHF Ultra high frequency
ULR ultra long range
UTC coordinated universal time
v speed of search object
V SAR unit ground speed or aircraft true air speed
VFR visual flight rules
VHF very high frequency
VLR very long range
VMC visual meteorological conditions
w width
W sweep width
W west longitude
W/C wind current
W/V wind velocity
Wu uncorrected sweep width
X Search target position error
Y Search unit position error
Glossary

Glossary
Term Definition
Aircraft Coordinator A person who coordinates the involvement of multiple aircraft in SAR
(ACO) operations.
Aeronautical drift (Da) Drift caused by bailout trajectory or aircraft gliding distance.
Aeronautical position Initial position of a distressed aircraft at the time of re-entry, engine
failure, aircrew ejection or bailout.
Aircraft glide Maximum ground distance an aircraft could cover during descent.
Alert Phase A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft
or marine vessel, and of the persons on board.
Alerting post Any facility intended to serve as an intermediary between a person
reporting an emergency and a rescue coordination centre or rescue
sub-centre.
ARGOS A satellite-based location and data collection system.
AusSAR Australian Search and Rescue: a division of the Australian Maritime
Safety Authority
Awareness range Distance at which a search scanner can first detect something
different from its surroundings but not yet recognise it.
Awareness stage A period during which the SAR system becomes aware of an actual or
potential incident.
Captain Master of a ship or pilot-in-command of an aircraft, commanding
officer of a warship or an operator of any other vessel.
Checksum digit A digit that is appended to a numeric data element and used to verify
its accuracy. Checksum digits are computed by adding the digits of
the data element.
Coast earth station Maritime name for an Inmarsat shore-based station linking ship earth
(CES) stations with terrestrial communications networks.
Conclusion stage A period during a SAR incident when SAR facilities return to their
regular location and prepare for another mission.
Coordination The bringing together of organisations and elements to ensure
effective search and rescue response.
One SAR authority must always have overall coordination
responsibility and other organisations are to cooperate with this
agency to produce the best response possible within available
resources.
Coordinated search Multi-unit pattern using vessel(s) and aircraft.
pattern
Coordinated universal International term for time at the prime meridian.
time (UTC)
Cospas-Sarsat A satellite system designed to detect distress beacons transmitting on
System the frequencies 121.5 MHz, 243 MHz and 406 MHz.
Course The intended horizontal direction of travel of a craft.
Coverage factor (C) For parallel sweep searches, Coverage Factor (C) is computed as the
ratio of sweep width (W) to track spacing (S). C = W/S.
Craft Any air or sea-surface vehicle, or submersible of any kind or size.
Datum A geographic point, line, or area used as a reference in search
planning.
Datum area Area where it is estimated that the search object is most likely to be
located.
Glossary

Term Definition
Datum line A line, such as the distressed craft's intended track line or a line of
bearing, which defines the centre of the area where it is estimated that
the search object is most likely to be located.
Datum point A point, such as a reported or estimated position, at the centre of the
area where it is estimated that the search object is most likely to be
located.
Dead reckoning (DR) Determination of position of a craft by adding to the last fix the craft's
course and speed for a given time.
Digital selective A technique using digital codes which enables a radio station to
calling (DSC) establish contact with, and transfer information to, another station or
group of stations.
Direction of current Direction toward which a current is flowing. Also called set.
Direction of waves, Direction from which the waves, swells, or seas are moving.
swell or seas
Direction of wind Direction from which the wind is blowing.
Distress Phase A situation wherein there is reasonable certainty that a vessel or other
craft, including an aircraft or a person, is threatened by grave and
imminent danger and requires immediate assistance.
Ditching The forced landing of an aircraft on water.
Drift The movement of a search object caused by environmental forces.
Drift error (De ) See Total drift error.
Emergency Phase Emergency phases are based on the level of concern for the safety of
persons or craft that may be in danger. The three levels of
emergency are classified as Uncertainty, Alert, and Distress.
False alarm Distress alert initiated for other than an appropriate test, by
communications equipment intended for alerting, when no distress
situation actually exists.
False alert Distress alert received from any source, including communications
equipment intended for alerting, when no distress situation actually
exists, and a notification of distress should not have resulted.
Fetch The distance over which the wind blows in a constant direction,
without obstruction.
Field Search Term for SMC who coordinates land searches only.
Coordinator
First RCC RCC affiliated with the shore station that first acknowledges a distress
alert, and which will accept responsibility for all subsequent SAR
coordination unless and until coordination is transferred to another
RCC.
Fix A geographical position determined by visual reference to the surface,
referencing to one or more radio navigation aids, celestial plotting, or
other navigation device.
Forward-looking An imaging system, mounted on board surface vessels or aircraft,
infrared (FLIR) designed to detect thermal energy (heat) emitted by targets and
convert it into a visual display.
General Operational and public correspondence traffic other than distress,
communications urgency and safety messages, transmitted or received by radio.
Global Maritime A global communications service based upon automated systems,
Distress and Safety both satellite-based and terrestrial, to provide distress alerting and
System (GMDSS) promulgation of maritime safety information for mariners.
Global Navigation Worldwide position and time determination system that includes one
Glossary

Term Definition
Satellite System or more satellite constellations and receivers.
(GNSS)
Great Circle Route The shortest course between two points on the surface of a sphere. It
lies in a plane that intersects the sphere's centre.
Ground speed (GS) The speed an aircraft is making relative to the earth's surface.
Heading The horizontal direction in degrees magnetic in which a craft is
pointed.
Hypothermia Abnormal lowering of internal body temperature (heat loss) from
exposure to cold air, wind or water.
Indicated air speed The aircraft speed shown on the air speed indicator gauge. IAS
(IAS) corrected for instrument error and atmospheric density equals true air
speed.
Initial position error The estimated probable error of the initially reported position of a SAR
(X) incident.
International Maritime A system of geostationary satellites for worldwide mobile
Satellite Organisation communications services, and which support the Global Maritime
(Inmarsat) Distress and Safety System and other emergency communications
systems.
Instrument flight rules Rules governing the procedures for conducting instrument flight. Also
(IFR) a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate type of flight plan.
Instrument Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance
meteorological from cloud, and ceiling less than the minima specified for visual
conditions (IMC) meteorological conditions.
Joint rescue A rescue coordination centre responsible for both aeronautical and
coordination centre maritime search and rescue incidents.
(JRCC)
Knot (kt) A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour.
Last known position Last witnessed, reported, or computed DR position of a distressed
(LKP) craft.
Leeway (LW) The movement of a search object through water caused by winds
blowing against exposed surfaces.
Local user terminal An earth receiving station that receives beacon signals relayed by
(LUT) Cospas-Sarsat satellites, processes them to determine the location of
the beacons, and forwards the signals.
MAYDAY The international radiotelephony distress signal, repeated three times.
MEDEVAC Evacuation of a person for medical reasons.
Meteorological The maximum range at which a large object, such as landmasses or
visibility mountains, can be seen. Also referred to as Meteorological Range.
Mission control centre Part of the Cospas-Sarsat system that accepts alert messages from
(MCC) the local user terminal(s) and other mission control centres to
distribute to the appropriate rescue coordination centres or other
search and rescue points of contact.
Narrow-Band Direct Automated telegraphy, as used by the NAVTEX system and telex-
Printing (NBDP) over-radio.
NAVAREA One of 16 areas into which the International Maritime Organization
divides the world's oceans for dissemination of navigation and
meteorological warnings.
NAVTEX Telegraphy system for transmission of maritime safety information,
navigation and meteorological warnings and urgent information to
ships. NAVTEX is not supported by Australia - see SafetyNet .
Glossary

Term Definition
On-scene The search area or the actual distress site.
On-scene coordinator A person designated to coordinate search and rescue operations
(OSC) within a specified area
On-scene endurance The amount of time a facility may spend at the scene engaged in
search and rescue activities.
Overall Coordination The responsibility of the SAR authority to prosecute a SAR operation
for a given target in accordance with Appendix 1.2 or the SAR
authority best placed to coordinate efforts of the response agencies
that may become involved in a SAR action.
Overdue A situation where a craft has failed to arrive at its intended destination
when expected and remains missing.
PAN-PAN The international radiotelephony urgency signal. When repeated three
times, indicates uncertainty or alert, followed by nature of urgency.
Personal Locator Personal radio distress beacon for alerting and transmitting homing
Beacon (PLB) signals.
Pilot-in-command The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during
flight time.
Planning stage A period during a SAR incident when an effective plan of operations is
developed.
Position A geographical location normally expressed in degrees and minutes of
latitude and longitude.
Positioning Process of determining a position that can serve as a geographical
reference for conducting a search.
Possibility area (1) The smallest area containing all possible survivor or search object
locations.
(2) For a scenario, the possibility area is the smallest area containing
all possible survivor or search object locations that are consistent with
the facts and assumptions used to form the scenario.
Primary swell The swell system having the greatest height from trough to crest.
Probability Area The area in which a missing craft and/or survivors are most likely to
be found taking into account possible errors in the navigation of the
missing craft and of the search craft.
Probability of The probability of the search object being detected, assuming it was in
detection (POD) the areas that were searched. POD is a function of coverage factor,
sensor, search conditions and the accuracy with which the search
facility navigates its assigned search pattern. Measures sensor
effectiveness under the prevailing search conditions.
Rescue An operation to retrieve persons in distress, provide for their initial
medical or other needs, and deliver them to a place of safety.
Rescue coordination The centre from which a SAR incident is controlled and coordinated.
centre (RCC) The Centre is known by various terms such as the Rescue
Coordination Centre, Major Incident Room, Operations Room or Base
Station. For the purposes of this manual these centres will be known
generically as the Rescue Coordination Centre or RCC.
Rhumb line A line of constant bearing that suts meridians at the same angle. It is a
straight line between two points on a Mercator projection chart.
SafetyNET Communications service provided via Inmarsat for promulgation of
maritime safety information, including shore-to-ship relays of distress
alerts and communications for search and rescue coordination.
SAR Datum Buoy Droppable floating beacon used to determine actual sea current, or to
serve as a location reference.
Glossary

Term Definition
Scenario A consistent set of known facts and assumptions describing what may
have happened to the survivors and/or craft.
Sea Condition of the surface resulting from waves and swells.
Sea Current (SC) The residual current when currents caused by tides and local winds
are subtracted from local current. It is the main, large-scale flow of
ocean waters.
Search An operation, normally coordinated by a rescue coordination centre,
using available personnel and facilities to locate persons in distress.
Search and rescue The authority within an Administration with overall responsibility for
authority establishing and providing SAR services and ensuring that planning
for those services is properly coordinated. The national SAR
authority in Australia is the Australian Maritime Safety Authority with
each of the States and Territories Polices services and the
Department of Defence being the SAR Authorities within their
jurisdictions. In Australia, the SAR Authority takes on the roles of the
SAR Coordinator as described in the IAMSAR Manual.
Search action plan Message, normally developed by the SMC, for passing instructions to
SAR facilities and agencies participating in a SAR mission.
Search and rescue An officer appointed, usually by the SMC, to brief departing SAR
briefing officer facilities and debrief returning SAR facilities.
Search and rescue Any potential or actual distress about which a facility opens a
case documentary file, whether or not SAR resources are dispatched.
Search and rescue Communications necessary for the coordination of facilities
coordinating participating in a search and rescue operation.
communications
Search and rescue Any mobile resource, including designated search and rescue units,
facility used to conduct search and rescue operations.
The terms unit and asset maybe interchangeable with facility.
Search and rescue Any situation requiring notification and alerting of the SAR system and
incident which may require SAR operations.
Search and rescue An officer assigned to promote coordination during a SAR mission.
liaison officer
Search and rescue The suitably trained or qualified official temporarily assigned to
mission coordinator coordinate a response to an actual or apparent distress situation. In
(SMC) Australia, the acronym SARMC is also used in some jurisdictions.
Throughout this manual, the terms SMC and SARMC are
synonymous. Some jurisdictions also use the term A/SARMC to
describe the SMC's assistants.
Search and rescue A general term used to describe documents which exist at all levels of
plan the national and international search and rescue structure to describe
goals, arrangements, and procedures which support the provision of
search and rescue services.
Search and rescue Rescue coordination centres and other established and recognised
point of contact national points of contact that can accept responsibility to receive
(SPOC) Cospas-Sarsat alert data to enable the rescue of persons in distress.
Search and rescue An area of defined dimensions, associated with the national rescue
region (SRR) coordination centre ( RCC Australia ), within which search and rescue
services are provided.
Search and rescue The performance of distress monitoring, communication, coordination
service and search and rescue functions, including provision of medical
advice, initial medical assistance, or medical evacuation, through the
use of public and private resources, including cooperating aircraft,
Glossary

Term Definition
vessels and other craft and installations.
Search and rescue Typical steps in the orderly progression of SAR missions. These are
stage normally Awareness, Initial Action, Planning, Operations, and Mission
Conclusion.
Search and rescue A unit composed of trained personnel and provided with equipment
unit (SRU) suitable for the expeditious conduct of search and rescue operations.
Search area The area determined by the search planner to be searched. This area
may be sub-divided into search sub-areas for the purpose of
assigning specific responsibilities to the available search facilities.
Search endurance (T) The amount of "productive" search time available at the scene also
known as Available Search Hours (ASH). This figure is usually taken
to be 85% of the on-scene endurance, leaving a 15% allowance for
investigating sightings and navigating turns at the ends of search legs.
Search facility Probable error in a search craft's position, based on its navigational
position error (Y) capabilities.
Search object A ship, aircraft, or other craft missing or in distress or survivors or
related search objects or evidence for which a search is being
conducted.
Search pattern A procedure assigned to an SRU for searching a specified area.
Search radius The actual search radius used to plan the search and to assign search
facilities. It is usually based on adjustments to the optimal search
radius that are needed for operational reasons.
Secondary swells Swell systems of less height than the primary swell.
Sensors Human senses (sight, hearing, touch, etc.), those of specially trained
animals (such as dogs), or electronic devices used to detect the object
of a search.
Set Direction towards which a current flows
Situation report Reports, from the OSC to the SMC or the SMC to interested agencies,
(SITREP) to keep them informed of on-scene conditions and mission progress.
Splash Point See Last known position
Surface drift Vector sum of total water current and leeway. Sometimes called Total
Drift.
Surface picture A list or graphic display from a ship reporting system of information
(SURPIC) about vessels in the vicinity of a distress situation that may be called
upon to render assistance.
Surface position The position of the search object on the earth's surface at the time of
initial distress, or its first contact with the earth's surface.
Sweep width (W) A measure of the effectiveness with which a particular sensor can
detect a particular object under specific environmental conditions.
Swell Condition of the surface caused by a distant wind system. The
individual swell appears to be regular and smooth with considerable
distance between rounded crests.
Swell direction The direction from which a swell is moving. The direction toward
which a swell is moving is called the down swell direction.
Swell face The side of the swell toward the observer. The backside is the side
away from the observer. These definitions apply regardless of the
direction of swell movement.
Swell velocity Velocity with which the swells advance with relation to a fixed
reference point, measured in knots.
Time of closest Time during a satellite pass when the satellite is closest to a signal
Glossary

Term Definition
approach (TCA) source.
Total drift error (De ) Sum of the individual drift errors from the time of the incident until
datum. Used when determining Total Probable Error (E).
Total probable error The estimated error in the datum position. It is the square root of the
(E) sum of the squares of the total drift error, initial position error, and
search facility position error.

Total water current The vector sum of currents affecting search objects.
(TWC)
Track spacing (S) The distance between adjacent parallel search tracks.
Triage The process of sorting survivors according to medical condition and
assigning them priorities for emergency care, treatment, and
evacuation.
True air speed (TAS) The speed an aircraft is travelling through the air mass. TAS corrected
for wind equals ground speed.
Uncertainty Phase A situation wherein doubt exists as to the safety of an aircraft or a
marine vessel, and of the persons on board.
Unreported A situation where a craft has failed to report its location or status when
expected and remains missing.
Vector A graphic representation of a physical quantity or measurement, such
as wind velocity, having both magnitude and direction.
Visual flight rules Rules governing procedures for conducting flight under visual
(VFR) meteorological conditions. In addition, used by pilots and controllers to
indicate type of flight plan.
Visual meteorological Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance
conditions (VMC) from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than specified minima.
Wave (or Chop) The condition of the surface caused by local wind and characterised
by irregularity, short distance between crests, whitecaps, and breaking
motion.
Wind-corrected The actual heading an aircraft is required to fly to make good an
heading intended course.
Wind current (WC) The water current generated by wind acting upon the surface of water
over a period of time.
Chapter 1 Search and Rescue System
1.1 Organisation and Arrangements
Global SAR System Organisation
1.1.1 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) coordinate, on a global basis, member States’ efforts to provide
search and rescue (SAR) services. Briefly, the goal of ICAO and IMO is to provide
an effective worldwide system, so that wherever people sail or fly, SAR services will
be available if needed. The overall approach a State takes in establishing,
providing and improving SAR services is affected by the fact that these efforts are
an integral part of a global SAR system.
1.1.2 Search and rescue services are defined as the performance of distress monitoring,
communication, coordination and search and rescue functions, provision of medical
advice and initial medical assistance to ships at sea, through the use of public and
private resources, including cooperating aircraft, vessels and other craft and
installations.
1.1.3 Under this global approach, Australia has taken responsibility for the coordination of
SAR in the Australian Search and Rescue Region (SRR) as shown in Appendix A.
RCC Australia in Canberra is the rescue coordination centre (RCC) responsible for
the SRR. There are no designated rescue sub-centres (RSC) within the Australian
SRR.
National and Regional SAR System Organisation
1.1.4 Australia, by being party to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention, the
International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue, and the Convention on
International Civil Aviation, has accepted the obligation to provide aeronautical and
maritime SAR coordination and services for its territories, territorial seas, and the
high seas within its SRR.
1.1.5 Australia has established a national SAR organisation that involves Commonwealth,
State and Territory authorities and organisations: The Australian Maritime Safety
Authority and the Australian Defence Force at the Commonwealth level; and the
relevant police service or force at the State and Territory level. The SAR authority
that is to assume overall coordination is determined by the nature and location of
the SAR event. The responsibilities that each authority and organisation has are
described in Chapter 1. A matrix showing overall coordination responsibility and the
agencies that might provide support is shown at Appendix B.
Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA)
1.1.6 In accordance with Annex 12 of the Convention of International Civil Aviation, the
Commonwealth Government, through the Australian Maritime Safety Authority
(AMSA), accepts responsibility for the provision of Search and Rescue Services for
civil registered aircraft in Australia’s SRR. The meaning of civil registered is taken
to include those aircraft on the Australian Ultralight Federation (AUF) register which
the AUF manages on behalf of the Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA). These
responsibilities are exercised through Australian Search and Rescue (AusSAR),
which provides SAR response through RCC Australia.
1.1.7 The Commonwealth Government through the Australian Maritime Safety Authority,
in accordance with Regulation 15 of Chapter V of SOLAS, accepts responsibility for
the coordination of marine SAR for all classes of ships other than those for which
the States/Territories and ADF are responsible. These responsibilities are
exercised through AusSAR. The Agreements with the States and Territories are at
Appendices C.1, C.2 and C.3
1.1.8 RCC Australia is staffed continuously and is responsible for:
a. coordinating SAR in respect of civil registered aircraft;
b. coordinating marine SAR for all classes of ships other than those for which the
States/Territories and ADF are responsible;
 c. managing the Australian Mission Control Centre (AUMCC) for the Cospas-
Sarsat distress beacon locating system;
d. operation of the Australian Ship Reporting System (AUSREP);
e. promulgation of Maritime Safety Information (MSI);
f. provision of information on marine activities such as oil pollution, offshore
mineral exploration and dumping at sea;
g. providing assistance to other Australian SAR agencies to fulfil their
obligations1; and
h. providing assistance to other Australian emergency-response authorities to
meet their obligations in regards to SAR.
1.1.9 AMSA is also the regulatory authority for maritime safety standards for SOLAS
compliant shipping. AMSA manages the National Plan for marine pollution
response.
Australian Defence Force – Military SAR
1.1.10 The Commonwealth Government, through the Australian Defence Force (ADF), is
responsible for the provision of SAR for all ADF and visiting military ships, personnel
and aircraft. This responsibility is exercised through Maritime (MHQ), Land (LHQ)
and Air Headquarters (HQAC) respectively. Headquarters Australian Theatre
(HQAST) is responsible for managing and coordinating all of the ADF’s operations
on behalf of Commander Australian Theatre (COMAST). HQAST is AusSAR’s
principal point of contact with Defence on SAR matters. The following
arrangements apply in the Australian SRR.
Headquarters Australian Theatre
1.1.11 Commander Australian Theatre (COMAST) is responsible to the Chief of the
Defence Force (CDF) for the conduct of all ADF Operations. COMAST exercises
this responsibility through his Headquarters (HQAST). If a SAR for a unit assigned
to an ADF operation is required, the appropriate Headquarters (Maritime, Land or
Air) normally remains responsible as the SAR Authority and coordinates the SAR.
HQAST will remain involved as a conduit for information flow to Government and
civil SAR Authorities. If an ADF person or asset is not conducting activities in
support of an ADF operation, then the following arrangements apply.
Navy
1.1.12 Navy is the SAR authority for ADF and visiting military ships, submarines and ship-
borne aircraft. The Maritime Commander exercises that responsibility on behalf of
the Chief of Navy.
Army
1.1.13 Army is the SAR Authority for ADF and visiting military forces in a land environment.
The Land Commander exercises that responsibility on behalf of the Chief of Army.
Air Force
1.1.14 Air Force is the SAR Authority for all ADF (including all Army and land based Navy
helicopters) and visiting military aircraft, other than ship borne aircraft. The Air
Commander exercises that responsibility on behalf of the Chief of Air Force.
Commander Northern Command (COMNORCOM)
1.1.15 When military SAR occurs within Commander Northern Command’s
(COMNORCOM) area of responsibility, COMNORCOM is usually appointed in
command of the SAR and Headquarters NORCOM is designated as the SAR
Mission Coordinator (SARMC). Appropriate military forces are allocated to
COMNORCOM by the respective Headquarters (Maritime, Air or Land) so that
COMNORCOM can conduct the SAR. The relevant single service headquarters
(MHQ, LHQ, HQAC) remains the SAR Authority. There may be occasions when

1
RCC Australia has the responsibility for coordinating air searches requested by other
recognised SAR organisations. This assistance is detailed in Para 1.2.3
 Maritime, Land and Air Headquarters choose to retain both SAR Authority, SAR
operations command and SARMC responsibilities.
Airservices Australia
1.1.16 All Air Traffic Services (ATS) units, as a function of their alerting service
responsibilities, have a responsibility for the declaration of SAR phases for aircraft,
to classify the severity of emergencies and alert RCC Australia.
1.1.17 In addition, all ATS units are required to act as intermediaries between persons
reporting an aircraft in need of assistance and RCC Australia.
1.1.18 ATS units are responsible for providing in–flight emergency response (IFER)
services. ATS units are required to refer incidents likely to culminate in a forced
landing, ditching or crash to RCC Australia at the earliest opportunity.
1.1.19 To the extent that their traffic responsibilities allow, ATS units are required to
provide communications between the search aircraft and the responsible SAR
Authority. This normally involves the relay of requests, instructions and information
between the responsible RCC and aircraft.
1.1.20 Air Services Australia is responsible for the declaration of Restricted or Danger
Areas during search and rescue operations when appropriate.
Other Commonwealth Agencies/Authorities
1.1.21 A number of Commonwealth organisations have a special interest in emergency
operations; they provide helpful ancillary services, or have SAR facilities that may
be of assistance in special cases.
Bureau of Meteorology
1.1.22 Provides routine or special weather forecasts, wind history and a description of past
and present weather reports
Emergency Management Australia
1.1.23 The Commonwealth Government, through Emergency Management Australia
(EMA), is responsible for coordinating any Commonwealth assistance to
States/Territories following natural or technological disaster. The National
Emergency Operations Centre (NEOC) at Canberra exercises this responsibility.
Australian Customs Service – Coastwatch
1.1.24 Coordinates and manages the Australian Civil Surveillance Program.
Australian Communications Authority
1.1.25 Regulates radio frequencies and may assist with direction finding services. ACA
also issues and maintains a database of marine callsign allocations to Australian
registered shipping
Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB)
1.1.26 The ATSB is responsible for investigating accidents and incidents involving certain
transport services in Australia. Australian SAR Authorities may have responsibility
for notifying ATSB of accidents or incidents. ATSB can provide SAR Authorities
with information about the location of past aircraft crash sites, which can be useful in
identifying wreckage located during search actions.
Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)
1.1.27 CASA sets aviation safety regulatory standards affecting the civil aviation industry.
CASA can provide advice on aircraft and pilot performance, safety matters and
maintain the Aircraft Register.
State and Territory Governments
1.1.28 Police are the SAR authority in each State and Territory. The Australian Federal
Police is the SAR authority for the Australian Capital Territory, the Jervis Bay
 Territory and other populated Commonwealth territories. The specific
responsibilities are described in Appendices B, C.1, C.2 and C.3.
Volunteer Organisations
1.1.29 Volunteer rescue organisations are located throughout the country and their focus is
primarily one of promoting safety and carrying out local rescues. The State or
Territory SAR authority is responsible for the coordination and control of operations
conducted by the volunteer organisations during search and rescue operations.
Commercial and Private Organisations
1.1.30 There are certain commercial and private organisations that are capable of
providing assistance during SAR incidents.
1.1.31 Some of these organisations have facilities that are immediately suitable for use as
SAR units; others have facilities that have been adapted by way of providing them
with extra equipment or training.
1.1.32 Civil units considered suitable for the provision of SAR services are described as
Search and Rescue Units (SRUs). The crews of these units are trained in search
and rescue techniques.
1.1.33 Aircraft and marine craft in transit may be able to assist in cases of distress within
their area of operations. Commercial towing and salvage companies may provide
vessels to take over the towing or salvage of a vessel that is no longer in immediate
danger. The owner or agent of the disabled vessel usually makes arrangements for
these services. SAR units should not interfere with this form of private enterprise
providing the commercial facilities are capable of completing the operation safely.
1.1.34 Other organisations that might volunteer to assist in a SAR operation include
commercial airlines, general aviation operators, oil companies, fishing companies,
aero clubs and mission stations.
1.2 SAR Management
Overview
1.2.1 There are three levels of management within the SAR system. Overall management
of SAR responsibilities by SAR Authorities, management of individual SAR incidents
by SAR mission coordinators (SMCs), and direction of SAR activities at an incident
by on-scene coordinators (OSCs) specifically designated by the SMC. This section
outlines, in general terms, the management and coordination actions required when
a decision is made to implement procedures in prosecuting a SAR.
1.2.2 Once it is decided to proceed with the action, plans should be enacted for the
commencement of search activity with a minimum of delay. Coincident with
progressing search activity, is the development of a rescue plan and obtaining and
deploying rescue resources to minimise time between survivors' location and their
recovery to a place of safety.
SAR Authority
1.2.3 A SAR Authority shall ensure that a SAR operation can be promptly initiated and
prosecuted with the efficient use of available SAR resources, until rescue has been
completed or until chance of success is no longer a reasonable possibility.
1.2.4 SAR Authorities have the overall responsibility for establishing, staffing, equipping
and managing the SAR system, including providing appropriate legal and funding
support, establishing RCCs, providing or arranging for SAR assets, coordinating
SAR training and developing SAR policies. The SAR authority, where applicable,
shall:
a. establish a Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) to coordinate all participating
search and rescue assets and facilities;
b. ensure that the RCC conforms to the SAR procedures contained in this
manual or local SOPs and manuals;
 c. establish close liaison and formulate agreements with other authorities and
organisations having SAR potential;
d. establish liaison with SAR authorities of adjacent areas to ensure mutual
cooperation and coordination in combined operations;
e. ensure that a comprehensive and current SAR plan is prepared and
distributed;
f. establish and supervise communication facilities and assign SAR frequencies
from those authorised to assets designated for SAR tasks;
g. establish communications with adjoining RCCs and appropriate organisations
to ensure two-way alerting and dissemination of SAR information;
h. ensure immediate action is taken to provide assistance, advising the
appropriate SAR authorities and passing all information received concerning
the distress incident and any action taken;
i. ensure that the operating authority or agency of any craft, aviation asset or
land party in need of assistance has been advised of initial actions taken, and
they are kept informed of all pertinent developments;
j. designate an SMC for a specific SAR incident;
k. ensure that each incident is prosecuted until assistance is no longer
necessary, rescue has been completed or chance of success is no longer a
reasonable possibility;
l. ensure that if the scope of the operation exceeds the authority’s capacity to
plan and execute the operation, it shall seek advice and assistance from, or by
mutual agreement, hand over coordination, to an appropriate authority;
m. maintain and preserve adequate records; and
n. develop new and improved techniques and procedures.
RCC Staff
1.2.5 The staff of an RCC performs duties in the prosecution of search and rescue events
in addition they have responsibility for maintaining the RCC in a continuous state of
preparedness. The RCC staff shall consist of personnel who are experienced and/or
trained in SAR operations. When a period of heavy activity is anticipated or during
major SAR incidents, the regular staff may be supplemented as required.
1.2.6 Agencies and authorities that may be involved in providing services to an RCC in
the event of an incident e.g. AusSAR, State and Territory Police, Airservices
Australia, Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and ACA are to be alerted as early as
practicable so that staffing can be managed.
SAR Mission Coordinator
1.2.7 Each SAR operation is carried out under the coordination of a SAR Mission
Coordinator (SMC) designated for the purpose by the appropriate SAR Authority.
The role of the SMC may vary between SAR Authorities depending on their
command arrangements. They must understand the extent of their authority and
responsibility and must be capable of taking immediate and adequate action, basing
their decisions on knowledge, logic and good judgement.
Qualifications
1.2.8 The SMC must have completed appropriate SAR training and must review and
maintain proficiency as per the organisational procedures. The SMC must be
capable of performing all SAR functions required by the SAR Authority.
1.2.9 To fulfil the foregoing requirements, the SMC must have a good knowledge of the
communications available, the geographical features of the region, and the
capabilities and limitations of SAR assets. The SMC must use initiative and be
inquisitive in the search for information, cross-checking the sources in doubtful
cases.
 Responsibility
1.2.10 The SMC is responsible for efficiently prosecuting a SAR incident using the assets
available. The SMC is responsible for all stages of the SAR system. Their
responsibilities include the prompt dispatch of appropriate and adequate SAR
assets and the prosecution of SAR operations until rescue has been completed, or
chance of success is no longer a reasonable possibility.
1.2.11 The SMC is responsible for ensuring that the following duties are carried out
depending on the SAR incident and local circumstances:
a. Obtaining and evaluating all information pertaining to the incident, including
emergency equipment carried by the person or craft in distress.
b. Classifying the SAR incident into the appropriate emergency phase
(Uncertainty, Alert/Urgency, or Distress).
c. Alerting appropriate SAR assets and SAR organisations that may be of
assistance during the incident.
d. In consultation with other SAR Authorities, confirming which Authority will
exercise overall coordination in accordance with Appendix 1.1.
e. Conducting a risk assessment.
f. Dispatching initial SRUs if situation warrants.
g. Conducting initial communications checks. If unsuccessful making an
extended communications search to obtain additional information on the
incident, personnel involved and equipment carried by the vessel, aircraft or
party in distress.
h. Calculating the search area. Preparing optimum plans and promulgating
attainable plans;
i. Obtaining past/present/forecast weather, drift information and oceanographic
conditions if applicable.
j. Providing for SAR crew briefing, dispatching of appropriate SRUs, or other
assets.
k. Organising logistical support for all SAR assets including fuel, food and
accommodation, through to the completion of the incident.
l. Making arrangements for appropriate communications.
m. Maintaining a continuous, chronological plot showing sighting and hearing
reports, DF bearings, air plot, radar plot, fixes, reports of debris, areas
searched or not searched and other intelligence.
n. Maintaining a continuous, chronological record or log of the search effort,
including actions taken in relation to intelligence, SRUs employed, sorties,
hours flown/underway, sightings, leads, results obtained, message traffic,
briefing notes, telephone calls, daily evaluation of progress and probability of
detection.
o. Initiating marine distress broadcasts or marine information broadcasts and
initiating the alerting of enroute aircraft. Consideration should be given to
arranging for announcements to be made over radio and TV networks.
p. Arranging communication schedules when and if needed.
q. Requesting additional SAR assets, as required.
r. Exercising overall coordination of SAR assets.
s. Maintaining liaison with the next of kin, owner, agent or management of the
missing craft or persons.
t. Keeping all authorities involved fully advised of SAR incident progress with
timely and regular situation reports (SlTREPs). SlTREPs should be sent in a
numbered sequence.
u. Making recommendations in relation to the continuation or suspension of
searches.
 v. Issuing news media releases on the progress of incidents in accordance with
the local SAR organisational procedures and policies.
w. Providing debriefs of SRUs, cancel alerts, release SAR assets and
organisations involved, and issuing the final SlTREP to all concerned.
x. Acting as required to cope with unique, unusual or changing circumstances of
the emergency.
1.2.12 Where a SAR Authority has overall coordination of a SAR operation, the SMC shall
give particular attention to the following matters as relevant to the search:
a. In conjunction with the meteorological office, keeping a watch on weather
conditions in the probability area, routes used by SAR units in transit to and
from the search area and at aerodromes used as bases or alternate
aerodromes for search aircraft.
b. Coordination of search aircraft in the light of operational conditions by
diverting or recalling aircraft or reassigning search areas as conditions dictate.
c. Planning so as to minimise conflict between search aircraft in adjoining areas.
d. Attending to logistical requirements, in particular, accommodation, fuel,
availability of relief crews and observers and all necessary ground facilities at
aerodromes to be used by SAR units.
e. Coordination of the use of marine resources and facilities and efficient
distribution of message traffic regarding sea state and weather conditions
which may affect marine craft engaged in search activities.
f. Provision of regular information to those agencies responsible for land search
units about actual and forecast weather conditions which may affect their
operations.
g. Ensure that all search units are kept informed about actions and
developments affecting their operations.
h. Make effective use of personnel from other SAR authorities, medical
agencies, public relations, company representatives and marine authorities.
i. Keeping other authorities, which have been given coordination of search
assets, informed of overall search progress and strategy.
1.2.13 The SMC may have access to other SAR qualified personnel. Some functions may
be shared where there are insufficient numbers of staff to allocate individual tasks to
a staff member. The following roles are listed for completeness.
Assistant SAR Mission Coordinator (A/SMC)
1.2.14 As the title implies, the A/SMC assists, and is subordinate to, the SMC assigned to
a particular SAR mission. The term is used by some Australian jurisdictions to
describe officers with SAR qualifications that allow them to provide significant
support to the SMC.
Qualifications
1.2.15 Officers performing A/SMC duties should, as a rule, hold SMC qualifications, but
requirements vary within the structure of the SAR organisation. Generally, the title
A/SMC refers to the SAR qualifications held by a particular officer, e.g. an officer
rated as A/SMC may serve in any capacity within the SAR organisation, except in
the position of SMC. Officers rated as SMC may, on the other hand, be allocated
A/SMC duties. As a general guide, the objective of any SAR organisation should be
to ensure that staff employed in the management of SAR operations should be
qualified to perform the highest level of duties i.e. SMC.
Authority
1.2.16 The A/SMC is under the direct supervision of the SMC and therefore has the full
operational authority of the SMC when carrying out specific duties assigned.
 Responsibilities and Duties
1.2.17 The A/SMC is responsible for routine documentation, allocation of SRUs and
presentation of the search plan under the direction of the SMC. Each SAR Authority
will recognise specific duties applicable to the A/SMC function.
Allocator
1.2.18 An Allocator is responsible to the SMC for the determination of a probability area,
allocation of appropriate air or surface search units to specific areas, and when
required brief and debrief search crews.
Recorder
1.2.19 A Recorder, if required, shall maintain an accurate and up–to–date chronological
record of the SAR action, together with other necessary records, messages and
details of telephone calls and radio logs.
Briefing Officer
1.2.20 A Briefing Officer shall be responsible for briefing and debriefing search units.
Intelligence Officer
1.2.21 An Intelligence Officer shall be responsible for:
a. liaison with the duty meteorological officer for the supply of planning forecasts
and periodic updates of weather information;
b. plotting, assessing and filing of sighting and hearing reports;
c. interrogating witnesses and assessing other reports;
d. obtaining data about the missing persons and/or craft;
e. obtaining logistical data relating to the search area;
f. supervising the personnel employed in gathering intelligence.
1.2.22 The Intelligence Officer shall immediately advise the SMC of any information that is
considered to be significant.
Rescue Planner
1.2.23 A Rescue Planner shall be responsible for devising and coordinating a rescue plan.
The rescue plan shall include the pre–positioning of supplies for an airdrop to
survivors and the positioning of suitable rescue facilities at appropriate locations.
Liaison Officer
1.2.24 Liaison Officers or advisers from other authorities/interested parties, when required,
may be sought from or provided by AusSAR, the aircraft operator, police, military
authorities etc. and shall liaise between the RCC and their parent organisations on
matters of their specialisation. The use of liaison officers is encouraged during SAR
operations that may become protracted.
On Scene Coordinator
1.2.25 When a number of SAR assets are working together on the same SAR mission in
the same location, there may be an advantage if one unit is assigned to coordinate
the activities of all participating assets. The SMC will designate this role to a On
Scene Coordinator (OSC), who may be the person in charge of a ship or aircraft
participating in the search or someone at another nearby facility in a position to
handle OSC duties. The OSC should be the most capable person available, taking
into consideration SAR training; communications capabilities of the asset; and the
length of time that the asset the OSC is aboard can stay in the search area.
Frequent changes in the OSC should be avoided. Duties that the SMC may assign
to the OSC, depending on needs and qualifications include:
a. assuming operational coordination of all SAR facilities on scene;
b. receiving the search action plan from the SMC;
c. modifying the search action plan based on prevailing environmental conditions
and keeping the SMC advised of any changes to the plan (in consultation with
the SMC when practicable);
 d. providing relevant information to the other SAR assets;
e. implementing the search and rescue plan where required;
f. monitoring the performance of other assets participating in the search;
g. developing and implementing the rescue plan (when needed);
h. providing regular SITREPS to the SMC.
Forward Command Post
1.2.26 It may be desirable to establish a Forward Command Post (FCP) at a suitable
location. The feasibility of FCP establishment will be a matter for consideration by
the SAR Authority.
1.2.27 The degree of delegation attributed to the FCP and its actual responsibilities shall
be at SMC discretion, bearing in mind the need for:
a. a clear understanding of respective responsibilities;
b. an optimum response to the operational and administrative features of the
current situation eg: location of search area and availability of staff.
1.2.28 After considering how best to exercise control over SAR assets in remote sectors of
an SRR or where communications, administrative or political factors impact on
operational efficiency, a SMC may recommend to management to establish a FCP
close to the incident. The functions of an FCP throughout a particular SAR action
shall be delegated by the SMC and may include:
a. responsibility to brief and debrief search crews operating aircraft from an
aerodrome close to the search area;
b. establishment of a base for helicopter operations, not at an aerodrome;
c. coordinating, as required, the provision of safety, survival and SAR equipment
to participating SAR aircraft and helicopters;
d. collation of intelligence information and provision of logistical support;
e. liaison with AusSAR, police and emergency services;
f. supervising the allocation of observers, and ensuring they obtain adequate
rest;
g. making arrangements for food, accommodation and transport for search
crews and observers when required.
Notes: While it is common for AusSAR to establish an FCP for large
searches, it is not normal practice to transfer any command functions
from RCC Australia.
Where an aerodrome is to be used for a FCP, the aerodrome
operator/owner should be consulted prior to the final decision being
made to establish an FCP at the location.
1.2.29 In considering the establishment of a FCP, the SMC shall consider communications
requirements and existing facilities including terrestrial networks, satellite
communication links, mobile phones, facsimile machines and facilities available
through other agencies, eg. AusSAR, Police, Defence assets and State/Territory
Emergency Services (T/SES).
1.2.30 When selecting a location for a FCP the SMC shall consider:
a. navigation aids;
b. geographical limitations;
c. aerodrome or landing area suitability and proximity to the search area;
d. apron capacity;
e. refuelling capabilities;
f. maintenance and logistical support;
g. SAR crew briefing facilities; and
h. availability of accommodation in the vicinity.
1.3 SAR Response and Coordination in Australia
Overview
1.3.1 There are two levels of SAR response in Australia:
a. the Commonwealth level through AusSAR and the ADF; and
b. the State/Territory level through the Police.
1.3.2 Volunteer organisations work in close liaison with State and Territory Police and the
Police retain overall coordination in their jurisdiction.
1.3.3 It is common for a number of agencies to contribute to one SAR operation. In such
circumstances it is vital that one agency has overall coordination and other agencies
involved cooperate with this agency to produce the best response possible within
available resources. The SAR authority that assumes overall coordination is
determined by the nature and location of the party in distress as defined in Appendix
B.
Determination of Responsible RCC
1.3.4 In practice, the first agency to become aware of a distress situation is obliged to
respond until the appropriate SAR authority with overall coordination responsibility2
is in a position to assume that responsibility. It is imperative that the appropriate
SAR Authority is notified as soon as possible.
1.3.5 From time to time a SAR operation may be commenced independent of a SAR
authority. Once a relevant SAR authority is alerted to the incident it is their
responsibility to coordinate the activities of the responding assets in order that the
integrity of the search is maintained.
1.3.6 Responsibility for SAR coordination and direction may be transferred between SAR
authorities, whenever more accurate knowledge of the distressed craft’s position or
movements comes to hand, or when it becomes apparent that a SAR authority other
than the one initiating the action is more favourably placed to assume responsibility.
This may be due to better communications, closer proximity to the area of search or
more readily available facilities.
1.3.7 A transfer of responsibility between SAR authorities may be effected either by the
initiating SAR authority inviting another SAR authority to take over or by another
SAR authority offering to take over. In either case, the following procedure shall be
followed:
a. consultation shall take place between the SMCs of both SAR authorities
concerned;
b. the initiating SAR authority shall retain responsibility until another SAR
authority formally accepts control;
c. full details of action taken by the initiating centre shall be passed to the centre
taking over;
d. the formal handover/take-over shall be recorded in writing by both SMCs
using the Transfer of SAR Coordination form (Appendix D), and
e. any other assets or authorities concerned shall be advised of the takeover.
Cooperation with Foreign Rescue Coordination Centres
1.3.8 When the area of SAR operations is near or straddles the border between
international search and rescue regions (SRR), RCC Australia is to be informed and
will take overall coordination, except for SAR involving military forces as previously
discussed in paragraphs 1.1.10 -15. RCC Australia will liaise with neighbouring
foreign RCCs in accordance with the relevant International SAR Arrangements. In
general the following procedures reflect the SAR Arrangements in place.
1.3.9 When the position of a party in distress is known, the responsibility for initiation of
SAR action will be that of the International RCC in whose SRR the party is located.

2
The appropriate SAR Authority within the Australian SRR is in accordance with Appendix B.
1.3.10 The International RCC to assume responsibility for conduct of a SAR action when
the distressed craft’s position is unknown shall be the RCC responsible for:
a. the SRR in which the craft was operating according to its last reported
position; or
b. the SRR to which the craft was proceeding if the last reported position was at
the boundary of two SRRs; or
c. the SRR to which the craft was destined if it was not equipped with suitable
two–way radio communication equipment or not under obligation to maintain
radio communication.
1.3.11 If, after a SAR action has been initiated, it is determined that the area of probability
lies across the boundaries of two or more adjoining SRRs, the initiating RCC shall
normally remain the responsible SAR Authority.
1.3.12 Alternatively, where search areas are extensive, it may be agreed that RCC
Australia coordinates search efforts in the Australian SRR and the adjacent
International RCC coordinates search efforts in the foreign SRR. Should this be
considered the preferable strategy, RCC Australia may initiate the proposal to its
foreign counterpart.
Transferring Overall Coordination Responsibility
Early initiation of effective response
1.3.13 It is essential that the SAR Authority with functional responsibility for a target type
initiate early and effective response.
1.3.14 Accordingly, the SAR authority should evaluate all available information and
intelligence and make an initial assessment of the probable search area and assets
required. If the required response is assessed as being beyond the capacity of the
authority then that authority should request assistance at an early stage. Delaying
requests for assistance, may lead to reduced chances of survival and/or significant
increase in the size of the search area.
1.3.15 The coordinating SAR authority may request AusSAR to assist with the provision of
SAR advice, including drift calculations, at any stage of the search.
Reasons for transfer of coordination
1.3.16 Coordination for SAR events shall remain with or be transferred to and accepted by,
the SAR authority that has overall coordination responsibility for the incident in
accordance with this instruction, immaterial of which SAR authorities are involved.
The only circumstance under which this may not apply is where the SAR authority
with functional responsibility for the SAR incident is already fully committed when
the incident develops; the scope of the disaster is sufficient to require a wider
response; the effects of the disaster are multi-faceted; or the authority does not
have the capability to accept or retain coordination.
1.3.17 Overall coordination responsibility may be transferred from one SAR authority to
another within Australia’s SRR in the following circumstances:
a. When an RCC is fully committed, overall coordination of a further incident in
that region may be transferred to an adjacent RCC3.
b. Where a SAR authority has activated a SAR operation in response to a
distress or other emergency situation that is found to be outside their
responsibility. For example, a SAR operation is mounted by RCC Australia in
response to a distress beacon activation that is found to be in respect of a
land environment incident or a pleasure craft in distress. In such a case RCC
Australia may hand overall coordination of the SAR operation to the
responsible State or Territory Police Service or Force.
c. Where a SAR operation is beyond the State/Territory’s capabilities. This
might include situations where pleasure craft or fishing vessels are well to sea

3
AusSAR is considered to be an adjacent RCC to State and Territory RCCs.
 and beyond the capabilities of the SAR facilities available to the State/Territory
agencies.
d. Where the resultant situation of the SAR operation requires the
implementation of the State or Territory’s disaster plan or the declaration of a
State or Territory Emergency. For example, an aircraft incident where there
are many fatalities and injured. In these cases, the appropriate State/Territory
authority may be considered to assume the overall coordination of the
operation.
e. For a major search where AusSAR has assumed overall coordination from a
State/Territory SAR authority and the air search has been completed but local
land and inshore operations may continue, overall coordination may be
transferred back to the appropriate State/Territory authority.
1.3.18 Where a SAR Authority wishes/requires to transfer coordination, the accepting SMC
shall ascertain from that SAR Authority the reasons for seeking to transfer
coordination. It is essential that the SMC is aware of the reasons for taking
coordination, or the SMC may seek to use that SAR Authority for delegated tasks
beyond their current capability.
1.3.19 In taking coordination for the SAR event, the SMC should operate in the knowledge
that SAR assets/assistance from the (current) Coordinating SAR Authority may not
be available, depending on the reasons given for transferring coordination.
1.3.20 On completion of the SAR event, if it is appropriate to consider transferring the
event back to the original Coordinating SAR Authority, the SMC shall establish that
the operational limitations for the earlier transfer of coordination no longer exist.
Allocation of functional responsibilities
1.3.21 The allocation of search and rescue functions and responsibilities to
States/Territories and Commonwealth SAR authorities is defined in Appendix B.
The SAR authority with specific functional responsibility for the target type involved
in a SAR incident is responsible for the overall coordination of a SAR incident.
1.3.22 Any transfer of responsibility of overall coordination for a SAR operation between
the Commonwealth and State or Territory will be by mutual agreement except
where varied by the agreements at Appendices C.1, C.2 and C.3. Following a
transfer of overall coordination, the initial authority will continue to provide support
as necessary.
1.3.23 Transfer of coordination will be authorised by the exchange of a Transfer of
Coordination form between SAR authorities.
1.3.24 The authority required to exercise overall coordination will normally do so, but may
request assistance from another SAR authority without necessarily transferring
overall coordination responsibility.
1.3.25 For example, AusSAR is normally best placed to coordinate wide area air searches
and coordinate search and rescue operations at sea at long range. These
operations may also involve requests for ADF assistance. Police forces are
normally best placed to coordinate local ground searches or inshore boat searches.
1.3.26 When a SMC has activated the SAR system in response to an emergency situation
that, by agreement, is subsequently deemed to be the responsibility of another
authority, he shall contact the SAR coordinator who is to assume responsibility and
apprise them of all known information relating to the incident and actions taken or
contemplated. Only then should a transfer of SAR responsibility take place. If a
SAR coordinator is unable to accept SAR responsibility immediately, the initiating
SMC shall retain responsibility until a mutually agreed time of handover/takeover.
Accepting overall coordination from another SAR Authority
1.3.27 Where a SAR Authority accepts overall coordination of an incident, the SMC shall
ensure that full responsibility for the event is accepted, in which case:
 a. The SMC shall ensure that all aspects, including air and surface search, are
coordinated by their RCC.
b. Transfer of Coordination form shall be completed.
c. If an aspect of the search (e.g. surface search) is to be coordinated by, or
remain with another SAR Authority, then the terms for the coordination shall
be made clear and that Authority shall be required to report progress and keep
the SMC with overall coordination informed as to developments.
Accepting coordination for a component of the SAR event from another SAR
Authority
1.3.28 Where an Authority decides to accept coordination for a component of an event
(e.g. air search) from another SAR Authority, the SMC shall ensure that
responsibility for specific functions (e.g. air search) is accepted, in which case:
a. the SMC shall operate within the terms of the agreed responsibility and report
progress to the SAR Authority with overall coordination; and
b. conduct the specific functions in accordance with accepted standards,
procedures and practices.
Effective consultation and coordination
1.3.29 In order to ensure the successful prosecution of a SAR incident involving more than
one SAR authority, the SMC with overall coordination should initiate consultation
with all participating SAR Authorities at the commencement of an incident. The
SMC should conduct frequent reviews of the progress of the incident and produce a
SITREP at regular intervals. This should not preclude all participants offering
advice and suggestions.
Information Exchange in Support of Transfer of Coordination
1.3.30 Where the overall coordinator needs or requires another cooperating SAR Authority
to take responsibility for a component of a SAR event or a specific activity in the
SAR event:
a. the cooperating authority must be provided with:
i. Clear objectives, scope and scale of the delegated responsibility and
service required;
ii. Full briefing on the SAR event to the extent that it will affect the service
to be provided;
iii. Conditions and constraints on use of assets;
iv. Time requirements and constraints; and
v. Tactical intelligence, information and data as it becomes available that
may affect the progress of the support service provided.
b. the Cooperating Authority must:
i. Accept, or reject the proposed delegation. If the action is other than to
accept the delegation, then the Coordinating Authority must be informed
of the operational reasons;
ii. Operate within the terms of reference for the supporting service;
iii. Inform the Coordinating Authority of any circumstances, if they arise
where the specified service cannot be provided or needs to be varied,
together with reasons;
iv. Exchange with the Coordinating Authority, tactical intelligence,
information and data as it becomes available that may affect the
progress of the SAR event; and
v. Report progress of the support activity to the Coordinating Authority.
Transfer of coordination after suspension of SAR action.
1.3.31 When a SAR action is suspended, the authority with overall coordination at the time
shall inform all authorities, units and facilities that have been activated and/or
alerted.
1.3.32 Where a search is suspended for a target that is the responsibility, under the terms
of Appendix 1.1, of the authority with overall coordination at the time of suspension,
SAR coordination shall not be transferred to another SAR authority. Rather, the
Police, and other SAR agencies, should be informed that search has been
suspended pending the availability of further intelligence. The Police may then
instigate further Police (non SAR) actions as appropriate.
1.3.33 Where a search is suspended for a target that another SAR authority has
responsibility for under the terms of Appendix 1.1, SAR coordination shall be
transferred to that authority. The expectation would be that if further intelligence is
received that indicates the search should be re-commenced, the SAR authority that
has functional responsibility will consider its capability to coordinate the search at
that time and either retain coordination, seek assistance or transfer coordination.
Also, it may be necessary for that authority to fulfil their coronial or missing person
responsibilities.
1.3.34 On occasions, after the suspension of a search, it may be necessary for
State/Territory Police to continue to search for bodies or aircraft/vessel wreckage.
In such cases RCC Australia may:
a. provide briefings on flight path prior to disappearance, splash/crash point,
area searched and related intelligence;
b. review intelligence to assist search;
c. source aircraft for transport or search purposes;
d. brief search crews on (a) above; and
e. provide drift information.
1.3.35 AusSAR will not fund air or surface assets for the search for bodies or
aircraft/vessel wreckage once the search has been suspended.
1.3.36 Should any other organisation, eg. the operating company, wish to continue an
independent search, RCC Australia should ascertain whether there is any new
intelligence that indicates that the search should be continued. If there is:
a. new intelligence then this should be evaluated and, if considered valid, the
search should be continued/re-initiated;
b. no new intelligence then the RCC may assist the requesting organisation with:
c. briefings on path prior to disappearance, splash/crash point, area searched
and related intelligence; and/or
d. drift information.
1.3.37 AusSAR will neither fund nor provide air or surface assets for continuation of the
search unless the request is supported by new intelligence.
AusSAR Assistance to Other SAR Authorities
1.3.38 Australian SAR authorities may, and should not hesitate to seek assistance from
RCC Australia during a SAR operation. A range of services can be delivered by
AusSAR as follows:
Provision of Subject Matter Expertise and Advice
1.3.39 AusSAR personnel are experienced SAR operators who can offer advice on the
prosecution of a SAR operation. The RCC has a range of SAR planning, prediction
and management tools that can be utilised.
Briefing for SAR units
1.3.40 A coordinating SAR agency can request RCC Australia to prepare a briefing for a
SAR unit. RCC Australia will:
a. Prepare the briefing and fax it to the coordinating SAR agency for the crew; or
b. Prepare the briefing and fax it direct to the crew, copied to the coordinating
SAR agency.
1.3.41 AusSAR will bear its own costs.
 Sourcing of aircraft
1.3.42 RCC Australia can identify suitable aircraft to conduct a search on request from a
coordinating SAR authority and pass the details to the agency.
1.3.43 AusSAR will bear its own costs. If the aircraft are tasked by the coordinating SAR
agency that agency will bear the costs of the aircraft.
Tasking of aircraft
1.3.44 If the Coordinating SAR Authority is coordinating a search, and requests AusSAR to
identify and brief an air asset or air assets, the Coordinating SAR Authority will
nominate the search area and AusSAR will then arrange suitable aircraft and brief
them. Briefings will be copied to the Coordinating SAR Authority.
1.3.45 All subsequent activities that are related to monitoring progress of the air search,
reaction to intelligence and re-allocation of aircraft to modified search allocations
would remain with the Coordinating SAR Authority.
1.3.46 AusSAR bears its own costs. If the coordinating SAR Authority uses the aircraft,
that authority bears the costs for the aircraft.
Coordination of an air search
1.3.47 On request, RCC Australia can take responsibility for an air search in support of a
SAR operation under the overall coordination of another SAR authority. The
following principles will apply:
a. The search area will be determined by mutual agreement between the
coordinating SAR authority and RCC Australia.
b. When additional intelligence is received that may entail changes to the search
area, the revised search area will be determined by mutual agreement
between the Coordinating Authority and AusSAR.
c. AusSAR will conduct the complete air search including aircraft allocation, crew
briefing and de-briefing, air asset performance monitoring and intelligence
analysis.
d. All aircraft allocation details will be copied to the Coordinating SAR Agency.
e. The Coordinating Agency and AusSAR will exchange search area information
and intelligence to ensure that coordination of the event is effectively
achieved.
f. When the air search has been completed (the search area has been searched
to an acceptable POD, there is high confidence that if the target was in the
search area it would have been found, and probability of survival time has
been exceeded) the air search will be suspended pending the availability of
new intelligence.
g. Requests to extend or continue the air search must be supported by the
presence of new intelligence. If the air search is continued for other reasons,
the costs of that continuation will be borne by the Coordinating Agency and
not AusSAR.
1.3.48 AusSAR will pay for the air search.
1.3.49 The coordination of a police land-based search cannot be transferred to RCC
Australia. However, RCC Australia may provide support on request in accordance
with the procedures defined above.
Civil Requests for Military Assistance
Localised Emergency Assistance to Save Life
1.3.50 In localised emergency situations when immediate action is necessary to save
human life, the RCC/local SAR Authority may request assistance directly from the
commander of an ADF unit on scene or in the area. In these circumstances ADF
commanders are authorised to provide assistance from within their unit’s resources
to civil agencies. Within Defence this type of assistance is categorised Defence
Assistance to the Civil Community (DACC) Category 1.
1.3.51 Whenever this action is taken the SMC/OSC shall advise AusSAR as soon as
possible, and the commander of the ADF unit will advise their superior
Headquarters as soon as possible. AusSAR is to follow up with a courtesy call to
the appropriate single service operational headquarters and HQAST.
All Other Requests for Defence Assistance
1.3.52 In other than the circumstances described above, civilian SAR Authorities/SMC are
to pass requests for ADF assistance to AusSAR who will liaise with Headquarters
Australian Theatre (HQAST). Once a military asset has been assigned, further
contact can be with the Service concerned. AusSAR will contact the appropriate
military unit to discuss with the mission commander/crew an appropriate search
tasking for the asset
1.3.53 The preferred means for passing requests from AusSAR to the ADF for SAR
assistance is via high precedence DISCON messaging. A second copy will also be
sent by facsimile as a back up. Requests are to include as much detail as possible
about the search target, where assets are required, how long assets are likely to be
required, what other search assets are in the area, who is the coordinating SAR
Authority, what logistic support can be provided to the ADF and the relevant points
of contact.
1.3.54 Any verbal request will be followed by a hard copy message.
Military Requests for Civil Assistance
1.3.55 In localised emergency situations when immediate action is necessary to save
human life, ADF authorities will liaise directly with local SAR authorities/providers for
the provision of civil support to ADF SAR operations.
1.3.56 In other than immediate, life threatening circumstances, the ADF will pass requests
for civil SAR assistance in support of military SAR operations to AusSAR for on
forwarding to the appropriate civilian SAR Authorities/SMC and the facilitation of the
provision of support.
Requests for Assistance from Foreign RCCs
1.3.57 RCC Australia or the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT) may receive
requests from foreign RCCs for Australian assistance in SAR operations. If
requests are received via DFAT, RCC Australia shall immediately establish
communications with the RCC responsible for the area to establish and arrange any
assistance that may be required.
Distress Beacons
1.3.58 RCC Australia will normally receive distress beacon alerts first. RCC Australia will
advise other relevant SAR Authorities as soon as practicable because they may:
a. have more information or be coordinating a response already;
b. be the responsible authority in accordance with Appendix B; or
c. be in a position to assist in a SAR response.
1.3.59 Beacon registration or on-scene corroborating information available may allow the
Responsible Authority (Appendix B) to be determined quickly, and before a SAR
response is initiated. In such cases the Responsible Authority will assume overall
coordination immediately based on the SAR alert passed through AusSAR.
1.3.60 In other circumstances AusSAR will exercise overall coordination until the nature of
the distress situation is established. At that stage the Responsible Authority will be
determined in accordance with Appendix 1.1. Overall coordination will then be
transferred from AusSAR to the Responsible Authority at the first practicable
opportunity, subject to the operational requirements of the SAR responses in
progress.
1.3.61 Distress beacon alerts will be prosecuted until the beacon is deactivated to prevent
interference with other incidents on the aeronautical distress frequency.
1.4 Search and Rescue Resources
Overview
1.4.1 The Australian SAR organisation is based on the use of aircraft, marine craft and
land facilities which are normally used for other purposes but which can be made
available to form part of the SAR effort.
1.4.2 The SMC shall arrange for the provision of suitable search units. The terms SAR
unit or SAR facility are used to describe one or more types of air, maritime and/or
land-based facility.
1.4.3 Some of these facilities are immediately suitable for SAR use; others have been
adapted by way of providing them with extra equipment or training. A number of
units considered suitable for the provision of SAR services have been designated as
specialised SAR units with trained personnel and are described as Search and
Rescue Units (SRUs).
1.4.4 AusSAR has developed a tiered hierarchy for civil aviation SRUs in Australia that is
further explained in Appendix M.
1.4.5 Every endeavour should be made to obtain sufficient search assets to search the
determined area at a satisfactory coverage factor in the shortest possible time.
However certain factors, such as inclement weather or darkness, may make an
optimum air search impractical and the use of surface assets should be considered.
Search by land facilities alone is usually impractical for large search areas but it can
be conducted in most weather conditions and can provide complete coverage of a
confined area that cannot be thoroughly searched from the air. Land parties are
also critical in operations where the search is carried out from the air and rescue by
land facilities.
1.4.6 Identification and deployment of rescue units shall commence at the time of the
initial SAR response and a review of requirements shall continue through the action.
Assistance with selection of search units is given in Section 5.8.
Personnel
1.4.7 While a SAR unit will conduct a SAR operation under the general direction of the
SMC, the person in charge of the unit will retain the responsibility for carrying out
the operation assigned to it.
1.4.8 Medical personnel should be alerted in a timely manner if it is anticipated that they
may be required.
1.4.9 SAR Authorities should ensure that regular training is undertaken by SRUs in their
jurisdictions.
Dropmasters, Dispatchers and Observers
1.4.10 Dropmasters, dispatchers and observers are an integral part of the SAR team and
its effective operation.
1.4.11 Dropmasters will be required if an aerial delivery of stores is to be made to
survivors. The dropmaster shall be responsible for the preparation of the equipment
for delivery and for briefing the drop team and aircrew on dropping techniques.
During the drop mission, the dropmaster will take charge of the aircraft cabin and
control the dropping operation. Dispatchers should be available to assist the
Dropmaster in the delivery of supplies when required.
1.4.12 Whenever possible, trained Observer Leaders and Observers shall be used in all
search aircraft. Where it is inevitable that some untrained Observers must be used,
the SMC shall make every effort to have at least one trained Observer Leader or
Observer in each search aircraft.
1.4.13 Sufficient Observers should be assigned to large aircraft to enable the Observer
Leader to arrange relief periods. Ideally, search sorties should be approximately of
two hours duration.
1.4.14 An Observer Leader allocated to an aircraft shall attend the briefing with the pilot or
obtain a copy of the briefing, and will then be responsible for briefing Observers
allocated to that aircraft. Observer Leaders may be issued with binoculars where
available.
1.4.15 Should a prolonged search be foreseen, Observer Leaders and Observers should
be rostered to avoid fatigue. If there are insufficient Observers available locally,
additional Observers should be obtained and taken to the area.
1.4.16 It is an SMC responsibility, either directly or by delegation from the SAR Authority,
to make reasonable provision for and to monitor the welfare of Observers. This
includes the provision of refreshments, accommodation and rest breaks. Local
T/SES assets and aero clubs, especially those from which a number of search
aircraft may be deployed, may be of assistance in this regard and should be invited
to cooperate in making appropriate arrangements.
Rescue Preparation
1.4.17 Planning for rescue shall commence at the time of the initial SAR response and
continue throughout the action. Plans shall be appropriately updated, as the
circumstances require.
1.4.18 For further considerations in rescue planning refer to Chapter 6
Ship Reporting Systems
AUSREP
1.4.19 The Australian Ship Reporting System, (AUSREP), is operated by AusSAR and is
established in accordance with the International Convention on Maritime Search
and Rescue. The area of coverage for AUSREP is identical to the Australian
Maritime SRR. AUSREP enables AusSAR to quickly assess the approximate
positions, courses and speeds of vessels in the vicinity of a distress situation by
means of a surface picture (SURPIC). The SMC should seek advice from AusSAR
on merchant ships from AUSREP if they are conducting a search off shore.
AUSREP also provides other information about vessels that may be valuable to the
SMC e.g. whether there is a doctor embarked. Ships are a key SAR resource for
RCCs but requests for them to assist must be weighted against the considerable
cost to shipping when they divert to assist.
1.4.20 Participation in the AUSREP system is mandatory for certain categories of ships in
the Australian SRR but most vessels transiting Australian waters voluntarily
participate in the system. Vessels are required to submit regular reports including a
report that they are entering or leaving the AUSREP area, sailing plans, and arrival
and departure reports when entering or leaving Australian ports. Vessels are
required to carry either Inmarsat or HF DSC communication equipment to
participate in AUSREP.
1.4.21 Examples of the format of a SURPIC produced for vessels within the Australian
SRR:
Long SURPIC
SURPIC FOR 072128 MAY 00 50 miles around 2407 15242
PALMERSTON/VNQL + 36701DWT TANKER 179M AUS
2357 15303 ETA in .8 hours Currently on course 135
LKP 2154 15051 VAR 12.0K 070703 MAY 00 BRISBANE 2739 15306
SUCHADA NAREE/HSPA2 + 23732DWT BULK CARRIER 151M THA
2415 5322 ETA in 3.2 hours Currently on course 315
LKP 2756 15351 357T 11.1.5K 070100 MAY 00 MACKAY 2108 14922
AGAMEMNON/C6PC6 + 23443DWT GENERAL CARGO VSL 164M BAA
2420 15327 ETA in 3.3 hours Currently on course 315
LKP 2820 15400 358T 13.0K 070201 MAY 00 OOA 0832 12800

Short SURPIC
SURPIC PREDICTION FOR 072128 MAY 00 50 miles around 2407 15242
VNQL/PALMERSTON 2357 15303 135 12.0 BOUND BRISBANE
 HSPA2/SUCHADA NAREE 2415 15322 315 11.1.5 BOUND MACKAY
C6PC6/AGAMEMNON 2420 15327 315 13.0 BOUND OOA
AMVER
1.4.22 The Automated Mutual Assistance Vessel Rescue System, (AMVER), is a world
wide voluntary ship reporting system operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. AMVER is
also capable of producing SURPICs. Provision is made in the SURPIC request
form for a Control Time, being that time for which ships’ positions are required. A
Control Time need not necessarily be specified, however, if it is not, the SURPlC will
be provided for the earliest possible time. SMCs can seek advice from AusSAR on
AMVER reporting.
Small Craft Reporting Systems
1.4.23 Marine volunteer organisations maintain logs of pleasure craft and recreational
fishing vessels in their areas. Marine volunteer groups along the Queensland’ and
New South Wales’ coast operate a small craft reporting system similar to AUSREP.
The State and Territory Police provide liaison with volunteer groups in their
jurisdictions. Pleasure craft and fishing vessels can also report their positions
through the State and Territory Coast Radio Stations, volunteer marine
organisations and private operators such as Penta Comstat. SMCs should consider
contacting these communications stations in the area that the distress incident is
taking place.
1.5 Provision for entry of foreign aircraft during SAR operations
Overview
1.5.1 RCC Australia shall take responsibility for organising the entry into and departure
from the Australian region of foriegn aircraft engaged in SAR operations. If another
SAR authority becomes aware of a foreign aircraft being tasked to conduct SAR
operations in the Australian region, they should inform RCC Australia immediately
who will organise approvals and diplomatic clearances as necessary.
1.6 Public Relations
Overview
1.6.1 Search and Rescue operations for missing aircraft and vessels generate
considerable publicity. By virtue of its nature, an RCC is a source of news and this
is especially true during SAR incidents. The public should be informed during SAR
operations, within the limits of confidentiality, of SAR actions. The potential benefits
of early release of information include:
a. additional information from the public, leading to more effective use of SR
resources;
b. fewer time-consuming requests from the news media; and
c. reduction in inaccurate public speculation about the SAR mission.
1.6.2 RCC staff should be governed by their parent authority’s public relations procedures
when dealing with the media. It is important that a relationship between the media
and an RCC is established such that:
a. the media's legitimate interest in an incident of concern and the public's “right
to know” is respected;
b. information reaching the public is factual and as complete as possible;
c. the operational functioning of an RCC is not prejudiced; and
d. benefit is derived from publicity of an incident and from media broadcasts for
information made at the request of SAR staff.
Operations involving two or more SAR Authorities
1.6.3 To avoid confusion in public information it is essential that the overall coordinating
authority responsible for the particular SAR action make any news release.
1.6.4 The following guidelines are recommended for releasing information on operations
involving vessels, aircraft or other facilities during joint operations:
a. Inquiries from the public made to one authority concerning the activities of
another authority shall be directed or referred to the authority in overall
coordination of the incident.
b. Where the ADF is the SAR Authority, the ADF is responsible for issuing
information to the public. The ADF is to be consulted before any information
is released to the public/media.
c. Where ADF assets are involved in supporting a civil SAR, information on the
activities of those ADF units is not to be released to the public/media without
Defence approval. The appropriate authority to consult in Defence is the
Public Relations Officer at HQAST, MHQ, LHQ or HQAC as appropriate.
Public Relations Officers (PROs)
1.6.5 SAR Authorities usually have a designated PRO. The PRO, or the officer
nominated, should have knowledge of search and rescue and the techniques of
disseminating information to the public.
1.6.6 The authority of the PRO will be covered by organisational policies and procedures.
The commercial distribution of news is highly competitive and therefore news
releases must be impartial. Specifically, the PRO will perform the following duties:
a. receive briefings from the SMC, RCC personnel, SlTREPs, SAR log and
interviews with rescued personnel if available;
b. make proper and full use of existing news media such as press, radio,
television and wire services to disseminate information;
c. establish liaison with media sources early in the mission in order to prevent
the SMC from being flooded with requests for information as the mission
progresses;
d. keep well informed on the procedures and techniques being used in the
search and in which stage the SAR system is functioning at any particular
time; and
e. process and review for news-worthiness all photographs taken of mission
activities.
Press Releases
1.6.7 The early release of information will frequently aid in preventing time-consuming
requests from news media concerning the operation. In cases where extensive
searches are being conducted release of information to the public may bring
important leads to the SMC.
1.6.8 News releases should be written following the time-proved format of who, what,
where, when, why and how. In drafting a release all six of these items should be
covered in paragraph one. Subsequent paragraphs can provide additional detailed
information concerning one or more of these questions. By drafting releases in this
fashion the news media will be able to chop portions of the release in order to meet
their space requirements without damaging the overall story. The release of names
can be a sensitive issue and organisational policies and procedures should be
established in accordance with privacy guidelines.
1.6.9 A good news release will be well written, factual and newsworthy. It should not
contain personal opinion, judgements, elaboration, colouring or any classified
material. Asking the following questions may test news-worthiness:
Is story still timely?
Are the people involved known?
Is the story unusual?
Is locality within the range of the news media’s interest?
Does the story have general interest?
Has the story a personal or human-interest appeal to many people?
1.6.10 SAR officers shall not disclose to the media:
a. the names of any crew or other missing persons;
b. any personal judgments pertaining to any persons involved in the incident;
c. any comments on the judgment, experience or training of persons involved in
the incident;
d. degrading opinions on the conduct of the SAR operation or personalities
involved;
e. personal opinions and theories;
f. names of those associated with the search;
g. names of persons who have given information relating to the incident.
1.6.11 Nor should SAR Officers comment on behalf of other SAR Authorities or
organisations.
1.6.12 Media releases may include the following information:
a. type of aircraft, factual detail of the flight, details of the vessel
b. reason for the SAR operation, eg. aircraft/vessel overdue, report of impending
crash landing; weather situation; beacon activation
c. owner of the aircraft/vessel (subject to consent)
d. number of missing persons
e. area being searched
f. number and types of assets engaged in the search;
g. arrangements for the search;
h. details of other authorities participating in the search; and/or
i. reinforce the positive aspects relating to safety and survival.
1.6.13 As the operation progresses, releases should be made periodically to keep the
public updated on the progress that is being made. A final release should be made
when the case is concluded. This release should summarise the activities
conducted during the operation, giving full particulars on the efforts expended to
locate and rescue the distressed persons. The final release should be a complete
summary of the incident and detail:
a. the number of aircraft missions, total hours flown and use of vessels;
b. auxiliary land or marine search, if applicable;
c. the reasons for termination;
d. any other information relevant to the incident that should be made public.
Requesting Public Assistance
1.6.14 The SMC may enlist the news media to access information from the general public.
In sparsely populated areas, information from the general public may be sought
through the media, requesting members of the public to contact the RCC. An RCC
telephone number should be included as part of the release.
Liaison with Relatives
1.6.15 Information that may significantly affect the conduct of a search may be obtained
from relatives and friends of missing persons. Information relating to the personal
history and possible courses of action taken by the missing persons should be
collected by officers trained in investigation methods and competent to describe the
current and proposed search plan in a reassuring manner.
Notification of Next Of Kin
1.6.16 The SMC should be aware of the concerns of the relatives of the missing persons.
During a search, it is recommended that one staff member should maintain regular
contact with the relatives to provide information and outline plans. If appropriate,
relatives should be encouraged to visit the RCC to enable them to see the search
effort. Next of kin/relatives should be advised at an early stage of any SAR
 operation, to ensure where possible that the timing of associated media releases)
does not cause them undue concern.
1.6.17 In any event, before a search is suspended or terminated SAR management should
ensure that the next of kin are consulted as far as possible. They should be fully
briefed on the complete search effort, conditions in the search area, and the
reasons for proposing the termination of the search. Relatives are more able to
accept the SMC’s decision to suspend or conclude search operations if they are
privy to the processes.
1.6.18 Whenever foreign nationals are the subjects of a search and rescue action, the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade should be informed.
1.6.19 The ADF is the sole authority for releasing any information to next of kin of ADF
members.
Casualties
1.6.20 State SAR Authorities (Police) will be responsible for the releasing the names of
civilian casualties. The names of military casualties of a SAR Incident are only to be
released by the ADF or the appropriate national authority for visiting military units.
1.6.21 The names and addresses of survivors shall not be released until a positive check
and identification has been accomplished. Generally, survivor information should
not be released prior to the release of casualty information, although circumstances
may dictate some departure from this procedure. Survivors shall be encouraged to
contact their own families as soon as possible and all reasonable assistance
towards accomplishing this shall be provided. Controlling the dissemination of
information by survivors is difficult and requires tactful briefing. Whenever possible
the PRO should brief survivors on what information may be released. Information
on survivors who are ADF members or members of foreign military units is only to
be released by the ADF or the appropriate national military authority.
Chapter 2 - Communications
2.1 Overview
2.1.1 Distress traffic includes all messages relating to immediate assistance required by
persons, aircraft, or marine craft in distress, including medical assistance. Distress
traffic may also include SAR communications and on-scene communications.
Distress calls take absolute priority over all other transmissions; anyone receiving a
distress call must immediately cease any transmissions that may interfere with the
call and listen on the frequency used for the call.
2.1.2 Distress and safety communications require the highest possible integrity and
protection from harmful interference. Any interference that puts at risk the operation
of safety services degrades, obstructs or interrupts any radio communications, is
harmful. Some frequencies are protected, in that they have no authorised uses
other than for distress and safety. SAR personnel should be particularly careful not
to cause harmful interference, and should co-operate with authorities to report and
stop incidents of interference.
2.1.3 The object of search and rescue (SAR) communications is to make possible the
conduct of SAR operations. Communications must allow for:
a. rapid transmission of distress messages from aircraft, ships and small craft,
including for medical assistance;
b. rapid communication of distress information to the authorities responsible for
organising and effecting rescue;
c. coordination of the operation of the various SAR units; and
d. liaison between controlling/coordinating authorities and SAR units.
2.2 Distress and Emergency Signals
2.2.1 There are many signals that can be used to indicate a distress or other emergency.
2.2.2 Personnel involved in SAR operations must be familiar with the types of signals they
can expect to encounter in order to evaluate their meaning correctly and take
appropriate action.
2.2.3 These emergency signals may be made by radio, radar (e.g. transponders), flags,
pyrotechnics, flashing light, smoke, sounds, shapes and ground panels. (Appendix
E, and Appendix F list the more common signals and terminology in use.)
Marine Radio Alarm Signal
2.2.4 With the full implementation of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System
(GMDSS) in February 1999 the automatic alarm devices used on 2182 kHz are no
longer required. However, some maritime communications stations may still use
the voice alarm signal consisting of two sinusoidal audio frequency tones, one of
2200 Hz and the other of 1300 Hz, producing a distinct warbling sound to draw
attention to a distress broadcast. Merchant shipping complying with the SOLAS
Convention now guard the Digital Selective Calling (DSC) distress frequencies.
RTF Distress Signal
2.2.5 The distress signal is used to indicate that a craft or person is threatened by grave
and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance. It has precedence over
all other communications. The distress message is preceded by the word MAYDAY
spoken three times.
RTF Urgency Signal
2.2.6 The urgency signal is used to indicate that the calling station has a very urgent
message to transmit covering the safety of a ship, aircraft or person. It has
precedence over all other communications, except distress traffic. The urgency
message is preceded by the words ’PAN PAN’ spoken three times.
RTF Safety Signal
2.2.7 The safety signal indicates that the station is about to transmit a message
concerning the safety of navigation or providing an important meteorological
warning. The safety message is preceded by the word ’SECURlTE’ spoken three
times.
2.2.8 All stations hearing either the urgency or safety signals shall not make any
transmissions that might interfere with those signals.
Radiotelephony Distress/Emergency Frequencies
2.2.9 The following frequencies have been designated as distress or emergency
frequencies:
GMDSS Distress, Urgency, Safety and Calling Frequencies
Radio Telephone DSC NBDP
2182 2187.5 2174.5
4125 4207.5 4177.5
6215 6312.0 6268.0
8291 8414.5 8376.5
12 290 12 577.0 12 520.0
16 420 16 804.5 16 695.0
VHF: Ch 16 VHF: Ch 70 VHF not used

Note: None of the MF/HF DSC or NBDP frequencies are used when calling.
The AMSA HF DSC network monitors DSC in the 4 – 16 MHz bands.
2182 kHz
2.2.10 The international MF voice distress frequency primarily for ship-to-ship
communications, 2182 kHz is used for follow-on communications after an initial
DSC distress alert on 2187.5 kHz for GMDSS shipping. In Australia 2182 is
monitored by a number of Limited Coast Radio Stations operated by Volunteer
Marine Groups around the coast. The two-tone alarm may still be used on 2182
kHz to draw attention but auto alarms are no longer a part of the Radio Regulations.
4125, 6215, 8291,12290 and 16420 kHz
2.2.11 These frequencies have been authorised for common use by ships and coast
stations using the HF frequencies for single sideband radiotelephony on a simplex
basis for calling, reply and safety purposes. The frequencies quoted are the
carrier frequencies. The State and Territory Coast Radio Stations monitor the
distress and safety frequencies in the 4,6 and 8 kHz bands.
121.5 MHz
2.2.12 The international aeronautical emergency frequency for aircraft and those
aeronautical stations primarily concerned with the safety and regularity of flight and
having equipment in the 118-136 MHz VHF band.
2.2.13 Ships fitted with the capability are authorised to communicate on this frequency with
aircraft for safety purposes.
156.8 MHz (Marine VHF Channel 16)
2.2.14 The international distress, safety and calling frequency for radiotelephony stations of
the maritime mobile service, when using frequencies in the Marine VHF bands 156
to 174 MHz.
2.2.15 State and Territory limited coast radio stations, port authorities, merchant ships,
fishing craft and pleasure craft use VHF Ch 16. Merchant ships maintain a
continuous bridge listening watch on VHF channel 16 to the maximum extent
practicable when at sea although this will be reviewed by IMO in 2005.
2.2.16 156.3 MHz (Marine VHF Channel 6) is the secondary distress and safety frequency
in the VHF band and is used for coordination at the scene of an incident.
243MHz
2.2.17 243 MHZ is the international military aeronautical emergency frequency.
Safety Frequencies
156.375 MHz VHF FM RTF Marine safety: Australia only (supplementary to Channel 16 and
(Marine channel 67) used to broadcast weather and warnings from State/Territory
limited coast stations)
27.88 MHz HF (Marine) RTF 27 MHz band, pleasure craft safety frequency (in Australia)
(Channel 88)
2524 kHz MF (Marine) RTF Pleasure boat safety,
volunteer SAR organisations (in Australia)

2.3 Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

2.3.1 Ships subject to the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention are obliged to be
outfitted with certain communications equipment to participate in the Global
Maritime Distress and a Safety System (GMDSS). Fishing vessels and small craft
around Australia, if carrying compatible GMDSS equipment can also participate.
2.3.2 AMSA is responsible for the provision of shore facilities for the GMDSS and all
distress and safety traffic through the GMDSS shore infrastructure in the Australian
SRR will be handled by RCC Australia.
2.3.3 Ships operating under GMDSS requirements in the Australian SRR can be
expected to carry:
a. MF DSC;
b. VHF radiotelephone (Channels 6, 13, 16 and 67);
c. VHF DSC (Channel 70)
d. Inmarsat-C or HF DSC;
e. a SART; and
f. an EPIRB.
2.4 Emergency Signaling Devices
2.4.1 People in a craft in distress may use any possible means of alerting others to their
situation. These devices range from emergency radio beacons to mirrors.
Daylight Devices
2.4.2 Reflective mirrors, used by survivors to reflect the sun’s rays towards a SAR unit,
are an effective daylight device. Mirrors have been detected as far away as 45
miles and from as high as 10000 feet, although the average distance is about 10
miles. Fluorescent material (known as retro-reflective tape) that reflects a large
percentage of sunlight is usually sewn on one side of lifesaving craft coverings and
has been detected as far away as 5 miles with an average of 3.5 miles.
2.4.3 Fluorescent sea dye marker, which stains the water a green or red colour, has been
sighted as far away as 10 miles, with an average of 3 miles. However, sea dye is
not visible when searching up-sun because of surface glare.
2.4.4 Orange smoke generating signals have been sighted as far away as 12 miles with
an average of 8 miles. Smoke signals are most effective in calm wind conditions
and open terrain. The effectiveness of smoke signals decreases rapidly with an
increase of wind speed above 15 knots.
2.4.5 Pyrotechnic flares may be used in daylight, however their detectable range is only
about 10 per cent of the night-time range.
Night-time Devices
2.4.6 On land, fires are arguably the most effective night time signal that survivors may
use. Fires have been sighted as far as 50 miles away, with the average range
varying with the size of the fire and the absence of other light sources on the earth’s
surface.
2.4.7 Flashing strobe lights are an effective compact night signalling device available for
individual survivors. Strobe lights have been sighted as far as 20 miles away with
an average of 3.5 miles.
2.4.8 Incandescent lights that are used on some individual lifejackets have a much
smaller detectable range than strobe lights, generally about 0.5 mile.
2.4.9 Flares, star shells and rockets have been detected as far away as 35 miles, with an
average of 25 miles.
Radar/IFF/SSR
2.4.10 Besides the obvious radar target of the distressed craft itself, IFF (Identification
Friend or Foe) may be used not only to indicate distress but also to increase the
detectable range by radar.
2.4.11 The basic equipment consists of an interrogator and a transponder. The
interrogator, which is usually incorporated into air search radar systems, transmits
electronic challenges, and if any replies are received will display them on the
radarscope. The transponder, which is usually installed in aircraft, ships and boats,
is triggered into operation by the interrogator’s challenge and transmits a series of
pulses. The reply is displayed as small bars slightly beyond the radar target of the
transponder-equipped craft. Since interrogators usually use the same antenna as
the air search radar, replies are only received as the search radar beam sweeps
across the transponder-equipped craft. In addition, transponder replies will be
detected at much greater ranges than the radar return from the craft itself.
2.4.12 Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the name used to describe similar
equipment in use by Airservices Australia and civil aircraft. Military mode 3 is the
same as civil mode A and thus the systems are compatible for air traffic control and
emergency purposes. Military mode 3, code 7700 and civil mode A, code 7700
transmits an emergency signal and, unless amplified by additional information, will
be considered as a distress signal.
Radio and Distress Beacons
2.4.13 In addition to the obvious uses of standard radio for transmitting emergency signals
and messages, there are a variety of types of emergency equipment designed for
use by survivors. These include:
a. Hand held VHF transmitters found in life rafts;
b. 406 MHz distress beacons (GMDSS approved);
c. Inmarsat E (L-Band) EPIRBS (GMDSS approved);
d. 121.5 MHz distress beacons; and
e. 9 GHz SAR Transponders;
2.5 COSPAS-SARSAT Distress Beacon Detection System
Overview
2.5.1 COSPAS-SARSAT is a satellite system designed to provide distress alert and
location data to assist SAR operations, using spacecraft and ground facilities to
detect and locate the signals of distress beacons operating on 406 MHz or 121.5
MHz. The responsible Cospas-Sarsat Mission Control Centre (MCC) forwards the
position of the distress and other related information to the appropriate SAR
authorities. Its objective is to support all organisations in the world with responsibility
for SAR operations, whether at sea, in the air or on land.
2.5.2 The Cospas-Sarsat System provides distress alert and location data to RCCs for
121.5 MHz beacons within the coverage area of Cospas-Sarsat ground stations
(Local User Terminals - LUTs), and for 406 MHz beacons activated anywhere in the
world. In the Australia/New Zealand region, the Australian Mission Control Centre
(AUMCC) is located in RCC Australia and controls the three LUTs located at
Albany, Western Australia, Bundaberg, Queensland and Wellington, New Zealand.
Purpose
2.5.3 The primary purpose of this system is to detect, positively identify and provide the
positions of 406 MHz EPIRBs, ELTs and PLBs anywhere in the world. It will also
detect and provide the positions of 121.5 MHz beacons activated within LUT
coverage. Some of the SARSAT satellites are also able to detect and provide
positions of 243 MHz beacons while the COSPAS (Russian) satellites do not detect
transmissions on this frequency.
World wide system
2.5.4 The worldwide system comprises:
a. Low orbiting satellites in near polar orbits;
b. Satellites in geostationary orbit;
c. Local User Terminals (LUTs), which are ground stations that receive and
initially process the raw distress signal data relayed by a satellite;
d. Mission Control Centres (MCCs) which are responsible for the final processing
and appropriate distribution of beacon detections; and
e. Frequency stable 406 MHz beacons, each with a unique identification code
and capable of transmitting for 24 or 48 hours depending on their use.
Satellites
2.5.5 The satellite constellation is made up of search and rescue satellites in low earth
orbit (LEOSAR) and geostationary orbit (GEOSAR).
2.5.6 Each LEOSAR satellite makes a complete polar orbit of the earth in about 100 –
105 minutes. The satellite views a "swath" of the earth of approximately 4000 km
wide as it circles the globe, giving an instantaneous "field of view" about the size of
a continent. When viewed from the earth, the satellite crosses the sky in about 15
minutes, depending on the maximum elevation angle of the particular pass.
2.5.7 Satellites are not equally spaced and hence do not pass over a particular place at
regular intervals. In view of this, pass schedules are computed for each LUT every
day. On average a satellite will pass over continental Australia every 90 minutes
but, because of the irregularity of passes, there could be up to 5 hours between
passes.
2.5.8 Not all LEOSAR satellites have a global detection capability for 406 MHz beacons
and only some are able to detect transmissions on 243 MHz. 121.5 and 243 MHz
distress signals may only be passed to the MCC when the satellite views the
transmitting beacon and the receiving LUT simultaneously.
2.5.9 The current GEOSAR constellation is composed of two satellites provided by the
USA, GOES 8 and GOES 10, and one satellite provided by India (INSAT-2B).
These satellites provide continuous global coverage for 406 MHz beacons with the
exception of the Polar Regions. To take full advantage of the real-time alerting
capability the beacon must be designed to transmit, in its distress message, position
data derived from a satellite navigation system such as GPS.
2.5.10 GOES-10 covers Australia’s area of interest in the Pacific while INSAT-2B
spasmodically provides coverage over the Indian Ocean region as far as the east
coast of Australia. Continental Australia is on the edge of coverage for the GOES-
10 satellite and detection of 406 MHz beacons on land depends very much on the
terrain and how the beacon is positioned.
Beacon detection
2.5.11 With the exception of the GEOSAR, the position of a distress beacon is calculated
by using Doppler shift, which is caused by the relative movement between a satellite
and a beacon. As a satellite approaches a beacon there is an apparent rise in the
beacon frequency and as the satellite moves away the frequency appears to fall.
When a satellite is at its closest point to a beacon the received frequency is the
same as the transmitted frequency (the point of inflection) and provides the “Time of
Closest Approach” (TCA).
2.5.12 This method of calculation produces two possible positions for each beacon
(labelled A and B), either side of the satellite’s ground track; one is the true position
and the other is its mirror image. The ambiguity is due to the equipment only being
able to determine the distance between a satellite and a beacon and not the
direction. Position ambiguity is subsequently resolved by using:
a. Data obtained by the same LUT from the next satellite pass which “sees” the
beacon or
b. Data from another satellite pass observed by a different LUT.
Beacons
2.5.13 There are three types of Cospas-Sarsat distress beacons:
a. Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT) used by aviators;
b. Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB) used by mariners; and
c. Personal Locator Beacons (PLB) used on land.
2.5.14 Aviators and mariners often carry PLBs as personal back up devices to ELTs and
EPIRBs.
2.5.15 Because 406 MHz beacons transmit an extremely stable frequency, positions
calculated by the LUT usually fall within a radius of 5km from the actual beacon
position. On the other hand, 121.5/243 MHz beacons do not have the same
frequency stability that results in less accuracy with positions within a 20 km radius.
All 406 MHz beacons sold in the Australian region are required to transmit on 121.5
MHz to facilitate homing.
2.5.16 406 MHz beacons use digital technology that allows an identifier to be sent when
the beacon is activated. This identifier correlates to a registration database held at
the MCC and allows additional information to be gained about the target. 406 MHz
beacons should be coded with a country code and registered in the country that
maintains the database for that country code. It is therefore important that all
Australian 406 MHz beacons are registered with RCC Australia.
2.5.17 If an Australian beacon is detected overseas, the overseas SAR authority may
contact the RCC for appropriate details. Similarly, if a foreign-registered 406 MHz
beacon is detected in the Australian SAR area, the Australian RCC contacts the
appropriate overseas registration authority to obtain further relevant SAR data.
2.5.18 Satellite processing of 121.5 MHz alerts will cease from 1 February 2009.
2.6 Inmarsat-E (L-Band) EPIRB
Overview
2.6.1 The INMARSAT-E EPIRB is an approved alternative to the 406 MHz beacon for
carriage by merchant ships, in compliance with the Global Maritime Distress and
Safety System (GMDSS).
2.6.2 These beacons are designed for detection by the International Maritime Satellite
Organisation’s (INMARSAT) geostationary satellites. These satellites are located
over the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and cover the world except for the high
Polar Regions. The beacons transmit on l.6 GHz in the L-Band. Because
geostationary satellites are used, beacon position information cannot be obtained by
the measurement of movement (Doppler effect), as is the case with the COSPAS-
SARSAT system. Instead the position information must be loaded into the beacon
in one of three ways:
a. By a GPS system actually built into the L-Band EPIRB;
b. Fed in automatically by the craft’s navigation system; or
c. Manual input.
2.6.3 At present vessels operating in the European area have mainly purchased the
Inmarsat-E EPIRB. The EPIRB is designed to be manually released or automatically
launched and activated; but it must also be capable of being carried by one person
into a survival craft.
2.6.4 This beacon is coloured high-visibility yellow or orange, has retro reflective tape, is
equipped with a flashing light (48 hour battery life) and is designed to remain afloat
in heavy seas. It transmits a distress alert that contains the vessel identity, position
and additional information such as the nature of the distress.
2.6.5 If the beacon has the position information fed in automatically by the ship’s
navigation system, then the position information will be correct only at the moment
of launch. In this case the distress alert is transmitted 120 times over a ten-minute
period; to ensure reception this is repeated three more times over the next 4 hours,
giving a total transmit duration of 40 minutes.
2.6.6 This beacon must have a built-in SAR Transponder (SART) for final homing, (see
next section). If the beacon has an in-built GPS receiver, it will transmit the distress
alert 120 times during the first ten minutes and then will transmit a message with the
updated position every 4 hours for a further 48 hours. This beacon is not required
to have a SART for final homing, but may have one fitted.
2.6.7 To ensure the integrity of the system, each ocean region will be monitored by at
least two Land Earth Stations (LES). These Land Earth Stations require special
equipment to monitor L-Band EPIRBS and Perth LES is one of the stations
providing coverage of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Alerts are passed directly to
RCC Australia, the designated Inmarsat-E RCC for our region.
2.7 Radar SAR Transponder (SART)
Overview
2.7.1 Satellites can detect and provide the positions of the latest distress beacons to an
accuracy of a few miles/kilometres. Though this is extremely good, in poor visibility
it may not be sufficient to permit a searching craft to quickly locate survivors. To
overcome this problem, a SAR transponder (SART) has been developed which will
respond to the normal 3cm X-band (9GHz) radar fitted to merchant ships. It will
NOT respond to l0cm S-band (3GHz) radar. It is a short-range homing device,
which enables ships and other suitably equipped craft to home on the source of the
signal.
2.7.2 The SART can be either a stand-alone item of equipment or built into an EPIRB.
When within radar range, the SART will respond to 3cm radar pulses by painting a
line of blips extending outwards from the SART’s position along its line of bearing on
the radar screen. When within about 1 mile of the SART, the blips may change to
wide arcs or even complete circles thus giving an indication of the close proximity of
the SART, but masking its bearing. Decreasing the GAIN on the search craft’s
radar should restore the blips to view.
2.7.3 Since the radar detection range depends primarily upon the height of the radar
scanner and the height of the beacon, it is probably not realistic to expect a
detection range of much more than 30 miles for an aircraft flying at 3000 ft equipped
with 3cm (9GHz) radar and about 10 miles for a ship’s radar and a few miles for a
motor launch. However, bearing in mind that it is a short-range homing device, this
should be adequate for final location.
2.7.4 Tests have shown that the operation of a SART inside the canopy of a liferaft will
significantly decrease its detection range, so every effort should be made to operate
it from outside the canopy and as high as possible. Battery life in the ”standby”
mode is 96 hours and about 8 hours during radar interrogation.
2.8 Communications in support of SAR operations
Overview
2.8.1 The SMC is responsible for designating specific frequencies for on-scene use
during SAR operations, and for establishing reliable communications with adjacent
operations centres. When appointed, the Coordinator Surface Search (CSS) or the
On Scene Commander (OSC) is responsible for establishing reliable
communications between all participating search units and the RCC.
2.8.2 The SMC is responsible for informing all SAR participants of the specific
frequencies selected for an operation. The SMC should designate a primary and
secondary frequency in the appropriate frequency bands (HF, VHF and UHF) for
use as on-scene channels.
SAR Frequencies
2.8.3 The following frequencies have been authorised for use in SAR operations:
a. 2182, 3023, 4125, 5680 kHz. These frequencies may be used for
communications between mobile stations when employed in coordinated
search and rescue operations, including communications between these
stations and participating land stations.
b. 123.1 MHz. The international SAR on-scene frequency for use in coordinated
SAR operations. Ships with this capability are authorised to communicate on
this frequency with aircraft for safety purposes.
c. 123.2 MHz. For supplementary continental use in on-scene coordination
within the Australian SRR
d. 282.8 MHz. Used by military ships and aircraft for communications during
coordinated SAR operations.
2.8.4 The aeronautical mobile service uses amplitude modulation (AM) for VHF telephony
while the maritime mobile service uses frequency modulation (FM). These services
are incompatible.
SAR Call Signs
2.8.5 While it was traditional for aircraft to only use ‘RESCUE’ callsigns when engaged on
actual SAR operations, the growth of the Emergency Medical Service sector has
seen callsigns prefixed with ‘RESCUE’ being used on a day-to day basis. The
authority for the use of ‘RESCUE’ callsigns rests with Airservices Australia, which
has accepted this practice. The callsigns being used are either in the Army aircraft
block or the civil aircraft block (see below). The only organisation routinely using
‘RESCUE’ callsigns for SAR tasks is the RAAF. The RAAF has sub-divided its
block and allocated specific callsigns to various bases.
2.8.6 With the exception of the RAAF, the normal practice is for aircraft engaged in SAR
operations to continue to use their existing civil or military callsign. In exceptional
circumstances, search aircraft may be allocated a ’RESCUE’ callsign followed by a
three-digit number that is drawn from the following bands:
Army Aircraft - 001-100
RAAF aircraft - 101-310
Civil aircraft - 311-799
Naval aircraft - 800-930
Foreign aircraft - 931-999
2.8.7 If allocation of call signs for surface units is required, the following may be used:
Marine craft: ’SAR LAUNCH … (number)’.
Land units: ’LAND RESCUE ... (number)’.
2.8.8 Ships of the Australian Defence Force will use their names as call signs when
employed on SAR operations.
2.9 Communications Facilities
Overview
2.9.1 There are many communication facilities available for use in SAR operations. It is
important that personnel employed in SAR learn what facilities and services are
available at their specific location and throughout their area of operations. Some of
the more extensive and readily available facilities are:
 a. The AMSA HF DSC network operating two maritime communications stations
(Wiluna and Charleville). The network Coordination Centre is collocated with
RCC Australia that allows direct communications between RCC Australia and
SAR units on scene when working HF frequencies.
b. The State and Territory authorities have in place a network of nine limited
coast radio stations around Australia monitoring 4,6 and 8 MHz distress
frequencies in the HF voice band (see Para 2.6.5). These authorities also
operate VHF sites covering channel 16 and 67.
c. Each State/Territory has an extensive volunteer marine radio network. Many
of these stations do not operate 24 hours but do operate in the 27 MHz, VHF
and MF bands.
d. Discon - this is an extensive secure network linking all Defence authorities. It
interfaces with the Naval Broadcast System for ships at sea and the RAAF
ground-to-air communication system.
e. Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunications Network (AFTN) - an international
teleprinter network based on lCAO requirements for air navigation services,
including SAR. Details of the network can be found in the communications
section of the various lCAO Regional Air Navigation Plans. The AFTN in
Australia is operated by Airservices Australia.
f. Satellite communications offering voice, fax and data.
g. Mobile phone and fax communications.

Communications Capabilities Australian Defence Force Ships and Aircraft

2.9.2 Ships and aircraft of the Australian Defence Force are fitted with communications
equipment which allows for coverage of many of the emergency and SAR
frequencies. Table 2.1 shows the communications capabilities of ships of the
defence force by type.
Frequency Band Unit/Type 2 to 30 MHz 118 to 136 MHz 156 to 174 MHz 225 to 400 MHz
Frigates and larger ships X (1) X

Small ships and submarines X (1) X

Notes:
(1) Frequency coverage in this band depends on the type of equipment
fitted. However, all ships can monitor 156.8 MHz FM.
2.9.3 The RAN is in the process of equipping its warships with a full suite of GMDSS
communications comprising Inmarsat C and VHF/HF DSC. Military units are
generally fitted with 406 MHz distress beacons.
International Distress Frequencies - Guarded by Royal Australian Naval Ships
2.9.4 A distress watch is maintained as follows by naval ships at sea:
Major warships HF/VHF DSC, Listening watch will be maintained on
(Frigates and above) VHF Channel 16 Channel 16 until further notice.

Minor warships Vhf Channel 16 Continuous loudspeaker watch.

(Patrol boats and minehunters)

Lines of Communications - NAVY

2.9.5 When a SAR operation is in progress and RAN resources are allocated, the RCC
would normally liaise with Maritime Headquarters (MHQ). However, in some
 situations, MHQ may authorise the RCC to communicate directly (DIRLAUTH) with
the RAN resource involved. HQAST and the appropriate involved units are to be
included as information addressees on all relevant signal traffic.
Search and Rescue Visual Signals
2.9.6 Appendix E lists some of the international visual signals that can be used for Search
and Rescue purposes. The appendix also contains other visual signals that maybe
used by ships or aircraft of other nations when in the Australian SRR.
Merchant Shipping and GMDSS
2.9.7 Communications between merchant vessels in distress and SAR organisations are
achieved by a satellite and radio watch system known as the Global Maritime
Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). The GMDSS enables a distress alert to be
transmitted and received automatically over short and long distances. The system
allows SAR authorities as well as shipping in the vicinity of the distress to be rapidly
alerted so that a coordinated search and rescue operation can be commenced with
the minimum of delay.
2.9.8 Additionally the GMDSS provides for urgency and safety communications, and the
dissemination of Maritime Safety Information (MSI). Certain fishing vessels and
other marine craft may also carry GMDSS equipment. RCC personnel may seek
advice from RCC Australia staff who are familiar with the SOLAS GMDSS
provisions and associated IMO documents. GMDSS equipped vessels can be
expected to perform the following functions wherever they operate:
a. Transmit ship-to-shore distress alerts by two independent means
b. Receive shore-to-ship alerts (usually relayed by International RCCs)
c. Transmit and receive
i. Ship-to-shore alerts
ii. SAR coordinating communications
iii. On-scene communications
iv. Locating signals
v. Maritime safety information
vi. General radio communications to and from shore
vii. Bridge to bridge communications
Limited Coast Radio Stations
2.9.9 In Australia, Limited Coast Radio Stations (LCRS) are located in nine locations:
Sydney, Gladstone, Cairns, Darwin, Port Hedland, Fremantle, Adelaide, Melbourne
and Hobart and maintain a continuous radio watch by monitoring the following
distress frequencies:
a. 4125, 6215, and 8291 kHz with 8176 kHz used to broadcast weather and
warnings at regular times.
b. 156.8 MHz (VHF CH16). Channel 16 is monitored in various other locations in
each State/Territory
c. Channel 67 is used to broadcast weather and warnings.
2.9.10 The State/Territory LCRS use the common call sign of “Coast Radio” preceded by
the site. For example: Hedland Coast Radio or Hobart Coast Radio.
2.9.11 In addition to the State/Territory LCRS, the SAR net is extended by Limited Coast
Stations operated by fishing cooperatives and volunteer SAR organisations. Each
Limited station caters for a group or groups of marine craft in its local area.
Depending on the capability of its equipment, a Limited station may monitor
2182/2524 kHz, VHF CH16 and 27.88 MHz for pleasure craft, and
2182/2112/4535/4620 kHz and VHF CH16 for fishing craft.
Ship Stations
2.9.12 There are three distinct categories of vessels to be catered for by the marine SAR
system; these are:
 a. Deep sea vessels (SOLAS)
b. Fishing vessels and
c. Pleasure craft.
2.9.13 Most deep-sea vessels will carry communications equipment compatible with the
GMDSS. Other vessels, most of which use satellite communications, may extend
this coverage. A continuous bridge listening watch is kept on VHF Ch16, as far as
is practicable
Fishing Vessels
2.9.14 Some fishing vessels will carry GMDSS equipment, however the majority of fishing
vessels carry a variety of radio equipment and do not maintain regular watches.
Frequencies allocated to fishing vessels are normally not compatible with large
ships.
2.9.15 Some fishing vessel operators are members of cooperatives and their normal
procedure whilst fishing is to maintain daily radio schedules with the cooperative
base station.
2.9.16 AFMA and some State Fisheries Authorities use Vessel Monitoring Systems utilising
Inmarsat-C polling to track fishing vessels in their fisheries for regulatory reasons.
These authorities may be able to assist an RCC in contacting or locating fishing
vessels.
Pleasure Craft
2.9.17 These craft are under state control and hence the regulations concerning the
carriage of radio and other SAR equipment vary from state to state, and within the
state, depending upon the type and size of craft and its area of operations.
2.9.18 There is a general acceptance by the boating community of the need to carry some
type of radio and the 27 MHz marine radio is most popular. 27.88 MHz has been
designated as the primary distress, safety and calling frequency, with 27.86 MHz as
the secondary.
2.9.19 These frequencies are often referred to as channels 88 and 86 respectively and
care must be taken not to confuse them with the VHF Marine FM frequencies that
are always referred to as channels. VHF Marine FM radio is increasingly being
used by pleasure craft.
Volunteer Organisations
2.9.20 Clubs and other interested groups have set up base radio stations, mainly in
popular sea recreational areas around Australia. Each station is normally staffed on
an ”as required” or “considered necessary” basis. Some offer continuous coverage,
but most offer only casual coverage. Tasmania has established the Seaguard
system to cater for fishing vessels and pleasure craft.
2.9.21 The majority of voluntary organisations equipped with HF SSB equipment are
capable of responding to calls on the 2 MHz, 4MHz and 6 MHz marine bands. 2182
kHz is normally monitored continuously as the internationally recognised primary
Distress frequency on HF. However, 2524 kHz as the calling and working
frequency for shore stations and pleasure craft, is still traditionally preferred and
monitored by many operators since in the past informal communications on this
frequency were not subject to operational controls by the ACA.
2.9.22 In addition to HF, the use of VHF Maritime Mobile FM (156-174 MHz) service
equipment and 27MHz Inshore Boating Radio Communication service equipment is
gaining popularity with small craft owners. The recognised Distress/Emergency
frequencies respectively are VHF Ch 16 and 27 MHZ Channel 88.
2.9.23 The use of the 27MHz band is uncontrolled and not guarded on an official basis.
Communication Capabilities of State & Territory SAR Authorities
2.9.24 State SAR authorities maintain extensive communications networks both interstate
and intrastate. Arrangements for the use of these communications facilities are in
accordance with Commonwealth-State SAR plans.
Command/Communications Caravans
2.9.25 There are a number of Police and emergency services communications caravans
around Australia and these are equipped to utilise available communications
facilities and may be deployed to a Forward Command Post.
Marine
2.9.26 Each State/Territory SAR authority maintains radio-equipped vessels with in-shore
SAR capabilities.
Air Wings
2.9.27 States and Territories have air units with appropriate communications equipment.
Communications Aircraft
2.9.28 A dedicated communications aircraft should be used when communications are
expected to be poor in the search area and:
a. HF is the only means of communication;
b. It is a large scale search;
c. It is necessary to improve information feedback into the RCC;
d. It is necessary to improve information flow to SAR units;
e. Search aircraft are operating without contact with a ground station; or
f. It is the best method of maintaining communications with survivors/ground
search units and ground rescue units.
2.9.29 A communications aircraft will normally be a suitably equipped SAR Unit aircraft or a
Military aircraft, have a minimum crew of pilot and radio operator, and have good on
scene endurance.
Inmarsat Aero
2.9.30 Subscribers to the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME SATELLITE (INMARSAT)
Aeronautical System may make telephone and facsimile calls while airborne by way
of this system. Similarly, terrestrial subscribers may initiate communication with
airborne aircraft fitted with INMARSAT aeronautical satellite communication
(SATCOM) equipment.
2.9.31 Not all countries have arrangements to route ground originated calls to the
INMARSAT Aeronautical System.
2.9.32 The INMARSAT Aeronautical System offers a capability for communication of
distress calls from airborne aircraft via a Land Earth Station (LES) to nominated
SAR centres. The Perth LES provides ground-to-air and air-to-ground voice and
data facilities for aircraft operations throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is
conceivable that the Perth LES could receive distress calls originating from two
thirds of the globe.
2.9.33 Perth LES has a standing procedure to relay all distress calls received via this
system to the Australian RCC. Voice calls are directed automatically to the
designated RCC telephone number, an alarm will be generated indicating a distress
call is being processed and a hard copy print out will be produced detailing a LES-
specific aircraft identification. LES staff will contact the RCC as a matter of urgency
to ensure SAR staff have received the message. If required, the LES staff can
access station files to determine the aircraft registration from the LES-specific
identification provided in the original message. The RCC will then be enabled to
begin checks to ascertain the status of the aircraft. The RCC will only consider a
distress situation exists after voice contact with the subject aircraft has been
established and the situation evaluated.
2.9.34 No international agreements for coordinated handling of distress calls outside
Australian airspace are yet in place. However, in keeping with fundamental RCC
procedures, the RCC when made aware of an aircraft in distress through this
system shall initiate action to confirm the circumstances and location of the aircraft.
Then render all possible assistance and work to establish those ground units best
placed to provide an on-going SAR service. Checks should be made through ATS
units and RCCs with responsibilities in airspace in which the distressed aircraft is
thought to be operating.
Chapter 3 - Awareness and Initial Action
3.1 Awareness and Notification
Introduction
3.1.1 When the SAR system first becomes aware of an actual or potential emergency, the
information collected and the initial action taken are often critical to successful SAR
operations. It must be assumed that in each incident there are survivors who will
need assistance and whose chances of survival are reduced by the passage of
time. The success of a SAR operation depends on the speed with which the
operation is planned and carried out. Information must be gathered and evaluated
to determine the nature of the distress, the appropriate emergency phase, and what
action should be taken. Prompt receipt of all available information by the RCC is
necessary for thorough evaluation, immediate decision on the best course of action
and a timely activation of SAR assets to make it possible to:
a. locate, support and rescue persons in distress in the shortest possible time;
and
b. use any contribution survivors may still be able to make towards their own
rescue while they are still capable of doing so.
3.1.2 Experience has shown that the chances for survival of injured persons decrease by
as much as 80% during the first 24 hours, and those for uninjured persons diminish
rapidly after the first three days. Following an accident, even uninjured persons who
are apparently able-bodied and capable of rational thought are often unable to
accomplish simple tasks and are known to have hindered, delayed or even
prevented their own rescue.
3.2 SAR Stages
3.2.1 The response to a SAR incident usually proceeds through a sequence of five
stages. These stages are groups of activities typically performed by the SAR
system in responding to a SAR incident from the time the system becomes aware of
the incident until its response to the incident is concluded. The response to a
particular SAR incident may not require the performance of every stage. For some
incidents, the activities of one stage may overlap the activities of another stage such
that the portions of two or more stages are being performed simultaneously. The
five SAR stages are:
a. Awareness. Knowledge by any person or agency in the SAR system that an
emergency situation exists or may exist.
b. Initial Action. Preliminary action taken to alert SAR assets and obtain more
information. The stage may include evaluation and classification of the
information, alerting of SAR assets, communication checks and, in urgent
situations, immediate performance of appropriate activities from other stages.
c. Planning. The development of operational plans including plans for search,
rescue and final delivery of survivors to medical facilities or other places of
safety as appropriate.
d. Operations. Dispatching SAR assets to the scene, conducting searches,
rescuing survivors, assisting distressed craft, providing necessary emergency
care for survivors and delivering casualties to medical facilities.
e. Conclusion. Return of SRUs to a location where they are debriefed, refuelled,
replenished and prepared for other missions, return of SAR assets to their
normal activities and completion of all required documentation.
3.3 SAR Incidents
3.3.1 There are many different types of incidents reported to the SAR system that must
be evaluated and resolved. Most of these incidents may be grouped by the type of
craft involved, the environment, and in the case of individuals, by the type of
difficulty being encountered.
3.3.2 In general a SAR incident is considered imminent or actual when it is apparent that
persons are, or may be, in distress or when a request for assistance has been
received.
Maritime SAR Incident
3.3.3 A maritime SAR incident is considered imminent or actual when any of the following
conditions exist:
a. a surface vessel or craft has requested assistance;
b. a surface vessel or craft has transmitted a distress signal;
c. It is apparent that a surface vessel or craft is in distress;
d. a surface vessel or craft is reported to be sinking or to have sunk;
e. the crew is reported to have abandoned ship or is about to do so;
f. reports indicate that the operating efficiency of the craft is so impaired that the
craft may sink or the crew may be forced to abandon;
g. the surface vessel or craft is overdue or unreported;
h. persons are in the water and require assistance;
i. an EPIRB has been activated; or
j. a Medevac is required on medical advice.
Aviation SAR Incident
3.3.4 SAR alerting action is based upon the type of notification and flight procedures
adopted by an aircraft, ie:
a. aircraft that comply with full reporting procedures where a continuous
communications SAR watch is maintained;
b. aircraft that have nominated a SARTlME where alerting action commences at
the time of expiration of the SARTIME;
c. aircraft that have not submitted flight notification where alerting action is
commenced on the receipt of incidental information from any source which
leads to doubt as to the aircraft’s safety. This includes notification from a
person or organisation holding a Flight Note.
3.3.5 An aircraft SAR incident is considered imminent or actual when:
a. a SARTIME for an aircraft has not been cancelled;
b. an aircraft fails to report arrival or if it has failed to report position, when ATS
declare an ALERFA;
c. information is received that an aircraft on which no flight notification has been
lodged is missing, including notification from a person or organisation holding
a Flight Note;
d. an aircraft, which has been given approach or landing instructions, fails to
land;
e. fuel on board is considered to be exhausted or to be insufficient to enable an
aircraft to reach safety;
f. information is received which indicates that an aircraft is about to make or has
made a forced landing, or has ditched or crashed;
g. Information is received which indicates that the operating efficiency of an
aircraft has been impaired to the extent that a forced landing is likely; or
h. An ELT is reported to be radiating.
Land SAR Incident
3.3.6 A land SAR incident is considered imminent or actual when:
a. a request for assistance is received;
b. a vehicle or person is reported overdue;
c. it is apparent that a vehicle or person is in distress;
d. a PLB has been activated; and/or
 e. a MEDEVAC is required.
3.3.7 The official reference document for Land SAR operations is the EMA sponsored
Land Search Operations Manual.
3.4 Emergency Phases
3.4.1 Emergency phases are based on the level of concern for the safety of persons,
vessels or aircraft. Upon initial notification the notified SAR authority or ATS unit
classifies the SAR incident as being in one of the three emergency phases:
a. Uncertainty Phase (INCERFA);
b. Alert Phase (ALERFA); or
c. Distress Phase (DETRESFA).
3.4.2 The emergency phase may be reclassified by the SMC as the situation develops.
The current emergency phase should be used in all communications about the SAR
incident as a means of informing all interested parties of the current level of concern
for the safety of persons or craft which may be in need of assistance.
3.4.3 Maritime search and rescue in Australia is based on the GMDSS and although there
are three forms of messages from a ship to the SAR authority, there is no mention
of emergency phases in GMDSS documentation or IAMSAR Volume 3, the SAR
manual carried by ships. However emergency phases are referred to in IAMSAR
Volume 1 and 2 and SAR officers do escalate incidents as information is received
that indicates a heightened level of concern for the safety of a vessel or aircraft.
Therefore emergency phases can be used internally among maritime SAR
authorities to describe criteria for escalating a SAR action. An uncertainty phase
relates to a safety broadcast, the alert phase to an urgency broadcast and a distress
phase to the distress broadcast.
Uncertainty Phase
3.4.4 The uncertainty phase is assigned any time doubt exists as to the safety of a craft or
person because of knowledge of possible difficulties, or because of lack of
information concerning progress or position. The keyword is DOUBT.
3.4.5 An Uncertainty Phase is said to exist when there is knowledge of a situation that
may need to be monitored, or to have more information gathered, but that does not
require dispatching of resources. When there is doubt about the safety of an
aircraft, ship, other craft or persons, the situation should be investigated and
information gathered. For aircraft, an Uncertainty Phase is declared when:
a. no communication has been received from an aircraft within a period of fifteen
(15) minutes after the time a communication should have been received, or
from the time an unsuccessful attempt to establish communication with such
aircraft was first made, whichever is the earlier; or
b. an aircraft fails to report departure from a Mandatory Broadcast Zone (MBZ)
or non-standard Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) area after a call
notifying readiness to taxi or take-off or after an airborne call from within a
MBZ or CTAF area, within five (5) minutes after estimate for the boundary; or
c. an aircraft fails to arrive within fifteen (15) minutes of the last estimated time of
arrival last notified to or estimated by ATS units, whichever is the later, except
when no doubt exists as to the safety of the aircraft and its occupants.
3.4.6 For ships or other craft or missing persons, an Uncertainty Phase is declared where
the craft or persons have:
a. been reported overdue at the intended destination;
b. failed to make an expected position safety report; or
c. there has been no immediate request for assistance received but the
possibility exists that a situation could escalate
Alert Phase
3.4.7 The alert phase is assigned any time apprehension exists for the safety of a craft or
person because of definite information that serious difficulty exists which does not
 amount to a distress or because of a continued lack of information concerning
progress or position. The key word is APPREHENSION.
3.4.8 An Alert Phase exists when an aircraft, ship or other craft, or persons are having
some difficulty and may need assistance, but are not in immediate danger.
Apprehension is usually associated with the Alert Phase, but there is no known
threat requiring immediate action. SRUs may be dispatched or other SAR assets
diverted to provide assistance if it is believed that conditions might worsen or that
SAR assets might not be available or able to provide assistance if conditions did
worsen at a later time. For overdue craft, the Alert Phase is considered when there
is a continued lack of information concerning the progress or position of a craft.
SAR resources should begin or continue communications searches, and the
dispatch of SRUs to investigate high-probability location or overfly the craft’s
intended route should be considered. Vessels and aircraft passing through areas
where the concerned craft might be located should be asked to maintain a sharp
lookout, report all sightings and render assistance if needed. An Alert Phase is
declared when:
a. following the Uncertainty Phase, subsequent attempts to establish
communication with the aircraft, ship or craft or missing persons have failed or
inquiries to other relevant sources have failed to reveal any news;
b. an aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within five minutes of the
estimated time of landing and communication has not been re-established
with the aircraft;
c. information has been received which indicates that the operating efficiency of
the aircraft, ship or other craft has been impaired but no to the extent that a
forced landing or distress situation is likely, except when evidence exists that
would allay apprehension as to the safety of that craft and its occupants;
d. an aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference; or
Distress Phase
3.4.9 The distress phase is assigned whenever immediate assistance is required by a
craft of person threatened by grave or imminent danger or because of continued
lack or information concerning progress or position. The key words are GRAVE OR
IMMINENT DANGER and IMMEDIATE ASSISTANCE.
3.4.10 The Distress Phase exists when there is reasonable certainty that an aircraft, ship
or craft of persons are in imminent danger and require immediate assistance. For
overdue craft, a distress exists when communications searches and other forms of
investigation have not succeeded in locating the craft or revising its ETA so that it is
no longer considered overdue. If there is sufficient concern for the safety of a craft
and the persons aboard to justify search operations, the incident should be
classified as being in the Distress Phase. For aircraft, a Distress Phase is declared
when:
a. following the Alert Phase, the further unsuccessful attempts to establish
communication with the aircraft and more widespread unsuccessful inquiries
point to the probability that the aircraft is in distress;
b. the fuel on board is considered to be exhausted, or to be insufficient to enable
the aircraft to reach safety;
c. information is received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the
aircraft has been impaired to the extent that a forced landing is likely;
d. information is received or it is reasonably certain that the aircraft is about to
make or has made a forced landing, except when there is reasonable certainty
that the aircraft and its occupants do not require immediate assistance;
e. a downed aircraft is inadvertently located as the result of a sighting or of
homing on a beacon transmission; or
f. a vessel is under attack or threat of attack from pirates.
3.4.11 For ships or other craft, a Distress Phase is declared when:
 a. positive information is received that a ship or other craft or persons are in
danger and need immediate assistance; or
b. information is received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the ship
or other craft has been impaired to the extent that a distress situation is likely.
3.5 Awareness Stage
3.5.1 When a SAR authority becomes aware of a possible SAR incident the SAR system
is activated. The information is assessed and coordination is assumed or passed to
the appropriate SAR authority for coordination.
3.5.2 Members of the public are encouraged to report any abnormal occurrence they
have witnessed or heard about. Notification of an event may reach the RCC from
any source including a member of the public, an ATS Unit or through a designated
alerting post such as a police station.
3.5.3 For almost all emergency situations, action can be started as soon as the nature
and general position of the emergency is known. Additional information, which
might be helpful to the resolution of the incident, should be obtained after the initial
action has been taken. Communications should be maintained with a craft or
person reporting an emergency situation and they should be kept advised of the
action being taken.
Evaluation of Reports
3.5.4 All reports relating to a SAR operation must be carefully evaluated to determine
their validity, the urgency for action and the extent of the response.
3.5.5 While evaluation of reports might be difficult and time-consuming, decisions must be
made and action taken as quickly as possible. If confirmation of uncertain
information cannot be obtained without undue delay, the RCC should act on a
doubtful message rather than wait for verification.
3.5.6 The evaluation of reports on overdue or missing craft/persons should take account
of:
a. Communication delays: In some areas of the SRR, communication delays
may prevent timely reporting. This should be kept in mind when evaluating
the significance of a report in order to prevent unnecessary activation of the
SAR system while ensuring that the SAR response is appropriate should the
circumstance be real;
b. Weather conditions: Adverse weather may contribute to communication
delays or deviations from flight plan; and
c. Habits of the individual: Some individuals, including pilots, masters and hikers
are known to react or may have been briefed to react in a certain manner in
certain circumstances. Knowledge of these habits/company procedures may
provide guidance in the evaluation of an incident and the subsequent planning
and execution of search operations.
Distress Alerts
3.5.7 Distress alerts may be received by the RCC from various sources, eg:
a. aural reception of a distress beacon by an aircraft;
b. detection by the Cospas – Sarsat satellite system;
c. receipt through Airservices Australia;
d. receipt by the Inmarsat system, aeronautical or maritime;
e. receipt through a coast radio station;
f. receipt through other alerting systems, eg ARGOS;
g. direct communications from the public or the distressed craft; or
h. another RCC or SAR authority.
Notification by Airservices Australia
3.5.8 For aircraft communicating with Airservices Australia, the ATS unit responsible will
declare the appropriate phase and transfer the phase to AusSAR in accordance
with the agreed Memorandum Of Understanding (MOU).
3.5.9 AusSAR receives notification of aircraft emergencies through ATS units in most
instances as they are in receipt of information on most flights within their areas of
responsibility and are periodically in contact with the aircraft. Each ATS unit has a
responsibility to provide an alerting service to all flights known to it.
3.5.10 Air traffic controllers are responsible for providing in-flight-emergency response
(IFER) to distressed aircraft with which they are in contact. Alerting procedures for
emergency facilities requested by a pilot are an Airservices Australia responsibility.
RCC Australia will be alerted to problems affecting a flight that could seriously
jeopardize its safety while en-route through Airservices Australia
SAR Incident Information
3.5.11 The following information, or as much of it as is required to address an emergency
situation, should be obtained from the craft or the individual reporting the actual or
potential emergency situation or incident. As many of the items should be obtained
as circumstances permit.
Air, Marine or Land Incident information
a. name, address, and telephone number or contact point of person reporting;
b. distressed craft (name/type/callsign/registration) or identification;
c. position of emergency (latitude/longitude or bearing/distance) from a known
point or the last reported position and the next reporting position);
d. nature of emergency (fire, collision, person overboard, disabled, overdue,
crash or missing hiker etc.);
e. date/time of emergency occurrence;
f. date/time of notification;
g. for aircraft, altitude, attitude, heading, speed and endurance;
h. craft description (size, type, markings, hull, colour of cabin, deck, rigging,
fuselage colour, tail colour, wingtip colour, unusual features);
i. details of persons on board, persons involved (POB) including number of
people involved, ages, state of health, injuries, intentions;
j. date, time and departure point, planned route, speed, ETA and destination;
k. radio frequencies currently in use, monitored or scheduled;
l. emergency radio equipment and frequencies, EPIRB, ELT, or flares;
m. actual weather/sea conditions;
n. local action being taken or assistance required;
o. owner/agent of distressed craft and contact method;
p. possible route deviations;
q. navigation capabilities;
r. survival equipment including quantity of food/water and signalling devices;
s. other information sources, e.g. friends, relatives, associates, yacht clubs, and
aero clubs;
t. mobile phone numbers of any person.
Person Overboard Incident Information
a. name and callsign of ship with man overboard;
b. position, course and speed of the ship;
c. date, time and position when the person went overboard;
d. if time of person overboard unknown, when last seen;
e. weather conditions (include water temperature);
 f. person’s name, age and gender;
g. person’s height and weight to determine survivability;
h. person’s physical/mental condition and swimming ability;
i. person’s clothing (amount and colour);
j. height of fall from ship to water;
k. lifejacket (worn, missing);
l. has the ship been completely searched;
m. will the ship search for the person overboard and, if so, for how long;
n. radio frequencies in use, monitored or scheduled;
o. whether an urgency broadcast is requested;
p. assistance desired;
q. assistance being received;
r. initial reporter (parent agency, radio station, name/callsign of ship);
s. other pertinent information.
3.5.12 After evaluating all available information in every case, the RCC should declare the
appropriate emergency phase (if not already declared), or review phase as
appropriate.
Notification to States of Foreign Persons in Distress
3.5.13 If a foreign registered aircraft is subject to a Distress Phase, that is found not to be a
false alarm or is involved in an accident or a foreign national is killed or injured in a
SAR related incident, the relevant foreign State is to be notified through the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT). SMC advice should be directed
to the DFAT Communications Duty Officer or the Desk Officer for the State
concerned.
Recording of Events
3.5.14 The RCC shall maintain records for each incident in which all information should be
recorded as it is received, either in full or by reference to other permanent records
such as flight plans, forms, charts, hard copy messages, recorded radar data etc.
Details of all phases notified to the RCC and all information relating to action
initiated by the RCC shall be recorded in chronological order.
3.5.15 Where information is contained in other records, (messages, forms etc.), these shall
be held in such a way that reference to them may be easily made throughout the
operation. All hard copy information shall be retained for filing.
3.5.16 Each day's search activity shall be plotted. The total search area shall be
subdivided into sections assigned to each SAR unit showing individual search
patterns, heights and other relevant details. A plot shall be kept of areas searched
as well as those not searched.
3.5.17 Records may be kept of the actual hours of operation of search craft, showing
individual transit times and times engaged in search and/or rescue activity. These
records may be used for assessment of financial claims received from operators.
3.5.18 Records shall be kept of names of all volunteers used in SAR operations on assets
tasked by the RCC usually in the form of a manifest
3.5.19 When a search has been terminated without locating a missing aircraft or its
occupants, all records, charts etc shall be retained and be accessible to SAR staff to
allow easy resumption of search activity should further intelligence be received.
3.5.20 Records relating to search and rescue operations, including air searches, on behalf
of other organisations shall be retained.
3.5.21 Records should be retained for coroner’s court/civil proceedings and for the possible
access of other authorities.
3.6 Sequence of SAR Events
Overview
3.6.1 Since no two SAR operations follow the same pattern, it is not possible to develop
comprehensive procedures to apply to all situations. The actions described in the
following paragraphs should be interpreted with flexibility as many of the activities
described may be performed simultaneously or in a different order to suit specific
circumstances.
Uncertainty Phase Initial Action
3.6.2 When a SAR authority has declared an uncertainty phase, the RCC should:
a. designate an appropriately qualified officer as SMC for that action;
b. verify the information received, considering the need to extend inquiries to:
i. RCC Australia, ATS units, Police, or the Master of a vessel;
ii. landing areas including the aerodrome of departure and other locations
close to the route where a subject aircraft might have landed (inquiries
maybe made of groundsmen, refuellers, police and aerodrome operators
etc);
iii. aircraft, including the subject aircraft, known to be on the same route, in
the same area or within communication range, by way of ATS units, or
radio contacts calling or listening out, including monitoring emergency
frequencies; and/or
iv. family, friends, operator of the aircraft, marinas, etc.
c. when no flight plan has been filed, or in the case of ships or other craft, no
information is available on the intentions of the captain, attempt to obtain
information from which the route and departure, flight and arrival times of the
aircraft, ship or other craft may be determined;
d. establish close liaison with alerting units to ensure that:
i. new information, (eg: obtained through widespread communication
checks, requests to the public, review of weather factors, etc.), will be
made immediately available to the RCC for evaluation, plotting, decision
making etc.; and
ii. duplication of action will be avoided;
e. plot the route of the subject craft, making use of all available intelligence;
f. conduct a communications search;
g. determine actual weather conditions along the route and at the destination;
and
h. record all incoming information and progress reports, details of action as
described below, subsequent developments and decisions.
Communication search
3.6.3 The communication search can be conducted by two primary methods:
a. attempting to communicate with the aircraft, ship or other craft by all means of
electronic communications through various paths; and
b. determining the target craft’s most probable location by:
i. making inquiries at aerodromes (including the aerodrome of departure)
and other locations where an aircraft might have landed or at locations
where a ship or other craft might have stopped or called (including the
point or port of departure); and
ii. contacting other appropriate sources including persons who may have
knowledge of the intentions of the pilot in command or ship’s captain.
Phase Transition
3.6.4 When the communications search or other information received indicates that the
aircraft, ship or other craft is not in distress, the SAR authority will close the incident
and immediately inform the operating agency, the reporting source and any alerted
 authorities, centres, or services. However, if apprehension regarding the safety of
the aircraft and its occupants continues, the Uncertainty Phase should progress to
the Alert Phase.
Alert Phase Procedures
3.6.5 When an Alert Phase has been declared by the RCC or transferred from
Airservices, another RCC or SAR authority, the RCC should:
a. initiate or continue any appropriate actions normally performed during the
Uncertainty Phase and in particular, ensure an SMC has been appointed and
that all interested parties have been informed of the incident;
b. record all incoming information and progress reports, details of action as
described below, subsequent developments and decisions;
c. verify the information received;
d. obtain information about the aircraft, ship or other craft from other sources not
previously contacted, such as:
i. communications stations associated with radio navigation aids, radar
facilities, direction-finding stations any may other communication
stations that might have received transmissions from the craft;
ii. all possible landing or stopping points along the intended route and
other agencies and assets included in the flight or voyage plan that may
be capable of providing additional information or verifying information;
e. maintain close liaison with relevant ATS units and, as appropriate, request
that they:
i. pass information to aircraft involved in the emergency;
ii. inform aircraft operating in the vicinity of the subject aircraft of the nature
of the emergency;
iii. monitor and keep the RCC informed of progress of any aircraft whose
operating efficiency is impaired;
f. plot relevant details obtained through the actions described above on an
appropriate map or chart to determine the probable position of the craft and its
maximum range of action from its last known position and plot the positions of
any craft known to be operating in the vicinity;
g. consider initiating en route diversions of other craft to attempt to locate or
confirm the safety of the target craft subject to the agreement of the pilot-in-
command/operator or master and there being no hazard due to weather or
other factors including:
i. the diverted craft's operator shall be advised whenever a diversion is
undertaken,
ii. the capabilities of the aircraft considered for diversion including its
navigation integrity and range, terrain, weather conditions and any other
salient operational factors;
h. thoroughly evaluate the plan, weather, terrain, possible communication
aberrations, last known position, last radio communication and operator's
qualifications and experience;
i. estimate time of fuel exhaustion and research the craft's performance under
possibly adverse conditions;
j. determine and plot the most probable position of the craft and, if relevant, its
maximum range of operation from its last known position;
k. alert SAR units to the possible need for search and rescue action, obtaining
relevant details of asset availability; if necessary placing assets on a higher
level of readiness
l. notify other SAR authorities, shipping authorities, etc. as soon as possible
where they are likely to be called upon to conduct search activity;
m. consider the need for military assistance where the situation is judged likely to
be beyond the capacity of available civil resources; and
 n. ensure that the procedures for notification of next of kin of the occupants are
implemented.
Phase Transition
3.6.6 When information received indicates that the craft is not in distress, the RCC will
close the incident and immediately inform the operating agency, the reporting
source and any alerted authorities, centres or services. If the craft has not been
located when all efforts have been completed, or if the time of an aircraft’s fuel
exhaustion has been reached, whichever occurs first, the craft and its occupants
should be considered to be in grave and imminent danger. The Alert Phase should
then progress to the Distress Phase. The decision to declare the Distress Phase
should be taken without undue delay and on the basis of past experience with
similar situations.
Distress Phase Procedures
3.6.7 When a distress phase has been declared by a SAR authority or transferred by
Airservices, another RCC or SAR authority, the SAR authority should:
a. initiate or continue any appropriate actions normally performed during the
Uncertainty and Alert Phases;
b. ensure an SMC has been appointed and that all interested parties have been
informed of the incident;
c. examine the detailed plans of operation for the conduct of SAR operations in
the area;
d. determine the availability of SAR assets to conduct SAR operations and
attempt to obtain more assets if a need for them is anticipated;
e. estimate the position of the distressed craft, estimate the degree of uncertainty
of this position and determine the extent of the area to be searched and if a
significant search effort is anticipated, use search planning techniques to
maximize the chances of finding the survivors;
f. develop a search action plan or rescue planning as appropriate for the
conduct of the SAR operation and communicate the plan to the appropriate
authorities;
g. initiate action, activating SAR assets as appropriate:
i. craft may be dispatched from their bases in accordance with the search
plan; or,
ii. craft may be diverted in-flight or en-route;
iii. whenever practicable, aircraft dispatched early should carry droppable
supplies (suitable for the environment in which the incident is occurring)
unless these aircraft are unsuitable for dropping and/or an unacceptable
delay would result to their departure on account of loading.
iv. In the latter case, droppable supplies should be loaded on a suitable
aircraft as soon as possible. Aircraft carrying droppable supplies must
be configured in conformance with AusSAR documentation;
h. amend the plan as the operation develops;
i. notify the State of registry of the target craft;
j. notify AMSA, State or Territory Maritime Authorities, ATSB and/or CASA, as
appropriate;
k. at an early stage, request aircraft, vessels, coastal radio stations and other
relevant services to:
i. maintain a listening watch for transmissions from the target craft, by
voice, survival radio equipment and from an emergency beacon
(ELT/EPIRB/PLB);
ii. assist the target craft as far as practicable if found; and
iii. inform the RCC of any developments;
l. maintain close liaison:
 i. with appropriate agencies for onward transmission to the target craft (if
possible) and for traffic coordination,
ii. with other RCCs along the planned route of the target craft as well as
those whose SRRs are within the target craft's maximum radius of action
as determined from its last known position (i.e. the possibility area),
ensuring that any information they receive regarding the incident is
conveyed to the coordinating RCC; and
m. inform community groups by way of radio and television broadcasts
requesting sighting and hearing reports and any other intelligence regarding
the whereabouts of the subject craft using established procedures for
contacting designated personnel at broadcasting stations and specifying
messages in precise form;
Phase transition
3.6.8 When the distressed craft has been located and the survivors rescued, the RCC will
terminate the SAR operation, close the case and immediately advise the operating
agency, the reporting source and any alerted authorities, centres and services. To
ensure that search assets remain under some type of flight or vessel following
system, the SMC should not terminate activities until all SAR assets have
established alternative following plans, where they apply.
3.7 Communication Checks
General
3.7.1 Communication checks are conducted by the SMC when information, in addition to
the initial report, is required. A most common situation is where the craft is overdue
or unreported. It is the time when detective work is required of the SMC.
Communication checks may be conducted prior to, during or after dispatching
search units, depending upon the urgency of the incident.
3.7.2 Communication checks involve not only extensive use of various networks to
provide additional information, but also may involve physical checks of areas where
the craft may be located. Generally the purpose of communication checks is to
continue efforts to contact the craft, to determine if the craft is overdue or
unreported, to localise the search area, and to get more factual data for evaluation
of subsequent SAR action.
3.7.3 Initial communication checks may consist of contacting and checking major facilities
within the areas where the craft might be or might have been seen, and is normally
conducted during the uncertainty phase. These checks should have a reasonably
effective probability of locating the missing craft within a short period of time, if the
craft is merely unreported rather than actually missing.
3.7.4 Where initial checks fail to locate the craft, communication checks are to be
expanded to check a wider variety of possible sources of information on the missing
craft, including physically checking possible locations, such as harbours, marinas
and airports
Communication Checks for Marine Craft
3.7.5 Communications checks for marine craft may include the following:
a. Satellite and radio communications
b. Inquiries should be made to facilities in locations that will give reasonably
thorough and rapid coverage of the area:
i. Port authorities
ii. Marinas, yacht clubs and other water-side facilities
iii. Fishing cooperatives
iv. Harbour masters
v. Volunteer organisations
vi. If the missing craft is known to have a radio aboard, contact by CRS
vii. Vessel/boat owners or agents
 viii. Police 1
ix. Customs, Immigration (if applicable)
x. Relatives, neighbours and associates
3.7.6 Check and confirm departure and reported non-arrival and request the RCC be
notified immediately if it does arrive.
Communications Checks for Aircraft
3.7.7 When an aircraft subject to a SAR watch fails to report by a prescribed time, or if an
aircraft fails to report, the responsible ATS unit shall:
a. attempt to contact the aircraft direct by calling on normal and alternative
frequencies;
b. attempt to contact the aircraft via another aircraft;
c. ascertain whether another unit has received the report; or
d. arrange for other ground units to call the aircraft on normal or alternative
frequencies.
Actions by RCC Australia
3.7.8 RCC Australia will conduct checks by:
a. contacting aircraft operator; and destination and alternative airports to confirm
that the aircraft has not arrived.
b. having physical checks of aircraft parking areas and hangars conducted at
uncontrolled airports and airfields;
c. thoroughly evaluating the flight plan, weather, terrain, possible communication
delays, last known position, text of radio calls, pilot’s qualifications, and the
performance of the aircraft under favourable conditions;
d. compute the time of fuel exhaustion if not done earlier; and
e. notify the operating agency of the aircraft.
Crashed Aircraft
3.7.9 When it is known that an aircraft will crash or has crashed and the crash position is
incidentally reported or known with reasonable certainty, the RCC is required to
confirm the crash site and ensure the provision of medical assistance and rescue of
the survivors.
3.7.10 Pending assumption of the responsibility for the wreckage by ATSB or the relevant
military authority, the RCC shall endeavour to arrange a guard at the crash site to
prevent interference with the wreckage or with marks made by the aircraft in
landing. State/Territory police customarily act as guards. Aircraft crashes that
involve fatalities are to be treated as crime scenes from the outset and once
survivors have been checked with minimal disruption to the scene, the RCC’s
responsibility ceases and the scene is then subject to investigation by
State/Territory police under the State/Territory coronial legislation and/or ATSB.
Health Hazards - Aircraft Accidents
3.7.11 Movement in the vicinity of crash sites can be extremely hazardous for ground
parties. Details of these hazards can be found in Chapter 6.
3.8 Intelligence Gathering and Assessment
Overview
3.8.1 Information relating to a missing aircraft may be gathered from a variety of sources,
in particular from the owner or operator, Airservices and general maintenance
records and from the public at large.

1
Marine checks should be forwarded through the closest Water Police as they have
extensive contact lists for marine facilities. Contact and requests should be noted in running
logs.
3.8.2 A SAR rated officer shall be appointed as the RCC Intelligence Officer and given the
task of seeking information and assessing and verifying information received.
3.8.3 Careful and accurate assessment of intelligence information is a vital part of search
action and may be instrumental in modifying probability areas, re-prioritising search
activities and adopting revised search strategies.
3.8.4 Symbols for use in plotting intelligence information are as depicted in Appendix G.
Sighting and Hearing Reports
3.8.5 When even an approximate position of a missing aircraft is not known, it is usual to
arrange for a broadcast to be made over radio and, in some cases, television
channels requesting information from members of the public who may have seen or
heard the aircraft.
3.8.6 In composing a message for broadcasting, some significant feature of the aircraft
should be omitted from the description, thus enabling a better assessment to be
made of the validity of reports received. Care should be taken in specifying the call-
in telephone number to avoid engaging vital RCC lines.
3.8.7 The aim of a broadcast is to promote the best reception of Sighting and Hearing
reports from a defined area. The SMC, or delegate, will contact the police
headquarters in the relevant State or Territory capital and discuss an intention to
request public assistance
3.8.8 The SMC will discuss the area to be covered by the broadcast, the frequency of the
broadcast and its duration. Be very specific about the area you desire to be
covered by the broadcast. Radio provides the quickest local coverage. Television
may be very complicated and difficult to handle. All broadcasts are to be faxed to
the police centre.
3.8.9 The SAR authority should be informed when a broadcast is issued. When PR is
present in the RCC it may be more advantageous and expeditious to have them
request a broadcast to a local station. If this occurs the police shall be advised.
3.8.10 If approapriate, a sighting/hearing cell will be established to receive, plot and assess
the information.
3.8.11 A Sighting and Hearing Report should be completed for each call taken. Each
report should be entered in the Sighting and Hearing Log and a plot of all reports
kept on the applicable map.
3.8.12 RCC staff should be prepared to receive a large number of reports in the period
immediately following a broadcast. Sighting or Hearing Report Forms should
always be used to record reports of aircraft being seen or heard to ensure that vital
information is not omitted. Guidance on sighting and hearing reports is at Appendix
H.
Assessing Reports
3.8.13 To assist in the assessment of reports and to eliminate those that relate to other
aircraft, every effort should be made to establish the movements of all aircraft that
would have been operating in the same general area as the missing aircraft in the
same time period. A general description of such other aircraft, including their colour
schemes, is necessary to assist the process of evaluation.
3.8.14 In addition to seeking reports on the missing aircraft, it may be necessary to
broadcast a request for information about, and descriptions of aircraft that were
flying in the subject area at the appropriate time and for which flight details had not
been lodged.
3.8.15 Reports that cannot be related to a known movement of aircraft other than the
distressed aircraft shall be individually assessed and categorised as reliable,
unreliable or doubtful.
3.8.16 A plot should be made of all reports. Those considered to relate to the missing
aircraft shall be highlighted.
3.8.17 It may be good procedure to interview the originators of some reports a second
time, either to confirm the original details, or to gain additional information.
Interviewing Witnesses
3.8.18 Care must be taken in the selection of a person to interview witnesses.
Consideration should be given to the use of specially trained officers, eg: the police.
3.8.19 When interviewing witnesses, the following points should be kept in mind:
a. The interview should be conducted as soon as practicable after the event.
Many people forget important facts quickly and are influenced by other
opinions, press reports, etc.;
b. The interviewer should know the subject, be aware of the details reported
previously, and have questions prepared in advance to clarify points on which
further information is required;
c. After identifying himself, the interviewer should explain the purpose of the
Interview clearly;
d. Persons being interviewed should be asked to give a personal account of
events without coercion or suggestion. They may then be asked questions
designed to solicit other facts;
e. When possible, statements should be tested by related occurrences, eg. the
distance of the aircraft from the observer by weather phenomena such as
visibility and cloud base; the time of observation by the extent of daylight,
position of the sun or radio program; and
f. If witnesses are not clear about particular aspects, they may be left to
consider the incident further and be given opportunity to contact the RCC
should additional information subsequently come to mind.
3.8.20 Reports assessed as reliable may form a basis for modifying or extending the
probability area. SMCs should, however, guard against neglecting the search of
previously established search areas merely on the basis of such reports. Many
compelling reports from the public have proven insubstantial.
Coordination with the Police
3.8.21 It is possible that the police will receive incidental reports from the public that may
be of value to the search effort. It is essential that the police in the search area are
made fully aware of the search activity and the need to pass all relevant reports and
information to the RCC as soon as possible.
Examination of Recorded Communications
3.8.22 At an early stage in the search action, ATS communication records and/or tapes
shall be examined for any data relating to the missing aircraft.
3.8.23 Radar tapes and tape recordings of frequencies used or possibly used by the
missing aircraft shall be replayed
3.8.24 A discrete recording should be made of exchanges between the subject aircraft and
other aircraft and ground stations during the time of flight. The recording should then
be made available to the RCC.
3.8.25 When an aircraft disappears without a distress call having been received on the
communication channels in primary use, requests should be made to other units to
have tapes and written records examined to determine if transmissions were
recorded from the missing aircraft on any other channels.
3.8.26 The assistance of specialist communication staff may be sought for transcription of
dialogue from tape recordings.
Flight Path Analysis
3.8.27 In addition to information reported by the public, it is often possible to reconstruct a
probable flight path from information contained in the flight plan and reports to ATS
units of the subject flight's progress.
3.8.28 A detailed study of all available navigational data should be made. Particular
attention should be directed to the pilot's application of variation and calculation of
headings and speeds.
3.8.29 Mistakes have also commonly resulted from differences between forecast and
actual weather.
Weather Analysis
3.8.30 An analysis of the weather existing at the time the aircraft encountered difficulty and
the interaction of weather and terrain should be made. The opinion of
meteorologists should be sought in this respect, as should the views of suitably
experienced qualified pilots.
3.8.31 Effort should be made to obtain reports of in-flight conditions from pilots who were in
the area at the time the aircraft encountered difficulty.
3.8.32 It is conceivable that a likely plan of action adopted by the distressed pilot can be
deduced from these data of intelligence; decisions regarding priority of search effort
may follow.
Logistical Information
3.8.33 The Intelligence Cell will obtain data on the following resources:
a. Suitable landing areas;
b. Fuel, and other aircraft replenishment supplies;
c. Aircraft, vehicles and marine craft suitable as rescue units;
d. Shipping resources and facilities, should the search be over water.
General Considerations for the SMC
3.8.34 SMC duties can be demanding. The gathering of information, evaluation of this
information and initiation of action all require concentrated effort on many details.
The SMC will find the various forms, checklists, worksheets, tables and graphs
provided in the appendices to be very helpful. The following paragraphs provide
some general guidance for the early stages of a SAR operation, including
information gathering and preparation for the possible need to plan searches.
3.8.35 Several factors will influence the extent and manner of an initial SAR response. In
general these are the:
a. extent and reliability of information about the location of the distressed craft
and its occupants;
b. availability of aircraft, marine craft and land parties for searching;
c. actual and forecast weather conditions;
d. times of daylight/darkness;
e. nature of terrain;
f. availability of survival supplies and supply dropping teams.
g. Sea currents.
h. Time delay in notification.
Urgency of Response
3.8.36 Evaluating incidents to determine the urgency and the extent of required SAR
response, or the termination of response is a function requiring information,
judgement and experience. In emergency situations requiring immediate
assistance, the action taken must be accomplished quickly and positively. Where
uncertainty exists, evaluation is usually more difficult and time consuming because
of the many factors involved.
3.8.37 Perhaps the most difficult task the SMC undertakes is the evaluation of these
factors. They usually become apparent between the time the incident is reported
and the execution of the search. This is a time when speed and reliability will be
most important, however it is also a time when incident reports may be incomplete
or confused.
3.8.38 The most serious limitation is time. When persons are injured or are subjected to
adverse climatic or water conditions, the chances of survival decrease rapidly. Time
limitation also may be dictated by the number of hours left for a daylight search,
although the SMC should not arbitrarily rule out night search, especially in
unpopulated areas, over the ocean, and over flat terrain or deserts.
3.8.39 The facilities available to conduct a search may be limited by lack of available
personnel and search assets. The SMC must be aware of availability of SAR
facilities within their region.
3.8.40 Terrain, weather and oceanographic conditions can affect all areas in SAR planning
and operations. Search visibility, aircraft limitations, search effectiveness, safety of
flight and time available to complete the search are some of the factors that will
affect search capability.
3.8.41 Whenever practicable, pertinent data should be plotted on a chart to aid in
evaluating related factors.
3.8.42 Normally the SMC determines the urgency and extent of SAR services required for
an incident. A rapid but systematic approach is essential since prompt response to
emergency incidents is the essence of the SAR system.
General Time Factors
3.8.43 The probability of finding survivors and their chances of survival diminish with each
minute after an incident occurs. Prompt positive action is required so that no life will
be lost or jeopardized through wasted or misdirected effort. Individual incidents will
vary with local conditions such as terrain, climatic conditions, ability and endurance
of survivors, emergency equipment available and SAR units available to the SAR
system.
3.8.44 In the case of seriously injured survivors or survivors in a hostile environment, the
reaction time of the SAR system must be measured in minutes. Critically injured
survivors of any accident usually die within the first 24 hours if not given emergency
medical care.
Daylight Factor
3.8.45 For survivors not equipped with any type of detection aids daylight visual search is
usually the only search method available to the SMC. If darkness were approaching
this would be another limiting factor for the SMC to consider.
Night Factor
3.8.46 If it is known or suspected that the survivors have detection aids such as
pyrotechnic flares or other night signalling devices or can display other lights, night
searches should always be conducted. Night searches, visual and electronic are
particularly effective at sea, over sparsely populated areas, flat terrain and deserts.
3.8.47 Night aural and visual search should be considered. Modern electronic detection
methods may be effective in locating targets. The capability of these devices should
be discussed with the operators of the equipment.
Weather/Oceanographic Factors
3.8.48 Adverse weather prevailing in or approaching an area where survivors are located
may also limit the time available to conduct a SAR operation. Not only are survivors
of a distressed craft more difficult to detect under adverse weather conditions, but
also SAR units themselves operate at lower efficiency due to the added turbulence,
rough seas and higher stresses on both the search personnel and their craft.
3.8.49 Accurate knowledge of weather conditions and the prudent judgment based on it will
enhance the likelihood of a successful mission. Knowledge of the prevailing
weather conditions will also play an important role in the safety of the search units.
3.8.50 If weather will not allow for a search operation to be mounted without endangering
additional lives, the search effort should be deferred. If weather is currently good
but forecast to deteriorate in a short time, more rapid action is required and detailed
 planning may suffer due to the time available. If weather is good and forecast to
remain so, more extensive planning may be accomplished.
3.8.51 Wind, visibility and cloud cover influences the search track spacing. Therefore, the
better the weather information, the more realistic will be the derived track spacing.
Maintaining accurate search patterns is difficult in adverse weather. Aerial units are
particularly vulnerable. For this reason the patterns selected should allow for more
precise navigational accuracy.
3.8.52 Safety may sometimes be prejudiced by actual weather conditions, which must,
therefore, be monitored continuously by the SMC. Low cloud base and restricted
visibility are particularly hazardous during searches that cover large areas where
many aircraft are employed. Should air search be conducted under adverse
weather conditions that deteriorate below the required flight conditions, then air
search may have to be suspended.
3.8.53 In situations where survivors are adrift in regions of high velocity water current,
searches should be mounted without delay. The probability of locating survivors is
high during the early stages of survival craft drift as the drift factor allowed for in
search calculations will be of reasonable accuracy over a short time period.
3.8.54 When missions involve overdue craft, the weather situation should be evaluated to
determine what effect it may have had upon the craft’s operating capabilities and/or
the actions of the craft’s operator prior to SAR system activation. To obtain an
overall weather picture an attempt should be made to complete the following
questionnaire:
a. What was the weather at the departure point, destination and along the
planned track at the time the overdue craft should have been in those areas?
If no established weather facilities are available, the information should be
obtained from local reliable sources in the areas concerned, such as police or
marine volunteers, if possible.
b. What was the en route and forecast weather briefing given to the crew of the
missing craft, and what was the operator’s reaction to the weather briefing?
c. What was the weather in the area where the missing craft is presumed to be
and if the time of emergency is known, what were the actual weather
conditions at the craft’s estimated position?
d. Were there any marked changes in wind or sea currents that might have
resulted in navigation errors?
e. Were there any areas of low ceiling, poor visibility, precipitation,
thunderstorms, frontal activity, turbulence, icing, that may have caused the
craft to attempt circumnavigation, or that could have exceeded either the
crafts or operator’s capability?
f. Were there any areas of marked pressure changes that may have caused
aircraft altimeter errors?
Weather Reports by Survivors
3.8.55 Occasionally missions will occur during which radio contact can be established with
survivors who do not know their exact position. If survivors can report sufficient
weather information, the SMC and meteorological personnel may be able to develop
an approximation of the survivor’s position by fitting the survivor’s weather into the
current synoptic picture.
3.8.56 The following weather information should be requested immediately, and on a
scheduled basis thereafter, if possible:
a. percentage of cloud cover;
b. estimated height of clouds;
c. type of description of cloud;
d. estimated surface wind velocity;
e. winds aloft direction, if discernible by cloud movement;
 f. prevailing weather phenomena such as snow, rain, fog, sea state, etc.;
g. the times of sudden changes in wind or weather such as rapid clearing, quick
deterioration, sudden changes in wind direction, noticeable change in
temperature, blowing dust or any other condition that might indicate frontal
passage;
h. outside air temperature;
i. pressure reading of barometer or altitude reading of altimeter set for 1013
HPA;
j. pressure trends from altimeter or barometer; and
k. observed times of sunset and/or sunrise.
Survival Environment Factors
3.8.57 The environment in which the survivor is exposed is another factor that limits the
time available to complete their rescue. In some cases, environment will be the
most time critical of all. Climatic atlases are useful to evaluate probable climatic
conditions in regions where few or no weather reporting facilities are available.
3.8.58 The relation of survival time to water temperature, air temperature, humidity and
wind velocity is not a simple one. These and other factors often exist in combination
to complicate the problem of estimating life expectancy of survivors. Individuals will
vary in their reaction to cold and heat stresses.
3.8.59 Additional factors which will vary a survivor’s life expectancy include the type of
clothing worn, the clothing’s wetness, the survivor’s activity during their exposure,
initial body temperature, physical conditions, thirst, exhaustion, hunger, and various
psychological stresses such as isolation, loneliness and remoteness, and the all-
important individual will to live.
3.8.60 The graphs at Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.5 are provided to assist the SMC in
determining the urgency required to remove survivors from the environment, and to
assist in evaluating the practicality of terminating a search. These graphs are based
upon case histories, field tests, laboratory experiments and analysis of all known
data. However, the SMC must understand that some individuals will exceed the life
expectancy or tolerance times indicated in these figures, and therefore should
consider these figures as helpful guidelines rather than absolute controlling factors.
Hypothermia
3.8.61 Hypothermia is the abnormal lowering of internal body temperature (heat loss) and
results from exposure to the chilling effects of cold air, wind or water. Death from
hypothermia may occur in both land survival and water survival situations.
Hypothermia is the leading cause of death for survivors of maritime disasters.
3.8.62 Internal body temperature is the critical factor in hypothermia. If the body
temperature is depressed to only 35°C, most persons will survive. If the body
temperature is depressed to approximately 33°C, most persons will return to useful
activity. At about 32°C, the level of consciousness becomes clouded and
unconsciousness occurs at 30°C. Only 30 percent would be expected to survive
these temperatures. At body temperature depressions of 26°C and below, the
average individual will die, and ventricular fibrillation (heart attack) will usually occur
as the final event. However in some cases individuals have survived with body
temperatures as low as 17°C.
3.8.63 The warmest ocean water that can be expected at any time of the year is 29oC.
About one third of the earth’s ocean surface has water temperatures above 19oC.
Water Hypothermia
3.8.64 The body will cool when immersed in water having a temperature of less than 33°C.
The warmest temperature that ocean water can be at any time of year is 29°C.
Approximately one-third of the earth’s oceans have water temperatures of 19°C or
above.
3.8.65 The rate of body heat loss increases as the temperature of air and water decreases.
If a survivor is immersed in water, hypothermia will occur very rapidly due to the
decreased insulating quality of wet clothing and the fact that water will displace the
layer of still air that normally surrounds the body. Water allows a rate of heat
exchange approximately twenty five times greater than that of air at the same
temperature.
3.8.66 In water temperatures above 21°C survival time depends solely upon the fatigue
factor of the individual, some individuals having survived in excess of 80 hours at
these temperatures. Staying afloat and fighting off sharks are the major problems at
these temperatures.
3.8.67 Between 15°C and 21°C an individual can survive up to 12 hours. At 15°C skin
temperatures will decrease to near water temperature within 10 minutes of entry
and shivering and discomfort is experienced immediately upon immersion. Dunking
and submersion difficulties become increasingly distressful to the survivor.
3.8.68 From 10°C to 15°C the survivor has a reasonably good chance if rescue is
completed within 6 hours. Faintness and disorientation occur at water temperatures
of 10°C and below. Violent shivering and muscle cramps will be present almost from
the time of entering the water and intense pain will be experienced in the hands and
feet. This very painful experience will continue until numbness sets in.
3.8.69 All skin temperatures decrease to that of the surrounding water temperature in
about 10 minutes. In the temperature range from 4°C to 10°C, only about 50 per
cent of a group can be expected to survive longer than 1 hour. In water
temperatures of 2°C and below the survivor suffers a severe shock and intense pain
on entering the water. This shock in some instances may be fatal owing to loss of
consciousness and subsequent drowning.
3.8.70 Water survivors who die within 10 to 15 minutes after entry into frigid water
apparently do not succumb because of reduced body temperature, but rather from
the shock of rapid entry into cold water. Fifteen minutes is too short a time for the
internal body temperature to fall to a fatal level, even though the outer skin
temperatures are at the same temperature as the water. In addition, the
temperatures of the hands and feet fall so rapidly that such immersions are
frequently less painful than those in 4°C to 10°C water.
3.8.71 Figure 3.1 displays predicted calm-water survival time, the time required to cool a
lightly clothed, non-exercising human to 30oC in cold water. Figure 3.1 shows a line
for the average expectancy and a broad zone that indicates the large amount of
individual variability associated with different body size, build, fatness, physical
fitness, and state of health. The zone would include approximately 95% of the
variation expected for adult and teenage humans under the conditions specified.
Factors that slow the loss of body heat are: high body weight, heavy clothing,
survival clothing, or the use of a huddling or other protective behaviour. Factors that
make a person lose body heat faster are: low body weight, light clothing, or
exercising (such as the situation where a survivors without lifejackets must swim to
stay afloat). Specialised insulated protective clothing, such as immersion suits or
wet suits, is capable of increasing survival time from 2 to 10 times the basic duration
shown on the figure.
 Fig 3.1 Water Chill and Hypothermia

Wind Hypothermia
3.8.72 Although the body will lose heat approximately twenty-five times slower in calm air
than when immersed in water, the body heat loss will be accelerated with increasing
wind velocities. This is an additional factor to consider for exposed survivors.
3.8.73 Figure 3.2, depicts the effects of various wind speed and air temperature
combinations. The straight-line relationship between air temperature and the
logarithm of D wind speed allows simple interpolation of the intermediate
temperatures. The shaded areas represent wind speed and temperature
combinations that would cause freezing of any exposed skin.

Fig 3.2 Wind Chill and Hypothermia

Hyperthermia, Heat Stress and Dehydration

3.8.74 Hyperthermia, heat stress and dehydration are dangers in hot climates, particularly
in desert areas. The most severe form of heat stress is heatstroke, during which the
body temperature rises due to the collapse of the temperature control mechanism of
the body. If the body temperature rises above 42°C, the average person will die.
Milder forms of heat stress are heat cramps and heat exhaustion. Another limiting
factor both in hot climates and in survival situations at sea is dehydration. A person
totally without water can die in a few days, although some have survived for a week
or more.
Survivor Stress Factors
3.8.75 Two basic assumptions are to be made concerning survivors of a distress incident:
a. there are always survivors who require emergency medical care; and
b. they are under a condition of great stress and experiencing shock.
3.8.76 It may also be assumed that not even able-bodied, logical-thinking survivors will be
able to help themselves.
3.8.77 Records include numerous accounts where supposedly able-bodied, logical-thinking
survivors failed to accomplish extremely simple tasks in a logical order, and thus
hindered, delayed or even prevented their own rescue.
3.8.78 This is due to shock that, following an accident, is often so great that even those of
strong mind think and act illogically. All survivors will be in some degree of shock.
Some may be calm and somewhat rational, some may be hysterical and in panic,
while the remainder will be temporarily stunned and bewildered.
3.8.79 This last group will generally have passive attitude and can be easily led during the
first 24 hours after the incident. As the shock wears off, most of them will develop
active attitudes. Those that do not develop active attitudes will die unless rescued
quickly.
3.8.80 Individuals who observe an emergency situation and reporting it to the SAR system
should also be considered as being under stress. Many times it will be necessary
for SAR personnel to specifically request essential information from an individual
reporting an emergency. This situation should be expected and SAR personnel
should be prepared to cope with it.
Terrain Factors
3.8.81 Terrain may be a major factor in evaluating an incident. Terrain may dictate the
type of search pattern required, and may limit the selection of search aircraft that
can be used. Aircraft that are highly manoeuvrable and will be effective at
moderately high altitudes may be required in rugged mountain areas. High
performance or large transport aircraft may be unusable in confined areas and
helicopters may not be able to operate in the thin air and turbulence associated with
mountains and contour searches.
3.8.82 Terrain may also limit the time available for search. For example low-level searches
in mountain areas are normally limited to daylight only. The type of survival kit
carried by the distressed craft and the equipment, such as the type of hoist device
used by available helicopters will also be influencing factors. Dense foliage may
hamper both visual and electronic searches and require increased numbers of
aircraft and closer search track spacing.
3.8.83 Man-made additions to the terrain such as power-lines, towers and bridges must
also be considered when planning search areas and the altitudes of search aircraft.
3.8.84 The type of rescue team used after the distress site has been located is also
dependent upon terrain. When there is doubt about survivors or the area is
inaccessible, time is a factor. Should other help not be readily available, airdrops or
parachutists may be required. Before deploying parachutists, the ability for them to
land, to be resupplied and recovered must be considered.
Available Search Asset Factors
3.8.85 During the prosecution of any SAR mission the SMC will have assets at their
disposal whose primary mission is not SAR but who have SAR capabilities.
3.8.86 It is of primary importance that the SMC fully understands the limitations of all
facilities available in their region if they are to be effectively used. The number,
types, equipment and experience of available search units will limit the courses of
action available to the SMC.
3.8.87 In addition there may be instances when all available crews are either committed to
other operations, in the case of flight crews or have expended their maximum
authorised crew duty time.
3.8.88 Some time is usually required for a suitable search unit to arrive on-scene, therefore
search unit maximum speed for short distances or normal cruising speed for long
distances is a factor. The search unit’s range will determine both the maximum
distance it can proceed from its operating base and its on-scene endurance. The
search unit’s communication capability for working with the SMC, other search units
and the distressed craft must be considered.
3.8.89 The search units’ navigation capability will influence the areas to which it can be
assigned, since accurate navigation in search areas is essential for effective
coverage.
3.8.90 The search unit may carry detection sensors and its ability to carry equipment that
may be required on-scene should be considered. However, operating limitations of
the search unit will override all other factors. These include such things as
turbulence, icing and instrumentation for aircraft, and sea-keeping qualities for
vessels and small craft.
Survival Equipment Factors
3.8.91 The amount and type of survival and signalling equipment available to the survivor
will influence not only the urgency of the SAR system’s response, but also the
methods and procedures employed in various SAR stages.
3.8.92 The SMC may concurrently conduct a high level electronic search and a visual
search. The SMC must use their common sense, good judgment and background
experience to evaluate the appropriate response for taking advantage of the
survivor’s capability to signal and survive.
Risks v Gain Factors
3.8.93 SAR facilities are responsible for taking whatever action they can to save life at any
time and place where their facilities are available and can be effectively used.
Nevertheless, there may be a point beyond which SAR services are not expected
and cannot be justified. Known and inherent risk must be carefully weighed against
the mission’s chances for success and the gains to be realised.
3.8.94 SAR personnel and equipment shall not be placed at risk, nor the mission
attempted, unless lives are known to be at stake and the chances for saving lives
are within the capability of the personnel and equipment available.
3.8.95 All reasonable action shall be taken to locate distressed personnel, determine their
status and bring about their rescue. Prolonged SAR operations after all probability
of survival has been exhausted are uneconomical and not warranted. The decision
to conduct such operations must be based on probability of detection.
3.8.96 Studies have shown that the period within 12 to 24 hours of a distress incident is the
most critical for recovery of survivors. The best chance of successful recovery
occurs during this time period. Within 48 hours, chances are still good, but after that
time the chance of successful recovery decreases rapidly.
Chapter 4 - Search Planning and Evaluation
4.1 Overview
4.1.1 The wellbeing of survivors is critically dependent on early location and support. It is
vital that as soon as possible after becoming aware of an incident, SAR authorities
quickly implement procedures for a rapid search of the most likely area of distress.
In general, the initial SAR response requires ready application of simple procedures
to quickly cover the most likely area of distress. The search area described will be
of rudimentary construction, eg. a circle, square or rectangle depending on the
nature of the distressed craft's operation. The area will be of sufficient proportions to
cover all reasonable alternative tracks of the distressed craft and will incorporate
areas highlighted by intelligence information. This strategy precedes the more
complex calculations that will give rise to a more precise area which, failing the
success of stage one search will form the basis for a formally planned and executed
action at a later time. The stage one search may be undertaken in relatively short
time and allow ready allocation and briefing of the few necessary resources.
4.1.2 All of the basic search theory concepts are described in this chapter. Practical
examples are provided for each concept, showing how it may be applied to the
search-planning problem. These examples require only basic arithmetic skills and
an understanding of the basic probability concepts encountered in everyday life.
Although search planning may be perceived to be complex, each step is relatively
simple.
4.1.3 Note: It is essential when planning commences for search operations that rescue
planning is commenced as outlined in Chapter Six. This is to occur as a concurrent
action. Rescue planning forms an integral part of the Search Planning.
4.2 Search Planning Steps
4.2.1 Search planning involves the following steps:
a. evaluating the situation, including the results of any previous searching;
b. estimating the distress incident location and probable error of that location;
c. estimating the survivors’ post-distress movements and probable error of that
estimate;
d. using these results to estimate the most probable location (datum1) of
survivors and the uncertainty (probable error of position) about that location;
e. determining the best way to use the available search assets so the chances of
finding the survivors are maximized (optimal search effort allocation);
f. defining search sub-areas and search patterns for assignment to specific
search assets; and
g. providing a search plan that includes a current description of the situation,
search object description(s), specific search responsibilities to search
facilities, on-scene coordination instructions and search asset reporting
requirements.
4.2.2 These steps are repeated until either the survivors are located or evaluation of the
situation shows that further searching would be futile.
Evaluating the Situation
4.2.3 Searching is the most expensive, risky and complex aspect of the SAR system.
Often it is also the only way survivors may be located and assisted. All information
received about the incident must be carefully analysed and evaluated before a
search is undertaken and at frequent intervals during its progress. In the early
stages of a SAR incident, it is almost certain that the SMC will need to make some
assumptions about the nature, time or place of the incident. It is very important that
such assumptions be kept separate from the known facts. It is important to
distinguish conclusions based on known facts from those based partially on

1
The term datum is used extensively in this chapter to mean a geographic point,
line or area used as a reference in search planning (see 4.3).
 assumptions. It is also important to re-evaluate all assumptions regularly and as
new information becomes available. Any assumption, which is allowed to go
unquestioned for too long a period, begins to falsely assume the appearance of fact,
and can compromise the search effort.
4.2.4 Some of the clues that may indicate the survivors’ location or situation include:
a. intentions;
b. last known position;
c. hazards;
d. condition and capabilities;
e. crew behaviour;
f. on scene environmental conditions; and
g. results of previous searching.
Estimating the Distress Incident Location
4.2.5 The first step in either marine or land search planning is to determine the limits of
the area containing all possible survivor locations. This is usually done by
determining the maximum distance the survivors could have travelled between the
time of their last known position (LKP) and the known or assumed time the distress
incident and drawing a circle of that radius around the LKP. Knowing the extreme
limits of possible locations allows the search planner to determine where to seek
further information related to the missing craft or persons and whether an incoming
report might apply to the incident. However, systematic search of such a large area
is normally not practical. Therefore, the next step is to develop one or more
scenario/s or sets of known facts plus some carefully considered assumptions,
describing what may have happened to the survivors since they were last known to
be safe. Each scenario must be consistent with the known facts of the case, have a
high likelihood of being true and allow the search planner to establish a
corresponding geographic reference or datum for the survivors’ most probable
position (MPP).
4.2.6 Three possible situations may exist with respect to the location of a distress incident
when it is reported.
4.2.7 Approximate Position Known. The incident may have been witnessed: reported
as a navigational fix by another craft or the craft in distress; or computed by the
SMC as a dead reckoning position from a previously reported and reliable position
of the craft in distress.
4.2.8 Approximate Track Known. The craft in distress may have filed a trip or voyage
plan prior to departure that included the intended track or route but the craft’s actual
position along the track is unknown. A single line of position, such as a flare
sighting or DF, should be treated the same as a track known situation.
4.2.9 Approximate Area Known. When neither the position nor the intended track are
known, at least an area that the craft in distress was probably within can usually be
determined. The SMC should try to reduce this area to an area of high probability
that can be used as the initial search area or, if the area is small enough, use it.
4.3 Datum Definition
4.3.1 The datum is the geographic point, line or area used as a reference in search
planning. A datum for the initial distress incident is first estimated from the known
facts of the case and possibly some assumptions that have a high likelihood of
being true. This datum for the distress incident is then adjusted to account for
estimates of post-distress survivor motion, either through effects of drift or possible
movement of survivor over land, at any particular moment during the incident.
Finally, the level of uncertainty about the new datum is evaluated and limits are
estimated for the smallest area containing all possible locations consistent with the
scenario on which the new datum is based. This area is called the possibility area
for that scenario.
Datum Point Definition
4.3.2 A datum point is the datum developed at a specific time when the initial position of
the search object is known.
Datum Line Definition
4.3.3 A datum line is the line connecting two or more datum points computed for the same
specified time, along which the search object is assumed to be located with equal
probability. The most common instance when a datum line is developed is when
the initial location reported of the search object falls within the trackline-known
category.
Datum Area Definition
4.3.4 A datum area is an area in which the search object is assumed to be located with
equal probability throughout the area. A datum area is most often necessary in
those incidents in which there is no initial position or trackline known.
Drift Definitions
4.3.5 Drift is vectorial movement, (direction and distance), of the search object caused by
momentum, drag, wind, water and other external forces. Drift may be spoken of as
individual drift (d), which is the drift occurring in a specified time interval (t); or may
be spoken of as a total drift (D), for a specified clock time or total elapsed time since
the incident occurred (T). Total Drift (D) of a search object is the vectorial sum of all
the individual drifts accumulated during an incident, for the elapsed time since the
search object was first exposed to any external forces which cause drift movement,
to the time of the latest computed datum.
4.3.6 Both total drift and individual drifts may be given subscripts to indicate their
specified time or time intervals.
4.3.7 (e.g.: ds is sinking drift)
4.3.8 Drifts caused by wind and water currents must be continually recomputed during an
incident to correct the datum as the errors become greater with the passage of time.
Recomputed Datum
4.3.9 Datum is computed periodically during a search incident when drift forces continue
to affect the position of the search target. These recomputed datums are usually
labelled sequentially:
4.3.10 Datum1, Datum2, Datum3, etc.
Datum Search Planning
4.3.11 The first step in search planning is to determine Datum. Datum calculations begin
with the reported position of the SAR incident. The initially reported location may be
a position, a line or an area. The 'position known' category are the reported
positions of vessels sinking, boat's engine breakdown, sailboat's dismasting, man
overboard, etc.
Drift Corrections
4.3.12 External forces may move a distressed craft or distressed person away from the
initial position of distress. These include such things as water current drifts, leeway,
etc.
4.4 Search Stages
4.4.1 A search typically involves three stages:
Stage 1 Immediate response. An initial visual and/or electronic search along the
missing craft’s planned route.
Stage 2 Nominated area either side of track. Normally a search conducted in
an area 10 nautical miles either side of track but this can be varied
depending on circumstances.
 Stage 3 Mathematically derived area. An expanded search of a probability area
calculated using the navigational tolerances of the missing and search
craft, allowing for drift if applicable and the application of a safety factor.
4.4.2 Stage 1 and 2 searches can be run concurrently. By way of example, if a Distress
incident occurs at the end of daylight or during the night, when the first visual search
cannot be undertaken until the following day, then it may be appropriate to conduct
both stages simultaneously.
4.4.3 Note that an essential part or any search stage will be the establishment of a rescue
plan, coordination with the Police and consideration of the early dropping of SAR
datum buoys.
4.4.4 Some emergency situations will suggest a still more spontaneous reaction. Where a
craft reports encountering a distress situation, the location is reasonably well known
and there are other craft in the near vicinity, it may be possible to divert an asset to
the area or intercept the distressed craft's track with instructions to undertake a
track crawl search along the known route.
4.4.5 If circumstances allow, the diverted asset may be instructed to proceed parallel to
the distressed craft's track at an appropriate off-set distance and to return at the
same off-set distance on a reciprocal heading. Such a procedure can provide
coverage of the distressed craft's track and the most likely lateral area either side of
it. Whether this is practicable will be dependent on such factors as endurance of
the diverted craft, its suitability for the task, weather, daylight and terrain. The
pertinent factors should be discussed with the crew of the diverted craft prior to
tasking.
4.4.6 In other types of situations, a similarly rapid response may be made by tasking an
airborne aircraft or one ready for departure at a nearby aerodrome or a vessel to
undertake a square or sector search around a known distress position. In any case,
the imperatives of this response are:
a. Rapid assessment of the type of emergency circumstance;
b. Early assessment of the most likely position of distress;
c. A quick appraisal of readily available assets;
d. Rapid determination of achievable effort in the prevailing circumstances;
e. Consultation with crew well placed to assist;
f. Dispatch or diversion of SAR unit asset(s) without delay;
g. Deployment of rescue platform(s).
4.5 Factors Affecting Initial SAR Response
Overview
4.5.1 As discussed in Chapter 3 there is a wide spectrum of factors that may influence the
extent and manner of an initial SAR response. To summarise some of the more
important ones:
a. Extent and reliability of information about the location of the distressed craft
and its occupants;
b. Availability of aircraft, marine craft and land parties for searching;
c. Actual and forecast weather conditions;
d. Times of daylight/darkness;
e. Nature of terrain;
f. Availability of survival supplies and rescue assets
Location of a Distressed Craft
4.5.2 If the craft is in radio communication, or reports have been received from other
sources, the problem of where to search is simplified and may only require the
calculation of a DR position. However, should a craft disappear without a distress
call being received, the following assumptions are made:
 a. that the craft is probably between the last reported position and its destination;
and
b. that the craft is most likely to be found on the section of the planned track
between the last reported position and the position where the next report was
due.
4.5.3 The possibility of a communications failure, and a subsequent diversion should not
be overlooked. The operating agency should be questioned concerning policy as to
diversion
4.5.4 New intelligence information may cause the SMC to re-evaluate the assumptions
made during the initial planning phase. The possibility of these evolutionary
changes to search strategy should not, however, dissuade a SMC from basing initial
search procedures on the above assumptions as long as there is, at that time, no
indication of contrary tracking by the distressed craft.
4.5.5 When conducting an initial response, it is not necessary to draw up a probability
area accurately based on the navigational history of the distressed craft's route, nor
is it normally necessary to take water movement into account, unless the interval
between the Last Known Position Time and the estimated time of arrival of search
units at the scene is longer than four hours. This will vary in high drift areas and the
SMC may make an arbitrary allowance in the first instance, which may be applied
until an accurate probability area is calculated in readiness for a more intensive
search.
4.5.6 The terms "Last Known Position" and "Last Known Position Time" are used when
referring to last known position and associated times. For simplicity, they are used
to describe both land and water positions.
Parachute Drift
4.5.7 When an aircraft has been abandoned in flight, consideration must be given to drift
when determining the probable location of survivors who have descended by
parachute. The displacement from the point at which the aircraft was abandoned
can be significant. Advice should be obtained from the military or sporting
organisations to assess the drift factor.
Initial Search Procedures
4.5.8 When the distress position is not known with certainty, the procedure most
frequently used first is to search along the intended track of the missing craft. If not
already completed, inspection of possible landing places should continue. It may be
necessary to allocate one or more aircraft to the task of examining those possible
landing areas that have not been inspected during the landing site and
communications checks. The size of the area to be considered for this purpose will
be at the discretion of the SMC, however, he should be guided in determining final
limits to landing site checks by the size of the probability area, modified by any
pertinent intelligence information.
4.5.9 Unless it is positively determined that the missing craft does not have an emergency
beacon, information should be obtained from the MCC on the satellite pass
schedule and an aircraft should be quickly allocated to an electronic search. It may
be possible to arrange for an electronic search to be flown either before or after
some other task but it should be noted that it is not practicable for an aircraft to be
tasked for a combined electronic and visual search. All aircraft on visual searches
however, as on other tasks, should be briefed to keep a listening watch on 121.5
MHz and 243.0 MHz if UHF equipped, but the maintenance of a listening watch will
be supplementary to the primary task. Likewise, an aircraft assigned to an
electronic search should be briefed to keep a general look out for visual signals if
possible.
4.5.10 In addition to aircraft being tasked to conduct an electronic search, a general
request should be promulgated through Air Traffic Services (ATS) for other non-
search aircraft to monitor 121.5 MHz.
4.5.11 In a situation where a craft has been reported missing, the time of the next
programmed COSPAS-SARSAT satellite pass from which an ELT/EPIRB signal
 radiating from the subject area may be received should be established. Otherwise
obtain a history of satellite passes for the period the craft was known to be in transit.
Aircraft Incident
4.5.12 Studies of SAR incident data confirm that in a majority of situations in which VFR
aircraft have crashed without warning, the distress site has been located within a
reasonable lateral distance of the intended track.
4.5.13 More precisely, an extensive foreign study2 has found that 77% of crashed VFR
aircraft flying random tracks, eg. through mountain valleys and over gaps, were
located within 5 NM either side of track and 87% within 10 NM.
4.5.14 With respect to VFR aircraft flying straight line tracks, 79% of crashes were located
within 10 NM either side of track and 83% within 15 NM.
4.5.15 These statistics may assist in an SMC's decision about the width of the area to be
initially searched. In the first instance, the width of area may be dependent upon
the number of search hours available from SAR units. If achievable, a common
strategy is to initially search for missing VFR aircraft within 10 miles either side of
planned track.
4.6 Basic Search Planning
Overview
4.6.1 A search plan is required for every mission. It may be a very abbreviated plan for a
single search unit, or it may be a complex plan involving a large number of units. In
any case, a search plan should always be developed by the SMC, as many lives
may depend upon the care with which the search is planned and conducted. When
a search mission is required, four factors are of immediate importance to the search
unit for conducting their search:
a. An adequate description of the search target;
b. The search area, including weather conditions and any possible risks or
dangers;
c. The best search pattern; and
d. The appropriate track spacing.
4.6.2 The SMC will most likely provide much more detailed information to the first search
unit to be dispatched to the search area, but the above four items comprise a
minimum. The SMC develops the original or optimum search plan on the
assumption that sufficient and suitable search units will be available for conducting
the operation. Once the optimum plan is developed, the SMC must make every
effort to obtain the services of the search units he needs.
Controlling Factors
4.6.3 When developing a search plan, the SMC must carefully weigh the limitations of
time, terrain, weather, navigational aids, search target detect ability, suitability of
available search units, search area size, distance between search area and SAR
unit staging bases, and the particular POD desired under the circumstances.
4.6.4 As the ability to survive after an emergency is limited, time is of paramount
importance, and any delay or misdirected effort will greatly diminish the chances of
locating survivors. While thorough mission planning and good conditions for search
are desirable, positive and immediate action is also required. The SMC should
exercise best judgement and initiate search with a minimum of information and few
SAR units while additional data are obtained and more extensive search operations
are planned.
4.6.5 Of all the factors involved in search planning, one or more may prove so important
in a particular situation that the others can generally be regarded as secondary or
even disregarded entirely. These important factors are referred to as the controlling
factors, and are the ones given the most consideration when developing the

2
Based on empirical data collected on Canadian inland search and rescue incidents
from 1981 to 1986.
 attainable search plan. For example, when only a limited number of SAR units are
available, the following relationships might exist between datum, search area, time
available and probability of detection (POD):
a. Inaccurate datum requires a larger search area at the expense of time or
POD.
b. Limited time available for the search requires a rapid search rate at the
expense of the POD
c. High POD requires close track spacing at the expense of area searched or
time.
4.6.6 The preceding paragraph illustrates a few of the factors that the particular
circumstances may dictate as controlling factors. In any of the above circumstances
additional SAR units would alleviate the situation, but (apart from SAR units
availability) there is a practical limit to the number of search units that can be safely
used within a given area. With the realisation that emphasis on any factor will
usually be at the expense of others, the SMC must decide which factors are the
most important. Once this is decided, the search effort is planned to meet the
requirements of the controlling factors, while at the same time satisfying the other
factors as much as possible.
4.6.7 A controlling factor peculiar to most maritime areas is the drift rate. In situations
where a high drift rate is encountered, the SMC must allow for sufficient extension
of the search area in the direction of drift in order to prevent the target from slipping
out of the area during the search.
4.6.8 Search legs must be planned so that the target cannot slip out of the search craft’s
track spacing during successive sweeps. The simplest and most effective way of
accomplishing the latter is to orientate the search legs with the drift direction.
4.6.9 If the search leg must be oriented across the drift direction, then the search craft
should take no longer than 30 minutes to complete each search leg.
4.6.10 To ascertain if the drift rate presents a problem, compare the targets drift rate to the
rate of creep of the search aircraft. If the targets drift rate exceeds the aircraft’s rate
of creep, remedial action is necessary. This may take the form of a barrier search
at the end of the search area.
Search Effort Expenditure Rate
4.6.11 Some situations, such as a declared distress or overdue craft, call for an initial
maximum search effort over wide areas. However, a maximum search effort cannot
be mounted every time a fishing boat or aircraft is first reported overdue. The great
majority of overdue aircraft and small boat missions can be effectively handled by a
planned build-up of the search effort. By using the repeated expansion concept with
a small coverage factor, a reasonable build-up of search effort is possible. This
build up of search effort is combined with an expansion of the search area, and
reaches the maximum effort and largest area on the last search. At that time, if no
contact has been made with the target, the POD will have been strongly established
that the target is not visible in the area searched.
Maximum Search Effort
4.6.12 When a situation of actual distress is either known or strongly suspected to exist,
the time available for search will usually be limited. A maximum search effort must
be completed within this time. Quite often a large search area is also involved,
further compounding the SMC’s problems. The following method has proved
successful in approaching this situation.
a. Determine a search area that gives a high POD of successfully finding the
search object.
b. Use a track spacing equal to sweep width (C = 1.0, or at least 0.5).
c. Decide the time by which the search must be completed.
d. Select the number of SAR units hours required to complete one search of the
area within the allocated time.
 e. Dispatch sufficient SAR units to complete one search of the area within the
allocated time.
f. If unsuccessful, expand and/or repeat in accordance with the repeated
expansion concept.
4.6.13 Do not re-orientate the search or change SAR unit assignments whilst on task if it
can be avoided
4.6.14 Once a large-scale search is ordered and SAR Units are dispatched, reorientation
of the search area for that particular search is both difficult and wasteful. Planning
should therefore be thorough and then adhered to. The SMC must also resist the
temptation to re-deploy units whenever new intelligence or doubtful hearing or
sighting reports are received. New intelligence should be evaluated with the
possibility that the information needs immediate action. Additional units should be
dispatched to investigate leads that come to light after the assigned units have
commenced searching.
Search Sequence
4.6.15 There is no single sequence of search types, search patterns, etc. which can be
suggested as standard procedures. The matrix in Table 4.1 shows one search
sequence employing various factors and search parameters. Such a sequence
could be used where large areas must be searched initially and search craft are
limited. Each incident will require its own specific sequence and parameters should
be recalculated for each search.
Search Type Period Target Speed (Kt) Track Altitude
No Spacing (NM) AGL/AMSL
(Ft)
Initial Track line Day/Night active target 100/200 5 Below 5000
1 Electronic Day/Night electronic 150/500 20 High as
beacons practicable
2 Visual (aids) Night Fires, flares, 100/150 10 1500-3000
torch, etc
3 Visual (aids) Day Mirrors, dye, Mirrors, dye, 10 1500-2000
smoke, etc smoke, etc
4 Visual (rafts) Day Liferafts 100/150 1.5 300-1500
5 Visual Day Wreckage, 75/130 0.5 200-2000
(wreckage) survivors
Table 4.1 Search sequence
Notes:
1. Some specialist aircraft may be able to provide radar and or electronic
sensor searches. This type of search must be considered when
conditions are favourable.
2. Searches Initial, 1 and 2 could take place simultaneously at night and
3, 4 and 5 during the ensuing daylight hours; hence all five searches
could be completed by the end of a 24 or 36 hour period. Search
number is not to be confused with Day number.
4.6.16 The most effective search, by far, is an electronic search for a beacon. Electronic
searches cover larger areas very rapidly with a high POD. After a beacon search,
and given that it is known that the survivors from a maritime incident have distress
flares, the next most effective detection aids are luminous types used at night. The
SMC therefore plans to use a search unit on a night track line search during the first
darkness period following the ditching. This pattern is also expanded laterally, but
at a track spacing of 20 miles. Since the survivors will be in better physical and
mental condition during the early stages of their ordeal, the SMC takes advantage of
this by deploying a night search at the first opportunity. This minimises the
possibility of the detection aids being lost prior to their use, or of the survivors
becoming too weak to use them effectively.
4.6.17 The third most effective group of detection aids are the daylight aids such as
mirrors, smoke and sea dye marker. The first daylight visual search is therefore
based on this group of detection aids. A larger area can be covered initially by using
 10-mile track spacing. In addition, the SMC is taking advantage of the probable
better physical and mental condition of the survivors, in the same manner as when
the early night search for the luminous detection aids was commenced.
4.6.18 If in a maritime incident, the electronic search, the night visual search and the day
visual search for detection aids are unsuccessful, the SMC must next plan to search
for liferafts. Just as the SMC assumed that the survivors were able to use their
beacon, luminous detection aids and daylight detection aids in previous searches,
he now assumes that the survivors were able to board their liferafts after ditching or
abandoning their vessel. Therefore the SMC uses slower aircraft at close track
spacing to search visually for liferafts.
4.6.19 If these raft searches were also unsuccessful, the SMC must then use extremely
small track spacing and search for survivors in the water, wreckage and debris.
From the second search on, the SMC should have also directed that all SAR Units
maintain radar search, where radar available, even though the search was planned
on the more tangible effective detection aids available to the survivors.
4.7 Determination of Search Areas
Planning
4.7.1 Should an initial response fail to locate either the distressed craft or its occupants, it
will be necessary to plan and execute an intensive search. The planning of a search
may be considered under six broad headings:
a. Determination of the most probable position of the distressed craft and/or its
occupants;
b. Delineation of an area large enough to ensure that the survivors are within the
area;
c. Selection of facilities and equipment to be employed;
d. Selection of the search procedures to be used;
e. Allocation of search resources;
f. Preparation for rescue.
4.7.2 Additionally, it must be decided what is desirable in terms of search coverage and
what may be achievable using available resources.
4.7.3 The most probable position (MPP) of a distress incident may be determined from a
position reported at the time of the incident, or by the calculation of a DR position.
4.7.4 The extent of a search area is based on the accuracy with which the position of the
occurrence is known. The SMC should take into account such factors as the
possible navigation error of the distressed craft and the search craft, meteorological
conditions, and drift of the distressed craft or survivors if in the water.
4.7.5 When the location of a craft is not known, a reconstruction of the probable route and
some estimation of the most likely position of the incident must be made by the
RCC.
4.7.6 Two concepts of value in SAR Planning are the Possibility Area, and the Probability
Area.
Possibility Area
4.7.7 The possibility area is the area in which a missing craft could be located. Usually
the area is too big to be considered the search area but knowledge of its extent and
boundaries may be of use when assessing intelligence information, in particular
sighting or hearing reports.
4.7.8 The possibility area is displayed as a circle drawn around the last known position
(LKP) of the craft. The radius of this circle should equal the endurance at the time
of the LKP expressed in terms of distance and taking into account wind velocity for
aircraft or drift for vessels. It is assumed that the craft may have proceeded in any
direction until it’s fuel was exhausted.
4.7.9 The possibility area may be determined by:
 a. for aircraft, drawing a wind vector downwind from the LKP to a scale
representing a distance equal to the wind speed multiplied by the known or
estimated remaining fuel endurance time, while for vessels, drawing the drift
for the time period since the LKP; then
b. drawing a circle from the end of the wind vector or drift, of a radius (using the
same scale) representing a distance equal to the aircraft TAS or vessel speed
multiplied by the known or estimated remaining fuel endurance.
4.7.10 Figure 4.1 shows the possibility area for an aircraft with a last known position of A.
Position B is the aircraft’s datum once the wind vector has been applied. The circle
is derived using a radius, centred on B, of the aircrafts remaining endurance, which
in this example is 150 nm.
Where: A = LKP, TAS = 1oo kts, W/V +180/15, Endurance remaining at A = 90
minutes.
Therefore A-B = 22.5 NM and radius B-C = 150 NM

Fig 4.1 Possibility Area

Probability Area
4.7.11 The probability area is the area in which a missing craft and/or survivors, are most
likely to be found, taking into account possible errors in the navigation of the missing
craft and of the search craft, together with an allowance for any water movement
(should the incident occur on or over water) and a safety factor.
4.7.12 When the position of an incident is reported by a witness, or reported as a
navigational fix determined by radar or another craft or by the distressed craft itself,
or calculated by the RCC in the form of DR position, the probability area is enclosed
by a circle of probability centred on that position, taking into account the applicable
above mentioned factors.
4.7.13 In the case of a downed aircraft (see Figure 4.2), joining lines 10 NM either side of
the aircraft’s known, planned or suspected route will normally form the initial
probability area for an aircraft search. The 10 NM may be adjusted to allow for the
type of flight, eg a transiting helicopter may be 5 NM either side of track where as a
turbo prop or jet aircraft may be 15 NM or more. This is referred to as a Stage 2
search.

10 nms

Turning point

Departure point or
last known fix
Destination or missed
position report

Fig 4.2 Stage 2 Search Area

4.7.14 When Stage 1 and Stage 2 search actions fail to locate the target, the probability
area should be determined by drawing circles of probability around the last known
position, the first missed report position, and any turning points along the planned
track. Tangents to the circles then enclose the intervening area. This is referred to
as a Stage 3 search and is shown in Figure 4.3. Planning for the Stage 3 search
should commence when it is apparent the target cannot be located by the Stage 2
search.

D e s tin a tio n o r m is s e d
p o s itio n re p o rt

T u rn in g p o in t D e p a rtu re p o in t
r o r la s t k n o w n fix

r r

N o te : ‘r ’ d e p e n d s o n th e v a lu e o f x a n d y

Fig 4.3 Stage 3 Search Area (Mathematically derived)

4.7.15 When a route had been planned to cross the sea, or a large expanse of inland
water, or the search involves a marine craft, allowance must be made for movement
of survivors in or on the water, brought about by currents and wind.

Fig 4.4 Probability area for an over water flight or marine craft incident when track is known
4.7.16 The assumption is made that unless otherwise known, or indicated, the pilot/captain
would follow their planned track as closely as possible. Use of information indicating
otherwise would be at the discretion of the SMC.
4.7.17 When neither the position nor the intended track of a missing aircraft is known, a
probability area must be determined by assessing likely pilot decisions in the light of
intelligence information received, eg. the disposition of a township, recent weather
conditions; geographical features etc.
4.7.18 The examples illustrated in Figures 4.3 and 4.4 are representative of a situation
where nothing has been heard from the pilot since departure and the pilot's route
was known. Subsequent intelligence information that is gathered from witnesses
and observers near the intended route might allow for the elimination of some route
segments.
Calculation of Circles of Probability
4.7.19 The Total Probable Error of Position (E) is found from the formula:

E= {x2 + y2 + De2}
where:
x is the probable navigation error of the distressed craft (initial position error);
y is the probable navigation error of a search craft (search craft error); and
De is the probable error of the calculated drift of a target in water (total error).
4.7.20 In an environment where drift is not available, or does not exist (eg coastal or land),
the value for de should be zero.
Probable Errors of Position
4.7.21 Initial Position Error (X) of the distressed craft and Search Craft Position Error (Y)
are the estimated errors of position based on navigational accuracy of the
distressed craft and of the search assets. These errors of position for the calculation
of e can be found in Appendix J.
Search Radius (R)
4.7.22 This is defined as the radius of a circle, centred at the most probable position of the
target at any given time (the Datum), equal in length to the Total Probable Error of
Position (E) in nautical miles, increased by a safety factor. For successive searches
of the probability area the safety factor is increased progressively.
4.7.23 The safety factors applied to the Total Probable Error of Position to obtain a Search
Radius (R) are shown in table 4.2.
Search Effort Safety Factor
Initial Probability Area 1.1c
First Expansion 1.6c
Second Expansion 2.0c
Third Expansion 2.3c
Final Expansion 2.5c
Table 4.2 Safety Factors
4.7.24 Worksheet 4 (see Appendix K) is available to assist with calculations.
4.7.25 AusSAR does not use the above safety factors in its programs for computer
generating search planning. However, they can be applied to Coastal Search
Planning, see section 4.8.
Drift Error for Waterborne Targets
4.7.26 Over land, the Datum is the last known position; however when survivors are known
or thought to be in or on the water an allowance must be made for movement of the
water resulting from the effects of wind and current. The degree of displacement of
the Datum from the last known position assumes increasing importance with the
passing of time, and MUST be allowed for in search planning. Survival Craft Drift,
as the displacement is called, is a function of:
a. The average sea current;
b. The average wind current; and
c. Leeway.
4.7.27 The deployment of electronic SAR Datum Buoys should be considered as a means
of measuring sea and wind current. Other sources of information include data held
in the RCC, vessels passing through the search area, and individuals with local
knowledge.
4.7.28 The direction and speed of these factors is referred to as ’SET’. Contrary to the
convention of expressing wind velocity, the direction component indicates the
direction of movement. The speed component is usually quoted in knots. Care
 must be taken to ensure that the speed unit is both stated, and interpreted,
correctly.
4.7.29 To determine a value for Survival Craft Drift Error (De) it is necessary to complete a
Datum Plot. A Datum Plot provides information both to calculate De and to measure
the displacement of the Datum from the Last known position for the period under
consideration. Drift error is derived by the resolution of the three factors (average
sea current, average wind current, leeway), by way of vector addition.
Sea Current
4.7.30 Sea current data can be obtained from RCC Australia, which has access to various
sources of information and can run a net water movement program to provide up to
date information.
4.7.31 Tidal and local geographic features may affect sea currents near the coast. When
areas near the coast are to be searched, the water movement for the area should
be discussed more fully with local experts.
Tidal Streams
4.7.32 Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, modified by the
depth and shape of the sea basin along the coastal areas. Currents in coastal
waters are usually be effected by tides, changing in predictable velocity as the state
of the tide changes. In some locations tidal streams are of the reversing type,
abruptly changing direction 180 degrees at about the time of high and low water. In
other places the direction will change in small increments so as to create a constant
rotary movement. Variations of these tidal effects may also be found.
4.7.33 The exact effect of the tide on currents in any specific area may be found by
consulting tide tables or local charts. Local knowledge is again of great value in
dealing with movements of tidal streams. While the changes in direction of tidal
streams have a tendency to nullify the cumulative effect, they must nevertheless be
considered in computing drift for the following reasons:
a. Often, with reversing streams, the effect in one direction is greater than in the
other so that, over a period of time, the resultant effect is more in one direction
than in the other.
b. Even over short periods of time the flow of tidal streams will cause significant
changes in the probable position of a search object.
4.7.34 Since most areas affected by tidal streams will be close to landmasses, wind current
will usually not be a factor in determining drift. Because of this, drift occurring in in-
shore waters over short periods will be more greatly affected by tidal streams than
current or leeway. However, if the cumulative effect of tidal streams and coastal
currents thrusts the target into areas where sea current takes effect then drift
considerations will need to be revised.
River Current
4.7.35 River current will affect SAR incidents that occur in offshore areas near river
mouths. Tidal streams affect the river current speeds near the mouths of the rivers.
In large rivers this affect may be noticed several kilometres upstream from the
mouth. Published current tables often give values which are combinations of tidal
and river flow effects. These are among areas where reversing streams will be
greater in one direction that the other.
 A. No offshore B. Offshore
current

Offshore
current

Offshore water
boundary

Fig 4.5 River discharge

4.7.36 On the other hand, river current affects both total current and sea current at its
mouth. Some major rivers extend their influence quite significantly off shore.
Seasonal variations in water volume and velocity should be considered.
4.7.37 When estimating river current in the discharge area an assumption that the current
direction is a straight line from the river mouth to the discharge boundary and the
river current speed decreases linearly from the river mouth to the discharge
boundary should be made. The river current speed at the mouth can usually be
obtained from local knowledge or by direct observation.
4.7.38 If any type of offshore current is present, the SMC should expect that the river
discharge will not fan out symmetrically, but will be displaced in the direction of the
offshore current.
Long Shore Current
4.7.39 Long shore currents are caused by incoming swells striking the shore at an angle.
Long shore current information must be obtained from direct observation or local
knowledge.
Swell/Wave Current
4.7.40 In calm conditions, swells and waves may affect rafts and other small marine search
targets. The effect is similar to leeway in that the raft is being moved through the
water. However swell/wave current speed is so small, under 0.1 knot, that the drift
force is usually ignored in determining general search areas. It is useful however
for determining probable direction of target movement in some cases.
Surf Current
4.7.41 Surf current is only considered for incidents occurring in coastal surf areas. It is
more of a rescue or salvage factor than a search planning factor. Surf currents will
move a drifting object after it enters the surf zone. If no long shore current is
present, the surf current will move the object towards the shore perpendicular to the
line of breakers. If a long shore current is present, the object will be displaced in the
direction of the long shore current.
Rip Current
4.7.42 Rip current is a special type of surf current. It is a narrow band of current flowing
seaward through the surf line as a result of the long shore current building up a
large volume of water along the beach line, and then bursting through the incoming
surf on its way back to sea. Rip currents are only a few metres wide through the
surf line, but they fan out and slow down when in smoother water. Rip currents
occur when long shore currents are present, and in places where some form of
bottom trough, bottom rise or shoreline feature assists in deflecting the long shore
current build up in a seaward direction.
Local Wind Current
4.7.43 Local wind current is the current generated by wind acting on the surface of the
water. The current changes with variations of the wind pattern.
4.7.44 Near the coast, wind current can be affected by various factors and consideration
should be given to omitting the wind current vector from search areas close to the
coast. Offshore, consideration should also be given to omitting the wind current
vector, if it is considered to be an area of consistent winds. The velocity of a wind
current is calculated from:
a. Wind data for the 48 hours preceding splash time;
b. Actual and forecast winds between splash time and Datum time; and
c. The application of coefficients taken from tables held in RCCs.
4.7.45 Wind current is calculated for 6-hour periods, the periods being coincident with the
meteorological synoptic periods. The current for any given synoptic period is the
cumulative effect of the wind in the area for the 48 hours prior to the end of the
synoptic period being considered. The direction and speed coefficients obtained
from the tables allow for the effect of coriolis, and the reversal of wind direction, to
express the result as ’SET’.
Leeway
4.7.46 Leeway is the movement of a search object caused by it being pushed through the
water by local winds blowing against its exposed surfaces. A boat, raft or any other
type of marine craft has a certain proportion of its hull and superstructure exposed
above the surface of the water at all times. This exposed area is blown against by
local winds, which in turn have the effect of pushing the marine craft through the
water. The more surface area the wind has to blow against, the greater will be the
wind’s effect on drift. If the silhouette of a boat were projected onto a flat plane,
which was perpendicular to the wind direction, the area enclosed by the silhouette
would be called the exposed flat-plane area. As the boat’s heading changes
relative to the wind, its flat-plane area also changes, usually becoming least when
the boat is heading directly into the wind or downwind.
4.7.47 The pushing force of the wind is countered by the water drag on the underwater
hull. The drag varies with the volume, shape, depth and orientation of the
underwater hull. When a marine craft is parallel to the wind direction the least
amount of underwater drag will exist since the craft will be pushed through the water
in the direction its hull is designed to move. Almost the same conditions exist when
the boat is pointed directly into the wind and is being pushed backwards through the
water longitudinally. When the boat’s heading is perpendicular to the local wind,
however, the greatest amount of underwater drag will exist since the boat must now
be pushed sideways through the water. Between these extremes the amount of
underwater drag will varies depending on the heading of the boat.
Divergence
4.7.48 When a search object first begins to drift, the wind will push the object in a
downwind direction. As the search object continues to drift, the wind will cause the
search object to deflect (or diverge) to either the left or to the right of the downwind
direction. The amount of divergence is dependent upon the shape of the “sail” area
of the search object. Divergence is caused by the lack of symmetry of the drift
object.
Calculating Leeway
4.7.49 A search object’s leeway speed is measured as a percentage of the of the wind
speed. The Multiplier value listed in the Taxonomy provides the leeway speed
percentage. In some cases, it is necessary to add or subtract a Modifier to further
refine the search object’s leeway speed.
4.7.50 Thus, the formula to determine leeway speed is:
Leeway Speed (knots) = Multiplier x Wind Speed (knots) + Modifier
Note: By international agreement, wind direction is reported in most places
based on the direction the wind is blowing from. For search planning
we are interested in the direction the wind is blowing to. When using
downwind leeway, the leeway direction is equal to the reciprocal of the
wind direction (Wind direction + or – 180 DEG).
4.7.51 When directional uncertainty applies, the divergence angle is both added and
subtracted to the downwind direction to account for the search object’s divergence
to the left or right of the downwind direction. Thus, the formula to determine the
direction of the divergence is:
Wind Direction +/- 180 DEG = Downwind Direction
Downwind Direction + Divergence Angle = Angle to right of Downwind Direction
Downwind Direction – Divergence Angle = Angle to left of Downwind Direction
4.7.52 The following example illustrates how the Taxonomy is used to determine
directional uncertainty leeway. Refer to the Leeway Taxonomy to obtain the
appropriate multiplier, modifier, and divergence angle.
4.7.53 A search is being conducted for a missing scuba diver. The winds are blowing from
270 DEG true at 15 knots.
(0.007 x 15) + 0.08 = 0.185 kts x hours of drift = vector length (NM)
(270 DEG - 180 DEG) + 30 DEG = 120 DEG T
(270 DEG - 180 DEG) – 30 DEG = 060 DEG T
4.7.54 The leeway speed would be multiplied by the number of hours of drift to determine
the leeway vector’s length. The two leeway vectors would be added to the end of
the total water current vector to determine the Right and Left Datum.
4.7.55 The magnitude of leeway speed in relation to wind speed (u) and leeway divergence
for persons in water and various types of marine craft can be found in Appendix I
(Tables I-1 and I-2). The tables have been adapted from Allen and Plourde 1999
Review of Leeway: Field Experiments and Implementation, USCG Research and
Development Centre Report No CG-D-08-99. Appendix G (G-3) contains the
Taxonomy Class Definitions/Descriptions.
Note: Prior to the publication of the data the USCG Research and
Development Centre made the decision that the only data published
would be data that was based on actual results derived from
documented research and observation during controlled field
experiments. However it has been recognised that some anomalies
exist in the data pertaining to maritime life rafts with no ballast
systems. There has been significant time elapse between the initial
research done by Hufford and Broida in 1974 and later research by
Nash and Willcox in 1991 and it is probable that the make of liferaft
used for the experiments may no longer be in use.
SAR Mission Coordinators should evaluate the calculated results
obtained from using the tables, compare the results with actual known
conditions and, if required, adjust leeway values as appropriate.
Plotting Drift
4.7.56 Using the vector values determined for average sea current, wind current and
leeway it is possible to plot a simple vector diagram and obtain a datum point.
However as the leeway data is generally uncertain it is necessary to plot both a left
and right drift, and to calculate drift error (De). Whenever possible the owner or
operating agency should be contacted to verify the type of liferaft carried and its
equipment.
4.7.57 Any change to surface wind conditions has an immediate effect on a craft’s leeway,
and a recalculation of vectors is required.
Datum Plot
4.7.58 The bearing and distance of a Datum from its associated Last known position is
found by combining four vectors as shown in figure 4.6:
The sea current
The wind current
Two leeway vectors, one each for left, and right divergence
 D. left Datum D. right

Left
leeway
Right
leeway Splash
point

Sea
Wind current
current
Fig 4.6 Datum plot
4.7.59 The value of the vectors may change with time, therefore it is necessary to calculate
a mean value for each vector for the period between splash time and datum time.
All calculations are related to meteorological synoptic periods, or part thereof. The
objective being to calculate the movement attributable to each factor during the
period under consideration, with a vector summation for the whole period and then
to combine the individual effects to establish a most probable position for the target.
When the most probable position has been established, an allowance is made for
possible errors, which is then combined with the navigation error allowances in the
Total Probable Error of Position formula.
4.7.60 A Datum Plot may be drawn on graph paper, or more readily on the face of a
navigation computer, using the squared section of the slide. To construct the plot,
draw the sea current vector from the last known position, add the wind current
vector, and then from the end of the wind current vector draw the two leeway
vectors. Although not quite correct mathematically, the mid point between the ends
of the leeway vectors may be taken as the Datum.
Drift Error (De)
4.7.61 Drift Error (De) is the radius of a circle of probability around the Datum. The circle is
externally tangential to two circles of probability drawn around the end of each
leeway vector, the radius of each circle being equal to 12.5% of the distance from
Last Known Position (LKP) to the end of the appropriate leeway vector. The value of
De therefore, is the sum of the radii of the two leeway probability circles and the
distance between the ends of the leeway vector, LR divided by two, i.e.
De = {de (L) + de (R) + distance LR}
2
de (R)

De
Datum

de (L)

LKP

Fig 4.7 Plotting drift error

Search area based on non-moving datum
4.7.62 For a typical last report/missed report situation, where the track between positions is
a straight line, the probability area may be modified as in Figure 4.8 to form a
trapezium. The area of the trapezium may be found from the formula

A = L (D + d)
2
4.7.63 Where L is the distance between datum A and datum B plus the two radii of the
circles of probability, and D and d are the measured distances across the ends of
the trapezium. It will be readily apparent that this modification will result in a larger
area than the original probability area. An estimate of the excess area can be made
and taken into account in planning calculations necessary.

Datum Datum
d L D
A B

Fig 4.8 Search area (non moving datum)

Search based on moving datum

4.7.64 To calculate the area of an irregularly shaped probability or search area, it will be
necessary to sub-divide the area into squares, rectangles or triangles, calculate the
size of the smaller area, and sum the results. Use may be made of a surveyor’s
grid to determine the size of the irregularly shaped areas. In a maritime situation
the datum point is moving and areas will move on the chart as depicted in Figure
4.9.

5th search

4th search

3rd search

Datum
2nd search
Datum
1st search Datum
Datum
Reported position Datum

Fig 4.9 Search areas (moving datum point)

 Dashed lines
enclose drifted and
expanded area that
is still to be
searched. Searched
portion

Unsearched
Portion

de
Datum
drift

Fig 4.10 Area being searched at significantly different times

4.7.65 It may be necessary to redefine a search area, which is either an unsearched
portion of an area, or one derived from intelligence information but located wholly, or
partly, over water. In such cases one, or more points on the boundary of the area
should be selected, which may then be treated in the same way as any other last
known position from which a Datum may be determined. That is, drift vectors and
drift error should be applied to them to give new boundary positions that will
compensate for drift effect over the intervening period. The area may then be
reconstructed relative to these Data and expanded in proportion to the Search
Radii. In doing this it is necessary to draw circles of probability around the Data with
Radii equal to “de” and joined by tangents.
4.7.66 The appropriate safety factor will have been included in the calculations to
determine the original area (See Figure 4.10).
Labelling the Datum
4.7.67 During an extended over water search involving several Datum Points it may be
necessary to calculate a series of Data. To avoid confusion when referring to Data,
a standard system shall be used. The Datum referring to the distress position or last
known position shall be identified as ’A’, with subsequent positions along a path
identified in alphabetical order. Data referring to a particular Datum Point shall be
numbered consecutively, and in addition, shall be annotated with a date/time group
when depicted on a chart as shown in figure 4.11.

Fig 4.11 Labelling of data

Modification of the Probability Area

4.7.68 Modification of a calculated probability area may be suggested from an assessment
of intelligence information received in the RCC, limitations imposed by search unit
availability or for other reasons.
4.7.69 It should always be understood that SAR calculations are intended to be a guide to
search planning, and may be modified to suit any particular situation as suggested
by the accumulated SAR experience within the RCC.
4.7.70 Any member of the RCC team who considers that a modification would be to
advantage shall make the SMC aware of the suggestion. When offering such
suggestions, every attempt should be made to present viable alternatives, together
with a summary of the advantages, and disadvantages of each. The authority to
make any such modification rests solely with the SMC.
Modification suggested by Intelligence information
4.7.71 During the course of a SAR action, reports and information may be received from a
variety of sources claiming that the missing craft had been seen or heard. Detailed
analysis of these reports, and comparison with data about known flights, may lead
the SMC to delineate a modified, or totally different, search area. Discussion with
owners or operators of a missing craft may bring forth information concerning the
course of action that would be followed in particular circumstances. Similar
information may be gathered from relatives, friends and colleagues.
Modification resulting from a shortage of Search Aircraft
4.7.72 When it is not possible to search the whole of the probability area in the course of a
single sortie by each available aircraft, a number of factors may be changed to
facilitate modification of the area. For example: track spacing, aircraft speed, search
height or the size of the probability area. After consideration of these factors, the
SMC will make a decision which section of a probability area should be searched
first.
4.7.73 Worksheets 2 (Maritime) and 3 (Land) have been developed to assist in determining
the extent of the probability area that can be searched with available resources. It is
designed to present the SMC with a statement in numerical terms of:
a. The desirable intensity of the search, that is, the optimum coverage factor;
b. The amount of area which can be searched at the desired coverage factor;
and, if this is less than the area described, and
c. The quality of search that can be obtained by covering the whole area with the
search aircraft available.
Modification of Areas Incorporating De and Increased Safety Factors
4.7.74 Care must be taken not to waste search effort on the section of the probability area
that encompasses land areas as a result of incorporating allowance for water
movement. To avoid this, reference should be made to the fundamental probability
area, calculated by using only the ’x’ factor. A search of any coastline included in a
drifted area should always be made.
4.7.75 Similar consideration should be made when an area that is predominantly over land
is expanded, and subsequently includes an area of water. This situation is not so
simple and clear cut, and may require reference to intelligence information to justify
the inclusion, or exclusion, of the over-water area. Should it be decided to search
the over-water part of an expanded probability area, movement of the now included
over-water part must be taken into account for the period between Splash Time and
Datum Time.
Modification for the Allocation of Areas to Search Units Other than Aircraft
4.7.76 When drawing up a probability area the allowance for search craft navigation is
usually that specified for aircraft. When using other types of search unit, i.e. land or
marine, it will be advantageous to recalculate the probability area using the
appropriate value for ‘y’
Consideration of Possible Courses of Action by the Captain of the Distress Craft
4.7.77 Through an analysis of intelligence information, or because of the failure to locate a
missing craft in the probability area, even after the expansion to the 2.5c safety
factor, it may be considered necessary to search other areas or tracks. All
 decisions of this nature are the responsibility of the SMC. The general guidelines
for determination or probability areas should be applied.
4.8 Coastal Search Planning
Search Area
4.8.1 A great number of maritime search and rescue incidents occur within 25 nms of the
coast, in under 300 metres of water. The coastal search-planning model is to assist
with a rapid response and should ideally be used when the report of a craft in
distress is notified to a SAR authority within 6 hours of the actual distress situation
arising.
4.8.2 This section is aimed at simplifying the search planning methods when this situation
arises. If time and unit availability allows, the oceanic model should be used. The
principles in other sections under search planning should be referred to. If this
model is used and overall coordination of the incident is handed to another SAR
authority, that SAR authority should be made aware of the situation and model
used.
4.8.3 In most cases, considering the short response time to coastal SAR incidents, if the
search unit proceeds to the last known position (LKP) of the craft in distress it will be
found. However, the craft in distress may not be in sight because of inaccuracies in
the initial position reported; inherent errors associated with drift factors; and/or
errors in navigation of the search unit.
4.8.4 If the time since the craft became distressed is less than four hours and it is not
located at the LKP draw a 6nm radius centred at the LKP. Then draw a square
search area with the sides tangential to the circle. This will give a search are of 144
nm2 (as shown in figure 4.13).

6 NM

LKP

Fig 4.13 Circle of probability using coastal method

4.8.5 The purpose of drawing a radius around the datum is to describe the geographical
area most likely to contain the search object. The formula uses the Total Probable
Error (E), which includes the Initial Position Error (X) of the distressed craft and the
Navigation Error of the SRU (Y), but does not include Drift Error (De).

E= (X2 + Y2)
4.8.6 For coastal SAR cases when an SRU arrives on scene and the search object is not
seen, a 5 nm position error for the distressed craft and a 1 nm navigation error for
the SRU may be assumed. Using the formula, when X = 5 and Y = 1 then:
E= (52 + 12)

E= (26)

E= 5.009 nm
4.8.7 Applying the safety factor for the first search (fs = 1.1), then:
Radius = (E)(fs)
Radius = (5.009)(1.1)
Radius = 5.6 nm
This is rounded up to 6 nm.
4.8.8 If the time is greater than 4 hours but less than 6 hours, and/or the drift, based on
local knowledge and/or on scene conditions, is considered to be significant, the
search objects drift should be established, and the 6 nm radius applied to the drift
datum position.
4.8.9 In coastal SAR, the initial datum is determined by calculating drift using the object’s
LKP and the effects of water current and wind current without considering leeway
divergence (leeway direction is considered to be directly downwind). Time of datum
must take the underway transit time for the SRU into consideration.
4.8.10 If the craft in distress reports a position in shallow water there is always the
possibility that the vessel may attempt to anchor. Therefore, particular attention
should be paid to the situation when the LKP is outside the established search area.
In many cases, it should be possible to search along the drift line from the LKP to
the datum during the initial search. However, it may be necessary to search the drift
line after the search area has been completed.

12 NM

Wind vector
6 NM
12 NM

Total Water
Current Vector

Total Drift Vector

LKP

Fig 4.14 Circle of probability using coastal method and allowing for drift

Time Uncertainty
4.8.11 If the time of the incident is uncertain, calculate a datum for the shortest possible
time the vessel could be adrift, and calculate a second datum for the longest
possible time the vessel could be adrift. Draw a circle of 6 nms around each datum
point and then enclose the circles in a rectangle. To determine the size of the area,
multiply the length in miles by the width in miles.

Total W ater Current Vectors

Wind Vector
Wind Vector

LKP
Datum 1 Datum 2

6 NM 6 NM

Fig 4.15 Circles of probability when time uncertain

Position Uncertainty
4.8.12 If the position of the craft in distress is in question, calculate a datum for each
position and draw a 6 nm circle around each and enclose the circles (fig 4.16). If
extreme distances separate the positions in doubt, consideration should be given to
treating them as separate vessel adrift incidents (fig 4.17).

LKP1 6 NM LKP2 6 NM

Fig 14.16 Circles of probability when position uncertain

Total Water Current Vector

Wind Vector

LKP Datum

6 NM

Total Water Current Vector

Wind Vector

LKP Datum

6 NM

Fig 4.17 Circles of probability when position uncertain & extreme distances separate positions

Track Line Overdue Incident

4.8.13 If a craft in distress is overdue along a track line, determine a datum near the
beginning of the track, another near the end of track and one at each turning point.
The datum line is the line joining each datum. Draw a 6 nm circle around each
datum and enclose the circles in rectangles with sides drawn tangentially to the
datum circles.

6nm 6nm
Point A
Datum Line
Point C
Datum Line

6nm
Intended track
Point B

Fig 4.18 Track line overdue incident ≤ 4 hours

4.8.14 If time late to datum is more than 4 hours allow for drift of starting, ending and
turning points as seen in fig 4.19.

6nm
Current
Current
Curren 6nm
t
Total Drift
Leeway Datum Line Leeway Total drift
Datum Line
Leewa
y
Point A 6nm
Current Point C

Proposed Leeway Total Drift

Track

Point B

Fig 4.19 Track line overdue incident > 4 hours

Recomputed Datum
4.8.15 As a general rule in coastal situations, the datum is recomputed every 2 to 4 hours.
4.8.16 When recomputing a datum that was initially established using the coastal model
the drift error (de) of the target must be calculated. As with the case in oceanic
search planning, drift error rate estimates usually fall between 1/8 and 1/3 of the
total distance drifted. The search planner depending on the confidence, or lack
thereof, in the relevant drift data may also use values outside this range. The higher
the confidence in the data the smaller the value used to estimate drift error.
4.8.17 In addition, the total drift error for two or more successive drift updates is the sum of
all the individual drift errors up to that point therefore, drift error always increases
with the passage of time.
4.8.18 In this model the distance from datum1 to the recomputed datum2 is measured. The
de of the position is established, generally using 1/8th of the drifted distance as error,
and then adding this distance to the 6 nm assumed error (E) used to establish the
initial search area.
Example
4.8.19 The target is drifted from its LKP to datum1 and an E = 6 nm is plotted. The targets
drift is recalculated some time later and its drift is established as 8 nm from datum1.
Using 1/8th of the targets drift as error, 1 nm is added to the initial 6 nm error used
for the first datum. Therefore the error used for datum2 is 6 nm + 1 nm = 7 nm. See
Figure 4.20.

7 NM

Datum2
6 NM
Datum1
LKP

Fig 4.20 Recomputing datum

Track Spacing
4.8.20 For the coastal search model, the following standard track spacings are
recommended on search objects less than 30 feet high.
Good Search Conditions
4.8.21 In conditions where the wind speed is less than 15 knots and/or visibility is greater
than 3 nms, use a track spacing of up to 3 nms by day or night but reduce the
separation depending on the size of the search target. After dark, the effect of the
search light should be considered.
Poor Search Conditions
4.8.22 Where winds are greater than 15 knots and /or visibility is less than 3 nms but
greater than 1 nm, a track spacing of 1 nm should be considered by day or night but
reduced depending on the size of the search target. After dark, the effect of the
search light should be considered.
Person in Water
4.8.23 When searching for a a person in the water it should be assumed that the person is
not wearing a floatation device and will therefore be more difficult to detect. For
good search conditions a track spacing of a 0.25 nautical mile should be
considered. For poor search conditions, the track spacing should be reduced as
appropriate, taking into account the visibility and the navigational and operational
capabilities of the search units.
4.8.24 Note that the track spacings suggested are given as a guide only. The track
spacings used in any one search will be decided by the SMC in consultation with
the OSC taking into consideration all the available information at the time.
General
4.8.25 As outlined earlier, the coastal SAR planning model described here is used to
facilitate ease of determining a search area and a rapid deployment of search
assets into a search area.
4.8.26 Although it is ideally used when the response is mounted less than 6 hours from the
time of distress the principles can also be applied for up to 24 hours after this time
by drifting the datum as described in the section headed Recomputed Datum. This
provides the SMC with a tool to rapidly determine a search area.
4.8.27 The oceanic model incorporating leeway divergence and solving for total probable
error should be used for all situations in excess of 24 hours or when time and unit
availability allows.
Chapter 5 - Search Techniques and Operations
5.1 Overview
5.1.1 Chapter 4 described how to determine the optimal area where the available search effort should
be deployed. Once the optimal search area has been determined, a systematic search for the
search object should be planned. Before a search operation takes place, the search planner
should provide a detailed search action plan to all involved, specifying when, where and how
individual search assets are to conduct their search operations. Coordination instructions,
communications frequency assignments, reporting requirements, and any other details required
for the safe, efficient and effective conduct of the search must also be included in the search
action plan.
5.1.2 As a minimum, developing a search action plan consists of the following steps:
a. selecting search assets and equipment to be used;
b. assessing search conditions;
c. selecting search patterns to cover the optimal search area as nearly as may be practical;
d. dividing the search area into appropriate sub-areas for assignment to individual search
assets; and
e. planning on-scene coordination.
Note: AusSAR uses a computer-based program to design search areas, assign search patterns,
allocate assets to a search area and create briefings for search assets. The program uses
the same data as is provided in this Manual.
5.2 General Guidelines for Searches
Overview
5.2.1 As discussed in the previous chapter, a search typically involves three stages including the
immediate response, a search based on a nominated area either side of track, and a search
based on a mathematically derived search area. This applies equally to aviation searches as well
as maritime searches, whether using oceanic principles or those of the coastal search plan. The
following sections describe these stages in further depth.
Stage One Search. Immediate response
5.2.2 The stage one or initial search normally consists of:
a. a visual search along, and possibly also parallel to, the track of the missing craft;
b. action to detect a signal from an emergency beacon;
c. formulation of a rescue plan;
d. coordination with Police, Airservices Australia and other agencies as appropriate; and
e. for over water searches, dropping of SAR datum buoys to establish drift.
5.2.3 The stage one search may comprise:
a. single or multiple Track Line searches;
b. implementing procedures to detect a signal from an emergency beacon, such as monitoring
by aircraft flying over the area; tasking a dedicated search unit; monitoring by aircraft or
vessel on a visual Track Line search; monitoring by passes of the satellite system;
c. developing a rescue plan to return survivors to a place of safety;
d. preparing aircraft with SAR droppable supplies;
e. arranging observers; and
f. gathering intelligence relevant to the search.
5.2.4 The SMC should consider:
a. diverting aircraft or ships if they are available;
b. tasking aircraft from an SRU or local resources where the urgency of the situation and the
locality will determine the assets to be used;
c. that a surface response for search or rescue may be required;
d. that the height and track spacing of search aircraft can be higher than book values as there
is an expectation that an active target may be available to assist;
e. that the coverage factor should generally not be less than 0.5; and
f. the use of electronic or thermal imagery equipment.
Stage Two Search. Nominated area either side of track
5.2.5 A stage two search is normally not required for a maritime incident. During stage two the search
area is normally 10 NM either side of the missing craft’s track. It may be reduced or extended
either side of the track after consideration of the following factors, as applicable:
a. the height and speed of the missing aircraft;
b. possible actions of the missing craft during an emergency, e.g. an aircraft searching for a
suitable area to land or attempting to reach land if flying over water;
c. a ferry flight using GPS;
d. a scenic flight; and
e. drift, if applicable.
5.2.6 A Stage Two search may comprise:
a. a number of aircraft and surface units assigned an area (normally ten legs) to conduct a
visual search;
b. helicopters assigned a specific area to conduct a visual contour search;
c. arranging observers;
d. provision of a dedicated communications aircraft;
e. preparing and deploying aircraft with SAR droppable supplies;
f. provision of a surface search and/or rescue response;
g. establishment of a Forward Command Post;
h. implementing a structured Rescue plan; `
i. the use of thermal imagery to locate the target; and
j. establishing an intelligence cell.
5.2.7 The SMC should consider:
a. drift if the search is over water and it begins more than four hours after Splash Time;
b. location of deployed SAR Datum Buoys to establish water movement;
c. exercising caution in using aircraft with an endurance of less than four hours;
d. increasing the distance either side of track following an unsuccessful search or searches;
e. ensuring the search area includes the possible departure path and the approach pattern
areas at both the departure and destination aerodromes; and
f. increasing detection time over rugged terrain or rough seas.
Stage Three Search. Mathematically derived area
5.2.8 A Stage Three search is a further development of Stage Two, where the search area is expanded
to cover the probability area calculated by reference to the missing craft’s and search aircraft’s
navigation errors, modified by intelligence and any allowance for drift. This probability area will
be expanded after each successive search, thus increasing the total area being searched and
incrementally increasing the POD over the centre of the search area.
5.2.9 The SMC should consider:
a. the on-going availability of search aircraft;
b. provision of a suitable surface response;
c. the on-going availability of search crews, including pilots and observers;
d. accommodation and financial arrangements for observers if operating away from home
base;
e. logistical support including availability of fuel for search aircraft if operating from more
remote airfields;
f. refining rescue plans including deployment of rescue units to the area if considered
beneficial;
g. location of deployed SAR Datum Buoys to establish water movement;
h. further deployment of supply dropping aircraft; and
i. any further avenues to obtain intelligence.
5.3 Search Area Coverage
General
5.3.1 Once the search area has been determined, a systematic search for the target should be
planned. Factors such as the weather conditions, time available for search, aircraft speed,
search altitude, sighting range, size of target, etc, should be taken into account. These factors
are related but some may be more important than others. In planning a search operation, the
SMC should endeavour to meet the requirements of the more important factors while satisfying
the requirements of the others as far as practicable.
5.3.2 Search Area coverage is the systematic search of selected areas of land, or water, to ensure the
optimum probability of detecting the object being sought. The factors affecting detection
capability have been reduced to four inter-related expressions. The terms and their symbols are:
Sweep Width (W)
Probability of Detection (POD)
Track spacing (S)
Coverage Factor (C)
5.3.3 The type and number of available search aircraft will be a factor in determining search area
coverage. More time will be required to search a large area thoroughly when there are limited
numbers of search aircraft available unless the distance between successive sweeps of the area
is increased. This is not desirable since it would reduce the probability of detecting the target. It
may, therefore, be necessary to seek additional search aircraft from other sources. It is usually
preferable to cover a search area from the beginning with an adequate number of search aircraft.
5.3.4 When the aircraft operate far from their home base, consideration should be given to them being
redeployed at an advance base so that more time will be available for the search and less time
will be spent on flights to and from the search area.
5.3.5 An adequate number of well-placed, trained observers as well as altitude and speed of the search
aircraft are important factors determining the POD of a target. A slow aircraft will increase the
chance of detection of the target.
Sweep Width (W)
5.3.6 Sweep Width, "W", is a function of Search Visibility. It is the ideal width of the area that should be
scanned after the appropriate correction factors have been applied.

Fig 5.1 Sweep width

Factors affecting Sweep Width

5.3.7 Search visibility and sweep width are equally split across the search track of a searching unit
(refer Fig 5.1). Search visibility is the range within which a particular search target has a
reasonable probability of being detected. Search visibility as affected by the numerous factors
discussed below will constitute sweep width.
Type of target
5.3.8 The sweep width will depend on the type, size, colour and shape of the target, its colour contrast
with the surrounding medium, amount of freeboard, and whether or not the target is moving.
Targets may vary from wreckage of an aircraft on land to a person in the water. All targets should
be sought from a direction in which they receive the best illumination, colour brightness or
contrast. Over water, this is usually the direction in which whitecaps can be seen at the farthest
distance.
Meteorological visibility
5.3.9 If visibility conditions are poor, the subsequent reduction in sweep width and POD may cause an
interruption or necessitate a suspension of search effort, eg:
a. Fog makes visual search ineffective if not impossible. Only an electronic search to
determine the approximate position of the target, or, perhaps, a ground search, may
normally be an appropriate option;
b. Smog and haze may reduce the effectiveness of daylight search and, to a lesser extent,
night signals;
c. Low clouds may render search ineffective or impossible; and
d. Precipitation reduces visibility;
e. Terrain/Sea Condition
Type of terrain/conditions of the sea
5.3.10 The type of terrain to be searched obviously affects the ease with which the search target will be
detected. The more level the terrain the more effective will be the search. Not only can the
search aircraft maintain a constant search altitude, but also there is less likelihood that
undulations or irregularities on the terrain surface will hide the distressed craft, wreckage or
survivors. Thus calm water areas and flat deserts are easier to search than rough seas or rolling
hills, while rugged mountain areas are the most difficult. The more trees, vegetation, rock
outcroppings and other surface irregularities that exist on land, the more difficult will be the
search. Likewise the more whitecaps, wind streaks, foam streaks, breaking seas, swell systems,
salt spray and sun reflections, the more difficult will be a search over water.
5.3.11 In addition, patches of seaweed, oil slicks and flotsam may be mistaken for liferafts, or worse, a
liferaft may be mistakenly identified as seaweed or flotsam. On a glassy sea any object, or
disturbance, will probably attract the attention of the eye. On a glassy or smooth sea
accompanied by a swell system, chance of detection is also good, being lessened primarily by
the intervals in which the object is in the trough between swells. During such intervals, the object
may be hidden from the lookouts of a low-flying search aircraft or the lookouts of a ship. With
small targets on glassy seas, however, difficulty will be experienced in detection due to the
reflections of sun, sky and clouds on the sea surface.
5.3.12 The presence of whitecaps and foam streaks on the water breaks the uniformity of the surface
and markedly reduces lookout effectiveness. As the whitecaps become more numerous, the
probability of detecting a small object becomes less. With numerous whitecaps and foam streaks
in a heavy, breaking sea, even very large objects are difficult to detect, and small objects are
unlikely to be detected at all.
5.3.13 With high winds, which accompany rough seas, visual aids are rendered less effective. Dye
marker tends to dissipate rapidly and smoke signals cling close to the surface and cannot be
differentiated from the foam streaks. The reflection of the sun off the breaking seas and
whitecaps tends to dull the perception of lookouts to visual signals. With high winds, the wind-
driven salt spray constitutes a very real visual obscuration due to both a reduction in visibility and
the accumulation of salt on the search craft’s windows.
5.3.14 Rough seas also adversely affect radar detection due to the large amount of sea return on the
scope, and the fact that small targets in the trough of a sea cannot be detected.
Search aircraft speed
5.3.15 At low search altitudes the speed of the aircraft will affect the sweep width due to the angular
velocity of targets moving through the scanner’s field of view, blurring of targets at very close
ranges, and decreasing the exposure time of targets to the scanner. Generally, higher speeds
will increase the adverse influence of these factors at search altitudes below 500 feet.
Fatigue Factor
5.3.16 The effectiveness of observers depends on the number available, their experience, alertness,
physical condition, incentive and the suitability of observing positions. The speed at which the
search unit moves also has a direct relationship to the effectiveness of the observers’ overall
performance.
5.3.17 If feedback from the search unit indicates that search crews were excessively fatigued, use a
correction figure for fatigue and reduce the sweep width by 10 percent (multiply the uncorrected
sweep width by 0.9).
Search aircraft height
5.3.18 Several factors; the prime ones being the size and nature of the target being sought, and the
surface conditions surrounding the probable location of the target dictate the selection of the
search height. Recommended search heights for particular targets are listed in Table 5.1.
Over Water Recommended Height
Survivor without raft or dye marker Below 500FT
Survivor in raft without dye marker, or signalling 800-1500FT
equipment
Survivors with dye marker 1000-2000FT
Survivors with signalling equipment and/or radar 1000-3000FT
reflector
Over Land
Level terrain with little or no foliage 1000FT
Level terrain with heavy foliage 500FT
Mountainous terrain (height selection governed by 500-1000FT
turbulence and foliage density)
Table 5.1 Recommended search heights
5.3.19 Meteorological conditions must be taken into account when selecting search heights. Turbulence,
cloud base, and visibility, are the chief considerations.
5.3.20 For reasons mostly related to the apparent movement of the surface below a search aircraft,
certain minimum heights are recommended according to an aircraft’s speed; they are:
a. 2000 FT where the speed exceeds 200 KTS
b. 1000 FT where the speed is between150-200 KTS.
5.3.21 Advantage should be taken of the characteristics of helicopters to search at low level, possibly in
conjunction with fixed wing aircraft operating at higher levels above.
5.3.22 Search heights are always quoted as height above ground level (AGL).
Cloud cover
5.3.23 The greater the amount of cloud cover, the less will be the ambient light in the search area. This
has a detrimental effect on the sweep widths of surface targets. In addition the variable surface
shadows caused by scattered or broken clouds make it more difficult to visually detect targets
due to the constant dulling effect of the shadows and the mottled appearance of the surface.
Although a high, solid overcast will eliminate glare, shadows and reflection from the surface, this
advantage is not as large as the detrimental effect of less ambient lighting.
Position of the sun
5.3.24 Objects are seen at a greater distance when looking down-sun as opposed to up-sun particularly
when the sun is in a position to reflect from water. With a clear sky and a bright sun, search
conditions are at an optimum between mid-morning and mid-afternoon when the sun is high.
Waterborne objects that have a high free board may sometimes be seen even in the sun’s glare.
Bright sunlight is especially detrimental when haze is present, due to the diffusion of light. Colour
contrast is lost when looking up sun, with the result that small objects merge into a confused
pattern of glaring light and shadow. Down-sun the sea appears much darker, glare is absent,
haze is more transparent, and coloured objects show a marked contrast to their background.
Observers forced to look into the sun suffer loss of visual acuity, and may fail to detect an object.
When possible, search legs should be orientated to prevent observers having to look directly into
the sun. If this is not possible observers should be equipped with sunglasses.
Day and night factors
5.3.25 In some conditions of wind and sea, daylight visual aids may be ineffective. The heliograph is an
exception, but sunlight cannot always be expected. Sea conditions and wind have little effect on
a night flare search, or on lights. When high winds and seas prevail, night search techniques
usually offer the best POD. The quantity of pyrotechnics available to survivors is usually limited,
and survivors are unlikely to fire pyrotechnic signals until sighting the lights of the search unit.
For this reason sweep width for a night search should be based, not on the expected sighting
range of the pyrotechnic aids, but on the range at which survivors may see the navigation lights of
the search unit. On entering a search area, search units should turn on all possible lights, and
from time to time display searchlights, or landing lights, to facilitate sighting of the search unit by
survivors; however observer night vision needs must be taken into account. Ships in a search
area should be asked to make smoke at intervals, during daylight hours.
First search light/last search light
5.3.26 Times of first and last light at the departure and destination points may limit the time available in a
search area when all or part of a flight is governed by Visual Flight Rules.
5.3.27 Any limitations to visual searching indicated in a search forecast must be allowed for at the
planning stage.
5.3.28 The 45-minute periods after sunrise and before sunset are considered unsuitable for daylight
visual searching on account of the sun's low elevation and resulting lengthy shadows.
5.3.29 These periods are therefore commonly discounted for visual search at the planning stage. The
periods may, however, be varied at the SMC's discretion to accommodate local conditions. There
may be other factors arise that impact upon search planning with greater moment thus indicating
the relative suitability of visual search during some or all of these periods.
5.3.30 Within proximity of the equator, where the apparent movement of the sun is at a greater angle to
the earth's horizon and its rising and setting phases more rapid, these periods are less critical.
5.3.31 Examples of local factors that may need to be considered in the context of available search light
are:
a. A search over tropical rain forest may best be started at dawn in consideration of a likely
deterioration in local weather conditions later in the day.
b. A search of the western slopes of steep sided valleys may best be delayed until mid-
morning.
c. A search of steep eastern slopes may best be abandoned earlier than 45 minutes before
sunset.
5.3.32 Time available to aircraft outside the periods suitable for visual search may be utilised in other
ways, for example, beacon search, radar search or FLIR search.
Miscellaneous Factors
5.3.33 Among the miscellaneous factors affecting sighting are shadows cast by clouds, rain showers,
large patches of seaweed, and pure chance. Shadows cast by scattered and broken clouds are a
distracting influence on the observers. Rain showers can result in areas not being searched
effectively, as the object of search may be hidden by a squall. Despite all other factors, some
sightings are made as a result of pure chance. An observer may just look at the right spot at the
right time, conversely a momentary lapse on the part of the observer may allow the object of
search to be passed unseen. The only safeguard against this possibility is to make repeated
searches of an area if sufficient search units are available, and the use of the maximum number
of observers.
5.3.34 Search begun early in the day, or extending late in the day has a reduced chance of success in
wooded terrain due to the shadows cast by the trees and the oblique angle of the sun. These
areas are preferably searched when the sun is higher in the sky. Likewise because of the sun,
mountainsides may be better searched in the early or late in the day depending on the direction
the particular slope faces.
5.3.35 Different search heights will produce different sweep width values. It is good practice to calculate
sweep widths for several search heights, enabling the search planner to select a sweep width to
suit a search height dictated either by the target, or one best suited to the search aircraft to be
used.
Sweep Width Calculations (W)
5.3.36 Tables of uncorrected sweep width values and correction factors are provided in Appendix I
Tables I-3 to I-6. The sweep width used in planning and evaluating the search is computed as
the product of the uncorrected sweep width and all the correction factors that apply. When using
Table I-7 of the Appendix for weather correction factors use the worst case. Therefore if the wind
is 10 knots but the sea is 5 ft, use the figures in the second row.
Track Spacing (S)
5.3.37 Track Spacing (S) is the distance in nautical miles between adjacent search legs. The desired
track spacing is a function of detection capability. The more difficult the target to detect, the closer
the search legs should be. Decreasing the track spacing increases the POD, but at the expense
of reducing the area searched in a given time. There is a limit to which S may be reduced due to
the limits of search unit navigation ability and accuracy. The optimum track spacing is one, which
permits the maximum expectation of target detection in the available time, or is consistent with
the economic employment of search units. Whenever possible Track Spacing (S) should be used
that is equal to the Sweep Width (W).
Note: For the coastal search model, the following standard track spacings are recommended on
search objects less than 30 feet high.
5.3.38 Good Search Conditions. In conditions where the wind speed is less than 15 knots and/or
visibility is greater than 3 nms, use a track spacing of up to 3 nms by day or night but reduce the
separation depending on the size of the search target. After dark, the effect of the searchlight
should be considered.
5.3.39 Poor Search Conditions. Where winds are greater than 15 knots and /or visibility is less than 3
nms but greater than 1 nm, a track spacing of 1 nm should be considered by day or night but
reduced depending on the size of the search target. After dark, the effect of the searchlight
should be considered.
5.3.40 Person in Water. When searching for a person in the water it should be assumed that the person
is not wearing a floatation device and will therefore be more difficult to detect. For good search
conditions a track spacing of 0.25 nautical mile should be considered. For poor search
conditions, the track spacing should be reduced as appropriate, taking into account the visibility
and the navigational and operational capabilities of the search units.
Note: The track spacing suggested is given as a guide only. The track spacing used in any one
search will be decided by the SMC in consultation with the OSC taking into consideration all
the available information at the time.
Coverage Factor (C)
5.3.41 The quality of coverage for any sweep depends on the relationship between Sweep Width and
Track Spacing. The relationship is termed Coverage Factor.

5.3.42 The relationship between Sweep Width and Track Spacing determines the Probability of
Detection (POD).
5.3.43 Higher coverage factors indicate a more thorough coverage. Higher values of C offer a higher
probability of target detection, however the higher POD is not proportional to the extra search
effort required.
5.3.44 Whilst a coverage factor of 1.0 is most desirable there are occasions when terrain, time
limitations, large search area, or shortage of search craft, prevent its attainment. For such
occasions an alternative approach must be used that balances the factors of available search
hours, size of area and C.
5.3.45 A coverage factor of less than 0.5 is unsatisfactory in itself.
Probability of Detection (POD)
5.3.46 Probability of detection (POD) is the statistical measure of search sensor detection performance.
It is a function of sweep width and track spacing. It is a conditional probability meaning that
search planners assume the search target is in the search area.
5.3.47 A definite POD exists for each scan made by a search observer or piece of detection equipment.
The probability that a contact will be made in a single scan of a point on the surface is called the
 instantaneous POD. The instantaneous POD, repeated by successive scans as the search unit
moves along the track, develops the probability pattern of a given search. The POD is not
uniform over the swept area. In general, it is highest near the search unit and decreases with
distance from the search unit.
5.3.48 POD is a function of the coverage factor (c), which itself is derived from the relationship of sweep
width to track spacing; and the total number of searches in an area. For repeated searches of the
same area, the cumulative POD is obtained by making use of the average coverage factor. The
application of this concept results in a progressive increase in the POD of a target in the most
likely sector of the search area by repeatedly searching the original area within progressively
larger areas, a part of each overlaying the original. Thus there results an aggregate POD after
successive searches of part of a probability area. For each successive search, the safety factor
is increased, and, as a result, the size of the probability area is enlarged. It is not to be thought
that early search effort should be restricted in anticipation of the benefits of the expanded search
technique; these will take time to accrue, and time, in the rescue of survivors, is of the essence.
Neither should a particular search be prolonged unnecessarily in similar anticipation. Still, the
concept of expanded search does allow flexibility in search planning in as much as the desired
quality of search, if unattainable on account of limitations in the availability of search units, may
be attained by repeated effort, while ensuring that the most likely area is rapidly and repeatedly
covered.
Coverage Factor 1 Coverage Factor 0.5
Initial Search (R1) 78% POD 47% POD
First Expansion (R2) 95.6 71.9
Second Expansion (R3) 98.9 85.1
Third Expansion (R4) 99.7 92.1
Final Expansion (R5) 99.9 95.8
Table 5.2 Coverage data example

Fig 5.2 Search area expansion (not to scale)

5.3.49 The data in Table 5.2 confirms that by making five searches of the initial probability area, each to
a coverage factor of 0.5, the cumulative POD (95.8%) is only slightly less than if the same five
searches had each been made at a coverage factor of 1.0, (99.9%). The search effort in the
former case would have been considerably less in terms of aircraft hours than in the latter.
Further, a significantly larger area surrounding the initial probability area would have been
searched, albeit at a progressively diminished level of intensity.
5.3.50 From the foregoing, it is apparent that for prolonged and repeated searches when aircraft
numbers are limited, a coverage factor of 0.5 offers a reasonable coverage of an expanded area
resulting, over time, in a good POD. Search of areas at a coverage factor less than 0.5 is not
recommended.
5.3.51 Statistically, the target is more likely to be nearer the last known position, or datum, than in the
outer reaches of the expanded search area. Application of the expanded search concept ensures
that the greatest search effort is concentrated over the most probable position of the target where
the POD is highest. Clearly, the expanding search procedure is best suited to situations where
the approximate position or, at least, the planned track of the distressed craft is known.
5.3.52 When using POD Graph in Appendix I, the POD for any particular search is obtained by reference
to the appropriate Search graph line depending on the search conditions apparent. For repeated
searches of the same area, enter the graph with the average coverage factor and refer to the
graph line relevant to the overall number of searches to obtain cumulative POD. The results are
shown as:
ST
1 Search Coverage Factor 0.5
nd
2 Search Coverage Factor 0.7
rd
3 Search Coverage Factor 0.3
th
4 Search Coverage Factor 0.2
th
5 Search Coverage Factor 0.3
2.0
Over 5 searches, the average coverage factor = 0.4
5.3.53 In entering Graph 2 with an average coverage factor 0.4, the cumulative POD after five searches
may be read off from fifth search graph line as 92%.
5.3.54 The projected value of the POD may be used by a SMC in deliberation of track spacing. Use of
POD may also be conveniently made in describing the results of a search, or part of a search, to
interested persons not familiar with search planning techniques.
5.3.55 Should the target not be located within the fully expanded probability area, the SMC must decide
whether to continue searching it, recalculate the probability area using alternative data, or
recommend the termination of search effort.
Accuracy of Navigation by Search Units
5.3.56 The navigational accuracy with which a search aircraft is able to reach a search area and fly a
search pattern has an important bearing on the coverage of the area and the POD. Dead
reckoning navigation alone generally produces poor results. Map reading can be effective but
normally only over land or coastal areas in visual meteorological conditions. In areas where
navigation aids are limited, search patterns should be selected so that greatest possible use is
made of them. Aircraft with area navigation capabilities can be used for all search patterns in all
areas. Alternatively, patterns providing a reference point or a visual navigation aid, e.g. a vessel
or a smoke float should be considered.
5.4 Search Patterns
General
5.4.1 The selection of a search pattern is very important and should only be made after all factors have
been considered. The search pattern selected should meet the following criteria:
5.4.2 Suitability: It should permit the search to be completed within the time limits;
5.4.3 Feasibility: It should be within the operational capability of the available search units;
5.4.4 Acceptability: The expected result should be worth the estimated time and effort;
5.4.5 Safety of the search units: Close attention should be paid to air traffic in the area of the search.
Normally more than one aircraft should not be assigned to a search area segment at the same
time. Multiple aircraft operating in the same search area distracts aircrew attention from the
search and decreases the flexibility to respond to sightings and drop markers or flares, if required.
This does not preclude an electronic search from taking place at high altitude while a visual
search is done at a lower level.
5.4.6 To assist with the pilot’s responsibility of maintaining separation from other aircraft, the SMC may
consider assigning aircraft in adjacent search area segments different search heights, the same
creep direction and different start times.
5.4.7 Non-search aircraft can be informed about the search by the issue of a NOTAM.
5.4.8 Non-search aircraft can be excluded from the search area, or informed about the search activity
by the issue of a NOTAM.
5.4.9 The choice of search pattern is the prerogative of the SMC, who may elect to use only one
pattern or several patterns simultaneously but in different areas. A series of search patterns may
be used in sequence for the same area, e.g. track crawls, sector search. The following factors
will influence the SMC’s selection of search pattern:
a. The accuracy of the distress position;
b. The size and shape of the search area;
 c. The number and type of SRUs available;
d. The en route and on-scene weather;
e. The distance between search area and SRU base;
f. The availability of navigation aids in the search area;
g. The size and detectability of the search object;
h. The desired probability of detection;
i. The limitations of time; and
j. The terrain of the area where the search will be conducted.
5.4.10 Careful thought is essential when considering search pattern selection and the allocation of
specific SAR units to execute these patterns. Once a large-scale search has been commenced,
redeployment of search units or changing assigned patterns becomes complex and should be
avoided unless new intelligence indicates such change is mandatory.
5.4.11 There are six main groups of search patterns:
a. Track line
b. Parallel track (search legs are aligned with the major axis of an individual search area)
c. Creeping line (search legs are aligned parallel with the minor axis of an individual search
area) add an explanation of the difference between creeping line and parallel track
d. Expanding square
e. Sector
f. Contour
5.4.12 When it is known, or likely, that an emergency radio beacon may be available in the target vessel
or aircraft or to the survivors, an electronic search using an appropriate pattern, (e.g. track line
search), should be carried out by at aircraft flying at a high level. This may occur at the same time
as a visual search is carried out at a lower altitude or on the surface. In planning this search the
coverage and possibility of detection by the Cospas–Sarsat system may be considered. It is also
valuable to consider the location of the incident and the possibility of overflying aircraft detecting a
signal.
5.4.13 Maritime units may search relatively small areas. This type of search is generally very thorough
and provides a greater chance that the target will be detected.
Navigation of SAR Units
5.4.14 The navigational accuracy of available search units is a primary consideration for selecting the
types of patterns to be used, particularly if the available search units are aircraft. While the
accuracy of navigation of surface craft is generally not too great a problem, aircraft present a
more difficult picture due to drift from prevailing winds.
5.4.15 The probability of detection curve is valid only when the search pattern tracks are accurately
followed.
5.4.16 Significant errors will result from accumulated errors in turns and from wind forecast errors,
especially for high-speed aircraft. Consideration must be given to selecting the type of pattern,
which gives minimum turns and maximum search leg lengths in order to reduce turning errors
and to make it easier for navigation, observations and corrective action. However, there may be
a limit to the maximum search leg lengths when the search area covers water surfaces with
strong currents or with high survivor drift rates. In these circumstances aircraft search legs are
usually limited to 30 minutes or less of flying time if the legs are oriented across the drift direction.
This is to avoid the possibility of the survivors drifting from one side of a track to beyond the next
search track by the time the search aircraft returns to that same general area. A more
satisfactory solution to this problem is to orientate the search legs with the drift direction.
5.4.17 Greater search accuracy is obtained when visual, radar or radio navigational aids are within
reception range of search units or when aircraft are equipped with area type navigation
equipment (RNAV) eg OMEGA, GPS or Inertial Navigational Systems (INS).
5.4.18 When dividing up the total search area into areas for assignment to individual SAR units it should
be kept in mind that elongated search areas are covered better navigationally than small square
areas. When two or more search aircraft are available, elongated search areas are preferred.
Parallel Track Search Patterns
5.4.19 Parallel track search patterns can be used for searches involving one or a group of search units
and are the simplest patterns available. The coxswain of a search vessel steers straight courses
 or legs, each leg being one track spacing from the other. The legs are parallel to the long side of
the search area.
Parallel Track Pattern Single Unit.
5.4.20 This pattern is conducted by a single unit. The SMC will detail the area to be searched by giving
depth and distance, visual reference points or latitude, longitude if the Search Unit is so capable.
Parallel Track Pattern Multi-Unit.
5.4.21 This is based on the same principle as the single unit search, except that more than one boat is
searching in line abreast, one track spacing apart. It is particularly useful when a number of
search units, fishing boats or pleasure craft are available for searching an area and can be
instructed what to do by radio. The OSC will direct the search from his position with all turns and
distances taken from the OSC’s vessel.
Creeping Line Patterns.
5.4.22 These are the same type of searches but the legs are parallel to the short side of the search area.
These patterns would be used when there is a stronger probability of the craft in distress being
closer to one end of the search area. The search unit begins the pattern at the end of the search
area where the target is most likely to be. These patterns can also be used both in single and
multi-unit searches.
5.4.23 The multi-unit creeping line pattern is used when there are five or more search units available in a
search of a high probability area for small size targets, such a person in the water. This pattern
concentrates the search units in the datum area and is structured to avoid gaps developing at the
end of each sweep.
5.4.24 Search units pivot on the second search unit. By the time the first, second and third vessels take
up their allotted positions, the fourth and fifth search units will have moved with the prevailing drift
to position them at the top of the next sweep. This method will ensure total coverage of the
search area, however, it must be borne in mind that this pattern is slower than other patterns and
requires a greater degree of coordination by the OSC.
Night Time Consideration Multi-Unit Searches.
5.4.25 Extreme care should be taken during multi-unit searches to maintain the observers night vision
whilst working in close proximity to search lights. The operators of searchlights should always
remain aware of this concern and direct the search light from a bearing right ahead to a bearing
of approximately 0450 to port or starboard.
5.4.26 For small targets such as a person in the water, search unit track spacing must be adjusted so
that the beams of the searchlights maintain a good overlap at all times.
5.5 Visual Search
Track Line Search
5.5.1 This procedure is normally employed when an aircraft or vessel has disappeared without a trace.
It is based on the assumption that the target has crashed, made a forced landing or ditched on or
near the intended route and will be easily seen, or that there are survivors capable of signalling
their position by a flashing lamp or other means. It consists of a rapid and reasonably thorough
search on either side of the intended route of the target, normally at a height of 1000 to 2000 FT
during day or at 2000 to 3000 FT at night. A track line pattern is often used as an initial reaction
to a distress situation, the second, intensive phase being introduced on the failure of the track line
search.
5.5.2 Aircraft and ships following the same route as that of the missing aircraft or ship should be asked
if they are available to divert to assist in the search for the target. For ships, this will mean
diverting to intercept the most probable track line of the target. For aircraft, this type of search
should be regarded as additional to searches by SAR units, as an enroute aircraft may not be
entirely suitable as a search platform due to its performance, configuration, endurance,
navigational capabilities or lack of observers.
 Where search aircraft returning back along track

Where search aircraft not returning back along track

Fig 5.3 Track line search

Parallel Track Pattern

5.5.3 Parallel track patterns are normally used when:
a. The search area is large and the terrain is relatively level, e.g. desert and maritime areas;
b. Uniform coverage is required;
c. The location of the target is not known with any precision.
5.5.4 Search legs are aligned parallel to the major or minor axis of the individual search area. The
pattern is best used in rectangular or square areas. It is a very suitable pattern for a search
conducted over water. The search aircraft proceeds from one corner of the search area
maintaining parallel tracks, the first of which is at a distance equal to one-half the track spacing
from a side of the area. Successive tracks are maintained parallel to each other and one track
spacing apart. This type of search may be carried out by one aircraft or by several aircraft
following parallel tracks or each searching smaller rectangular areas separately.
5.5.5 When aircraft search hours and adjacent traffic permits, turns will be conducted outside the
search area boundaries as shown in Fig 5.4. This allows observer rest and crew position
changes.
 Fig 5.4 Parallel track search pattern

Drift Compensation
5.5.6 In maritime areas where there is a high drift rate, care must be taken to ensure the target does
not drift out of a SAR unit’s area. This problem occurs when the rate of creep of the SAR unit is
less than the rate of drift of the target.
5.5.7 When this condition exists some methods of resolving the problem are to:
a. Align the SAR units search legs with the drift vector.
b. Use shorter legs for the SAR unit to increase the rate of creep.
c. Increase the SAR unit’s speed.
Expanding Square Search
5.5.8 This procedure is referred to as an expanding square search as it begins at the reported position
or most probable location and expands outwards in concentric squares. It is a very precise
pattern and requires accurate navigation. To minimise navigational errors, the first leg is usually
oriented directly into the wind.
5.5.9 The square search pattern is used when the target is known to be in a relatively small area, no
more than 15-20 NM from the start point.
5.5.10 The first two legs are held to a distance equal to the track spacing and every succeeding two legs
are increased by another track spacing. Turns may be to the left or right, depending upon the
observer positions.
5.5.11 For successive searches, the direction of the search legs should be changed by 45 degrees. The
final track should be the same as the initial search track from the start point. The number of
search legs may be 5, or, increasing by increments of 4, 9, 13, 17 etc.
5.5.12 Scanning should start at a distance of "S" before reaching the most probable position to avoid
leaving an area not scanned near the start point. Observers should be briefed to pay particular
attention to the areas outwards of each turn to avoid leaving areas not scanned.
5.5.13 The search should be planned so that, whenever possible, the approach to the most probable
position, and the first leg, is made into wind as shown in Fig 5.5.
 Fig 5.5 Expanding square search pattern
5.5.14 Table 5.3 may be used to determine the number of search legs (N) and total track distance (D),
given a particular radius (R) and selected practical track spacing (S),
e.g. if R = 10NM and practical S = 2NM, then N = 21 and D = 240NM. The total track distance
can then be used to determine whether a suitable SAR aircraft has sufficient endurance to
effectively complete the task.
5.5.15 Maritime surface SAR units are not normally assigned a radius in excess of five mile.
RADIUS S=0.5 S=1 S=2 S=3 S=4 S=5 S=10
(NM)
N D N D N D N D N D N D N D
1 9 12 5 8
2 17 40 9 24
3 25 84 13 48 5 16
4 33 144 17 80 9 48 5 24
5 41 220 21 120 9 48 9 72
6 49 312 25 168 13 96 9 72 5 32
7 57 420 29 224 13 96 9 72 9 36 5 40
8 65 544 33 288 17 160 13 144 9 36 9 120
9 73 684 37 360 17 160 13 144 9 36 9 120
10 81 840 41 440 21 240 13 144 9 36 9 120
11 45 528 21 240 17 240 13 192 9 120
12 49 624 25 336 17 240 13 192 9 120
13 53 728 25 336 17 240 13 192 13 240
14 57 840 29 448 21 360 13 192 13 240
15 29 448 21 360 17 320 13 240 5 80
16 33 576 21 360 17 320 13 240 9 240
17 33 576 25 504 17 320 13 240 9 240
8 37 720 25 504 17 320 17 400 9 240
19 37 720 25 504 21 480 17 400 9 240
20 41 880 29 672 21 480 17 400 9 240
Table 5.3 Number of search legs in Expanding Square Search given Radius
Table Notes:
1. Do not interpolate.
2. Tabular values of D are based on the search aircraft completing the search at the boundary
of the square area. To achieve this the final 3 search legs of a square search pattern are of
equal length.
Sector Search
5.5.16 This pattern may be employed when the position of distress is known within close limits and the
area to be searched is not extensive. It is simple to execute, is likely to provide greater
navigational accuracy than a square search and, because the track spacing is very small near the
centre, it ensures a high probability of detection in the area where the target is most likely to be
located.
5.5.17 A suitable marker is chosen as a datum and navigation aid on each search leg. For practical
purposes, the datum may be moved a mile or two, either at the planning stage or on scene, to
 take advantage of a prominent landmark well suited as a navigation reference. When using the
pattern over water, it is useful to drop either a visual or electronic beacon to mark the datum.
Adjustment for total water current is automatic and only leeway need be separately considered.
5.5.18 Trained crews using an aircraft with capable electronic navigational equipment should only be
used to fly this search.

Fig 5.6 Sector search pattern – aircraft

5.5.19 Each search leg is separated by an angle based on the maximum track spacing at the end of the
legs and the search radius. For convenience, the angular displacement between each search leg
and the distance required to fly the pattern for various track spacings and search radii may be
extracted from Table 5.4.
5.5.20 The table makes use of Mean Track Spacing (MTS) as a basis for deriving angular displacement
and distance to be flown. MTS is the track spacing at a distance of half the radius of the search
area from the datum. The table may also be used to determine the track spacing that can be
used for a given track distance and search radius.
5.5.21 The search start point may be either on the perimeter of the pattern or over the datum depending
on the approach track of the search aircraft and the orientation of the first leg. To keep track
computation simple, the first leg may be oriented to the north but this is not essential. Successive
tracks may be calculated by adding 90 degrees plus half the angular displacement to the previous
track, and so on. The length of the cross leg is twice the mean track spacing.
5.5.22 The coverage factor, obtained using sweep width information and mean track spacing, may be
used to determine the POD. A radius of 15 NM has been selected, and using aircraft hours
available at 150 knots, the table has provided appropriate search data. An inspection of the
variables allows a final selection to be made after considering recommended search altitude for
the type of target, search radius, and resulting probability of detection.
5.5.23 If a further sector search is necessary, it should be carried out on tracks plotted halfway between
the tracks of the pattern followed during the first search:
 SECTOR SEARCH CALCULATIONS
(This table must not be interpolated)
S 1 2 3 4
R Deg. D Deg. D Deg. D Deg. D
5 24 90 48 45 72 30 100 30
10 12 330 24 180 36 120 48 90
15 8 720 16 375 24 270 32 210
Table 5.4 Sector Search Calculations
Notes
1. Deg = number of degrees between successive legs
2 D = total track distance (NMs)
R= Sector Search Radius
S = mean track spacing (MTS)
Example
An area 10 miles radius is to be searched at a mean track spacing of 3NM. From the table, the
angle between tracks is 36 degrees and the total track distance is 120 NM.
Sector search pattern for a vessel
5.5.24 For vessels search pattern radius is normally between 2nm and 5nm and each turn is 120º. The
length of each chord is the same of the radius (R), therefore the total track miles to complete the
search area is 9R.

Note: CSP = commence search point

Fig 5.7 Sector search pattern - vessel

Aural search by surface craft

5.5.25 An aural search by search vessels may also be required at night for person in water situations.
Such a search is accomplished by periodically stopping all engines of the search vessel and
listening for the calls for help from survivors. The sounding of a ship’s horn should precede an
aural search in an attempt to attract the attention of survivors.
Note: The conduct of an aural search may be hazardous under certain conditions and will only
be conducted at the direction of OSC, after consultation with the SMC. However, serious
consideration must always be given to conducting this search at night for person in water
situations, especially where it is thought the survivors may not have any detection aids.
Searching Coastal Islands and their Foreshores
5.5.26 The searching of coastal islands and their foreshores must always be considered when they are
located within the search area, or near to it. Uninjured survivors in sight of land may attempt to
make landfall, however they often overestimate their physical capabilities or underestimate the
distances involved. Island foreshores may provide evidence of flotsam or debris that may further
aid in the SMC’s search planning.
5.5.27 In situations where a coastal island lies directly within a search unit’s track, it may be necessary
to interrupt the progress of the search unit to search the island and its foreshores. Alternatively, a
second search using additional search units should be considered.
5.5.28 Surface craft engaged to perform this search must be suitably equipped with adequate depth
sounding equipment and remain constantly aware of the dangers involved from operating near to
land. If conditions allow, an aural search should be conducted in case survivors are asleep or
have secreted themselves to obtain shelter. In these cases the sounding of a ship’s horn or other
form of noise making may alert survivors to the search unit’s presence.
5.5.29 Should an island fall within a high probability area or there is evidence available that may suggest
survivors have reached that point, serious consideration should be given to conducting a land
search.
5.5.30 When only a visual foreshore search is considered necessary, it is important that the entry and
exit points the search units take when approaching and leaving the island overlap to avoid blind
spots developing. Small vessels, or aircraft, especially helicopters, capable of safely flying at low
altitudes and speeds, can be used to pass close enough to the shoreline to permit careful
inspection and are ideally suited to conduct island and foreshore searches. At night an aircraft
fitted with FLIR would be an advantage. Vessels engaged in shoreline searches must be aware
of navigational constraints and any limitations imposed by sea conditions. The SMC should
consider the possibility of survivors clinging to buoys or rocks offshore.
Contour search
5.5.31 Contour search is used to examine mountain slopes and valleys when sharp changes in elevation
make other types of search impractical.
5.5.32 The procedure requires that the search aircraft be flown at a selected contour level adjacent to
the side of steep terrain, starting at the highest selected level. The search is started above the
highest peak with the search aircraft completely circling the mountain at that level. Then the
search aircraft descends a planned vertical distance while making an orbit in the direction
opposite to the search (forming a figure eight), then it makes another circuit of the mountain, and
so on. When there is not enough space to make an orbit opposite to the direction of the search,
the search aircraft may spiral downwards around the mountain. If the mountain cannot be circled,
successive sweeps at the same intervals should be flown along its side. Valleys are searched in
circles, moving the centre of the circuit one track spacing after each completed circuit

Elevation view Plan view

Fig 5.8 Contour search pattern
5.5.33 It is common to plan for search aircraft to descend a particular vertical distance
between successive sweeps. The vertical distance between contours may be
selected on a case-by-case basis after consideration of factors similar to those
governing the determination of track spacing, i.e. visibility, nature of terrain, type of
target etc.
5.5.34 A contour search may be very dangerous. Extreme caution should therefore be
exercised when searching mountains and valleys. The following safety matters
should be considered:
a. The crew must be very experienced and well briefed and possess accurate
large scale maps (1: 100,000 scale maps are recommended);
b. Mountainous search areas should be assigned to multi-engined aircraft
whenever possible;
c. During search, all the pilot's attention will be devoted to flying the aircraft. The
pilot must evaluate forward terrain to avoid any hazard such as power lines,
cables etc. When searching valleys, the pilot must plan ahead to ensure that
the aircraft can either climb out of a difficulty or turn around, knowing at all
times which way to turn in case of an emergency;
d. The weather conditions in the search area must be good, including both good
visibility and lack of turbulence, and must be constantly checked. Flights in
mountainous areas should be avoided when winds exceed 30 knots because
downdraughts can exceed 2000 FT per minute;
e. Aircraft should not enter any valley that is too narrow to permit a 180 degree
turn at the altitude flown. Searches should be flown close to one side of a
canyon or valley so that the entire width may be used if a 180 degree turn
becomes necessary. A similar method should be applied when making a
contour search of a mountain; and
f. The aircraft should be highly manoeuvrable and have a high rate of climb and
a small turning radius.
5.5.35 Orographic turbulence may be found as updraughts on the upwind side of slopes
and ridges and on the downwind side as downdraughts. The extent of the effect
depends on the wind speed and the steepness of the slope. Orographic turbulence
will be more intense over a rough surface.
5.5.36 The safest crossing of mountain peaks and ridges at low altitude under windy or
turbulent conditions is downwind, where any downdraughts will be encountered
after the terrain is crossed. If this is not practical, altitude should be increased
before crossing these areas. Best procedure in transiting a mountain pass is to fly
close to that side of the pass where there is an upwind. This will provide additional
lift in case of an emergency. Maximum turning space is available and a turn into
wind will be towards lower terrain. Flying through the middle of a pass may be
dangerous as this allows the least turning space and is often the area of greatest
turbulence.
5.5.37 Should it not be practical to search the entire surface of a mountainous area, a SMC
may initiate plans on the basis of certain assumptions, e.g., if limited to VMC, the
pilot would neither willingly enter cloud nor descend below the lowest height at
which a valley or a gap could be safely traversed. There may, on the other hand, be
intelligence information to hand indicating that the pilot did enter cloud, in which
case the aircraft may be found at an elevation within the extent of the then existing
cloud layer. These possibilities should be examined carefully if it is known that a
pilot was flying, or intended to fly, through a valley or gap in the proximity of cloud.
 Fig 5.9 Example of probability area for contour search
5.5.38 To determine a probability area in such circumstances, a SMC may proceed as
follows:
a. Mark the contour line at a level 500 FT higher than the highest level it is
considered that the aircraft would have been flown, and colour all areas above
this height in RED;
b. Mark the contour line at a level 500 FT lower than the height at which the area
could be safely traversed, and colour all areas below this height in GREEN;
c. The uncoloured area will be the probability area, and, on an appropriate map,
may be used as a three dimensional representation of ridges, gullies, etc.
d. Figure 5.9 demonstrates a resultant diagram after using this procedure.
5.5.39 Crews must be well briefed and possess accurate, large-scale maps showing the
contour lines. (1:100,000 is the smallest practical scale). Crews shall be reminded to
make all positioning turns away from the mountainside and to exercise extreme
caution when searching valleys where climb-out or turn-around is difficult or
impossible.
5.5.40 As with other forms of search, an accurate account of the areas actually searched is
required by the RCC. The search crews should plot actual areas covered as the
flight progresses. Areas that have been searched should be shaded in on a large-
scale topographical map, leaving the unsearched area outlined.
5.5.41 Only one aircraft shall be assigned to an area at any one time.
Searches in Mountainous or Rugged Terrain
5.5.42 Searches by fixed wing aircraft become ineffective over certain types of terrain.
Helicopters should be tasked for these areas. Individual areas may be defined by
using:
a. Squares or rectangles; or
b. Geographical areas, referenced to geographical, topographical or man-made
features.
5.5.43 Points to note:
a. An area of approximately 20 – 30 square nautical miles is a good size,
depending on the type of helicopters available and the transit distance;
b. A number of sorties will normally be required to complete each area;
c. The closer a refuelling point can be established to the area the better; an oval
or open area in town is suitable;
d. A Forward Command Post is very desirable; and
 e. If using non-geographical areas, i.e. squares or rectangles, GPS is required.

Fig 5.10 Helicopter search area

Line Abreast Helicopter Searches

5.5.44 Where a small area requires a saturated visual search the use of helicopters on an
“emu-hop” or line abreast search is an effective search method.
5.5.45 This search is best achieved by assembling all search units at one location for
briefing by Forward Command Post personnel or the assigned On Scene
Coordinator.
5.5.46 When on task, the assigned coordinator should ensure all search units keep their
position, and care is exercised with any target inspections.
Irregularly Shaped Areas
5.5.47 The foregoing method of allocating aircraft assumes a regularly shaped search
area. At times it is more practical to define search area boundaries by geographical
features. In these situations, it is frequently impossible to set out geometrically
aligned, regularly spaced search tracks. Pilots should be briefed to make every
effort to conform to the standard patterns but it may be necessary, at times, to leave
the execution of the search pattern to the discretion of the pilots.
5.5.48 Some difficulty may be encountered in determining the extent of an irregular area to
be allocated to any one aircraft.
5.5.49 Search effort should be calculated on Worksheet 6 in the prescribed manner and a
process of estimation, based on the worksheet calculations, and, if necessary, trial
and error, adopted to fit aircraft into suitable areas.
5.5.50 When allocating irregular sectors, it is good practice to allocate somewhat smaller
areas than were they regular to make allowance for positioning turns and additional
manoeuvres.
5.6 Flare Searches
General
5.6.1 Military aircraft may be capable of conducting a Flare Search at night. The
procedure is appropriate to nighttime operations when it is known that survivors are
equipped with distress signal flares. The military authority concerned will decide the
practicality of such a search.
5.6.2 The search is flown at 5000 FT or below the cloud base if lower. The crew fires a
green flare every 3-5 minutes after entering the search area and at each turning
point of the search pattern.
5.6.3 The frequency with which flares are fired from the aircraft should ensure that
survivors could sight at least two successive flares. The survivors are expected to
respond to green flares by firing their own red flares. The crew will acknowledge the
sighting of the distress flares by firing a succession of green flares and switching on
the aircraft's landing lights.

Fig 5.11 Flare search pattern

5.6.4 The spacing between adjacent tracks (S) will depend upon visibility. The quality of
pyrotechnics available to survivors is usually limited and survivors are unlikely to fire
flares until sighting the lights of or flares from a search aircraft. For this reason,
sweep width for a flare search should be based on the range at which survivors may
see the search unit. On entering a search area, search units may turn on all
possible lights and from time to time display search lights or landing lights to
facilitate sighting of the search unit by survivors. However, night vision of on-board
observers needs to be taken into account.
5.7 Electronic Searches
General
5.7.1 Distress beacons are carried by ships, aircraft and land parties and operate on one
or more of the international distress, safety and calling frequencies. When activated
to indicate a distress situation, they emit a characteristic signal. The signal serves,
in the first instance, to alert to a distress situation and, during an ensuing electronic
search, as a homing beacon. The equipment can be activated either manually or
automatically as a result of immersion in water or on impact.
5.7.2 The RCC shall use whatever resources are required to locate a distress beacon
even if it is believed to be an inadvertent activation.
5.7.3 Another authority, (eg. ACA or the police) is not to be given a large area in which to
locate a beacon. SMCs should use aircraft to isolate an area as precisely as
possible, then request determination of exact location by a cooperating authority.
Beacon Types
5.7.4 ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is the name given to an aviation distress
beacon carried by aircraft, it operates on 121.5/243 MHz and/or 406 MHz.
5.7.5 EPIRB (Emergency Position Indicator Radio Beacon) is the name for a maritime
beacon. A specific feature of an EPIRB is that it should be able to float upright. An
EPIRB operates on 121.5/243 MHz and/or 406 MHz.
5.7.6 PLB (Personal Locator Beacon) is a beacon for land use and operates on 121.5/243
MHz and/or 406 MHz.
5.7.7 Signals from beacons operating on 121.5/243 MHz are modulated with a
characteristic swept-tone, which is normally continuous, however there are still old
style maritime beacons that operate on an interrupted swept tone, generally a three
on three off cycle.
5.7.8 Beacons operating on 406 MHz have no audio signal but transmit in microbursts.
Transmitted data, generally, cannot be monitored or interrogated by aircraft as the
signal is generated by chip as a discrete data-package. Homing on 406 MHz
beacons can only be achieved by using very specialised airborne equipment or by
fitting the beacons with supplementary low-powered 121.5 MHz transmitters with
conventional audio signal output. The Australian Standard for 406MHz beacons
requires that beacons manufactured for use in Australia be fitted with a 121.5 MHz
transmitter to provide a homing signal.
Beacon Transmission Characteristics
5.7.9 The range at which a beacon may be detected varies considerably, being
dependent on a number of factors:
a. Surrounding terrain - the range will be extended if the transmitter is located on
the top of a mountain or hill and reduced if located in a valley, on a hill-side or
mountain-side, amongst trees or bushes, or in a rain forest
b. Power output of the transmitter
c. Condition of the beacon - if a transmitter's aerial or aerial lead has been
broken or disconnected, it will, if the unit is otherwise serviceable, still transmit
but its range may be reduced to 1 km or less, and may only radiate on
243MHz
d. Nature of surrounding surface - the range will be reduced if the transmitter is
operated in dry, sandy country unless placed on a good earth mat, e.g. a
space blanket, aircraft wing, or similar reflective surface
e. Presence of interference - interference sources can cause beacon-like
transmissions, e.g. strobe and navigational lights
5.7.10 A transmitter operating over water or relatively flat country will emit a radiation
pattern approximately circular in horizontal cross section. However, if activated in
rough country, between trees or amongst wreckage, its radiation pattern will be
interrupted by obstructions and shaped as a series of irregular lobes. Flying a track
that cuts these lobes, a pilot will hear the signal while within their coverage but
receive only noise or hash between them.
5.7.11 Depending on the aircraft's distance from the transmitter and the particular pattern
of the lobes, the period during which the signal is heard will vary from a few seconds
to several minutes.
5.7.12 It should be noted that when a beacon is placed above a water surface, lobes are
formed in the vertical plane, one additional lobe for each 112 cm that the beacon is
located above the water level. The presence of vertical lobes will be indicated by
variations in the received signal. Regardless of aircraft heading, the signal will
fluctuate, and may disappear completely, for a distance of several miles.
5.7.13 When a buoyant beacon is radiating in rough seas, its aerial may dip into the waves.
This results in the swept tone missing a beat or two without any increase in hash.
There is little discernible effect on the radiation pattern should an aerial be bent or
otherwise distorted, provided it is clear of the water.
Beacon Search Procedures
5.7.14 Searches to identify and locate signals from emergency beacons will normally be
initiated immediately following the confirmation of the receipt of a beacon signal.
Electronic searches may be supplementary to visual searches. Rescue planning
must be commenced with all beacon activations.
5.7.15 When it is known or believed that an aircraft or persons in distress are equipped
with a beacon, an electronic search at a high level should be initiated immediately.
In addition to beacons designed for operation by survivors, many aircraft carry ELTs
that start operating automatically when G forces reach a certain level, such as in a
crash.
5.7.16 The electronic search should not preclude the initiation of a visual search at lower
levels since the success of an electronic search depends on a beacon actually
radiating a signal.
5.7.17 When tasking aircraft to search for a beacon signal, it may be necessary to select a
search pattern from one of those already described. The most commonly employed
are the track line and parallel track patterns. Track spacing should take into account
terrain and the height of the aircraft and Table 5.5 lists suggested maximum track
spacings.
5.7.18 Pilots should be briefed to disable the receiver squelch, if fitted, and to leave it
disabled throughout the search for a beacon signal. On modern receivers not fitted
with squelch control, it may be possible to use the test switch to achieve the same
end.
5.7.19 When searching for beacon signals on 243.0 MHz over water, the track spacing
quoted in paragraph 5.4.16 should be reduced by 20%.
5.7.20 When searching over mountainous terrain, it is recommended that the track spacing
approximates the lesser of that listed for "heavy timber, jungle or mountainous
terrain" and the distance between ridges. The search pattern tracks should, as far
as possible, be oriented parallel with the ridges.
Locating a Beacon Signal Source by Homing Devices
5.7.21 A number of civil and military aircraft are fitted with direction finding equipment that
enables a pilot to home onto the source of a beacon signal and fix its position.
5.7.22 RCC staff are not required to be familiar with the equipment or to brief pilots on its
in-flight operation. Procedures have been developed to localise the position of a
radiating beacon when homing devices are not available and the only information
available are reports of beacon signals being heard.
5.7.23 A number of agencies and volunteer organisations also have hand held homing
devices.
ALTITUDE MOUNTAINOUS PLAINS or MARITIME
AGL/AMSL DENSE TIMBER DESERT
FT NM NM NM
1000 2 10 20
5000 10 20 50
8000 15 25 60
10000 20 30 70
15000 30 60 100
20000 40 80 150
30000 50 100 180
Table 5.5 Suggested maximum track spacings for aircraft conducting beacon searches
Note: Beacon search altitude should, initially, be as high as possible for the aircraft
tasked, subject to air traffic and meteorological conditions.
Aural Location of Beacons
5.7.24 Aural procedures are based on the assumption that an undistorted radiation pattern
is very nearly circular.
5.7.25 Some guidance on the flying of aural searches for beacons is given in AIP/ERSA.
Whenever possible, AusSAR shall individually brief pilots unfamiliar with the
procedure.
Maximum Radio Signal Range Calculations
5.7.26 By using the following formula:
Maximum Range (in NM) = 1.2 x √h
Where: h = height/altitude of the receiving antenna in feet;
5.7.27 the theoretical maximum range of the transmitter may be calculated, or for search
purposes, the theoretical maximum distance at which an ELT signal may be
received given the receiving antenna’s height above ground level.
Note: The transmitting antenna is assumed to be at ground level.
5.7.28 The area in which the transmitter is located may be determined by plotting a circle,
with radius equal to the calculated range, from the position at which the beacon was
heard. The intersection of circles plotted from two or more hearing positions will
result in a fix of the probable position of the transmitter.
Signal Heard, Signal Fade Plotting Method
5.7.29 From reports of "signal heard" (SH) and "signal fade" (SF) positions received from
aircraft flying at a constant level, it is possible to determine the limits of a beacon
radiation pattern.
5.7.30 En-route aircraft may be very helpful in this respect. They should be asked to
monitor 121.5 MHz and report the positions where the signal was first heard and
where it faded. Lines joining the positions at which the signal was first heard (SH)
and the positions at which it faded (SF) form chords of a circle, the perpendicular
bisectors of which should intersect at the location of the transmitter. When three or
more position lines are obtained in this fashion and plotted, it is most likely that a
"cocked hat" will be formed, the centre of which should be taken as the MPP of the
beacon. An example of a two position line fix is shown in figure 5.12.
5.7.31 It is not recommended to join SH and SF positions from different aircraft due to
variations in the aircraft’s receiver sensitivity, and variations in altitude between
different aircraft. Both these factors will alter the effective radiation pattern of the
beacon.
 Fig 5.12 Signal head and signal fade

De-tuning Method
5.7.32 Detailed instructions for the use of the De-tuning Method is set out at AIP/ERSA and
in the SAR Manual for SAR Unit Pilots and Dropmasters.
Hill Shading
5.7.33 When a beacon has been localized to a general area of mountainous terrain, it is
possible to eliminate smaller specific areas by flying the search aircraft over specific
sectors. For example, along valleys, around isolated hills etc, noting those areas
where the signal is not heard or where it cuts out sharply as a result of shading.
5.7.34 When a more precise target area has been isolated in this way, the de-tuning
method or visual search may be employed to pinpoint the exact site.
Locating a Signal from the Ground.
5.7.35 Ground parties may be able to locate the source of a signal using a portable
Aviation Band Multi-channel AM VHF Radio. If the radio is tuned to 121.55 MHz or
121.45 MHz and a signal is heard, it is likely that the source of the signal is within
100 meters. Progressive detuning whilst retaining the signal will locate the source
of the signal.
5.7.36 If an ELT signal can only be heard on 121.5Mhz, the ELT is some distance away.
Using a building or obstruction as a shield, if the signal is lost the building or
obstruction is between the receiver and the ELT. It is also possible to use the body
as a shield by holding the receiver to the chest. The signal should be weakest with
the back to the signal.
5.7.37 To check individual craft as the source of a signal, a domestic FM or AM radio is
likely to receive the signal if placed within a few meters of the source. The APM
contains the details for this procedure. Also the aerial may be removed from an
Aviation VHF radio, if the signal is still received the source is very close.
Search by Radar
5.7.38 Radar may be primarily used for maritime searches. Most available airborne radar
would be unlikely to detect typical search objects on land except for metal wreckage
in open areas such as desert.
5.7.39 The sweep width and track spacing to employ will depend on the type of radar,
height, environmental clutter and noise, radar cross-section of the target, radar
beam refraction due to atmospherics and operator ability. W and S should be
agreed between SMC and operator.
5.7.40 It should be noted that when the wave height increases to above one to two metres
the probability of detecting a small object rapidly decreases for most radar and
consequently so does the sweep width. The probability of detection of a small target
rapidly decreases.
5.7.41 The altitude used should normally be between 2,500 and 4,000 FT for small search
objects and a maximum of 8,000 FT for large search objects.
Search by Infra-red Devices
5.7.42 Infrared (IR) devices such as IR TV-cameras or Forward Looking Infrared Radar
(FLIR) are passive detection systems used to detect thermal radiation. They operate
on the principle of detecting temperature differences to produce a video picture.
Therefore, IR devices can often detect survivors by their body heat.
5.7.43 IR devices are normally preferred for night use. Search height should normally be
200 to 500 FT for small targets such as persons in the water, and up to a maximum
of approximately 1,500 FT for larger targets or those having a larger heat signature.
The track spacing can be decided based on consultation with the operating crew
and taking into consideration the effective detection range as provided by the
manufacturer.
Night Vision Goggles
Note: While night vision goggles (NVGs) are in use by the ADF, they are still under
trial for use by civil operators.
5.7.44 Use of night vision goggles (NVGs) can be effective in search carried out by various
types of search units.
5.7.45 The following factors may influence the effectiveness of NVGs for searching:
a. NVG quality
b. Crew training and experience
c. Environmental conditions, visibility, moonlight, cloud coverage, rain,
d. Level and glare effects of ambient light, natural and artificial.
e. SAR unit speed
f. Height of the observer above the surface
g. Surface conditions (like snow), and sea state
h. Size, illumination, and reflectivity of the search object. The presence of
reflective tape greatly enhances detectability.
i. Types of survival equipment or light sources used by the survivors.
5.7.46 Glare should be minimised as much as possible within the facility where the NVG
users are stationed. This may involve opening or removing windows where
practicable. Also proper scanning techniques are important for reducing the adverse
effects of moonlight or artificial light sources like, lighthouses, offshore rigs, ships,
navigation and strobe lights.
5.7.47 Visible moonlight can significantly improve detection of unlighted search objects
when using NVGs. Search object light sources, like strobe or similar lights, or even
cigarettes, can greatly improve detection even in poor visibility conditions.
5.7.48 RCC staff should be aware that sweep width needs to be discussed with the crew
conducting the mission.
5.8 SAR Unit Selection and Characteristics
Overview
5.8.1 The selection by SAR staff of available SAR units to be used in SAR operations
should take into account the following considerations:
a. the need to reach the distress scene quickly; and
b. suitability for at least one of the following operations:
i. provision of assistance to prevent or lessen the severity of accidents;
ii. conduct of a search, primarily by air but with the assistance of marine or
land units as required;
iii. carriage of supplies to the scene of an accident and, if necessary,
delivery of supplies; or
iv. execution of a rescue, (by marine and land units or by helicopters; and
as required fixed wing aircraft to provide guidance to units or to relay
communications).
5.8.2 In coordinating a search, the SMC, as guided by local procedures, may charter,
arrange or request the provision of suitable aircraft or resources. RCC Australia can
assist with advice on suitable aircraft for SAR operations (see 1.1.13 Assistance to
Other SAR Agencies).
Air Assets
5.8.3 Many types of aircraft will be suitable as SAR Units with little or no modification.
However, care should be taken to ensure that, even in an emergency, safety of
flight is the primary consideration and should never be compromised. The normal
operational and technical limitations of an aircraft, as well as the qualifications of the
crew, should be carefully noted by the SMC. SMCs must ensure they are cognisant
 of the factors relating to the aircraft and crew that may compromise the conduct of
the SAR mission.
5.8.4 Some specialist SRUs that have undergone training from AusSAR are organised in
Tiers and can be fixed wing aircraft or helicopters. The tiers relate to the
capabilities and training of the aircraft and crews. Aircraft should be used where the
tier relates to the capability required for the task with due regard to responsiveness
and availability. Tier capabilities are detailed in Table 1 in Appendix M. SRUs are
strategically located around Australia as shown in Figure 1 in Appendix M to ensure
the best coverage of the area of responsibility.
5.8.5 When chartering aircraft for use as SAR Units, SAR staff shall, whenever practical
and effective, select aircraft from trained SAR/Emergency operators including;
a. Search and Rescue Units (SRUs);
b. Police and State Emergency Service aircraft.
5.8.6 Advice on suitable aircraft can be obtained from RCC Australia (see Section 1.3.42
Assistance to Other SAR Agencies).
5.8.7 If additional aircraft are required, call out could be made according to the following
priority bearing in mind suitability, location and availability:
a. domestic commercial aircraft,
b. Coastwatch aircraft
c. ADF aircraft
d. scheduled Regular Public Transport (RPT) aircraft.
e. private aircraft
5.8.8 When the circumstances are appropriate, SAR staff may seek assistance from
foreign aircraft.
5.8.9 Private aircraft may be used when so situated as to more readily effect the saving of
life, operated by crew having particularly valuable local knowledge of the area to be
searched, or when no other commercial aircraft are available.
5.8.10 As a general rule, slow aircraft or aircraft capable of reducing speed to 100 - 150
knots are most efficient for visual searches. Small and partially hidden targets are
easily missed at higher speeds and faster aircraft may be subject to operational
limitations making them unsuitable for low-level flights. Nevertheless, fast and/or
highflying aircraft also play an important role in search operations, for instance when
these aircraft carry out:
a. an electronic (radio) search to home on distress signals; and
b. an exploratory sweep of a large search area simultaneously with a search by
a slower aircraft flying at lowers levels, a method that is particularly effective in
maritime or other flat and unobstructed areas.
5.8.11 The suitability and efficiency of an aircraft for search, support and rescue operations
will depend on which and how many of the following desirable features it possesses:
a. Operational characteristics:
i. safe low-speed and low-level flight capability,
ii. short take-off and landing (STOL) capability,
iii. sufficient range to cover the area, with due regard to the location of
redeployment bases,
iv. manoeuvrability, especially for searches in mountainous areas, and
v. payload capacity;
b. Equipment:
i. suitable navigation and instrument flying aids,
ii. radio equipment capable or receiving and homing on emergency radio
signals, and
iii. adequate communications equipment;
 c. availability of good observation posts;
d. suitability for the delivery of supplies, emergency equipment and personnel;
and
e. facilities for the treatment and carriage of survivors.
5.8.12 The SMC shall select aircraft for use as SAR Units after consideration of the
following factors:
a. type of search necessary;
b. type of terrain;
c. type of navigation involved;
d. need for dropping supplies;
e. disposition of aircraft with respect to search area;
f. crew experience and familiarity with the area;
g. weather conditions at and en route to search area; and
h. rescue considerations.
5.8.13 Aircraft not equipped with radios should not be used on SAR operations except as a
last resort.
5.8.14 Fast, high flying aircraft equipped with homing and/or direction–finding equipment
that have the operational flexibility to descend to low level for final search are
recommended for beacon monitoring.
5.8.15 Seaplanes and amphibians are useful for search or for carrying supplies and
personnel over water. Their use as rescue units or carriers of personnel is limited to
operations in lakes and river areas, or sheltered waters and bays. Under favourable
weather and sea conditions, suitable seaplanes may also be used for rescue
operations in protected waters, eg. large lakes, bays, shore areas etc. Rescue
operations on open water or at sea are generally only feasible for large seaplanes
designed for rough-water work.
5.8.16 Helicopters are particularly useful SAR units as their slow speed and ability to hover
make them suitable for search as well as rescue operations, particularly where
small targets are sought or close scrutiny of terrain or sea is required. They also
have the ability to land in a confined area and, in some instances, to operate from
some vessels.
5.8.17 Some helicopters are fitted with winches, floats or equipped for flight in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC) and at night giving them an added advantage for
search and rescue response. Turbulence, gusting winds and icing are conditions
that the SMC should consider when determining helicopters as appropriate SAR
units.
5.8.18 Ship-based aircraft operate with great flexibility at sea because they have the
advantage of a well-equipped and mobile base.
5.8.19 Where terrain and vegetation is such that a contour search is necessary, preference
should be given to:
a. helicopters,
b. high-performance short take off and landing (STOL) aircraft, or
c. light, manoeuvrable twin engine aircraft.
5.8.20 Where possible, single engine aircraft should be restricted to areas where the
terrain would permit forced landings.
5.8.21 When possible, consideration should be given to engaging aircraft capable of
carrying at least four Observers in order to permit rotation and rest.
5.8.22 Where possible, landing sites should be as close to the distress scene as possible.
The landing area selected should be clear of loose articles that may be blown into
the air by the rotor downwash. On beaches, it is best to use the water’s edge to
form one side of the landing area. Communications should be established with the
 aircraft before its arrival and the pilot briefed on the landing site. If the pilot is
unfamiliar with the location, a description of the area using large geographical
features may need to be passed. If possible, a number of people should be
deployed to secure the area before the aircraft arrives so that no one enters the
landing area until the rotors of the aircraft have stopped or the pilot indicates that it
is safe to do so. If the landing area is in a populated area, extreme care should be
taken to ensure that no children run toward the aircraft once it has landed. When
communicating with the aircraft it is important to inform the pilot of any obstacles in
the immediate area. This is especially applicable to wire strung between trees and
power lines as these types of obstacles are difficult to see from the air and present a
danger to the safe operation of the aircraft.
5.8.23 Fixed wing aircraft that can land close to a distress site can speed up the
evacuation of survivors rescued by helicopter, rescue party or other means.
5.8.24 All flights for search and rescue purposes are to be planned and undertaken in
compliance with Civil Aviation Regulations (CARs). In the case of a SAR event
where safety of life is at stake and exemptions from regulatory requirements maybe
necessary and appropriate for the pilot to undertake the mission, the SMC shall
review with the pilot all possible risk factors. It is the pilot’s responsibility to ensure
that dispensations are obtained from those officers holding the power to delegate
under CARs.
5.8.25 It is the SMC’s responsibility to provide a complete brief of the situation, including
any hazards such as adverse weather or conditions, to the pilot so that a pilot can
make an independent decision to become involved in the incident dependent on
aircraft capabilities and their own competence.
ADF Air Assets
5.8.26 RAAF aircraft are on SAR stand-by at Richmond and Edinburgh RAAF bases and
can be requested through RCC Australia. The SMC should plan on a minimum
response time from receipt of orders to take off of three hours and a maximum of
twelve. Response times will vary, depending on whether the request is made in or
outside of business hours and whether the required aircraft are on stand-by and, if
not, the disposition of aircraft and crews. There will be times when response will
prove more rapid than indicated by these guidelines but planning should be
predicated upon these times.
5.8.27 Aircraft on SAR stand-by at RAAF bases are:
RICHMOND - 1 Hercules
EDINBURGH - 1 Orion
5.8.28 Other military aircraft suited to civil SAR operations may be available subject to
HQAST approval.
5.8.29 Stocks of droppable supplies are held at all RAAF aerodromes, details of equipment
held and aircraft capabilities can be found in Appendix N.
Control of ADF Aircraft
5.8.30 RAAF aircraft assigned to a SAR operation coordinated by AusSAR will always
remain under ADF command and control. In addition to normal service channels,
ADF authorities may exercise operational control of SAR aircraft through the Air
Operations Communications Systems (AOCS). Air Operations Communications
Centres (AOCC) are located at Darwin, Townsville, Sydney and Perth; they provide
a General Purpose Net (GPN), discrete nets and telephone patch facilities on HF
radio voice channels.
Use of Customs/Coastwatch Aircraft
5.8.31 An SMC may seek assistance from Customs/Coastwatch aircraft through RCC
Australia. RCC Australia will request assistance in sourcing aircraft through
Customs Operations Centre. Where a specific type of search is required, eg. Radar
or night, RCC Australia will consult with Coastwatch and the contracted provider to
ascertain the best response.
Maritime Assets
5.8.32 Search operations are generally best carried out by aircraft while rescue is best
carried out by helicopter, marine craft or land assets. However, it will sometimes be
necessary to use marine craft or land assets for some search efforts, particularly
when weather conditions prevent or hamper air search, when the location of the
distress scene is known with reasonable accuracy, or the location is remote and
non-aviation assets are best placed to render assistance.
5.8.33 The speed of marine craft is usually their maximum speed possible under the
prevailing sea conditions. Generally, small boats search at 15 –40 knots and larger
vessels search at 10 – 30 knots. At these speeds excellent coverage for small
targets is possible. However, the area that can be searched is limited due to the
low level of the vessel and the earth’s curvature. A table giving the height of eye
versus horizontal range is in Appendix 5.4.
Category Abbreviation
Rescue boat - short-range coastal and/or river craft RB
Rescue vessel - long-range seagoing craft RV
Note: The boat/vessel’s speed may be inserted, e.g. RB(14) or RV(10).
5.8.34 The abbreviations listed in the table above may be used when referring to vessels
made available for SAR purposes:
5.8.35 Rescue vessels can participate in operations at considerable distance from their
base. Their main design requirements are good manoeuvrability, seaworthiness,
long range, relatively high speed and sufficient size to accommodate survivors and
equipment. Naval vessels, offshore lifeboats, seagoing tugs, customs and pilot
launches and patrol boats are of particular value because of their special
equipment, including communications equipment, and trained personnel.
5.8.36 Generally, the strategy for sustenance and rescue of survivors of accidents in
oceanic areas will depend upon aerial supply drops and/or deployment of parachute
rescue personnel pending rescue by ship or helicopter.
5.8.37 Rescue boats such as lifeboats, patrol boats and crash boats are short-range
vessels capable of operating a limited distance off shore in good sea conditions.
Pleasure craft, yachts or rigid inflatable boats fitted with an outboard motor could
also be used provided they carry appropriate equipment.
5.8.38 Other sources of maritime assistance may include:
a. Naval vessels;
b. Customs vessels;
c. merchant vessels;
d. fishing vessels;
e. police vessels;
f. volunteer marine rescue groups e.g. Volunteer Coast Guard;
g. harbour craft, ferries, pilot launches and tugs;
h. oil drilling rigs; and
i. offshore oil industry support vessels.
Naval Vessels
5.8.39 When available, it is usually preferable to use naval vessels for SAR operations.
The training and discipline of naval crews, communications fits and other
specialised equipment with which the ships are fitted makes naval vessels
eminently suitable for SAR operations. Some naval vessels can also be more freely
used for combined aircraft/ surface vessel search operations than merchant
vessels. In the event of a major operation a navy vessel may be appointed
Coordinator Surface Search and coordinate the activities of other vessels.
5.8.40 HMA Ship responsibilities on receiving an Alerting or Distress message are
contained at Appendix O.
Customs vessels
5.8.41 Customs vessels are also patrolling the approaches to Australia and, where
available, can be used to assist with SAR. In a similar way to Customs aircraft, an
SMC may request the assistance from Customs vessels through RCC Australia.
Use of Merchant Shipping
5.8.42 Some ships do not maintain a continuous communications watch and consequently
must be alerted by means of an automatic alarm system. As this system is
traditionally employed only for emergencies involving the safety of human life, the
decision to request its use must be made advisedly and responsibly. Actual
requests for use of the automatic alarm shall be limited to genuine emergencies.
5.8.43 Knowledge of the positions of merchant ships is of considerable value in SAR
operations as merchant ships are often the nearest means of rescue during an
incident off shore. The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS) contains an obligatory provision for the captain of a vessel to proceed with
all speed to the assistance of persons in distress at sea, provided the safety of his
ship or crew is not compromised. At all times the safety of the vessel and crew is
the responsibility of the master and RCCs should ensure this responsibility is not
compromised. In a distress situation, where doubt exists as to a vessel’s intentions,
the master should be requested to advise his intentions or confirm that he is
responding. Given that a master is not obliged to respond to situations that are not
distress, during these situations the master should be requested to divert/assist if
practicable. When vessels are known to be proceeding to assist it is encumbent on
the RCC to ensure that only the most suitable vessel or vessels are used and to
release other responding vessels as soon as possible.
Equipment for Marine Craft
5.8.44 In the case of oceanic SAR operations, it is desirable that the ship(s) used are fitted
with basic equipment appropriate to the task: navigation aids, communication
equipment and life-saving and rescue items. (eg: inflatable life rafts, signalling
devices, line-throwing apparatus, non-sparking boat hooks, rescue baskets, litters,
boarding ladders and scrambling nets).
5.8.45 Some larger merchant vessels and all service ships will possess equipment for
rescue operations. However, additional assistance and supplies, particularly
medical, may be required to sustain survivors until they can be landed at a point of
safety or transferred to an evacuation vehicle.
5.8.46 Depending on the distance from the coast, inshore rescue craft may be available to
assist and will be coordinated through the State or Territory Police.
Land Search Facilities
5.8.47 Search by land facilities alone is usually impractical for large search areas but it can
be conducted in most weather conditions and can provide complete coverage of a
confined area that cannot be thoroughly searched from the air. Land parties are
also critical in operations where the search is carried out from the air and rescue by
land facilities.
5.8.48 Police authorities undertake the responsibility for coordination of land search.
5.8.49 The need for coordination between land rescue units and search aircraft should be
considered, and plans should cater for the need for two-way radio communication.
There may also be a need in remote areas to keep land units supplied with fuel,
water and food by means of airdrops.
5.8.50 When the survivors are located, the SMC should liaise with the police commander
with a view to expediting the return of survivors to a place of safety. Consideration
should be given to aircraft relay and the use of suitable motor transport:
ambulances, four-wheel drive vehicles, buses, etc.
5.8.51 Specialist police and military land parties are equipped with material useful to the
SAR role. It is desirable that land SAR units be equipped with basic navigation aids,
 two-way communication equipment, sufficient clothing, medical supplies and rations
to reduce the need for air drops and specialist equipment appropriate to the unit’s
particular role.
5.8.52 The Land Operations Manual produced by Emergency Management Australia
should be referred to for procedures with regard to land search techniques, planning
and conduct.
5.9 Search Unit Allocation
Introduction
5.9.1 Before committing resources to an intensive search, an evaluation should be made
of the total search effort required and the contribution that may reasonably be
expected from each search unit
5.9.2 When assessing available search capacity, care must be taken not to over-estimate
either the time that a particular aircraft and its crew can spend in a search area or
the capability of the observers to remain effective over long periods of flight time.
5.9.3 Failure to make a sound estimation of these factors may result in one or more of the
search units being unable to complete its allocated task and the efficiency of the
entire effort being seriously compromised.
Aircraft Capability
5.9.4 Search aircraft are expected to comply with the rules for navigation as stipulated in
AIP or the appropriate military documents, including limitations on crew times and
navigation.
5.9.5 Guidance on the limitations on search time for defence crews should be sought from
the relevant controlling authorities. CARs and CAOs govern civil operations.
5.9.6 As a general principle, search aircraft of the smaller variety should be planned in
such a way that a rest period on the ground is possible after about two hours of
searching.
Calculation of Search Time Required
5.9.7 There is a simple but important formula that should be used to quickly calculate
“search ability” and thus gives practical answers to these typical questions:
a. How long will it take to search the whole area?
b. I’ve got 6 hours, how much of he area can I search?
c. We’ve got 5 hours and 4 boats, what track spacing must I use?
d. We’ve got to cover the area by 1600 hrs, how many craft will I need?
5.9.8 The factors to be considered are:
a. the area to be searched in square nautical miles
b. time in hours
c. velocity, the speed(s) of the unit(s) (added together)
d. track spacing in nautical miles
Note: If any three are known then the fourth can be calculated using the formula:
A = TVS (A TV Station)
Example 1: How long will it take to search an area 25 nm by 10 nm using a track
spacing of 5 nm in a craft with a speed of 10 Knots.

T = A and do the sum 25x10 = 5 hours

VS 5x10

5.9.9 If diverting from the assigned pattern track to investigate a sighting, the search unit
must fix its position with care. This is to ensure if the sighting is not the target, the
search unit can return to and resume the assigned search from the position at which
it diverted.
Calculation of Search Time Available
5.9.10 When evaluating the search time available from search assets, certain factors must
be taken into account, where applicable:
a. total endurance;
b. transit time;
c. necessary fuel reserves at final destination;
d. first and last light at departure and destination aerodromes, unless flight
i. is permissible and practical under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR);
ii. or Night Visual Flight Rules (VFR) operation is possible;
e. weather conditions in the search area, and destination points, and any
requirement for holding fuel or alternate aerodrome for aircraft.
f. any other operational limitations; and
g. Sighting investigation time while on search, normally 10% of the time available
but may be increased where terrain or conditions dictate.
5.9.11 In most cases, time in transit to the search area may be calculated using speed and
distances between the points of departure and destination and the mid-point of a
search area.
5.9.12 For aircraft, when wind speeds are high, it may be advisable to compute a ground
speed for use in transit-time calculations. This is especially appropriate for aircraft
with low TAS. In a situation where an aircraft will depart from an aerodrome on one
side of its allotted area, conduct its search, then recover to an aerodrome on the
other side of the area, if the tracks are aligned with or against the wind direction,
calculation of ground speeds is proper.
5.9.13 Fuel reserves shall comply with current regulations for the category of flight. The
variable reserve allowance for IFR operations is not applied to the time spent in a
search area (ie: it is only applied to the transit times).
5.9.14 Operational factors may limit the search time available from a specific aircraft,
examples being the time at which an aircraft will become available, distance from
mandatory servicing facilities, and other commitments of the operator that may
require the return of an aircraft at a particular time.
Investigation Time
5.9.15 A search asset may sight objects that require investigation; therefore an allowance
for the time taken to investigate must be made. The basic allowance is 10% of total
time available in the search area, but the SMC may decide to increase this figure.
The number of sightings investigated by previous search crews will influence any
such decision. These, in turn, will be influenced by the nature of the terrain, the
amount of flotsam on the sea etc. Over heavily timbered, mountainous terrain the
allowance may need to be as high as 50% of total search time.
Effective Search Time
5.9.16 Effective search time is the resultant of the actual search hours (ASH) available
minus the investigation time.
5.9.17 After making allowance for "investigation time", it may be convenient to convert the
effective search time to an equivalent time at 120 KTS before calculating the size of
the area to be allocated to any given aircraft.
5.9.18 The conversion is made by using the formula:
T (hours at 120 Kts) = Search TAS x Effective search time
120
5.9.19 Example: If an aircraft can be in the search area for a total time (ASH) of 6 hours at
a TAS of 180 KTS and 10% is allowed for target investigations, then 5.4 (6 hrs –
10%) hours may be planned for actual searching. The equivalent time at 120 KTS
would be:
 180 x 5.4
Hours at 120 KTS =
120
= 8.1 Hours
5.9.20 When obtaining data about aircraft availability, special consideration should be
given to the speed at which the aircraft will be flown whilst on search. In general, to
provide for optimum scanning by observers, search aircraft should fly as slowly as
possible. There are, however, other aspects to be considered, particularly the time
available for search and the need to cover the area expeditiously. It may be
beneficial to discuss these interacting considerations with operators. Some aircraft
operate in excess of 120 KTS when on search; although this is less than optimum,
logistic considerations may dictate the use of these speeds.
5.9.21 When the track spacing to be assigned to each aircraft has been decided, the area
each aircraft can cover may then be calculated from the formula: A = TVS.
Comparison of Search Time Required and Time Available for Search Aircraft
5.9.22 Comparison of the search time required with that available, (both denominated at
120 KTS.), will reveal whether the aircraft resources available are enough, too much
or too little.
5.9.23 At this point, a critical decision related to aircraft allocation may be made. The time
required for search is directly related to track spacing; track spacing, in turn, is
directly related to search height. It is feasible, therefore, that despite first indications
that insufficient resources are to hand, timely coverage of the whole search area
could be achieved by the available aircraft for the sake of a higher-than-optimum
search height.
Sufficient Search Time for Search Aircraft
5.9.24 Having calculated the time available from each search aircraft and converted it to
time at 120 KTS, it is possible to calculate the area that each aircraft can cover, and
to allocate a specific sector of the area to each aircraft.
5.9.25 Various factors may influence the positioning of search aircraft in the area.
5.9.26 These include:
a. The type of aircraft;
b. Time of arrival in the search area;
c. Supply dropping capability;
d. Navigation capability;
e. Suitability to a particular type of search;
f. Search height, or speed limitations;
g. Location of recovery aerodrome.
5.9.27 When the search area is shaped as a trapezium, (as it usually is in a "last
report/missed report" SAR situation), it is simplest to start allocation from the wider
end of the area.
a. The distance D1 should be measured.
b. Consider the area that can be searched by the first aircraft to be allocated.
c. Divide this by the distance D1, and thereby determine the width of the
resulting rectangular search area. This width may then need to be adjusted so
that the number of legs to be flown will be complete.
d. Consideration should also be given to the location of the departure and
recovery aerodromes relative to the search area. If they are on opposite sides
of the search area, the number of legs should be odd, if on the same, even. In
any case, this relationship may require a further adjustment to the number of
legs to be flown.
e. By multiplying the number of legs by the track spacing, the width of the area to
be assigned may be deduced. Repeat the procedure for areas A, B, C etc.
 Fig 5.15 Allocation when sufficient search time is available
5.9.28 It is apparent from Figure 5.15 that this method of allocation results in small areas of
individual search areas extending beyond the limits of the original search area. To
reduce the incidence of unnecessary areas being searched, the length of D1 may
be reduced to the diameter of the larger circle of probability. The length of the major
axis of ensuing search areas will remain at this reduced length until the centre of the
larger circle of probability has been included in a specific search area.
5.9.29 Little can be done to eliminate other portions of the rectangular areas that extend
beyond the probability area, except perhaps, to split large areas into smaller
sections, or use different allocation methods.
Over Sufficiency of Search Time
5.9.30 To employ time in excess of that required for first search coverage, several
alternatives may be considered, e.g. first and second searches may be conducted
simultaneously thus increasing the probability of detection and/or adjacent search
areas may be overlapped. Other options include a reduction in track spacing and a
reduction in sortie times to lengthen search crew rest periods.
Insufficient Search Time
5.9.31 A more normal situation is that insufficient time is available to complete the first
search of the probability area in due time. When this occurs a compromise must be
devised.
5.9.32 In reaching a compromise, the probability area may be reduced, the track spacing
may be increased, the search height may be increased or a variation may be made
to a number, or all, of these factors. The methods for variation of search area size
and track spacing will now be considered.
5.9.33 By reducing search quality to the point of C = 0.5, that being taken as the minimum
acceptable value, a suitable combination of area, track spacing and search height
may be calculated to best utilise limited resources. Application of the expanding
search concept will ensure good coverage over ensuing sorties.
5.9.34 Worksheet 5 (Appendix &) has been constructed to assist in the determination of
variable search parameters to achieve the best possible compromise.
a. Section "A" is a statement of desired area and track spacing for a specified
search height, associated coverage factor and POD.
b. Section "B" records the maximum area that can be searched if the practical
track spacing (S) is used. The C and POD, in this case, will be identical to "A".
c. Section "C" records the widest track spacing required to search the whole of
the area with the available aircraft hours, the resulting C and POD.
5.9.35 Having established the extremes of optimum track spacing and adjusted area
(section B), and optimum area and adjusted track spacing (section C), it is
appropriate to decide on the best possible option. This may be either one of these
extremes or a compromise solution that requires amendment of each of area, track
spacing and search height.
5.9.36 Section "D" may be used to examine the values of C and POD for various
combinations of area and track spacing. It is good procedure, as a first step, to
calculate the values necessary to achieve C = 0.5 and then look for a solution of
compromise that results in a value of C between 1 and 0.5. The process may be
repeated for different search heights before making a final decision.
5.9.37 With the area and track space determined, it is appropriate to calculate the area
capable of search by individual aircraft then allocate them accordingly.
Allocation Variations to Suit Particular Aircraft
5.9.38 An improved search plan may result from the assignment of individual track
spacings and/or search heights to particular aircraft. These adjustments may arise
after consideration of the need for separation of search aircraft and each aircraft's
search TAS, search height limitations and turn diameter. Variations specified, as a
result of these considerations, should be gauged against the calculated practical
track spacing to indicate resulting C and POD.
5.9.39 An overall POD may be obtained by calculating C for each individual search aircraft
then determining a weighted average of these coverage factors to arrive at an
overall figure for C and POD. These, although of little value to an SMC in their own
right, may be included in a Situation Report or prove beneficial when determining
the cumulative POD for a number of searches.
Allocation Chart Presentation
5.9.40 It is desirable that as much pertinent information as possible be depicted on a chart.
All appropriate information may be plotted on one chart or it may be divided
according to type and plotted on discreet charts. In either case, data may be plotted
directly onto charts or on transparent overlays.
5.9.41 Individual aircraft search areas shall be identified by a "letter number", e.g. "A1".
a. The letters used shall start at "A" and progress through the alphabet. If there
are more than twenty-six aircraft on search, then double letters shall be used.
b. The number will indicate the day of the search, (not the sortie number or the
search number). For example, the first aircraft tasked on day one of a search
would be given "A1"; the twenty-seventh would be given "AA1". The first
aircraft tasked on day two would be given "A2"; the twenty-eighth would be
given "BB2". Numbering will recommence with the first daylight search on
each successive day.
Note: The letters I or O are not used to identify a search area because of the
possibility of confusion with 1 or 0 (zero).
 Fig 5.16 Information display on allocation chart

5.10 SAR Crew Briefing

General
5.10.1 Comprehensive briefing and de-briefing of search crews is a vital component of
search planning. They are time consuming processes, and in the case of briefing,
preparation must commence at an early stage and, whenever possible, in good time
before departure. It must be appreciated that many personnel engaged for search
operations are neither trained for nor experienced in the search role. Field SAR
personnel shall therefore be given every opportunity to familiarise with all relevant
details of the distress. All instructions for the SAR operation shall be clearly and
precisely presented.
5.10.2 The officer appointed to the briefing task, must be thoroughly familiar with the
overall plan and individual search unit tasks.
Search Briefing
5.10.3 Comprehensive briefing of search units is vital to every search operation. The SMC
should be satisfied that the briefings are well prepared, and that where group
briefings are to be conducted, the venue is suitable for the purpose.
5.10.4 Briefings for marine units will cover similar topics to those given to air and land
units, but there may be less opportunity for face-to-face briefing contact. Briefing
Officers should be aware of the difficulties inherent in briefing indirectly and the
increased potential for misunderstanding.
5.10.5 Similar arrangements shall be made for debriefing SAR units.
Search Area Description
5.10.6 There are many ways of describing search patterns and the boundaries of search
areas. In selecting the method to be used, RCC staff must consider the SAR
knowledge of the recipients and the method to be used for the transmission of the
information.
Geographical Coordinates
5.10.7 This is the generally accepted method of designating an area, the corners of a
search area being defined by latitude and longitude. To avoid confusion, the
positions should be listed in a clockwise sequence, ending with a repeat of the initial
coordinates. The disadvantages of this system are the possibilities of error in
measurement and transmission.
Universal Grid Reference
5.10.8 The Universal Grid is overprinted on all charts of the JOG series and is also shown
on the majority of larger scale maps.
5.10.9 The grid consists of numbered blue lines spaced 1000 metres apart at chart scale,
both vertically and horizontally. Instructions for its use are printed in the margin of
each sheet.
5.10.10 Another grid system may be encountered on earlier editions of the R502 series and
the associated large-scale maps. This is based on a military 1000-yard grid and is
overprinted in black. The method of use is similar in both cases. Some maps show
both grids.
5.10.11 When using grid references, it is essential to identify the map used by name and
edition number.
5.10.12 It should be noted that the military might use a numerical system of sheet reference
in combination with the grid reference. If this method is encountered, it will be
necessary to seek interpretive guidance from a military source.
Track Line
5.10.13 A track line search may be designated by stating relevant points along the track
together with the width of coverage, for example:
"Fly a track 4 NM each side of a line between 16° 20’ S 135° 15’ E and 17° 50’ S 137° 28’ E."
Landmarks
5.10.14 Description of a search area by way of natural or man made boundaries is
particularly suitable when describing mountainous areas. Care must be taken to be
precise. Vague descriptions such as "7 NM SSW of..." shall not be used. Proper
direction in this case would be by way of positive bearing and distance, i.e. "bearing
202° (T) from Dixon Island at 7 NM".
Search Pattern Abbreviations
5.10.15 The international abbreviations are normally not used to brief domestic aircraft.
Other RCCs may use the abbreviations when sending a briefing to an Australian
SAR unit. If this briefing is to be forwarded to a SAR unit the RCC should ensure the
pilot understands the type of search required.
Search Aircrew Briefing
5.10.16 A written record shall be kept of all briefings given to aircrew and other units. Filing
a copy of the Search Briefing Form most conveniently provides this.
5.10.17 Search Briefing Forms shall be prepared for each aircraft task and dispatched or
handed to the pilot-in-command or their delegate personally.
5.10.18 When a task is amended involving a search with more than three aircraft, a written
“Amended Briefing Form’ is required.
5.10.19 When pilots or their delegates are unable to personally attend for a briefing, the
information may be dispatched by facsimile machine or by telephone. The facsimile
method is preferred as it minimises the opportunity for errors of understanding and
permits the transmission of maps, diagrams and other relevant hard-copy material.
5.10.20 A pilot is, whenever possible, to be given a copy or reproduction of the relevant
portion of the map in use by the RCC; it shall show the assigned search area and
those areas adjacent to it.
5.10.21 Care must be taken in determining whether maps in use depict elevations in metres
or feet. Pilots shall be left in no doubt in this regard.
5.10.22 Staff must be extra careful when using 1:250,000 charts as heights may be in feet
or metres.
5.10.23 In any case, where it is not possible to provide a pilot with a map or reproduction
thereof, the briefing officer shall determine the maps and editions available to the
pilot and ensure that the crew is totally aware of the areas, locations, and features
that the RCC requires it to search. The briefing officer shall make every effort to
eliminate any possibility of errors due to differences in data on the respective maps.
5.10.24 A briefing shall include the following factors:
a. Full description and nature of the distress, and details that are already known
not to be of any significance to the present search should be pointed out;
b. Present and forecast weather conditions to, from and in the search area and
at destination andalternate aerodromes;
c. Search area and any description of clues that may indicate the presence of
the target
d. Instructions concerning the flight to and from the search area including route
and levels;
e. Search task, including patterns to be flown and method to record areas
searched;
f. Other aircraft in or near the area;
g. Communication procedures, frequencies to be used and controlling authority;
h. Frequencies to be monitored for transmissions from survivors;
i. Details of droppable supplies to be carried and any special dropping
procedures;
 j. Action to be taken on sighting the target;
k. Distress signals and visual codes;
l. Location and means of debriefing, including details of information which will be
required;
m. Restricted airspace or airspace arrangements
n. Observer arrangement and the requirement to ensure they have a copy of the
briefing. Where an observer leader is available, he should brief the observers.
5.10.25 A Flight De-brief Form should be supplied with the Aircraft Search Briefing Form.
Search Aircraft Operations
5.10.26 Pilots shall be briefed that before beginning a search, they should have established
communications (air-ground, air-air and on-board), have observers in position and
be listening on any special frequencies. Pilots shall be instructed that after
becoming airborne, if it appears necessary for search height or track spacing to be
modified, the RCC should be advised accordingly.
5.10.27 Before beginning a search, the aircraft should be flown at search height for a time to
familiarise observers with the apparent size and appearance of known objects on
the surface. Observers may also develop an appreciation of distances at height,
bearing in mind the planned limit of scan.
5.10.28 Aircraft that are engaged on a beacon search should start the search procedure at
the highest practicable cruising level unless a small probability area has been
defined when a search may start at a lower level.
5.10.29 Pilots or navigators should log all areas, heights and appropriate times, and indicate
on a map the areas covered by the search.
5.10.30 When an object is sighted that requires investigation, the pilot should, if possible,
mark the aircraft's position before deviating from track to ensure that it will be
possible to resume track at the correct place. The use of GPS navigational
equipment facilitates this.
5.10.31 In marginal visibility and when the aircraft carries no markers, the crew can keep a
target in sight by executing a turn with the target in the approximate centre. When
the target is further away, the observer should keep the general area of the sighting
in view and call out the position/distance as the pilot turns the aircraft towards the
sighting.
5.10.32 In sighting a missing craft or survivors, the pilot should pinpoint the position, advise
the RCC and survey the surrounding area with a view to assisting those who will be
required to proceed to the scene later. When a target is sighted over water, the
position should be recorded by GPS or if possible, be marked by some form of sea
marker, smoke float, buoyant light or dye marker.
5.10.33 It is desirable that continuous aerial surveillance be maintained over the location of
the craft or survivors.
5.10.34 It is particularly important that continuous surveillance is maintained at sea, subject
only to consideration of aircraft safety. Whenever possible, should a pilot be forced
to leave the scene before the arrival of a relief aircraft, a buoyant radio beacon
should be dropped, with the GPS position recorded.
5.10.35 The need to dispatch additional aircraft to the scene should be considered as early
as possible to avoid survivors being left unattended and to avoid the problem of
relocation.
Communications relay aircraft
5.10.36 A dedicated communications aircraft should be used when communications are
expected to be poor in the search area, for example:
a. HF is the only means of communication;
b. the search is of a large scale;
c. it is necessary to improve information feedback into the RCC;
 d. it is necessary to improve information flow to search assets,
e. search aircraft are operating without contact with ta ground station, or
f. it is the best method of maintaining communications with survivors/ground
search parties and ground rescue units.
5.10.37 A communications relay aircraft will normally be a suitably equipped SRU aircraft or
military aircraft, have a minimum crew of pilot and radio operator, and have good on
scene endurance.
Top cover aircraft
5.10.38 The provision of a top cover aircraft should be considered during operations that
may expose helicopters to undue risk.
5.10.39 The SMC is to discuss the requirement for a top cover aircraft with the pilot in
command of the helicopter. The decision to task a top cover aircraft can be made by
the SMC alone or on request by the helicopter pilot in command.
5.10.40 Circumstances that may require the provision of a top cover aircraft may include:
a. helicopters operating over water, although this will vary with the type of
helicopter involved;
b. helicopters operating at or near the limit of their endurance;
c. helicopters operating in poor or marginal weather conditions; and
d. helicopters operating at a rescue scene presenting special dangers, e.g. at
night.
Note: If in doubt, consult the helicopter crews.
5.10.41 Aircraft tasked for top cover should be an SRU aircraft carrying supply drop
equipment suitable for the environment. The primary tasks of the top cover aircraft
will be to:
a. provide navigation assistance to the helicopter to locate the target;
b. provide communications assistance to the helicopter; and
c. provide immediate assistance by way of supply drop should the helicopter
ditch.
Maritime Search Crews
5.10.42 When maritime units are used for search operations, staff of other SAR authorities,
i.e. police and military, may brief the search crews. The coordinating SAR authority
shall require copies of briefing forms issued on its behalf to ensure that personnel
are adequately briefed on all matters relevant to units' tasks. Maritime units must be
capable of carrying out the operation safely in the prevailing and forecast sea and
weather conditions in the area.
5.10.43 All search preparations should be completed before the surface units enter the
search area including the establishment of communication with the agency
coordinating the surface search and other units (surface or air) participating in the
search. Search crews should be briefed on:
a. SAR frequencies and homing equipment monitored;
b. observers positioned; and
c. rescue gear made ready.
5.10.44 A surface unit carrying out a systematic search of an area with no visual reference
points should maintain a dead reckoning (DR) plot of the last known position of the
target, its own position, and the position of other ships and aircraft in the vicinity.
The plot should also show date, time and possible drift of the target/survivors. Areas
searched should be plotted on a chart.
5.10.45 To attract the attention of survivors, a surface unit should, if practicable, periodically
make its presence known by making smoke during daylight and, at night, by rotating
a searchlight beam around the horizon or, if clouds are low, by directing the
searchlight vertically. When visibility is restricted, the engine should be stopped
periodically to listen for shouts or whistles from the survivors.
5.10.46 Observers should be stationed as high as possible to increase the sighting range.
Observers on board surface units can also use the scanning techniques used by
aircraft observers.
Land Assets employed in the search of an aircraft
5.10.47 When land assets are used for search operations, the state/territory police or ADF
SAR authority will conduct briefings. Search by land parties is normally only
employed when aerial search is not possible or has been ineffective or when a
closer examination of a certain area is desirable. It can be effective in forests,
jungles and mountainous areas. Land assets may be used for both search and
rescue.
5.10.48 RCC staff shall ensure that the coordinating authority is adequately briefed on the
following:
a. the current situation;
b. a description of the missing aircraft, and a photograph if available;
c. details of the persons on board;
d. a plan showing emergency break in points for the aircraft (if available);
e. an instruction that unless accompanied by an Air Safety Inspector, the aircraft
wreckage is to be disturbed as little as possible;
f. an instruction that unless on the instruction of a coroner or a representative of
ATSB the bodies of dead persons should not be moved except to the
minimum extent necessary to extract survivors from the wreckage;
g. the need to carry standard navigation and communication equipment and
air/ground signal codes and materials;
h. details of communications arrangements;
i. a warning that team members must not smoke, nor use naked flames near the
wreckage;
j. information concerning any dangerous cargo known to be aboard an aircraft.
In the case of a military aircraft, the need to exercise extreme care on account
of ejector seats (being powered by explosives) and the potential incidence of
ammunition, bombs, torpedoes, rockets, carbon fibre, noxious gases,
poisonous substances etc
k. Note: Contact with gases and substances associated with wrecked military
aircraft can be lethal. Before approaching a military crash site, clearance shall
be obtained from the responsible military authority.
l. an instruction that the wreckage must not be left unattended until taken into
custody by a representative of ATSB, or placed under guard by the police.
m. Note: More complete information on the responsibilities of ground parties upon
locating a crash site is contained in the booklet "Aircraft Crash Procedures for
Police Officers and Emergency Services Personnel".
5.10.49 RCC staff shall ensure that land parties are aware that serious hazards to health
and safety may exist at aircraft crash sites. Ground personnel have been injured
and become ill and died as a result of crash damage, fire of composite materials,
exposure to gases and poisonous substances. Certain radioactive substances may
exist in military aircraft structures. Carbon fibres are electrically conductive and may
short-circuit nearby electrical equipment. It is repeated that for the safety of ground
party personnel, it is imperative that clearance be obtained from the responsible
military authority before approaching a military crash site.
5.10.50 At the request of a land party operating in unfamiliar terrain, an aircraft may be
provided to enable the unit leader to make an aerial reconnaissance of access
routes in difficult terrain.
5.10.51 It may be necessary to position an aircraft over a crash site after the arrival of a land
asset, to relay radio messages, or to interpret and relay ground signals.
5.11 SAR Crew Debriefing
Overview
5.11.1 Full and proper de-briefing of search units is as important as the briefing process.
Included in the briefing shall be instructions on the de-briefing procedure to be
followed on completion of the search task. Where possible, blank debriefing forms
will be given to the aircrew. A careful interrogation and evaluation of each search
crew's effort is essential for intelligent forward planning.
5.11.2 Where a FCP is established, pilots, observer leaders, surface search unit leaders
and others shall be instructed to attend after their sortie for de-briefing.
5.11.3 Reports are required on anything that the search teams themselves consider
pertinent, and may include:
a. Report on actual weather conditions;
b. Positions at which sighting investigations were made;
c. Descriptions of items which were investigated;
d. Accurate description of areas searched and not searched with an assessment
of the effectiveness of the search;
e. Results of monitoring of radio frequencies;
f. Any operational difficulties encountered.
g. Observer debrief forms when available and completed.
Chapter 6 - Rescue Planning and Operations
6.1 General
6.1.1 The primary purpose of any SAR action is the speedy return to a place of safety of
the survivors of a distress situation.
6.1.2 It is essential that from the start of any SAR action, the RCC plans for the rescue of
survivors and ensures that the appropriate resources are alerted, briefed and
positioned so that the rescue may take place with the minimum of delay after the
location of the survivors.
6.1.3 Without jeopardising the ultimate safety of survivors, foremost consideration shall be
given to the potential impact on any medical condition of survivors by the method of
recovery or the actions of unqualified persons.
6.1.4 The method of rescue to be used shall be decided after consideration of all relevant
factors including:
a. action taken by sighting unit and the action that can be taken by other units at
the distress scene;
b. location of the survivors;
c. condition of survivors and medical considerations;
d. number of persons reported to be on board the craft and number who have
been located;
e. environmental considerations;
f. Available SAR facilities and their state of readiness;
g. effect of weather;
h. time of day;
i. any risks involved to SAR personnel at a crash site e.g. dangerous goods.
6.1.5 To reduce delay, the SAR facilities that are likely to be used should be alerted and
deployed to a suitable location while the search is still in progress.
6.2 Preparation
6.2.1 It is the responsibility of the SMC to ensure that appropriate rescue resources are
brought to a state of readiness and, as necessary, strategically positioned to be
moved quickly into action immediately survivors are located.
6.2.2 The SMC shall ensure that proper attention is given to the preparation and
execution of the rescue effort.
6.3 Medical assistance
6.3.1 It must be assumed that the survivors of an emergency will be in need of medical
attention, and arrangements should be made to include medically qualified persons
in the rescue team.
6.4 Crashed Aircraft
Overview
6.4.1 When it is known that an aircraft will crash or has crashed and the crash position is
incidentally reported or known with reasonable certainty, the RCC shall confirm the
crash site and ensure the provision of medical assistance to the occupants and
rescue of survivors.
6.4.2 ATSB and police should be given early notification of a crash for a decision for their
attendance at the crash site. Next of kin should be kept fully informed through the
appropriate liaison channel; normally the police
6.4.3 Pending assumption of the responsibility by ATSB or relevant ADF authority, the
RCC shall endeavour to arrange security at the crash site to prevent interference
with the wreckage or with marks made by the aircraft in landing. State police are
responsible for securing the accident scene. Instructions for police officers and
 emergency services personnel can be found in the ATSB handbook: Civil and
Military Aircraft Accident Procedures for Police Officers and Emergency Personnel
Health hazards - aircraft accidents
6.4.4 Movement in the vicinity of crash sites can be extremely hazardous for ground
parties on account of toxic fumes, dangerous substances and explosives. Deaths
have resulted from ground personnel breathing noxious air and contacting
extremely poisonous substances in the proximity of wrecked aircraft.
6.4.5 Some points made in the ATSB handbook on precautions to be taken at an aircraft
accident site are in Appendix L. Personnel should refer to the ATSB handbook for
more detailed procedures and precautions to be taken.
6.4.6 To the extent that it can be governed, the RCC shall advise that permission should
be secured from the appropriate ADF authority before members of the public or
other agencies approach a crash site of a service aircraft.
6.4.7 There have been aviation mishaps where search and rescue personnel became ill
or died as a result of exposure to gases and hazardous materials that were present
at aircraft accident sites.
6.4.8 Modern aircraft use composite materials for some of their structure, skin, and
access panels. Significant health hazards exist at crash sites from the effects of
crash damage and fire on composite materials. When burnt, released fibres and
resins may be toxic through inhalation and/or skin and eye contact. Damaged
composites may also produce needle-like edges that render handling hazardous.
Carbon fibres are electrically conductive and may short-circuit nearby electrical
equipment.
6.4.9 Certain exotic metals (radioactive substances) can also be found in ADF aircraft
types, which are also poisonous in their own right. The inhalation, ingestion or
absorption of radioactive substances is hazardous, as low-level radiation will
continue to be emitted inside the body, possibly resulting in damage to surrounding
tissues and organs.
6.4.10 ATSB and CASA officers and police shall be given reasonable access to SAR
facilities and staff during salvage operations.
6.5 Rescue on land
6.5.1 Although the location of the distress scene may be known, it may be extremely
difficult for a land party to reach it. Therefore the operation should be undertaken
only after proper and complete planning.
6.5.2 The land party should be taken to a locality as near as possible to the distress
scene by some means of rapid transport. If access to the site is possible, an aerial
survey of the site may be made to determine the best route. The equipment carried
should be carefully selected and arrangements made for supplies to be dropped
should re-equipment be necessary.
6.5.3 The police will determine equipment necessary for land rescue parties. A portable
radio capable of communicating with other SAR Units should always be included in
a rescue party's equipment. RCC Australia can authorise the issue of radios and
other supplies from SAR stores for this purpose upon request.
6.5.4 In cases where all occupants of a crashed aircraft are not immediately accounted
for, the search for missing persons must be continued. In the meantime, activities
for the rescue of the others should be started.
6.5.5 Advice to police officers, other emergency services personnel and the public of the
necessary actions to be taken in the event of a civilian aircraft crash in their area is
obtained from the ATSB publication, Civil and Military Aircraft Accident Procedures
for Police Officers and Emergency Personnel
6.5.6 The ground rescue party should make a report to the SMC as soon as possible. The
SMC will relay advice of the condition of persons on board and disposition of
wreckage to other authorities as appropriate.
6.5.7 The aircraft wreckage should not be disturbed except to assist in the recovery of
survivors. Not only may the wreckage pose dangers by way of toxic materials and
fumes, but also the position of flight controls, the location of debris and other factors
are important to the accident investigation.
6.5.8 Survivors should be removed from the distress scene and transported to receiving
medical facilities by the most expeditious means. When selecting the method of
transport, the SMC should consider:
a. the condition of survivors;
b. the capability of the rescue unit(s) to reach the survivors in the shortest
possible time;
c. the medical training, qualifications and operational abilities of the rescue
personnel;
d. the rescue units' capability to transport survivors without aggravating injuries
or producing new complications;
e. the difficulties that may be encountered by land parties, e.g. provision of
shelter;
f. the need for food and water;
g. the weather conditions; and
h. methods of maintaining communication with the rescue party, either directly or
through their organisation's operational office.
6.5.9 Evacuation of survivors will be relatively simple if they are located in an area where
medical and rescue facilities are available locally and from where aerial, road or
water transport is possible. However, if the distress site is in a difficult or
inaccessible area, the evacuation will have to be made on foot to a place from
where transport can be provided. This may require sufficient foliage to be cleared by
the land party to allow helicopter operation into the site.
6.5.10 The overland route to be followed should be made known to the RCC. This will
simplify the provision of aerial coverage, if this is considered necessary.
6.5.11 If it is decided to evacuate the survivors by air, the rescue party may provide advice
of a suitable landing area for fixed wing aircraft or a landing or hovering site for a
helicopter. If verbal communication is not possible, the land party should prepare
the appropriate ground/air visual signals.
6.6 Rescue at sea
6.6.1 The SMC is responsible for the coordination of surface vessels engaged in the
rescue of survivors in or on the sea except that in-shore rescue may be arranged
and coordinated by the police.
6.6.2 The RCC shall make flotation equipment available for use by survivors whilst
awaiting transportation to the shore. Details of the availability and types of
equipment held by SAR Resources and Training (AusSAR) may be obtained from
RCC Australia.
6.6.3 When an aircraft has ditched or a vessel is in danger of sinking, or sunk, it is
imperative that rescue action is taken immediately. The time that a craft will float
may be very limited, entry to life rafts is difficult, especially for aged or infirm
personnel in rough seas, and the sea is a hostile survival environment.
6.6.4 When both maritime rescue units and helicopters are dispatched to the same
distress scene, it may be advisable to transfer survivors to the helicopters for a
more rapid delivery to medical facilities.
Use of rescue boats and vessels
6.6.5 Specialised rescue boats are available only in scattered localities and their capacity
is small. Each boat dispatched to a distress scene should, if possible, carry
additional life-saving devices to enable those survivors, who cannot be immediately
rescued, are able to stay afloat while awaiting the arrival of another boat.
6.6.6 If neither specialised rescue boats nor rescue vessels are available, merchant
vessels may be the only means of implementing an early rescue. However, if
possible, support or alternative rescue units should be considered because
merchant ships have significant limitations as a rescue platform, including:
a. generally not readily available;
b. relatively slow speed;
c. restricted manoeuvrability;
d. high freeboard, making retrieval of survivors difficult;
e. small crew numbers; and
f. language difficulties if foreign crewed.
6.6.7 Ocean oilrigs maintain fixed positions for a period of time. The RCC Australia
maintains data on their positions and means of contact for SAR purposes.
6.6.8 It is desirable that SAR vessels be equipped to lift survivors from the water without
expecting any help from the survivors.
Use of aircraft for rescue
6.6.9 When considering the use of aircraft to bring about the recovery of survivors, care
must be taken to ensure that the rescue aircraft and crew are not exposed to
inordinate danger
6.6.10 Fixed wing aircraft should only be used to retrieve survivors when there is significant
advantage over the use of surface transport and when there is a suitable aerodrome
or landing area near the scene. Pilots shall be discouraged from attempting to land
at other than prepared landing areas to pick up survivors. However, should this
prove to be the best or only viable option, all available specialist advice concerning
the operation shall be obtained. It may be possible to have a qualified person
lowered or parachuted in to survey the area. Helicopters may be employed to
shuttle survivors from a distress site to a suitable fixed-wing landing area.
Use of helicopters for rescue
6.6.11 When available, helicopters should be considered for rescue work. While eminently
suited to the task in many respects, helicopters do have specific limitations that may
be summarised as:
a. the adverse effects of turbulence;
b. the need for a level, or near level, landing area;
c. a requirement for a cleared landing area of specific dimensions to avoid rotor
blade damage;
d. a requirement for safe approach and take-off paths;
e. potential for adverse effects on certain serious injuries;
f. limited endurance;
g. inability to hover with loads at high altitudes;
h. limited accommodation.
6.6.12 Helicopters can be used to rescue survivors by winching or by landing at a suitable
location. Owing to their unique flying characteristics, helicopters should be
considered for use as a rescue unit as a matter of course.
6.6.13 They are particularly suitable for rescues at locations where surface units are
unable to operate. At the same time, some helicopter evacuations may be
hazardous, particularly in mountainous areas at high altitudes and over rough seas.
Such evacuations should therefore only be carried out by specially qualified and
experienced crews and then only in the event of serious injury or illness or when
lack of other means of rescue might result in loss of life. It is important that any
information on the condition of survivors is considered by specialists before
committing to helicopter use.
6.6.14 Operations by surface parties may be hampered by the noise and rotor wash
produced by helicopters. To avoid damage to rotor blades, the landing site should
 be cleared to a diameter specified by the pilot-in-command for each proposed
operation. To facilitate the coordination between helicopters and surface rescue
units and to minimise the hazard of collision associated with helicopters operating in
a confined space during rescue operations, their operations should be carefully
planned by the RCC and coordinated by the ATS unit in communication with them.
6.6.15 The helicopter's mass may be a factor limiting the number of survivors that may be
taken aboard each trip. It may, therefore, be necessary to reduce weight by all
possible means, e.g. removal of non-essential equipment, minimum fuel, use of
advance bases with fuelling capabilities, etc.
6.6.16 It must be ensured that the route followed by the helicopter as well as the location
where the survivors are to disembark are known to the SMC.
6.6.17 A medically qualified person, medical equipment and respiratory equipment, when
available, should be carried on a helicopter recovery mission, at least on the first
flight to the distress scene.
6.6.18 When being rescued by helicopter, survivors in a liferaft may have to leave the raft
to catch the sling since the rotor downwash below the helicopter will blow the raft
away.
6.6.19 Survivors may not know how to operate a strop. A two-person winch is preferred to
a single winch. A double strop allows one rescuer to supervise while being winched
down and up again with each survivor.
Note: A helicopter should not be approached unless directed and/or escorted by a
member of the helicopter’s crew. Helicopters may require approach from
different aspects dependant on type.
Use of top cover aircraft with rescue and MEDEVAC helicopters
6.6.20 The provision of a top cover aircraft should be considered during operations that
may expose the helicopter to undue risk.
6.6.21 The SMC is to discuss the requirement for a top cover aircraft with pilot in command
of the helicopter. The decision to task a top cover aircraft can be made by the SMC
alone or on request by the pilot in command.
6.6.22 Circumstances that may require the provision of a top cover aircraft may include:
a. helicopters operating over water. This will vary with the type of helicopter
involved. If in doubt, consult with the crew.
b. helicopters operating at or near the limit of their endurance
c. helicopters operating in poor or marginal weather conditions
d. helicopters operating at a rescue scene presenting special dangers, e.g. night.
6.6.23 Aircraft tasked for top cover should be a SRU aircraft carrying suitable supply drop
equipment. The primary tasks of the top cover aircraft will be to:
a. provide navigation assistance to the helicopter to locate the target;
b. provide communications assistance to the helicopter; and
c. provide immediate assistance by way of supply drop should the helicopter
ditch.
6.7 Supply dropping and delivery of survival equipment
General
6.7.1 Situations will arise where the immediate recovery of survivors is not possible and
arrangements will have to be made to deliver sustenance, medical and survival
equipment. Such situations shall be anticipated and planned for by the SMC during
the conduct of a search.
6.7.2 Where possible delivery will be by way of surface vehicle or craft, or by helicopter or
aircraft landing nearby. An example of this would be a situation with seriously
injured survivors who may need stabilising prior to being moved, or where
specialised evacuation vehicles / craft needed are not immediately available.
6.7.3 Supply of survival equipment by air should be considered where there is an
expected delay in the recovery of survivors from remote locations either at sea or on
land.
Civil SAR equipment
6.7.4 The inventory of Civil SAR Equipment includes:
a. Target marking devices including SAR Datum Buoys and See-Blitz strobe
lights
b. Heliboxes for the supply of sustenance, medical and survival equipment
c. Liferafts of 15, 6, 8, and 4-place capacity with the standard raft being 6 places.
d. Life Raft Locator Beacons packed within the liferafts
e. Precision Aerial Delivery System (PADS) for the delivery of a single liferaft,
storepedo or pump
f. US Coastguard De-watering pumps
g. Search and Rescue Communicators (SALCOM) immersible emergency AM
radios operating on the aviation band of 123.1Mhz that are suitable for
dropping in Heliboxes or storepedoes. Some liferafts are equipped with these
radios.
6.7.5 RCC Australia staff are familiar with the type and disposition of Civil and ADF SAR
equipment and its usage and can be contacted for advice. Detailed procedures and
instructions relating to the operation and delivery of the equipment are incorporated
in the Search and Rescue Manual for SAR Unit Pilots and Dropmasters that can be
obtained from the SAR Resources and Training section of AMSA.
6.7.6 Only suitably qualified, trained and equipped crews shall be tasked for supply
dropping.
6.7.7 Aircraft tasked for supply dropping will be suitable for the purpose. It is the aircraft
operator’s responsibility to ensure the appropriate flight manual supplements / flight
manual limitations and dispensations are held. Routinely such dispensations will be
against:
a. Civil Aviation Act Section 23 (Carriage of Dangerous Goods)
b. Civil Aviation Regulations 175(3) (IFR Flight)
c. Civil Aviation Orders 29.5 (Dropping of articles from aircraft)
6.7.8 Specifically, dropping of articles from aircraft at night requires the approval of CASA
(CAO 29.5 paragraph 7).
Marking targets
6.7.9 Where recovery of maritime survivors is delayed it may be necessary to track their
position by dropping visual or electronic aids, which have long and short term
characteristics.
6.7.10 Long-term devices include:
a. Liferaft Locator Beacon (LLB) which are packed in liferafts and transmit on
121.85 / 243.7 MHz and 121.95 / 243.9 MHz
Note: Care must be taken not to link two rafts equipped with LLB’s operating on the
same frequency in a twin unit drop.
b. SAR Datum Buoys transmitting on:
i. 119.05 and 238.1 MHz (Green band)
ii. 119.15 and 238.3 MHz (Black band)
iii. 119.25 and 238.5 MHz (Blue band)
iv. 119.35 and 238.7 MHz (Red band)
Note: The buoys are colour coded for ease of identification. Details of each buoy
deployed are recorded and passed to the RCC Australia.
c. See-Blitz Strobe light. Provides a white strobe light for 4 –5 hours.
6.7.11 Short term devices include;
 a. Smoke Floats; and
b. Sea Marker Dye
Supply drop from civil aircraft over sea.
6.7.12 The following can be delivered from suitable fixed wing aircraft, including ADF
aircraft:
a. Heliboxes containing supplies, radios, equipment, etc;
b. PADS storepedo containing supplies, radios, equipment, etc;
c. one or more single liferafts delivered by Single Liferaft System or PADS
System;
d. one or more twin unit drops consisting of two liferafts linked by 440 metres of
buoyant rope (care must be exercised to avoid linking two liferafts equipped
with Liferaft Locator Beacons using the same frequency); and/or
e. US Coast Guard de-watering pumps via the PADS System.
Supply drop from helicopter over sea.
6.7.13 If recovery by helicopter is not feasible, or if recovery can be assisted by the supply
of equipment such as rafts, a helicopter may be able to drop or lower a raft,
container or pump to survivors with great accuracy. Due to the limited capacity of
some helicopters, not all survivors may be rescued at one time in which case the
provision of additional floatation equipment (rafts, lifejackets) may be necessary to
support the remaining survivors.
Supply drop from aircraft over land
6.7.14 Where it may take too long to get to survivors by land, stores and equipment can be
dropped from civil or ADF aircraft. The main method of delivering supplies to
survivors on land from aircraft is by Helibox or Storepedo that can contain food,
water, blankets, radios and medical equipment. In situations where it is important to
provide survivors with shelter, it may be appropriate to drop one or more liferafts.
Where there is no suitable landing place close to the survivors, vital survival
equipment, food and stores could be winched or dropped from a helicopter with
great accuracy.
Chapter 7 - Conclusion of SAR Operations
7.1 General
7.1.1 SAR Operations enter the conclusion stage when:
a. the target is located and the survivors are rescued;
b. the emergency beacon has been located and the survivors rescued, or if there
was no distress, the beacon has been turned off;
c. information is received that the target is no longer in distress;
d. all known persons on board are accounted for, or it has been determined that
there is no longer a chance of survival; or
e. the SAR Authority determines that further searching has no significant chance
of succeeding and either suspend or terminate the search.
7.1.2 The authority to end a search rests with different levels within the SAR organisation,
depending on the circumstances. In particular, the SAR Authority is responsible for
deciding when to suspend or terminate an unsuccessful search where lives were
known to be at risk.
7.1.3 The SAR Authority may delegate to the SMC the authority to conclude the operation
in all other circumstances (ie: when the SMC determines that the target is no longer
in distress and in situations where an identified beacon has ceased transmitting).
7.2 Conclusion of a successful SAR action
7.2.1 When the target of a search action has been located and the survivors removed to a
place of safety, the RCC shall ensure:
a. all people and organisations involved in the SAR action are stood down;
b. all appropriate agencies are notified;
c. next of kin are fully informed;
d. shipping is advised of any hazard caused by abandoned vessels etc;
e. arrangements are made for the recovery of dropped survival equipment eg
rafts;
f. the collection all maps, worksheets, notes, messages in chronological order
and file on a SAR incident file; and
g. that administrative and financial procedures are completed.
7.3 Suspension of a search when the target is not found
7.3.1 When it is determined that further search would be of no avail, the SMC shall
consider recommending the suspension or termination of the SAR operation.
However, search action shall not be suspended or terminated nor the distress
phase cancelled without the specific concurrence of the SAR Authority.
7.3.2 The decision to suspend a search shall not be made until a thorough review of the
search is conducted. The review will focus on the probability of there being survivors
from the initial incident, the probability of survival after the incident, the probability
that the survivors were in the search area, and the effectiveness of the search.
7.3.3 The review should:
a. examine search decisions to ensure that proper assumptions were made and
that planning scenarios were reasonable;
b. reconfirm the certainty of initial position and any drift factors used in
determining the search area;
c. re-evaluate any significant clues and leads;
d. examine datum computations and data calculations;
e. confirm that all reasonable means of obtaining information about the target
have been exhausted;
f. review all intelligence material to ensure no information had been overlooked;
 g. examine the search plan to ensure that:
i. assigned areas were searched;
ii. the probability of detection was as high as desired; and
iii. compensation was made for search degradation caused by weather,
navigational, mechanical or other difficulties; and
h. consider the survivability of the survivor/s taking into account:
i. time elapsed since the incident;
ii. environmental conditions;
iii. age, experience and physical condition of (potential) survivors;
iv. survival equipment available;
v. studies or information relating to survival in similar circumstances; and
i. consider the rescue plan to ensure that:
i. best use was made of available resources;
ii. contingency plans were sufficient to cater with unexpected
developments; and
iii. coordination with other agencies was effective in ensuring best
treatment of survivors.
7.3.4 Before an unsuccessful search is suspended or terminated, the SAR Authority shall
make arrangements to ensure that the next of kin are fully briefed on the complete
search effort, including conditions in the search area, other salient operational
factors and the reasons for proposing the suspension or termination of the search.
7.3.5 Consideration may be given to notifying the decision to suspend or terminate search
effort at least one day prior to suspension of operations allowing next of kin at least
one more day of hope while giving them time to accept that the search cannot
continue indefinitely. Accordingly, the SMC should maintain regular contact with the
relatives during the conduct of the search, providing access to the RCC if practical
and appropriate.
7.3.6 In a case where foreign nationals are involved, liaison shall occur with the
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
7.3.7 The reasons for suspending a search shall be clearly recorded.
7.3.8 When a SAR action is discontinued or a search is suspended, the RCC shall inform
all authorities, units and facilities that have been activated and/or alerted.
7.3.9 On occasions, after the suspension of a search, it may be necessary for the Police
or Defence to continue to search for bodies and/or aircraft/vessel wreckage. In such
cases the SAR Authority that had responsibility for the coordination of the search
and rescue operation may, where possible:
a. provide briefings on the path of the aircraft/vessel prior to disappearance, last
known position, area searched and related intelligence;
b. review intelligence to assist search;
c. source aircraft for transport or search purposes; and/or
d. provide drift information.
7.3.10 Should any other organisation such as the operating company, wish to continue with
or initiate an independent search, the SAR Authority that had responsibility for the
coordination of the search and rescue operation should ascertain whether there is
any new intelligence that provides grounds to resume or continue the search. Under
the circumstances where there is new intelligence, it should be evaluated and if
considered valid the search should be continued or resumed. Where there is no
new intelligence, then the SAR Authority may assist the requesting organisation by:
a. briefing the aircraft/vessel’s path prior to disappearance, splash/crash point,
area searched and related intelligence;
b. advising the possible location of suitable search aircraft; and/or
 c. providing drift information.
7.4 Reopening a suspended search
7.4.1 If significant new information or clues are developed, reopening of a suspended
case should be considered. Reopening without good reason may lead to
unwarranted use of resources, risk of injury to searchers, possible inability to
respond to other emergencies, and false hopes among relatives.
7.5 Records and reports
7.5.1 Records relating to search and rescue operations, including air searches on behalf
of other organisations, shall be retained for periods as required under the relevant
legislation and regulation.
7.5.2 When a search has been terminated without locating a missing aircraft or its
occupants, all records, charts etc. shall be retained and be accessible to SAR staff
to allow easy resumption of search activity should further intelligence be received.
7.5.3 Reports on SAR Actions shall be generated as required for Coroners Inquiries,
Management purposes and for training requirements.
7.6 Case studies
7.6.1 Case studies may be conducted at the direction of the SAR Authority. IAMSAR
provides guidance on case studies as follows.
7.6.2 Sometimes a SAR case has a surprise ending, as when the survivors are found by
someone not involved in the search effort in a location outside the search area, or
they are found, alive and well, in the search area after the search effort has been
suspended. There are also occasions when there seems to have been an unusual
number of problems in spite of the best efforts of the SAR personnel. Finally, there
may be important and valuable lessons to learn from a SAR incident and the
subsequent response of the SAR system that would be revealed only by a careful
after-the-fact review.
a. A SAR case study is an appropriate method for addressing those aspects of
an incident that are of particular interest. Individual aspects of interest could
include problems with communications, assumptions made, scenario
development, search planning, or international co-ordination. SAR case
studies or incident reviews also provide opportunities to analyse survivor
experiences and lifesaving equipment performance. Survival in hostile
environments is affected by many variables, including the physical condition of
the survivors, survivor actions, reinforcement given by rescue forces prior to
rescue, and the effectiveness of safety or survival equipment. Knowing more
about these factors can help the SAR system become more effective.
b. When used to review and evaluate all aspects of a response to an incident,
SAR case studies are one of the most valuable and effective tools for
improving SAR system performance. Therefore, SAR case studies or reviews
should be performed periodically even when no problems are apparent. There
is almost always room for improvement, especially in large, complex cases.
The most important outcome, however, is that early detection and correction
of apparently small problems or potential problems will prevent them from
growing into serious deficiencies later.
7.6.3 To get a balanced view, more than one person should conduct SAR case studies;
the case study team should include recognized experts in those aspects of the case
being reviewed. To achieve maximum effectiveness, case studies should not assign
blame, but rather, should make constructive suggestions for change where analysis
shows that such change will improve future performance.
7.7 Performance improvement
7.7.1 Constant improvement in the performance of the SAR system should be a clearly
stated goal of SAR managers. One method to encourage performance improvement
is to set up goals whose degree of attainment can be measured by key performance
data. This data should be collected, analysed, and published on a routine basis so
that individuals can see how the system as a whole is doing, and how their
performance is contributing to the achievement of the established goals. Routine
reports from the SMCs to the SAR managers can be used for monitoring system
performance and highlighting areas where improvement is possible through
changes in policies, procedures, or resource allocation.
Chapter 8 - Training and Exercises
8.1 General
8.1.1 The importance of thorough training for all personnel employed on SAR missions
cannot be over-emphasised. Failure of a single line in the often complex chain of
action required in SAR missions can compromise the success of the operation,
resulting in loss of lives that might otherwise have been saved. The purpose of
training is to meet SAR system objectives by developing SAR specialists. Since
considerable experience and judgement are needed to handle SAR situations,
necessary skills require significant time to master. Training can be expensive but
contributes to operational effectiveness. Quality of performance will match the
quality of training.
Professionalism
8.1.2 Consistency in training and sharing of information relating to search and rescue is
promoted through the National Amendment and Training sub-committee and the
National SAR Council. Standardisation to the prosecution of SAR Operations is
encouraged through these fora.
8.1.3 Efforts to ensure professionalism extend to career development for individuals who
are assigned to undertake SAR duties. The aim is to ensure SAR officers are
competent. In additions, agencies should consider making assignments of sufficient
length to develop expertise and take advantage of SAR experience in subsequent
assignments of officers.
Who to train
8.1.4 All personnel involved in SAR Operation need to undertake SAR-specific training.
8.1.5 Specialist team training may also be required. Where there is a requirement for
multi-agency response, teams should be exercised in such a manner that each
team and each team member understands the role that they play in support of the
incident. An example of this would be where AusSAR is the overall coordinator of
an incident supported by the police and a State SES unit or units.
Requirement for Training
8.1.6 Training is critical to performance and safety. The SAR system should save those
in distress when it can, and also use training to reduce risks to its own valuable
personnel and facilities. Training personnel in making sound risk assessment will
help to ensure that these trained professionals and valuable facilities remain
available for future operations.
8.1.7 Search and rescue organisations are responsible for the establishment of training
programs for SAR personnel to reach and maintain competence appropriate to their
role.
8.1.8 Training of SAR personnel should focus on both the practical and theoretical
application of SAR and can include the following:
a. Study of SAR procedures, techniques and equipment through lectures,
demonstrations, films, SAR manuals and journals;
b. Assisting in or observing actual operations; and
c. Exercises in which personnel are trained to coordinate individual procedures
and techniques, or operate specialised equipment, in an actual or simulated
environment.
8.2 National Training Framework
Public Safety Training Package
8.2.1 The Public Safety Training Package has been developed though extensive
consultation involving all Australian SAR authorities. The qualifications contained
within the package are consistent with Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF)
guidelines and are endorsed by the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA).
8.2.2 The Public Safety Training Package provides units of competence and qualifications
that identify core competency standards for personnel who are involved in SAR
activities. Units of competence have been packaged and aligned to a specific
qualification within the AQF to establish the qualification level and title.
National Search and Rescue School
8.2.3 The National SAR School, a Registered Training Organisation (RTO), is the training
arm of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority’s, Emergency Response business
unit.
8.2.4 The National Search and Rescue School provides specialist aviation and maritime
search and rescue training to officers primarily in Australia's Rescue Coordination
Centre (AusSAR). In addition, the School provides SAR training to Australian and
International Defence Forces, Police personnel, and search and rescue staff in
neighbouring countries.
8.2.5 The National Search and Rescue School offers the Advanced Diploma of Public
Safety (Search and Rescue Management) to members of the Australian SAR
Authorities on behalf of the National Search and Rescue Council.
8.2.6 The National Search and Rescue School conducts training in units of this advanced
diploma by a combination of distance education and classroom instruction. A
residential instruction and assessment program, the National Police Search and
Rescue Managers Course, is held annually in Canberra.
8.2.7 Directing staff of the National Police Search and Rescue Managers Course, in
addition to instructors from the National Search and Rescue School, are drawn from
Australian police organisations. These officers are subject matter experts in land
and marine search and rescue and are qualified in workplace training and
assessment.
8.2.8 SAR Resources, also located within the Australian Maritime Safety Authority’s
Emergency Response business unit, is responsible for providing specialist training
to SAR field officers including dropmasters, pilots and observers.
State/Territory SAR Authority Training
8.2.9 In addition to participating in the National Police SAR Managers training program
the State/Territory Police organisation in Australia conduct search and rescue
specific training with personnel involved, or who may become involved, in SAR
operations at a local level.
8.2.10 This training involves principally land and coastal search and rescue operations
employing their own personnel and personnel from other State/Territory
organisations having a role in local search and rescue missions.
8.2.11 Formal training in the Diploma of Public Safety (Police Search and Rescue
Coordination) is conducted by a number of registered training organisations
associated with the Australian Police Services.
8.3 Search and Rescue Exercises
8.3.1 Each search and rescue organisation should periodically take part in coordinated
search and rescue exercises (SAREX). These SAREXs should be designed to
exercise the SAR system, in whole or part, and test such things as operational
plans, communication procedures and facilities, individual staff performance, SAR
unit performance and inter-organisation and/or international operations.
8.3.2 It is equally important that personnel have a good knowledge of the duties and
procedures of other units and person who may be involved in a SAR operation,
particularly those with whom they will have direct contact. It is especially important
that SMCs be aware of the time, effort, and risk involved when requests are made to
other units or organisations.
8.3.3 Liaison visit between personnel likely to become involved together in SAR
operations are encouraged. SMCs and SAR personnel should visit other SAR units
 or RCC’s to become familiar with their facilities and capabilities and when possible
take part in training exercises.
8.3.4 Emergency Management Australia (EMA) has developed a handbook, Exercise
Management that should be used as a guide and to assist SAR personnel designing
and conducting search and rescue exercises.
8.4 Training of search and rescue units
Land SAR Training
8.4.1 As the responsibility for land search, as defined in the National SAR Plan, is that of
the State/Territory Police organisations, with assistance from members of the State
and Territory Emergency Services, land SAR training is generally conducted by
those organisations.
8.4.2 Other SAR authorities that may become involved in a land SAR incident should
ensure that their members are familiar with police arrangements for alerting and
dispatching of rescue units.
8.4.3 The regular conduct of joint SAREXs between SAR Authorities should form a l part
of a training program.
Aircrew Training
8.4.4 SAR Authorities should coordinate SAR exercises in conjunction with aircrews to
ensure practice is maintained in pilot techniques employed in SAR operations.
8.4.5 Under the ‘self-help’ philosophy adopted in Australia, exercises involving
commercial pilots on a large scale are not practicable; however, seminars including
SAR operations as a subject provide an opportunity for discussion and display of
training material.
Dropmaster and Dispatchers
8.4.6 The dispatch of survival stores and equipment from an aircraft to survivors on land
or over water is an exacting task, which, if not performed well, can nullify or
seriously delay the rescue effort and may endanger the aircraft.
8.4.7 Supply dropping operations by civil aircraft should only be carried out by personnel
trained in the preparation and delivery of droppable equipment and with reference to
CASA requirements.
8.4.8 Joint exercises involving all authorities which organise or participate in land rescue
should be arranged on a periodic basis.
Air Observer Training
8.4.9 Major SAR operations require a considerable number of observers who may be
drawn from various organisations.
8.4.10 AusSAR has published a comprehensive handbook for Observers that is available
to all SAR Authorities from the SAR Resources and Training section of AMSA.
8.4.11 Observer leaders, observer briefing check lists, aircraft observer instructions and
observers on ships are discussed in detail at Chapter 5.
Search and Rescue Units (SRU)
8.4.12 AusSAR provides training to contracted aircraft operators who are considered
suitable and capable of providing a SAR response.
8.4.13 These operators once formally trained and equipped are provided with appropriate
continuation training and are known operationally as civil Search and Rescue Units
(SRUs). The scope of training provided is specific to the resource capability of
individual operators, in terms of human resources and aircraft availability.
8.4.14 Accordingly, operators are given training in one or more of the following aspects of
SAR operations:
a. visual search procedures/techniques;
b. airborne location of distress beacons using aural homing techniques;
 c. airborne location of distress beacons using DF equipment;
d. on ground location of localised distress beacons;
e. operation of FLIR systems in SAR operations;
f. aerial delivery of supplies/equipment overland and/or over water; and
g. helicopter rescue techniques.
8.5 Photographic Records
8.5.1 Where possible, photographic or video recordings should be taken on exercises and
actual SAR missions for use as future training aids. Participating authorities film
crews may be helpful in providing this facility.
8.6 Liaison Visits
8.6.1 It is important that personnel have a good knowledge of the duties and procedures
of other units and persons who may be involved in SAR operations, particularly
those with whom they will have direct contact. It is especially important that SMCs
be aware of the time, effort and risk involved when requests are made to other units
or persons.
8.6.2 Liaison visits between personnel likely to become involved together in SAR
operations are encouraged. SMCs should inspect other units’ facilities and where
possible take part in appropriate activities, eg. packing and loading equipment,
helicopter rescue exercises, etc. The personnel of other organisations or units
should be encouraged to visit RCCs and other SAR related units. Potential SAR
team members, either units or individuals, should be invited to participate in, or
attend exercises.
Chapter 9 - Emergency Assistance and Services other than
Search and Rescue provided by RCC Australia.
9.1 General
9.1.1 RCC Australia performs operations other than search and rescue, which, if not
carried out, could result in a SAR incident. These operations include:
a. assisting a vessel or aircraft that is in a serious situation and in danger of
becoming a casualty, thereby endangering persons on board. This assistance
may be by way of direct action, or by way of notification to, and coordination
with, other SAR authorities.
b. broadcasting Maritime Safety Information (MSI).
c. alerting appropriate authorities of unlawful acts being committed against an
aircraft or ship.
d. alerting appropriate authorities after a ship or aircraft has been abandoned, to
minimise future hazards.
e. providing an active SAR Watch to vessels through the Australian Ship
Reporting System (AUSREP).
9.2 Safety Information
9.2.1 Maritime Safety Information (MSI), such as warnings of hazards to navigation, is
promulgated by RCC Australia and broadcast through the Inmarsat SafetyNET and
some Limited Coast Radio Stations (LCRS). Broadcast of MSI serves to assist with
preventing SAR incidents from occurring. This service is provided by RCC Australia
throughout Australia’s region and NAVAREA ’X’.
9.3 Unlawful Acts
9.3.1 RCC Australia may become aware of an aircraft known or believed to be subject to
unlawful interference. RCC Australia will advise Airservices Australia as soon as
possible. Appropriate procedures will be implemented should the situation develop
to a point that SAR action is, or will be, necessary.
9.3.2 Special signals have been developed for use by ships under attack or threat of
attack from pirates or armed robbers. “Piracy/armed robbery attack” is a category of
distress message for all classes of digital selective call equipment and Inmarsat has
added a piracy message to the Inmarsat C menu for the Global Maritime Distress
and Safety System (GMDSS). For their own safety, ships may have to covertly
send out the “Piracy/armed robbery attack” message. When RCC Australia
becomes aware of such a situation, it should declare a Phase, advise appropriate
response agencies in accordance with RCC Australia Procedures, and begin
preparations for possible SAR operations as appropriate. If the ship covertly sends
a message care must be taken in any communications sent back to the ship so as
not to warn the pirates.
9.3.3 RCC Australia, on receiving a report of piracy/armed robbery attack, would act in
accordance with the following:
a. If the attack is within the Australian SRR, RCC Australia would:
i. acknowledge the report unless it is suspected that it is a covert report;
ii. notify appropriate security authorities as detailed in RCC Australia
Procedures;
iii. notify the International Maritime Bureau Piracy Reporting Centre;
iv. provide assistance to those Authorities by way of information and
provision of communications; and
v. consider the need to notify other shipping in the area.
b. If the attack is outside the Australian SRR, RCC Australia would
i. acknowledge the report unless it is suspected that it is a covert report;
ii. notify the appropriate RCC;
iii. notify the International Maritime Bureau Piracy Reporting Centre;
iv. if the attack is near the boundary of the Australian SRR, notify the
Australian security authorities as in (a) above; and
v. consider the need to notify other shipping in the area.
Appendix A - SRR

Appendix A - Australian Search and Rescue Region

Note: The Australian maritime and aviation SRRs are generally the same except that the
maritime SRR only extends to the Antarctic coast whilst the aviation SRR extends the South
Pole; and there is a minor difference in the North East corner of the SRR.
Appendix B - Responsibilities

Appendix B: Search and Rescue Functions and Responsibilities

OVERALL COORDINATOR FUNCTION TO BE PERFORMED BY OR ON BEHALF OF THE OVERALL COORDINATING AUTHORITY

(See Note T1)
For land, sea and air Search Responsible Provision and Provision and Provision and Communications Air/ground Aircraft/ship
and Rescue Authority coordination of air coordination of land coordination of (other than communications for communications
SAR units SAR units marine SAR units air/surface) land search and where direct
rescue communications not
available
IN RESPECT OF AIRCRAFT
ON THE INTERNATIONAL AusSAR AusSAR POLICE AusSAR AusSAR Airservices Australia Airservices Australia
CIVIL, NATIONAL CIVIL (VH)
AND AUSTRALIAN ULTRA
LIGHT FEDERATION
REGISTERS; AND MANNED
SPACE VEHICLES
IN RESPECT OF ADF
AIRCRAFT AND FOREIGN RAAF RAAF AS ARRANGED BY RAN RAAF RAAF RAAF
MILITARY AIRCRAFT IN THE RAAF/ARMY
AUSTRALIAN SRR (OTHER AUTHORITIES
THAN ADF SHIPBORNE
AIRCRAFT)

IN RESPECT OF RAN AND

FOREIGN MILITARY SHIPS RAN RAN AS ARRANGED BY RAN RAN RAN RAN
AND SUBMARINES AND RAN/ARMY
SHIPBORNE AIRCRAFT AUTHORITIES

IN RESPECT OF ADF AND

FOREIGN MILITARY ARMY ARMY AS ARRANGED BY RAN ARMY ARMY ARMY
PERSONNEL IN A LAND ARMY
ENVIRONMENT AUTHORITIES
Appendix B - Responsibilities

OVERALL COORDINATOR FUNCTION TO BE PERFORMED BY OR ON BEHALF OF THE OVERALL COORDINATING AUTHORITY

(See Note T1)
For land, sea and air Search Responsible Provision and Provision and Provision and Communications Air/ground Aircraft/ship
and Rescue Authority coordination of air coordination of land coordination of (other than communications for communications
SAR units SAR units marine SAR units air/surface) land search and where direct
rescue communications not
available
IN RESPECT OF PLEASURE
CRAFT AND FISHING POLICE (a) POLICE POLICE POLICE POLICE POLICE POLICE
VESSELS AT SEA,
(b) AusSAR Airservices Australia
UNREGISTERED AIRCRAFT
(See Not T1, , PERSONS (c) ADF when only
MISSING IN A LAND OR service aircraft are
COASTAL ENVIRONMENT, involved
LAND VEHICLES AND ALL (See Note T2)
NON-MILITARY VESSELS IN
PORT
IN RESPECT OF VESSELS
OTHER THAN THOSE FOR AusSAR AusSAR POLICE (a) AusSAR AusSAR AusSAR/ Airservices AusSAR/ Airservices
WHICH THE POLICE AND Australia Australia
(b) POLICE
DEFENCE FORCE ARE
RESPONSIBLE (See Note T3)

IN RESPECT OF
UNIDENTIFIED DISTRESS AusSAR AusSAR POLICE (a) AusSAR AusSAR AusSAR/ Airservices AusSAR/ Airservices
BEACON ALERTS Australia Australia
(b) POLICE
(See Note T3)
Appendix B - Responsibilities

Table Notes:
T.1. Overall coordination responsibility may, if necessary, be transferred to or from
Commonwealth and State/Territory authorities, by agreement, during the
conduct of a Search and Rescue Operation.
T.2. AusSAR involvement shall apply when Police have requested AusSAR to:
(i) accept coordination of the air search; and/or
(ii) arrange for the provision of aircraft.
T3 Police involvement shall apply when AusSAR have requested Police to:
(i) accept coordination of the surface search; and/or
(ii) arrange for the provision of maritime SAR units.
General Notes:
G.1. The table is not intended to cause the withholding of facilities even though the
primary responsibility is that of another authority. Differences of opinion or
doubts will be resolved after the emergency has been cleared.
G.2. When it is the authority concerned, the Australian Maritime Safety Authority
will be responsible for coordination with State/Territory and Commonwealth
Port and Harbour Authorities.
G.3. In this context, reference to Ships, Pleasure craft and Fishing Vessels means
within the capability of locally available facilities.
G.4. When Police require an air search in a SAR situation; they may request
assistance from AusSAR for both civilian and ADF air assets. To avoid
potential flight safety hazards and duplication of effort, AusSAR should be
advised whenever Defence Force assistance is requested.
G.5. The Australian Maritime Safety Authority in accordance with International Civil
Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) prescription provides discreet aeronautical and marine emergency
services.
G.6. The Commonwealth and the State / Territory Authorities shall each provide,
without charge, such assistance or facilities as may reasonably be
requested by the Authority arranging and coordinating an operation.
G.7. An Authority which hires or requisitions privately owned facilities shall, unless
otherwise agreed between the Authorities, bear any costs of hiring
or payment of compensation for requisitioning.
G.8. Defence may be called upon to provide air, land and maritime SAR units in
accordance with established procedures.
Appendix C - Arrangements

Appendix C - Arrangements
Arrangement of Responsibility Between the Commonwealth and Queensland,
New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Northern Territory Authorities
for Marine Search and Rescue Operations
Division of Responsibility
(a) The State/Territory Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for
and rescue persons on or from:
(i) A ship* in distress within a port of the State/Territory and
(ii) A pleasure craft or fishing boat within a port of the State/Territory or at sea.
(b) The Commonwealth Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for
and rescue persons on or from a ship*, other than a pleasure craft or fishing boat, in distress
at sea
(c) The Authority first becoming aware of such a distress situation shall take necessary
action until responsibility can be handed over to the relevant Authority under (a) or (b) above.
* A ship does not include any warship or fleet auxiliary.
Supplementary Arrangements
(a) The Commonwealth and the State/Territory Authorities shall each provide, without
charge, such assistance or facilities as may reasonably be requested by the Authority
arranging and coordinating an operation.
(b) An Authority that hires or requisitions privately owned facilities should, unless
otherwise agreed between Authorities, bear any costs of hiring or payment of compensation
for requisitioning.
(c) Should an operation that is the responsibility of the State Authority over-reach that
Authority’s capabilities, responsibility may by mutual agreement be transferred to the
1
Commonwealth Authority .

1
The intent of the agreement is that the Commonwealth authority is the authority
responsible for national coordination of civil search and rescue.
Appendix C - Arrangements

Arrangement of Responsibility Between Commonwealth and Western Australia

State Authorities for Marine Search and Rescue Operations
Division of Responsibility
(a) The State Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for and rescue
persons on or from:
(i) A ship* in distress within a port of the State and
(ii) A pleasure craft or fishing boat within a port of the State or at sea.
(b) The Commonwealth Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for
and rescue persons on or from a ship*, other than a pleasure craft or fishing boat, in distress
at sea
(c) The Authority first becoming aware of such a distress situation shall take necessary
action until responsibility can be handed over to the relevant Authority under (a) or (b) above.
* A ship does not include any warship or fleet auxiliary.
Supplementary Arrangements
(a) The Commonwealth and State Authorities shall each provide, without charge, such
assistance or facilities as may reasonably be requested by the Authority arranging and
coordinating an operation.
(b) An Authority that hires or requisitions privately owned facilities shall, unless otherwise
agreed between the Authorities, bear any costs of hiring or payment of compensation for
requisitioning.
(c) Should an operation, which is the responsibility of the state authority, in the opinion of
the responsible State Minister, overreach that authority’s reasonable or practical capabilities,
2
responsibility will be transferred to and accepted by the Commonwealth Authority .

2
The intent of the agreement is that the Commonwealth authority is the authority
responsible for national coordination of civil search and rescue.
Appendix C - Arrangements

Arrangement of Responsibility Between Commonwealth and Tasmanian State

Authorities for Marine Search and Rescue Operations
Division of Responsibility
(a) The State Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for and rescue
persons on or from:
(i) a ship* in distress within a port of the State,
(ii) a foreign fishing vessel in distress within a port of the state, and
(ii) a pleasure craft or fishing boat within a port of the State or at sea.
(b) The Commonwealth Authority shall arrange and coordinate operations to search for
and rescue persons on or from a ship* or foreign fishing vessel in distress at sea
(c) The Authority first becoming aware of such a distress situation shall take necessary
action until responsibility can be handed over to the relevant Authority under (a) or (b) above.
* A ship does not include any warship or fleet auxiliary.
Supplementary Arrangements
(a) The Commonwealth and State Authorities shall each provide, without charge, such
assistance or facilities as may reasonably be requested by the Authority arranging and
coordinating an operation.
(b) An Authority that hires or requisitions privately owned facilities shall, unless otherwise
agreed between the Authorities, bear any costs of hiring or payment of compensation for
requisitioning.
(c) Should an operation, which is the responsibility of the State Authority, overreach that
Authority’s capacity, responsibility will be transferred to, and accepted by the Commonwealth
3
Authority .

3
The intent of the agreement is that the Commonwealth authority is the authority
responsible for national coordination of civil search and rescue.
Appendix D – Transfer of Coordination

Appendix D - Transfer of SAR Coordination form

(Please attach additional paperwork to fax in responding)
TRANSFER
I (Representative of the SAR
Authority) on behalf of
(Authority) hereby formally request the transfer of overall coordination in accordance
with paragraphs 1.3.13 – 1.3.30 of the NATSAR Manual for the Search and Rescue
action
(details of incident and location)
to (Receiving Authority), with effect
(Date/Time group [UTC]).

(Signature) (Date / Time group)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I (Representative of the SAR
Authority) on behalf of
(Authority) hereby formally acknowledge and accept/acknowledge and reject (if
rejected for the following reason(s)):

(Signature) (Date / Time group)

COORDINATING AUTHORITIES

Overall Coordinator
Coordinator surface search
Coordinator air search
Coordinator land search
Appendix D – Transfer of Coordination

Supplementary Information
Owner
Vessel name Callsign Length POB

Construction Colour/s (sails, hull, superstructure)

Owner's name and address Phone numbers including mobile

Navaids carried (&type) Reliability

Good Limited Unknown

Communications equipment (type/frequencies) Reliability

Good Limited Unknown

Emergency/survival equipment Beacon

(any identifying criteria ie colour, size) 121.5 406 Liferaft Dinghy

Other information

Person in charge of craft

Name and address (if different than above)
Phone numbers including mobile

Experience/qualifications

Familiar with area/route Any passengers familiar with area/route?

Yes No Yes No

Knowledge of local weather Valid forecast carried for trip?

Good Limited Poor Yes No Unknown

Reaction to adverse weather

Push on Go around Turn back

Carries charts Studies charts

Yes No Yes No

Sail planning satisfactory Weather details are:

Yes No Accurately computed Calculated guess Careless

Traits (include names, ages, gender, state of health, clothing worn, swimming ability, medication) of all onboard
Appendix D – Transfer of Coordination

Craft’s Itinerary
Sail Plan (include details date, time, weather, ETA, purpose of trip, contact details of last to have contact with craft)

Departure point Destination Last Known Position

Number of hours overdue

Passenger/s name/s and address/es

Search Conducted
(Please attach a mud map)
Chart reference

Drift, tidal activity, sea state, swell

Weather (historic, current and forecast)

Assets used in search, dates and times of search

Other relevant contact details including Next of Kin

Appendix E – Distress and Emergency Signals

Appendix E - Distress and Emergency Signals

Overview
Many signals have been devised over the years to signal a condition of distress or
other emergency status. Those listed in this Appendix are those which are most
common, have been accepted by international agreement or national custom, or which
may be significant for occasional use by SAR units.
Because of the large number of possible signals of various types that may be used to
indicate an emergency condition or may be used for emergency communication, this
list is not all-inclusive.
International Distress Signals
a. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute.
b. A continuous sounding of any fog-signalling apparatus.
c. Rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals.
d. A signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word ’Mayday’.
e. The International Code Signal of distress indicated by the code group NC.
(See the International Code of Signals for other code groups with emergency
significance.)
f. A signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or anything
resembling a ball.
g. Flames on a vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, etc.).
h. A rocket parachute flare or a hand flare showing a red light.
i. A smoke signal giving off a volume of orange-coloured smoke.
j. An orange coloured sheet with a black square and circle or a black “V” or
other appropriate symbol.
k. Slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side.
l. The radiotelephone alarm signal consisting of two tones transmitted
alternatively over periods of from 30 seconds to 1 minute.
m. Signals transmitted by Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons, EPIRBs
or Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs).
n. Approved signals transmitted by radio communication systems.
o. A dye marker.
Search and Rescue Signals - Australian Area
Signals with Surface Craft
When it is necessary for an aircraft to direct a surface craft to the place where an
aircraft or surface craft is in distress, the aircraft shall do so by transmitting precise
instructions by any means at its disposal. If such precise instructions cannot be
transmitted or when necessary for any other reason, the instructions shall be given by
using the procedure prescribed herein.
The following procedures performed in sequence by an aircraft shall mean that the
aircraft is directing a surface craft towards an aircraft or a surface craft in distress:
a. Circling the surface craft at least once;
b. Crossing the projected course of the surface craft, close ahead at a low
altitude, opening and closing the throttle or changing the propeller pitch; and
c. Heading in the direction in which the surface craft is to be directed;
The following procedure performed by an aircraft shall mean that the assistance of the
surface craft to which the signal is directed is no longer required:
a. Crossing the wake of the surface craft close astern at a low altitude, opening
and closing the throttle or changing the propeller pitch.
Appendix E – Distress and Emergency Signals

b. Repetition of such procedures shall have the same meaning.

Current maritime signalling procedures include:
a. For acknowledging receipt of signals:
i. the hoisting of the Code Pennant (vertical red and white stripes) close
up (meaning understood);
ii. the flashing of a succession of T’s by signal lamp in Morse code; and
iii. the changing of heading.
b. For indicating inability to comply:
i. the hoisting of the international flag N (a blue and white checked
square); and
ii. the flashing of a succession of Ns in Morse code.
Civil Air-Ground Code
Australian civil authorities use the following air-ground code:
Signal Meaning
Aircraft orbits ground party at low level changing I require your attention
engine noise
Aircraft flies overhead ground party at low level and Follow aircraft in same direction
sets off in a particular direction.
Aircraft rocks wings and orbits. Investigate object/position underneath aircraft orbit
Aircraft drops smoke on a particular location Investigate object/position adjacent to smoke
Aircraft drops message canister. Retrieve and read instructions contained in the
canister
Figure E.1 – Air-Ground Visual Signal Code
International SAR Signals
The following visual signals are internationally recognised. They are authorised for
use in the Australian SRR.
Number Message Code Symbol
1 Require Assistance V
2 Require Medical Assistance X
3 Proceeding in this Direction
4 Yes or Affirmative Y
5 No or Negative N
Figure E.2 - Ground - Air Visual Signal Code for use by Survivors
Note: If in doubt use international symbol – SOS
Number Message Code Symbol
1 Require Fodder FF
2 Require Evacuation III
3 Power Failure VI
Figure E.3 - Ground - Air Visual Signal Code for use in Civil Emergencies
Notes:
1. Aldis Lamp Signals
a. Red flashes indicate not understood
b. Green flashes indicate message understood
2. Air-Ground Signals
The following signals by aircraft mean that the signals have been understood:
a. During hours of daylight - rocking the aircraft’s wings
b. During hours of darkness - by flashing the aircraft’s landing or navigation lights
ON and OFF twice.
Lack of the above signals indicates that the message has not been understood.
3. Fig 2.3.1 and Fig 2.3.2 conform to ICAO and NATO standards.
Appendix F – MAREC

APPENDIX F - Maritime SAR Recognition Code (MAREC)

Overview
The purpose of this Code is to facilitate the communication of essential descriptive
information regarding merchant ships and small craft within and between SAR maritime
organisations.
The MAREC Code is in two parts:
Part 1 - Merchant vessels
Part 2 - Small craft.
All messages should be preceded with the prefix MAREC followed by a local serial number,
assigned by the RCC.
The message should contain all the lettered identification groups as separate paragraphs. If
the information is not known the symbol UNK should be inserted or alternatively the symbol
NA, where the lettered group is not applicable.
Fishing vessels have not bee included due to the multiplicity of types and configurations. Use
should be made of the Merchant Vessels description code to report the description of fishing
vessels.
Part 1 - Merchant Vessels
Merchant Vessels MAREC Message
The message is composed of the following identification groups and will be transmitted in the
following sequence:
A Type of vessel - name - call sign
B Superstructure - location - colour
C Hull profile - colour
D Sequence of uprights
E Length
F Condition of loading
G Other characteristics.
Table F.1 MAREC - Local serial number

A. Type of vessel – name - callsign

Merchant ships are classified as follows:
VOICE TLX/RTG
Passenger ships PAX
Ferry FERRY
Tankers TANK
Bulk carriers BULK
General cargo ships GEN
Coaster COAST
Fishing vessels FISH
Container ships CONT
Specialised ships SPEC
Table F.2 Mership classifications
The name and callsign is added to the above classification.
For specialised vessels, the specific type of vessel should be given, as appropriate, e.g. gas
carrier, tug, icebreaker, etc.

Example:
Voice: ALFA, SPECIALISED SHIP GAS CARRIER, FLYING DRAGON, CHARLIE GOLF
HOTEL INDIA.
TLX/RTG: A/SPEC/GAS CARRIER/FLYING DRAGON/CGHI
Appendix F – MAREC

B. Superstructure - Location and colour

Superstructures are referred to as being located forward, midship or aft or a combination of
these positions, and may be described as long or short. Colour is given in plain language.

Midships and aft

Forward and aft, white

Aft, white

Midships/split, black

Midships, black

Fig F.1 Superstructure Locations / Colours

Note: A superstructure that has a very distinct gap, as in the fourth illustration
above, should be reported as “location”/split.
Example (as in first illustration above):
Voice: BRAVO, SUPERSTRUCTURE MIDSHIP AND AFT, WHITE
TLX/RTG: B/MIDSHIPS AND AFT/WHITE
C. Hull - Profile and colour
The hull profile is divided into three sections numbered 1, 2 and 3 from stem to stern as
follows:

1 2 3
Figure F.2 Hull Division
If any section of the main weather deck of a vessel (except for superstructure) is raised, this is
reported by its respective number as shown below. Should there be a break between deck
raises an oblique line (voice - ’SLANT’ ) will be inserted in between the relevant section
numbers. Should there be no break as referred to above, the numbers will be written
consecutively.
 Appendix F – MAREC

0 1/23

1 1/3

12 2

1/2 2/3

1/2/3 23

12/3 3

Figure F.3 Full Profiles

Note of caution:
Do not confuse raises in the decline with bulwarks which extend the height of the hull profile
about 1 m and are used to protect deck cargo and personnel from washing over the side.
They look like fences around exposed weather decks and can be usually recognised by the
presence of small holes for deck drainage (scuppers) and the lack of handrails (see diag
below).
. . . . . . .

Figure F.4 Bulwarks

The colour of the hull is given in plain language.
Example:
Voice: CHARLIE, PROFILE ONE TWO SLANT THREE, BLACK
TLX/RTG: C/12/3/BLACK.
D. Uprights
Uprights include everything, other than the profile and the superstructures, that is prominent
and can clearly be seen at a distance. The uprights are reported from stem to stern
according to the list below:
Voice TLX/ Description Illustration
RTG
Mast M Slender posts consisting of a lower section
with a thinner upper section. Used to
support signals, flags, navigation lights,
radar antennae etc. Generally the highest
of the uprights.

Kingpost K Slender uprights resembling the thickness

or heaviness of the lower section of masts.
They are used to support cargo booms. If
there is a pair of king posts athwartships
(perpendicular to the vessel’s centreline),
the pair is reported as one kingpost. A
kingpost with mast extensions is reported as
a mast.
 Appendix F – MAREC

Funnel F Used to exhaust the vessel’s main

propulsion systems. Most vessels have one
although some of the older ships have
more.

Crane C Self-contained mechanisms with a boom

extending from them.

Gantry G Mobile structure limited to fore-aft

movement supporting a central crane.

Figure F.5 Uprights

Uprights located close to a superstructure such that they cannot be clearly seen from a
distance should not be included.
Mast Funnel
Kingpost Kingpost
Mast

Figure F.6 Example of Uprights

Example:
Voice: DELTA, MAST, KINGPOST, MAST, KINGPOST, FUNNEL
TLX/RTG: D/M K M F
E. Length
Length is the length overall (LOA) given in metres.
Note: Length can be estimated by observing the vessel’s lifeboats, normally 10 metres long,
in proportion to the ship’s length.
Example:
Voice: ECHO, TWO ZERO METRES
TLX/RTG: E/LOA 20
F. Conditions of loading
The condition of loading is indicated as follows:

Voice TLX/ Description Illustration

RTG
Light Light Carrying only fuel and stores. Sitting high in
water. Propeller and rudder partly exposed.
Difficult to manoeuvre.
 Appendix F – MAREC

In ballast Ball Carrying ballast. Sitting high in water.

Propeller and rudder normally submerged.
Large amount of lower hull paint showing.

Partially Part Sitting well in water. Fair amount of lower

loaded hull paint showing.

Fully loaded Load Sitting deep in the water. Little, if any, lower
hull paint showing.

Table F.3 Conditions of loading

Example
Voice: FOXTROT, PARTIALLY LOADED
TLX/RTG: F/PART
G. Other characteristics
Other prominent characteristics should be given, e.g. stack insignia, conspicuous deck cargo,
or other distinguishing marks or colour variations, e.g. name in big letters on ship’s side or
company insignia painted on side of hull. In the message, such specific characteristics
should be given in full.
Example:
Voice: GOLF, RAILROAD CARS ON DECK
TLX/RTG: G/RAILROAD CARS ON DECK
Complete example Merchant Ship
The following illustrates a typical merchant vessel and how it would be described in a
message according to this system.
Voice: FOXTROT, PART
MAREC 5/03 RCC AUSTRALIA GOLF, NOT APPLICABLE
ALFA, GENERAL CARGO SHIP, TLX/RTG:
ARAFURA, VICTOR ROMEO ROMEO MAREC 5/76 RCC AUSTRALIAN
YANKEE A/GEN/ARAFURA/VRRY
BRAVO, SUPERSTRUCTURE AFT, B/AFT/WHITE
WHITE C/1/3/BLACK
CHARLIE, PROFILE ONE, SLANT D/M M M F K
THREE, BLACK E/LOA 240
DELTA, MAST, MAST, MAST, FUNNEL, F/PART
KINGPOST G/NA.
ECHO, TWO FOUR ZERO METRES

Figure F.7 Typical Merchant Ship

 Appendix F – MAREC

Part 2 - Small Craft

Small Craft MAREC Message
The message is composed of the following identification groups and will be transmitted in the
following sequence:
A Type of craft/ number of hulls – name – callsign or ship station identity – use
B Make - distinctive markings
C Motor installation or rigging
D Construction - material – colour
E Stern – stern
F Type of bottom
G Length.
H Other characteristics
I Number of persons on board.
Table F.4 MAREC - Local serial number

A. Type, configuration and superstructure of craft/number of hulls, name, call sign and
use
Type is based on primary means of propulsion.
Propulsion Type Voice TLX/RTG
Motor Motor boat Motor MOT
Sail Sailing boat Sailing SAIL
Oars Rowing boat Rowing ROW
Paddles Canoe Canoe CAN
Motor and sail (in equal proportion) Motor/sailer Motorsail MOTSAIL
Various Inflatable Inflatable INFLAT
Table F.5 Type of Small Craft
Configuration is based on decked-in watertight areas.
Voice TLX/RTG Description
Open O Free of decks that enclose a watertight area
Part open PO Partly decked to create watertight areas
Closed CL Fully decked so that, with all hatches closed and bungs in, the entire hull volume is watertight
Superstructure
Full cabin FC Cabin superstructure from bow to stern
Part cabin PC Any cabin superstructure not from bow to stern
Full raised deck RD Entire deck level is raised to provide accommodation in the hull. Identified by the presence of windows
in the hull without any superstructure
Part raised deck PD Where only part deck level is raised as above
Table F.6 Configuration of Small Craft
When reporting the above both voice and TLX/RTG items should be incorporated in one
group as below:
An open, part cabin motor boat should be reported as:
Voice: MOTOR OPEN PART CABIN
TLX/RTG: MOTOPC
A closed, part cabin sailing boat should be reported as
Voice: SAIL CLOSED PART CABIN
TLX/RTG: SAILCLPC
Where the number of hulls is more than one, adding the words or group as follows should
indicate this:
2 hulls - Catamaran - CAT
3 hulls - Trimaran - TRI
The craft’s name, call sign and use should be added to words or groups above. Under use,
indicate the purpose for which the craft is being used, e.g. fishing, pilot boat, off-shore racer,
etc.
Example:
Voice: ALFA, MOTOR PART OPEN PART CABIN CATAMARAN, LUCKY LADY, NAVIS
ONE THREE, PLEASURE
TLX/RTG: A/MOTPOPC/CAT/LUCKY LADY/NAVIS 13/PLEASURE
Appendix F – MAREC

B. Make and distinctive markings

The make and distinctive markings should be given in plain language.
Example:
Voice: BRAVO, MAKE STORTRISS, SAIL MARKINGS TWO OVERLAPPING TRIANGLES
WITH POINTS UP AND NUMBER SIERRA ONE THREE EIGHT
TLX/RTG: B/STORTRISS/SAILMARKINGS TWO OVERLAPPING TRIANGLES
POINTS UP/ S138
C. Motor installation or sail rigging.
The motor installation is given according to the figures shown below:

Illustration Voice TLX/RTG

Outboard motor, OUTB

if applicable with
the addition
Double or Triple. OUTB2
OUTB3

Inboard motor INB

Jet JET

Aquamatic if AQUA
applicable with
the addition
Double or AQUA2
Inboard/Outboard INBOARD/OUTBOARD

Figure F.6

Example
Voice: CHARLIE, OUTBOARD MOTOR, DOUBLE
TLX/RTG: C/OUTB 2
Rigging (sailing boats) - Type of rigging is described on sailing boats and motor sailers
according to the figures below. (The number of masts is denoted by the appropriate number):
Appendix F – MAREC

VOICE TLX/RTG

Jib Rig JIB

Spirit Rig SPRI

Gaff Rig GAFF

Lug Sail LUG

Appendix F – MAREC

Lanteen
LAT
Sail

Sloop Rig SLOOP

Junk Rig JUNK

Yawl YAWL
Appendix F – MAREC

Ketch KETCH

Schooner SCHON

Figure F.8 Sail Rigging

These boats have the capability to carry a bowsprit, that is a spar extending from the bow to
which headsails are attached. These are reported on Voice: Bowsprit or TLX/RTG: BS.
The difference between a ketch and a yawl is:
a. The ketch’s aft mast is stepped forward of the rudder post; and
b. the yawl’s mast is stepped behind the rudder post.
Most sailing boats carry sails known as “extras” to improve the boat’s performance in specific
conditions and include spinnakers, spinnaker staysails, jib staysails, main staysails and
mizzen staysails. If these sails are in use, identification of the yacht’s rig becomes more
difficult. These should be reported in section H.
NAME VOICE TLX/RTG

Spinnaker Spinnaker SPIN

Spinnaker Staysail Spinnaker Staysail SPINSS

Jib Staysail Jib Staysail JIBSS

Main Staysail Main Staysail MAINSS

Mizzen Staysail Mizzen Staysail MIZZENSS

Table F.7 Sail Types

D. Construction/Material/Colour
Construction. Two different types of construction exist, viz. clinker built and carvel built or
smooth sided.

Note: Some glass fibre boats

are moulded to resemble clinker
built and should be so described
in this Code.

Clinker Carvel
Material. The materials commonly used to construct small craft are wood, metal, glass
reinforced plastic (fibreglass) (GRP), rubber (inflatables) or ferro-cement. Construction
Appendix F – MAREC

material and colour should be given in voice reports and given the abbreviations WOD, MTL,
GRP, INFLAT or FERC in TLX/RTG reports.
Example:
Voice: DELTA, CLINKER, GLASS FIBRE, WHITE
TLX/RTG D/CLINKER/GRP/WHITE.
E. Stem/Stern
Stem and stern designs are described according to the figures below:
STEM VOICE TLX/RTG

Straight stem STR

Clipper stem CLIP

Falling stem FALL

Figure F.9 Stem designs

STERN VOICE TLX/RTG

Flat Stern FLAT

Square stern SQUARE

Appendix F – MAREC

Sharp Stern SHARP

Canoe stern CAN

Transom stern TRANS

Negative transom stern NTRANS

Figure F.10 Stern designs

Example:
Voice: ECHO, FALLING STEM, CANOE STERN
TLX/RTG: E/FALL/CAN
F. Type of bottom
Bottom types are described according the figures below:
BOTTOM VOICE TLX/RTG

V-bottom VBOT

Flat bottom FLAT

Round
ROUND
bottom
Appendix F – MAREC

Ribbed
RIB
bottom

Keel KEEL

Fin-keel
(where
double fin- FIN
keel, add the
work
“double”

Centre-board CB

Figure F.11 Bottom designs

Example:
Voice: FOXTROT, RIBBED BOTTOM
TLX/RTG: F/RIB
G. Length
Length is the length overall (LOA) given in metres.
Example:
Voice: GOLF, TWO ZERO METRES
TLX/RTG: G/LOA/20.
H. Other characteristics
Other characteristics should be included to describe certain details that might facilitate
identification, e.g. flying bridge, windscreens, dodger, spinnaker sail colouring, pulpit, pushpit,
steering vane etc.
Example:
Voice: HOTEL, RED SPINNAKER
TLX/RTG: H/RED SPINNAKER.
I. Number of persons on board (POB)
Example:
Voice: INDIA, THREE
TLX/RTG I/3.
Appendix F – MAREC

Figure F.12 Complete example: Motor Boat

Voice: TLX/RTG
MAREC 7/03, RCC AUSTRALIA MAREC 7/76 RCC AUSTRALIA
ALFA, MOTORBOAT PART CABIN, A/MOTPC/GALANT/VK180/PLEASURE
GALANT, VICTOR KILO ONE EIGHT B/SOLO/25
ZERO, PLEASURE C/INB
BRAVO, MAKE SOLO TWO FIVE D/CLINKER/GRP/WHITE
CHARLIE, INBOARD MOTOR E/FALL/SQUARE
DELTA, CLINKER, GLASS FIBRE, F/VBOT
WHITE G/LOA 7.5
ECHO, FALLING STEM, SQUARE H/PULPIT FORWARD, WINDSCREEN
STERN ON AFT EDGE OF CABIN WITH RED
FOXTROOT, V-BOTTOM DODGER
GOLF, SEVEN AND A HALF METRES I/2
HOTEL, PULPIT FORWARD,
WINDSCREEN ONE AFT EDGE OF
CABIN WITH A RED DODGER
INDIA, TWO

S 11
S 11

Figure F.13 Complete example: Sailing Boat

Voice: TLX/RTG
MAREC 8/03, RCC AUSTRALIA MAREC 8/03, RCC AUSTRALIA
ALFA, SAILING PART CABIN, FAMILY A/SAILPC/ FAMILY OF MAN/NAVIS
OF MAN, VICTOR KILO SEVEN FOUR 12/PLEASURE
EIGHT TWO, OFF SHORE RACING B/PETERSON 40/S 11
BRAVO, MAKE PETERSON FOUR C/SLOOP
ZERO, SAIL MARKINGS SIERRA ONE D/CARVEL/WOOD/BLACK WITH WHITE
ONE CABIN
CHARLIE, MASTHEAD SLOOP RIG E/FALL/NTRANS
DELTA, CARVEL, WOOD, BLACK WITH F/KEEL
WHITE CABIN G/LOA 8
ECHO, FALLING STEM, NEGATIVE H/PULPIT FORWARD
TRANSOM STERN I/2
FOXTROOT, KEEL
GOLF, EIGHT METRES
HOTEL, PULPIT FORWARD
INDIA, TWO
Appendix G – Plotting Symbols

APPENDIX G - Plotting Symbols

Heading and TAS

Track and ground speed

Wind velocity

Position line

Transferred position line

Average position line

Air position
(TIME)

Dead reckoning position

(TIME)

Most probable position (MPP)

(TIME)

Visual fix (pin-point)

(TIME)

Ship position

Sighting and Hearing Reports

red - probable
black - all other sighting and hearing reports

Aircraft position
Appendix H – Sighting and Hearing Reports

Appendix H - Sighting & Hearing (SHR) Techniques

Listening techniques
It is important when questioning an individual either in person or over the phone to actively
listen to the information being provided. Practice the following listening techniques when
questioning an individual during a SAR incident.
Put the individual at ease.
Remove distractions: don't doodle, tap or shuffle paper.
Empathise with the individual: attempt to see the other person's point of view.
Be patient: allow plenty of time and don't interrupt.
Ask questions: this encourages the individual and shows that you're listening.
Stop talking: you can't listen if you're talking.

Open questions
Open questions are a good way to question an individual. Open questions avoid influencing
or guiding the individual in their answer. This ensures the integrity of the answers given.
For example: What was the colour of the aircraft you saw?
Open questions usually begin with:
How
Where
When
What
Who
Why.

Closed questions
Closed questions follow on from an open question, helping to refine the information already
given. They usually require a yes or no answer and are good for gaining information quickly.
For example: Are you saying the colour of the aircraft was white?
The closed question usually begins with:
Do
Is
Are
Can
Have.

Leading questions
The problem with leading questions is that they can elicit unreliable information. The
individual being questioned may tell you what they think you want to hear.
For example, do not ask: 'You say you saw an aircraft. Was it white with a red tail?' Ask: 'You
say you saw an aircraft. What colour was it?'
Appendix H – Sighting and Hearing Reports

Instructions for Completing Sighting and Hearing Reports

The objective of the Sighting or Hearing Report is to obtain the maximum information
available from an observer at the initial contact.
The following points assist persons untrained in SAR to correctly complete the Sighting and
Hearing Report.
When taking a call, introduce yourself with your organisation such as 'Australian Search and
Rescue'.
Establish follow-up by first obtaining a call back number and the person's availability.
Print CLEARLY on the Sighting or Hearing Report.
Number each report by referral to the Sighting and Hearing Log.
If you find that a component of the report is important, put the caller on hold and obtain the
attention of the Intelligence Officer. Use your initiative.
Time. Be cautious: use local time only. This is very critical: try to narrow down an exact time.
Record how the time was assessed. If the operation is in an area near a State or Territory
border, be mindful of time changes. Also be aware of Daylight Saving Time.
Aircraft location. Attempt to obtain as much detail as possible. If necessary, ask pointed
questions. Height may be 'low', 'well above the hills', 'just above the trees'.
Remarks. Be on the lookout for key words. Words like 'slow' can help to assess a report.
Aircraft description. The broadcast is normally a little vague and you must be likewise. Do
not ask if the aircraft was a high-wing aircraft, as the caller may tend to agree with you.
Weather. Obtain accurate reports of cloud, rain, and fog. Most people will report wind speed
as 'light' or 'strong'. Direction may be only known as 'north'.
Other witnesses. Obtain full details and interview these separately. This may help to verify
parts of another report.
Reliability. Annotate only if this is obvious, for example, whether the person reporting was a
police officer or an intoxicated person.
Final check. Check the entire form before hanging up. Ensure the form is SIGNED, DATED
and your NAME IS PRINTED.
 Appendix H – Sighting and Hearing Reports

Sighting and/or Hearing Report for missing aircraft

Report
Number
SAR INCIDENT NUMBER …… /…………
OBSERVER AND LOCATION DETAILS
Sighting or Hearing Reported by Address Phone

Time (6 figure) How determined Observer's location

………..………LOCAL
………………..UTC
Location of Aircraft from Observer

Aircraft Heading Aircraft Height Mode of operation (Level, Climbing etc.)

REMARKS (engine noise, erratic behaviour, smoke, circling etc)

DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT AND WEATHER

Aircraft colours Aircraft markings

Number of engines Wing position Tail Undercarriage (up or down)

WEATHER Wind Visibility Cloud General conditions

OTHER WITNESSES
Name Address Phone

Name Address Phone

RCC ASSESSMENT
Assessment and comment (NOTE: ask reporter to phone again if additional detail is recalled)

REPORT TAKEN BY
DTG of Report (6 figure) ……………...………. UTC
Intelligence Officer Plotted Recorder Other

Page ____ of ____

 Appendix H – Sighting and Hearing Reports

Sighting and Hearing Log

No. S/H LOCATION Name DTG Remarks

Received
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

APPENDIX I – TABLES AND GRAPHS

Figure I-1: Local Wind Current Graph
Figure I-12: Probability of Detection

Leeway tables:
Table I-1: Leeway speed and direction values for drift objects (kts)
Table I-2: Sub-table for maritime life rafts with deep ballast systems and canopies
(kts)

Sweep Width Tables For Visual Search Over Water:

Table I-3: Uncorrected visual sweep width for vessels and small boats
Table I-4: Visual sweep widths for merchant ships [km (NM)]
Table I-5 (1): Sweep Widths for Fixed Wing aircraft (NM) at 500 ft and 1000 ft
Table I-5 (2): Sweep Widths for Fixed Wing aircraft (NM) 1500 ft and 2000 ft
Table I-6 (1): Sweep Widths for Helicopters (NM) – Maritime 500 ft and 1000 ft
Table I-6 (2): Sweep Widths for Helicopters (NM) – Maritime 1500 ft and 2000 ft
Table I-7: Weather correction factors for all types of search facilities
Table I-8: Speed (velocity) correction factors for helicopter and fixed wing aircraft
search facilities

Sweep Width Tables For Visual Search Over Land:

Table I-9: Sweep Widths for visual land search [km (NM)]
Table I-10: Correction factors – vegetation and high terrain
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Local Wind Current

Figure I-1 Local Wind Current Graph
 Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Leeway tables
Table I-1: Leeway speed and direction values for drift objects (kts)
Leeway Target Class Leeway Speed Divergence
Category Sub Categories Primary Leeway Secondary Leeway Multiplier Modifier Angle
Descriptors Descriptors (kts) (deg)

0.011 0.07 30
Vertical 0.005 0.07 18
PIW Sitting 0.012 0.00 18
Horizontal Survival Suit 0.014 0.10 30
Scuba Suit 0.007 0.08 30
Deceased 0.015 0.08 30
0.042 0.03 28
No no canopy, no drogue 0.057 0.21 24
Ballast no canopy, w/ drogue 0.044 -0.20 28
Systems canopy, no drogue 0.037 0.11 24
Maritime canopy, w/ drogue 0.030 0.00 28
Life Shallow 0.029 0.00 22
Rafts Ballast no drogue 0.032 -0.02 22
Survival Systems and with drogue 0.025 0.01 22
Craft
Canopy Capsized 0.017 -0.10 8
Deep Ballast (See Table 2A
0.030 0.02 13
Systems & Canopies for Levels 4-6)
Other Maritime life capsule 0.038 -0.08 22
Survival Craft USCG Sea Rescue Kit 0.025 -0.04 7
Aviation no ballast, w/canopy 4-6 person, w/o drogue 0.037 0.11 24
Life Rafts Evac/ Slide 46-person 0.028 -0.01 15

Person- Sea Kayak W/ Person on aft deck 0.011 0.24 15

Powered Surf board w/ person 0.020 0.00 15
Craft
Windsurfer w/ person and mast & sail in water 0.023 0.10 12
Sailing Mono-hull Full Keel Deep Draft 0.030 0.00 48
Vessels Fin Keel Shoal Draft 0.040 0.00 48
Flat Bottom Boston whaler 0.034 0.04 22
Skiffs Std. Configuration. 0.030 0.08 15
Power V-hull
Vessels Swamped 0.017 0.00 15
Sport Boats Cuddy Cabin Modified V-hull 0.069 -0.08 19
Sport Fisher Center Console Open cockpit 0.060 -0.09 22
0.037 0.02 48
Sampans 0.040 0.00 48
Commercial
Side-stern Trawler 0.042 0.00 48
Power Fishing
Vessels Longliners 0.037 0.00 48
Vessels
Junk 0.027 0.10 48
Gill-netter w/rear reel 0.040 0.01 33
Coastal Freighter 0.028 0.00 48
F/V debris 0.020 0.00 10
Boating 0.013 0.27 31
Bait/wharf box
Debris holds a cubic lightly loaded 0.026 0.18 15
meter of ice
fully loaded 0.016 0.16 33
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-2: Sub-table for maritime life rafts with deep ballast systems and canopies (kts)
Leeway Target Class Leeway Speed Divergence
Secondary Capacity Drogue Modifier Loading Modifier Multiplier Modifier Angle
Leeway Modifier (kts) (deg)
Descriptors

0.029 0.04 15
0.038 -0.04 15
4-6 without drogue light loading 0.038 -0.04 15
Maritime
Life Rafts person heavy loading 0.036 -0.03 15
with capacity 0.018 0.03 12
Deep with drogue light loading 0.016 0.05 24
Ballast heavy loading 0.021 0.00 20
Systems 15-25 0.036 -0.09 10
and person w/o drogue light loading 0.039 -0.06 9
Canopies capacity with drogue heavy loading 0.031 -0.07 12 9
Capsized 0.009 0.00 16 12
Swamped 0.010 -0.04 11 8

Notes:
1. These tables are adapted from Allen and Plourde 1999 Review of
Leeway: Field Experiments and Implementation. USCG Research and
Development Centre Report No CG-D-08-99.
2. Prior to the publication of the data the USCG Research and
Development Centre made the decision that the only data published
would be data that was based on actual results derived from
documented research and observation during controlled field
experiments. However it has been recognised that some anomalies
exist in the data pertaining to maritime life rafts with no ballast
systems. There had been significant time between the initial research
done by Hufford and Broida in 1974 and later research by Nash and
Willcox in 1991. Also it is probable that the make of life raft used for
the experiments may no longer be in use.
3. SMCs should evaluate the calculated results obtained from using the
tables with actual known conditions and adjust leeway values as
appropriate.
Taxonomy Class Definitions/Descriptions
The following section provides information about each of the leeway drift objects in
Table I-1. For each description, the target characteristics are summarized and pictures
are provided where available. These target descriptions are in no way meant to be all-
inclusive. They are intended to assist a search planner in target identification. Proper
identification will make the application of more specific leeway values possible.
Some categories in Table I-1 do not require further explanation and therefore
descriptions/pictures are not included. The SAR planner should also be reminded that
any classification system will have overlap between some categories. In these cases,
a decision must be made about the most probable situation.
a. PIW. Persons in the water including persons without any floatation, and those
with a throwable cushion, with a PFD, in an anti-exposure suit and in
survival/immersion suits.
i. Vertical. Generally requires a conscious and active PIW to maintain
this position. PIWs wearing a sport/work vest, anti-exposure suit, or
float coat or having no flotation must actively maintain a vertical position
in the water or become victims in the horizontal position.
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

ii. Sitting. The classic fetal position with legs drawn up and arms huddled
across the PFD. This is the preferred position a conscious or
unconscious person assumes, especially in cold water, when wearing
offshore lifejackets, horse-collar lifejackets, or inflatable vests. A
conscious PIW hanging onto a throwable device will also assume the
sitting position until he become unconscious at which time he become a
victim.
iii. Horizontal. Three separate configurations place the PIW in a horizontal
position. A conscious or unconscious PIW wearing a survival suit will
float flat on his back. A PIW in scuba gear, with an inflated buoyancy
vest, will float in a semi-reclined position. The classic floating position of
a victim is floating face down in the water.
b. Maritime Survival Craft. Includes life rafts, lifeboats, and life capsules. It
does not include dinghies or inflatable boats that may be carried for the same
purpose. (Figure I-2)
i. Maritime Life Rafts. If there is any question about what type of life raft
a vessel may carry, a phone call to life raft repair and repackaging
facilities close to the homeport of the distressed vessel may provide
ballast, canopy, size, and drogue information.
ii. Shallow Ballast. Consists of a series of fabric pockets generally 4
inches in diameter and less than six inches in depth
iii. Deep Ballast. Consist of large fabric bags, from 3-7 on the raft, that are
at least 1’x 2’ x 2’.
c. Other Maritime Survival Craft
i. Life Capsule. Fully enclosed crafts commonly used on large merchant
and military vessels.
d. Aviation Life Rafts. Fall basically into two groups, life rafts and slide rafts.
Aviation life rafts are similar to marine life rafts, but are usually made from
lighter materials.
i. Evacuation/Slide. Slide rafts are specifically designed devices
intended to ease evacuation from an aircraft. They mount to doorframes
or near wing emergency exits and are cut loose from the airframe once
fully loaded.
e. Person- Powered Craft. Includes all forms of rowed or paddled boats
including rowboats, inflatable boats without motors, canoes, kayaks,
surfboards and windsurfers. (Figure I-3)
f. Mono-hull Sailing Vessel. It is assumed that all targets in this category are
adrift; therefore sails are down or missing and the crew is unable to
manoeuvre the vessel at all. A class of small to medium sized sailing vessels
generally less than 20 ft and never more than 30 ft in length, they are typically
designed for a single purpose such as racing or day sailing. Although this
type of boat can have an outboard engine when day sailing, they will almost
never have inboard engines. [Australian Editor’s note: These comments are
repeated from the US Coastguard copy of the Taxonomy. Yachts in Australia
are commonly fitted with inboard engines but would be expected to perform in
a similar way to the table.]
i. Full Keel. Small to medium sized sailboats whose keel runs the full
length or nearly the full length of the hull. While the forward portion of
the keel is modified or eliminated on some full keel sailboats, the keel on
all full keel sailboats extends aft to the rudder. This is an old hull design
and is not commonly used in new hull construction due to the relatively
slow sailing speeds of this hull design. (Figure I-4)
ii. Fin Keel. Small to medium sized sailboats with permanent keel skegs
that do not extend aft to the rudder. (Figure I-5)
g. Skiffs. Open boats less than 20 ft long that use an outboard motor as the
primary source of propulsion. Some have characteristics identical to rowed
boats with the exception that an outboard motor has been attached to the
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

stern. This group includes, but is not limited to, tenders for larger vessels,
bass boats, hunting boats, Jon boats, and a large category of utility boats.
Skiffs are usually found on lakes and rivers, but are also common in the calm
waters of many bays and rivers that provide access to the open ocean.
(Figure I-6)
h. Personal Water Craft. Include a number of different designs for one or more
persons. Generally there are stand up models and ride on models. Some
craft marketed as PWC closely resemble small sport boats. Most PWC’s have
water jet propulsion. No leeway drift experiments have yet been performed on
PWC’s and they do not appear within Table I-1. Leeway category choice
should be based on number of passengers/loading, size of PWC (draft, length,
freeboard) of PWC. These factors may be comparable (not exactly) to several
other leeway targets. (Figure I-7)
i. Sport Boats. Includes pleasure craft from 15 to 28 feet long with beam
widths from roughly 6 to 9 feet. They include metal, fibreglass, and wood
vessels with a V, modified-V, or deep-V hull form. Sport boats can be outfitted
with inboard, outboard, or I/O propulsion. This category includes side console
(closed bow and bow riders) and cuddy cabin boats. (Figure I-8)
j. Sport Fisher. Include pleasure and commercial craft form 17 to
approximately 100 feet long with beam widths up to 24 feet. The majority are
between 30 and 50 feet long, with beam widths between 10 and 15 feet. This
class includes both semi-displacement and planning hull forms that can be
outfitted with inboard, outboard, or I/O propulsion. This category includes
boats with simple centre console or walk-round cabin. Convertibles are sport
fishers with a walk around cabin and flying bridge. Convertibles designed for
offshore fishing may also have a spotting tower. Many convertibles provide
extended cruising capabilities similar to sport cruisers, but their after deck
design provides a larger open area to work fishing gear. Some of these
vessels can also be found in the cruiser or motor yacht categories. (Figure I-9)
k. Commercial Fishing Vessels. Include vessels from 45 to 100 feet long
designed for fishing or shell fishing in coastal and ocean waters. They include
side and stern trawling rigs, long liners, bottom dragging rigs, and purse
seiners. Pole fishers are simply modified use of a sport fisher or sport cruiser
and should be treated as such. Commercial fishers can be working alone, as
paired vessels, or can be the mother ship to a group of smaller fishing skiffs.
These vessels have different design features based on their purpose, but all
have some form of deckhouse and an open area from which nets can lines
are worked. A deck winch and boom system is commonly used to handle nets
or lines. (Figure I-10)
l. Coastal Freighter. Include a wide range of commercial shipping platforms up
to 100 feet in length. These vessels transfer cargo from one port to another,
and shipping agents can provide estimated voyage schedules. Coastal
freighters include vessels with a deckhouse on the forecastle, a midships
deckhouse (common to cargo vessels), and an aft deckhouse (common to
tankers and container ships). Leeway of these vessels will of course not only
vary with respect to deckhouse location; it will also be greatly affected by
loading, amount, and type of cargo. (Figure I-11)
m. Boating Debris. Includes any debris that can be expected from a boat that is
sinking and/or breaking up. It may include paper or plastic containers,
bedding or clothing, and a variety of fragmented boat sections.
i. Fishing debris. Debris typical to a fishing vessel such as lifejacket, life
ring, fishing float balls, a fishing box lid, or wooden boards
ii. Bait/wharf box. Commercially available 1.1 X1.5 meter plastic box
used by commercial fisherman for holding ice and/or fish. Although not
it’s intended use, it could also serve as a floatation/life raft by persons in
distress.
• lightly loaded. Approximately 200 lbs (simulation of one person)
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

• fully loaded. Approximately 800 lbs (simulation of four persons)

DOOR

DOOR

STEP

No Ballast Life Raft Shallow Pocket Ballast Deep Pocket Ballast

Life Capsule
Figure I-2 Maritime Survival Craft

Sea Kayak

Canoe

Row Boat Surf Board

Figure I-3 Person-Powered Craft

Open Cockpit Cabin

Figure I-4 Full Keel One-design Sailboat
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Open Cockpit Cabin

Figure I-5 Fin Keel One-design Sailboat

Flat Bottom Skiff V-Hull Skiff

Figure I-6 Skiffs

Figure I-7 Personal Water Craft

Bow Rider Closed Bow

Cuddy Cabin High Performance

Figure I-8 Sport Boats

Center Console Walk Around Cuddy Convertible

Figure I-9 Sport Fishers
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Side Trawler Stern Trawler

Gillnetter Longliner Purse Seiner

Trap Boat Sampan Lobster Boat

Figure I-10 Commercial Fishers

Coastal Freighter with Mid Deckhouse Coastal Freighter with Aft Deckhouse
Figure I-11 Coastal Freighters
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Probability of Detection

Figure I-12 - Probability of Detection

Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Sweep Width Tables For Visual Search Over Water

Table I-3. Uncorrected visual sweep width for vessels and small boats
SEARCH OBJECT Height of eye 8’ Height of eye 14’
Visibility in nautical miles (nm) Visibility in nautical miles (nm)
1 3 5 10 15 20 1 3 5 10 15 20
Person in water 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Raft 1 Person 0.7 1.3 1.7 2.3 2.6 2.7 0.9 1.8 2.3 3.1 3.4 3.7
Raft 4 Person 0.7 1.7 2.2 3.1 3.5 3.9 1.0 2.2 3.0 4.0 4.6 5.0
Raft 6 Person 0.8 1.9 2.6 3.6 4.3 4.7 1.1 2.5 3.4 4.7 5.5 6.0
Raft 8 Person 0.8 2.0 2.7 3.8 4.4 4.9 1.1 2.5 3.5 4.8 5.7 6.2
Raft 10 person 0.8 2.0 2.8 4.0 4.8 5.3 1.1 2.6 3.6 5.1 6.1 6.7
Raft 15 Person 0.9 2.2 3.0 4.3 5.1 5.7 1.1 2.8 3.8 5.5 6.5 7.2
Raft 20 Person 0.9 2.3 3.3 4.9 5.8 6.5 1.2 3.0 4.1 6.1 7.3 8.1
Raft 25 Person 0.9 2.4 3.5 5.2 6.3 `7.0 1.2 3.1 4.3 6.4 7.8 8.7
Power Boat <15 ft 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.5 1.6 1.8 0.5 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.1 2.3
Power Boat 15-25 ft 0.8 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.0 4.5 1.0 2.0 2.9 4.3 5.2 5.8
Power Boat 25-40 ft 0.8 1.9 2.9 4.7 5.9 6.8 1.1 2.5 3.8 6.1 7.7 8.8
Power Boat 40-65 ft 0.9 2.4 3.9 7.0 9.3 11.1 1.2 3.1 5.1 9.1 12.1 14.4
Power Boat 65-90 ft 0.9 2.5 4.3 8.3 11.4 14.0 1.2 3.2 5.6 10.7 14.7 18.1
Sail Boat 15 ft 0.8 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.6 4.0 1.0 1.9 2.7 3.9 4.7 5.2
Sail Boat 20 ft 0.8 1.7 2.5 3.7 4.6 5.1 1.0 2.2 3.2 4.8 5.9 6.6

Sail Boat 25 ft 0.9 1.9 2.8 4.4 5.4 6.3 1.1 2.4 3.6 5.7 7.0 8.1
Sail Boat 30 ft 0.9 2.1 3.2 5.3 6.6 7.7 1.1 2.7 4.1 6.8 8.6 10.0
Sail Boat 40 ft 0.9 2.3 3.8 6.6 8.6 10.3 1.2 3.0 4.9 8.5 11.2 13.3
Sail Boat 50 ft 0.9 2.4 4.0 7.3 9.7 11.6 1.2 3.1 5.2 9.4 12.5 15.0
Sail Boat 65-75 ft 0.9 2.5 4.2 7.9 10.7 13.1 1.2 3.2 5.5 10.2 13.9 16.9
Sail Boat 75-90 ft 0.9 2.5 4.4 8.3 11.6 14.2 1.2 3.3 5.7 10.8 15.0 18.4

Note: A sailboat is only a sailboat if the sails are up. If the sails are down,
the craft should be classed as a powerboat.

Table I-4. Visual sweep widths for merchant ships (NM)

Height of eye correlates to
Meteorological visibility [km]
bridge of a merchant ship
Search Object 5 km 10 km 20 km 30 km 40 km
Person in water 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7
4-person liferaft 2.3 3.2 4.2 4.9 5.5
6-person liferaft 2.5 3.6 5.0 6.2 6.9
15-person liferaft 2.6 4.0 5.1 6.4 7.3
25-person liferaft 2.7 4.2 5.2 6.5 7.5
Boat <5m (17ft) 1.1 1.4 1.9 2.1 2.3
Boat <7m (23ft) 2.0 2.9 4.3 5.2 5.8
Boat <12m (40ft) 2.8 4.5 7.6 9.4 11.6
Boat <24m (79ft) 3.2 5.6 10.7 14.7 18.1
 Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-5 (1) Sweep Widths for Fixed Wing aircraft (NM) at 500 ft and 1000 ft
Altitude 500 ft Altitude 1000 ft
Search Object [metres
Visibility [km] Visibility [km]
(ft)]
2 5 10 20 30 >40 2 5 10 20 30 >40
Person in Water 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Raft 1 person 0.3 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.4 0.3 0.7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.4
Raft 4 person 0.4 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.0 2.2 0.3 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.1 2.3
Raft 6 person 0.4 1.1 1.5 2.2 2.5 2.8 0.4 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.6 2.8
Raft 8 person 0.4 1.2 1.6 2.3 2.7 2.9 0.4 1.2 1.7 2.4 2.8 3.0
Raft 10 person 0.4 1.2 1.7 2.5 2.9 3.2 0.4 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.0 3.3
Raft 15 person 0.5 1.3 1.9 2.7 3.3 3.6 0.4 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.4 3.7
Raft 20 person 0.5 1.5 2.1 3.2 3.8 4.2 0.4 1.5 2.2 3.2 3.9 4.3
Raft 25 person 0.5 1.6 2.3 3.4 4.1 4.6 0.4 1.6 2.3 3.5 4.2 4.7

Power Boat <5 (15 ft) 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.8 0.4 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.8 2.0
Power Boat 6 (20 ft) 0.5 1.7 2.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 0.5 1.7 2.5 3.7 4.4 5.0
Power Boat 10 (33 ft) 0.6 2.1 3.3 5.3 6.7 7.7 0.5 2.2 3.4 5.4 6.8 7.8
Power Boat 16 (53 ft) 0.6 2.7 4.5 8.1 10.9 13.1 0.6 2.7 4.5 8.2 10.9 13.1
Power Boat 24 (78 ft) 0.6 2.8 5.0 9.8 13.5 16.7 0.6 2.8 5.1 9.8 13.6 16.7

Sail Boat 5 (15 ft) 0.5 1.6 2.2 3.2 3.9 4.3 0.5 1.6 2.3 3.3 4.0 4.4
Sail Boat 8 (26 ft) 0.6 2.0 3.1 4.9 6.1 7.0 0.5 2.1 3.2 5.0 6.2 7.1
Sail Boat 12 (39 ft) 0.6 2.6 4.3 7.6 10.0 11.9 0.6 2.6 4.3 7.6 10.9 12.0
Sail Boat 15 (49 ft) 0.6 2.7 4.6 8.4 11.3 13.7 0.6 2.7 4.6 8.5 11.4 13.7
Sail Boat 21 (69 ft) 0.6 2.8 4.9 9.3 12.7 15.5 0.6 2.8 4.9 9.3 12.8 15.6
Sail Boat 25 (83 ft) 0.6 2.8 5.1 9.9 13.7 17.0 0.6 2.8 5.1 9.9 13.8 17.0

Ship 27-46 (90-150 ft) 0.6 2.9 5.4 11.1 15.9 20.1 0.6 2.9 5.4 11.1 15.9 20.1
Ship 46-91 (150-300 ft) 0.6 3.0 5.7 12.5 18.9 24.7 0.6 3.0 5.7 12.5 18.9 24.7
Ship > 91 (>300 ft) 0.7 3.0 5.8 13.2 20.6 27.9 0.6 3.0 5.8 13.2 20.6 27.9

Note:
1. For search altitudes of 500 feet only, the sweep width values for a
person in water may be multiplied by 4, if it is known that the person is
wearing a flotation device.
2. A sailboat is only a sailboat if the sails are up. If the sails are down,
the craft should be classed as a powerboat.
 Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-5 (2) Sweep Widths for Fixed Wing aircraft (NM) 1500 ft and 2000 ft
Altitude 1500 ft Altitude 2000 ft
Search Object [metres
Visibility [km] Visibility [km]
(ft)]
2 5 10 20 30 >40 2 5 10 20 30 >40
Person in Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Raft 1 person 0.2 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.1 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.4
Raft 4 person 0.3 1.0 1.3 1.9 2.1 2.3 0.2 0.9 1.3 1.9 2.2 2.3
Raft 6 person 0.3 1.1 1.6 2.3 2.6 2.9 0.2 1.1 1.6 2.3 2.7 2.9
Raft 8 person 0.3 1.2 1.7 2.4 2.8 3.1 0.2 1.2 1.7 2.5 2.9 3.2
Raft 10 person 0.3 1.3 1.8 2.6 3.1 3.4 0.2 1.2 1.8 2.7 3.1 3.5
Raft 15 person 0.3 1.4 2.0 2.9 3.4 3.8 0.2 1.4 2.0 3.0 3.5 3.9
Raft 20 person 0.4 1.5 2.2 3.3 4.0 4.4 0.4 1.5 2.2 3.4 4.0 4.5
Raft 25 person 0.4 1.6 2.4 3.6 4.3 4.8 0.3 1.6 2.4 3.6 4.4 4.9

Power Boat <5 (15 ft) 0.3 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.1 0.2 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.0 2.2
Power Boat 6 (20 ft) 0.4 1.7 2.5 3.7 4.5 5.1 0.3 1.7 2.5 3.8 4.6 5.1
Power Boat 10 (33 ft) 0.5 2.2 3.4 5.5 6.8 7.9 0.3 2.2 3.4 5.5 6.9 8.0
Power Boat 16 (53 ft) 0.5 2.6 4.5 8.2 11.0 13.2 0.4 2.6 4.5 8.3 11.0 13.3
Power Boat 24 (78 ft) 0.5 2.8 5.1 9.8 13.6 16.7 0.4 2.8 5.0 9.8 13.6 16.8

Sail Boat 5 (15 ft) 0.4 1.6 2.3 3.4 4.1 4.5 0.3 1.6 2.3 3.5 4.1 4.5
Sail Boat 8 (26 ft) 0.5 2.1 3.2 5.1 6.3 7.2 0.3 2.1 3.3 5.2 6.4 7.3
Sail Boat 12 (39 ft) 0.5 2.6 4.3 7.6 10.1 12.0 0.4 2.5 4.3 7.7 10.1 12.1
Sail Boat 15 (49 ft) 0.5 2.7 4.6 8.5 11.4 13.8 0.4 2.7 4.6 8.6 11.5 13.9
Sail Boat 21 (69 ft) 0.5 2.8 4.9 9.4 12.8 15.7 0.4 2.7 4.9 9.4 12.9 15.7
Sail Boat 25 (83 ft) 0.5 2.8 5.1 10.0 13.8 17.1 0.4 2.8 5.1 10.0 13.9 17.1

Ship 27-46 (90-150 ft) 0.5 2.9 5.4 11.1 16.0 20.1 0.4 2.9 5.4 11.1 16.0 20.1
Ship 46-91 (150-300 ft) 0.5 3.0 5.7 12.5 18.9 24.7 0.4 3.0 5.7 12.5 18.9 24.7
Ship > 91 (>300 ft) 0.6 3.0 5.8 13.2 20.7 27.9 0.5 3.0 5.8 13.2 20.7 27.9

Note. A sailboat is only a sailboat if the sails are up. If the sails are down,
the craft should be classed as a powerboat.
 Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-6 (1) Sweep Widths for Helicopters (NM) – Maritime 500 ft and 1000 ft
Altitude 500 ft Altitude 1000 ft

Search Object [metres Visibility [km] Visibility [km]

(feet)]
2 5 10 20 30 >40 2 5 10 20 30 >40

Person in Water 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Raft 1 person 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.8 0.4 0.9 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.8
Raft 4 person 0.5 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.6 2.8 0.5 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.6 2.9
Raft 6 person 0.5 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.2 3.5 0.5 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.5
Raft 8 person 0.6 1.5 2.0 2.8 3.3 3.7 0.5 1.5 2.1 2.9 3.4 3.8
Raft 10 person 0.6 1.6 2.2 3.1 3.6 4.0 0.5 1.6 2.2 3.2 3.7 4.1
Raft 15 person 0.6 1.7 2.3 3.3 4.0 4.4 0.6 1.7 2.4 3.5 4.1 4.5
Raft 20 person 0.6 1.8 2.6 3.8 4.6 5.1 0.6 1.8 2.7 3.9 4.7 5.2
Raft 25 person 0.6 1.9 2.7 4.1 5.0 5.6 0.6 1.9 2.8 4.2 5.1 5.7

Power Boat <5 (15 ft) 0.5 1.2 1.5 1.9 2.2 2.3 0.5 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.3 2.5
Power Boat 6 (20 ft) 0.7 2.0 2.9 4.3 5.2 5.8 0.7 2.1 3.0 4.4 5.3 5.9
Power Boat 10 (33 ft) 0.8 2.5 3.9 6.2 7.8 9.0 0.7 2.6 3.9 6.3 7.9 9.1
Power Boat 16 (53 ft) 0.8 3.1 5.1 9.2 12.3 14.7 0.7 3.1 5.2 9.2 12.3 14.8
Power Boat 24 (78 ft) 0.8 3.3 5.7 10.8 15.0 18.4 0.8 3.3 5.7 10.9 15.0 18.5

Sail Boat 5 (15 ft) 0.7 1.9 2.7 3.9 4.7 5.2 0.6 1.9 2.8 4.0 4.8 5.4
Sail Boat 8 (26 ft) 0.8 2.4 3.7 5.7 7.1 8.2 0.7 2.5 3.7 5.8 7.3 8.3
Sail Boat 12 (39 ft) 0.8 3.0 4.9 8.3 11.3 13.5 0.7 3.0 4.9 8.6 11.4 13.5
Sail Boat 15 (49 ft) 0.8 3.1 5.2 9.5 12.7 15.3 0.7 3.1 5.3 9.5 12.8 15.4
Sail Boat 21 (69 ft) 0.8 3.2 5.5 10.4 14.1 17.3 0.8 3.2 5.6 10.4 14.2 17.3
Sail Boat 25 (83 ft) 0.8 3.3 5.7 11.0 15.2 18.7 0.8 3.3 5.7 11.0 15.3 18.8

Ship 27-46 (90-150 ft) 0.8 3.4 6.0 12.2 17.4 21.9 0.8 3.4 6.0 12.2 17.4 21.9
Ship 46-91 (150-300ft) 0.8 3.4 6.3 13.6 20.4 26.6 0.8 3.4 6.3 13.6 20.4 26.6
Ship > 91 (>300 ft) 0.8 3.5 6.4 14.3 22.1 29.8 0.8 3.5 6.4 14.3 22.2 29.8

Note:
1. For search altitudes of 500 feet only, the sweep width values for a
person in water may be multiplied by 4, if it is known that the person is
wearing a flotation device.
2. A sailboat is only a sailboat if the sails are up. If the sails are down,
the craft should be classed as a powerboat.
 Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-6 (2) Sweep Widths for Helicopters (NM) – Maritime 1500 ft and 2000 ft
Altitude 1500 ft Altitude 2000 ft

Search Object [metres Visibility [km] Visibility [km]

(feet)]
2 5 10 20 30 >40 2 5 10 20 30 >40

Person in Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1

Raft 1 person 0.3 0.9 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.8 0.2 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.8
Raft 4 person 0.4 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.7 2.9 0.3 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.7 3.0
Raft 6 person 0.4 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.3 3.6 0.3 1.4 2.0 2.8 3.3 3.6
Raft 8 person 0.4 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.5 3.9 0.3 1.5 2.1 3.0 3.6 3.9
Raft 10 person 0.4 1.6 2.2 3.2 3.8 4.2 0.3 1.6 2.3 3.3 3.9 4.2
Raft 15 person 0.5 1.7 2.4 3.5 4.2 4.6 0.3 1.7 2.5 3.6 4.3 4.7
Raft 20 person 0.5 1.9 2.7 4.0 4.8 5.3 0.4 1.8 2.7 4.0 4.9 5.4
Raft 25 person 0.5 2.0 2.9 4.3 5.2 5.6 0.4 1.9 2.9 4.3 5.3 5.9

Power Boat <5 (15 ft) 0.4 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.5 2.6 0.3 1.3 1.7 2.3 2.6 2.7
Power Boat 6 (20 ft) 0.6 2.1 3.0 4.5 5.4 6.1 0.4 2.1 3.0 4.5 5.5 6.1
Power Boat 10 (33 ft) 0.6 2.6 4.0 6.3 7.9 9.2 0.5 2.6 4.0 6.4 8.0 9.3
Power Boat 16 (53 ft) 0.7 3.1 5.2 9.3 12.4 14.8 0.5 3.0 5.2 9.3 12.4 14.9
Power Boat 24 (78 ft) 0.7 3.2 5.7 10.9 15.1 18.5 0.5 3.2 5.7 10.9 15.1 18.5

Sail Boat 5 (15 ft) 0.6 2.0 2.8 4.1 4.9 5.5 0.4 1.9 2.8 4.2 5.0 5.6
Sail Boat 8 (26 ft) 0.6 2.5 3.8 5.9 7.4 8.4 0.5 2.5 3.8 6.0 7.5 8.6
Sail Boat 12 (39 ft) 0.6 3.0 4.9 8.7 11.4 13.6 0.5 3.0 4.9 8.7 11.4 13.6
Sail Boat 15 (49 ft) 0.7 3.1 5.3 9.6 12.8 15.5 0.5 3.1 5.3 9.6 12.9 15.5
Sail Boat 21 (69 ft) 0.7 3.2 5.6 10.4 14.3 17.4 0.5 3.2 5.6 10.5 14.3 17.4
Sail Boat 25 (83 ft) 0.7 3.3 5.7 11.1 15.3 18.8 0.5 3.2 5.7 11.1 15.4 18.9

Ship 27-46 (90-150 ft) 0.7 3.3 6.0 12.2 17.5 22.0 0.5 3.3 6.0 12.2 17.5 22.0
Ship 46-91 (150-300ft) 0.7 3.4 6.3 13.6 20.4 26.6 0.5 3.4 6.3 13.6 20.4 26.6
Ship > 91 (>300 ft) 0.7 3.4 6.4 14.3 22.2 29.8 0.6 3.4 6.4 14.3 22.2 29.8

Note. A sailboat is only a sailboat if the sails are up. If the sails are down,
the craft should be classed as a powerboat.

Table I-7. Weather correction factors for all types of search facilities
Search Object
Person in water, raft
Weather: winds km/h (kt) or seas m (ft) Other search objects
or boat < 10m (33ft)
Winds <28 km/h (<15 kt) or seas 0-1 m (0-3ft) 1.0 1.0
Winds 28-46 km/h (15-25 kt) or seas 1-1.5 m (3-5ft) 0.5 0.8
Winds >46 km/h (> 25 kt) or seas > 1.5 m (> 5ft) 0.25 0.5

Note: Table I-7 differs from IAMSAR for other search objects in winds above
15 kts. The correction factors are based a combination on the values
previously used by AusSAR and observations of the reported effect of
high winds on sweep width values in actual SAR incidents.
Appendix I – Tables and Graphs

Table I-8. Speed (velocity) correction factors for helicopter and fixed wing aircraft search
facilities
Fixed Wing Speed kts Helicopter speed kts
< or = < or =
Search Object 180 210 90 120 140
150 60
Person in Water 1.2 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.7
Raft – 1-4 Person 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.3 1.0 0.9 0.8
Raft 6-25 Person 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8
Power Boat -< 8m (< 25ft) 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8
Power Boat - 10m (33ft) 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
Power Boat - 16m (53ft) 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
Power Boat -24m (78ft) 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9
Sail Boat - < 8m (< 25ft) 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
Sail Boat - 12m (39ft) 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.9
Sail Boat - 25m (83ft) 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9
Ship –> 27m (> 90ft) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9

Sweep Width Tables for Visual Search Over Land

Table I-9. Sweep Widths for visual land search [nm]

Visibility [km]
Height
Search object 5 km 10 km 20 km 30 km 40 km
(ft)
Person 500 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
1000 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5
1500 - - - - -
2000 - - - - -
Vehicle 500 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
1000 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.5
1500 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.7
2000 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
Aircraft less than 5700 kg 500 1.0 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
1000 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.6
1500 1.0 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8
2000 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.0 2.0
Aircraft over 5700 kg 500 1.2 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2
1000 1.8 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.0
1500 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.2 3.2
2000 2.2 2.9 3.5 3.5 3.5

Table I-10. Correction factors – vegetation and high terrain

Search object 15-60% vegetation or hilly 60-85% vegetation or Over 85% vegetation
mountainous
Person 0.5 0.3 0.1
Vehicle 0.7 0.4 0.1
Aircraft less than 5700kg 0.7 0.4 0.1
Aircraft over 5700kg 0.8 0.4 0.1
Appendix J – Errors of Position

APPENDIX J - Probable Errors of Position

Probable Navigation Error of the Distressed Craft (x)
Initial Position Error (X) of the distressed craft and Search Craft Position Error (Y)
are the estimated errors of position based on navigational accuracy of the distressed
craft and of the search assets.
If the information on the means of navigation to be used by the distressed craft or by a
search facility is available, the navigational fix errors listed in Table J.1 may be used
for positions reported as navigational fixes.
Means of Navigation Fix error (NM)
GPS 0.1 NM
Radar 1 NM
Visual fix (3 lines) * 1 NM
Celestial fix (3 lines) * 2 NM
Marine Radio Beacon 4 NM (3 beacon fix)
LORAN C 1 NM
INS 0.5 NM per flight hour without update
VOR + or - 3 DEG arc and 3% of distance or 0.5 NM radius, whichever is greater
TACAN + or - 3 DEG arc and 3% of distance or 0.5 NM radius, whichever is greater
Table J-1 Navigational fix errors
* Should be evaluated upward according to circumstances.
Note : Variation from IAMSAR for Tables J.2 and J.3, the National SAR Manual uses the
values previously used by AusSAR because experience has shown it is more
practicable to base fix errors on the navigation equipment carried in a craft.
The above values for Fix errors in Table J.1 are appropriate for the actual position of a
distressed craft and/or search assets. An SMC should be aware that if the values in
Table J.1, particularly that for GPS, are used to calculate a Total Probable Error of
Position (E) for a Stage 3 search, particularly for a search over land or any search for
an aircraft, the search area produced, because of its dimensions, may not be practical
to use.
When designing a search area an SMC can always use his discretion, however to
obtain a practical search area it is recommended that the fix errors in Tables J.2 or J.3
be utilised.
When the means of navigation used by the distressed craft or by a search asset is
unknown or the SMC wishes to produce a practical search area for a Stage 3 search,
the following Fix errors may be applied:
Type of Craft Fix error
Ships, military submarines., 5 NM radius
Aircraft navigated by a self contained navigation system 5 NM radius
Aircraft (other) 10 NM radius
Small craft, Submersibles 15 NM radius
Table J-2 Type of Craft
When the initially reported position of the distressed craft is based on dead reckoning
(DR) or the search asset must use DR navigation, an additional error is assumed for
the distance travelled since the last fix. The position error is the sum of the fix error
plus the DR error (DRe) as shown in Table J-3.
Type of craft DR error (DRe)
Ship, Submarine (Military) The error of the last positive fix plus 5% of the distance from that fix
Aircraft The error of the last positive fix plus 10% of the distance from that fix
Small craft, Submersibles The error of the last positive fix plus 15% of the distance from that fix
Appendix J – Errors of Position

Table J-3 Dead reckoning (DR) errors

The figures and factors shown in Tables J.1 to J.3 are minimum values and may be
increased at the SMC’s discretion should information be received indicating that the
navigational accuracy of either the distressed or the search craft differs significantly
from the accepted standard.
As an example, the ’x’ factor for a missing two or more engined aircraft not using a
self contained navigation system which reported at position ’A’, but failed to report at
position ’B’ 200NM distant, would be, for ’A’ 10NM, and for ’B’, 10 + 20 = 30NM.
Should a pressurised aircraft suffer a major loss of cabin pressure when flying above
the oxygen height the pilot will put the aircraft into a steep diving turn to bring the
aircraft down to 10,000FT as quickly as possible. The possibility of this manoeuvre
being made and the consequent diversion from track should be considered when
constructing a probability area.
Probable Navigation Error of the Search Craft (y)
All search craft are expected to obtain frequent, and near continuous navigational
fixes while conducting their search; therefore, only fix error is considered for search
craft. Should it be necessary to navigate a search craft by DR in a search area, the
RCC should be notified so that both fix and DR error can be taken into account in
determining the ’y’ factor. The figures selected in respect of a search craft will
depend on the method of navigation to be used by the search craft. The figures in
Tables J.1 to J.3 shall be taken as minimum values and may be increased at the
discretion of the SMC
Appendix K – Worksheets

APPENDIX K - Worksheets
The following pages provide worksheets to assist in calculating various SAR related
problems.
Worksheet 1: Coastal Search Planning
Worksheet 2: Maritime Area
Worksheet 3: Land Area
Worksheet 4: Search Radius
Worksheet 5: Sector Search
Worksheet 6: Allocation
 Appendix K – Worksheets

Worksheet 1: Maritime Planning

INCIDENT

Search target (description):

LKP (lat/long):

@ Time (UTC):

Hours of drift (a):

SEA CURRENT
O
Sea / tidal current/knots: (T) knots

O
Sea Current vector/distance: (T) knots x (a)hrs = nm

SURFACE WIND and CALCULATION OF WIND CURRENT

O Wind Current Divergence = Reciprocal Surface Wind

Surface winds/knots (T) knots o o
- 30 for LKP greater than 10 South Latitude

O o O
Reciprocal of Surface Winds/Knots (b) (T) knots - 30 T = (T) knots

Wind current vector: (use reciprocal O

(a) hours x knots (Figure I-1) = (T) nm
bearing and divergence (Figure I-1)

TARGET LEEWAY
Leeway Angles (divergence) o o
Reciprocal Surface Wind (b) (T) ± (T)
(Table I.1 or I.2):
o o
Leeway vector: (LW) L W (L) - (T) L W (R) + (T)

Leeway speed: (knots) = (Multiplier x

Wind Speed) ± Modifier [ Multiplier x Wind Speed = ] ± Modifier=
(Table I.1 or I.2)

Leeway distance: (Leeway speed x (a) hrs = nm

DRIFT ERROR

Distance (L) nm Distance (R) nm

de (L):(12.5 to 33% of Distance L) nm de (R):(12.5 to 33% of Distance R) nm

Distance
nm De = [de (L) + de (R) + Distance L/R] / 2 De =
Left/Right =

FIX ERRORS

Distress craft error (x): (Table J.1, J.2 or J.3) nm

Search craft error (y): (Table J.1, J.2 or J.3) nm

TOTAL ERROR (E)

2 2 2
Total probable error (E): E= (De + x + y ) E=

SEARCH AREA

Safety factor (circle) (fs) 1.1 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.5

Search radius (E x fs) nm

Search radius rounded up to whole figure: nm

2
Search area: nm
 Appendix K – Worksheets

Incident Search and Rescue Compiled By ............................................

Reference

Date ........ / ........ / ........

Worksheet No. 2 (Maritime)

Search Platform …………………….. Search Platform TAS ………. Search Object .................................

MET Visibility ................. KM Wind ........... /.......... Kts Fatigue Factor: Yes or No
500 ft 1000 ft 1500 ft 2000 ft
Search Height (AGL)
Uncorrected Sweep Width (Wu)
-Tables I-3, I-4, I-5 (1), I-5 (2), I-6 (1), I- NM NM NM NM
6 (2)
Maritime: Weather Correction Factor
(Fw) - Table I-7
Speed Correction Factor (Fs)
a) Aircraft searching over water use Fs
from Table I-8
b) Searches by vessels enter 1.0
Fatigue Correction Factor (Ff) if crew
will be suffering significant fatigue enter
0.9, otherwise enter 1.0

Sweep Width Factor W = [Link]

Practical Track Spacing S (NM)

Coverage Factor C = W/S

Probability of Detection (POD)

Search Area A (SQ NM)

Search Hours (T) Required at 120 KTS

(V)
T = A/VS

Total Search Hours Available at 120 KTS (...........................) - (from Worksheet No. 6)

A. Whole Area Calculated at a Search Height of ................... FT (A = TVS C = W/S S = W/C)

A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
B. Modified Area at Calculated Track Spacing in Available Hours
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

C. Whole Area at Modified Track Spacing in Available Hours

A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

D. Compromise Area and Modified Practical Track Spacing in Available Hours

(i)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(ii)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(iii)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(iv)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

Mark selected variables with *

 Appendix K – Worksheets

Incident Compiled By ............................................

Reference Search and Rescue
Date ........ / ........ / ........
Worksheet No. 3 (Land)

Search Object ................................. Fatigue Factor: Yes or No

MET Visibility ................. KM Vegetation: 15-60 60-85 +85

Search Height (AGL) 500 ft 1000 ft 1500 ft 2000 ft

Uncorrected Sweep Width (Wu) - Table I-9 NM NM NM NM

Searches over land: use Terrain/Vegetation Correction

Factor (Fv) - Table I-10

Fatigue Correction Factor (Ff) if crew will be suffering

significant fatigue enter 0.9,
Otherwise enter 1.0

Sweep Width Factor W = [Link]

Practical Track Spacing S (NM)

Coverage Factor C = W/S

Probability of Detection (POD)

Search Area A (SQ NM)

Search Hours (T) Required at 120 KTS (V)

T = A/VS

Total Search Hours Available at 120 KTS (...........................) - (from Worksheet No. 6)

A. Whole Area Calculated at a Search Height of ................... FT (A = TVS C = W/S S = W/C)

A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

B. Modified Area at Calculated Track Spacing in Available Hours

A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

C. Whole Area at Modified Track Spacing in Available Hours

A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

D. Compromise Area and Modified Practical Track Spacing in Available Hours

(i)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(ii)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(iii)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH
(iv)
A SQ. NM S NM C P % FOR SEARCH

Mark selected variables with *

Appendix K – Worksheets

Incident Reference Search and Rescue

Compiled By ............................................

Worksheet No. 4 (Search Radius) Date ........ / ........ / ........

Reported Distress Position 1. Last Positive Fix ………..…………. Distress Craft

Search No. …………………………….
Callsign/Identity
Radius Computed ……………………..
………………………….. S 2. Last Reported Posn …………………
or For Search Commencing ..………….. UTC
………………………….. E 3. Missed position ………………………
Previous Search No. …………………
4. Next Posn or Dest ………………….. Radius Computed …………………….
Time …………………….. UTC
For Search Commenced ..…………. UTC

Position A B C D

Track distance since last Positive Fix (Tr)

…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

Distress Craft Position Error (Fix+10%Tr) (x)

…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

Search Craft Navigation Error (y)

…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

Probable Error of Position (e) …………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

2
x +y
2 …………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...
e=
…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...
Safety Factor for this search
(fs)
(1.1; 1.6; 2.0; 2.3; 2.5) …………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

Search Radius (R) = (e) x (fs) (R)

…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...

Rounded up Radius
…………………... …………………... …………………... …………………...
 Appendix K – Worksheets

Incident Search and Rescue Compiled By ............................................

Reference
Date ........ / ........ / ........
Worksheet No. 5 (Sector Search)
SECTOR SEARCH CALCULATIONS: SPLASH POINT
or DATUM .............................. S .............................. E

RADIUS ............... NM C = W/MTS HOURS AVAILABLE AT 150 KTS

FROM WORKSHEET No. 6 ..............HRS

SEARCH W MTS C HOURS REQ ANGULAR INITIAL SUBSEQUENT TRACK POD

HEIGHT(FT) AT 150 KTS DISPLACEMENT TRACK (IT) ADJUSTMENT
(AD) +/- (90 + AD/2)
500

1000

1500

2000

RADIUS ............... NM C = W/MTS HOURS AVAILABLE AT 150 KTS

FROM WORKSHEET No. 6 ..............HRS

SEARCH W MTS C HOURS REQ ANGULAR INITIAL SUBSEQUENT TRACK POD

HEIGHT(FT) AT 150 KTS DISPLACEMENT TRACK (IT) ADJUSTMENT
(AD) +/- (90 + AD/2)
500

1000

1500

2000

HOURS AVAILABLE AT 150 KTS

RADIUS ............... NM C = W/MTS FROM WORKSHEET No. 6 ..............HRS

SEARCH W MTS C HOURS REQ ANGULAR INITIAL SUBSEQUENT TRACK POD

HEIGHT(FT) AT 150 KTS DISPLACEMENT TRACK (IT) ADJUSTMENT
(AD) +/- (90 + AD/2)
500

1000

1500

2000
Appendix K – Worksheets

Incident Reference Search and Rescue AREA to be ALLOCATED Compiled By ............................................

Worksheet No. 6 (Allocation) __________________NM 2 Date ......…. / ….....…. / ...…....

Sunrise …………………..UTC Sunset …………………UTC FSL ………..UTC - LSL ………..UTC = TSL …..…Hrs………Mins
SCH TAS AREA ALLOCATED
ACFT Type Time AVBL DIST TRANS TI’s Actual ASH less
ETA ETD
Remarks Area
SCH HRS
Area
15% HRS (T) at A=TVS Dim’s Used ALLOC
ON SCH (ASH) 2
Callsign TKOFF Time TRANS TAS 120 KTS (V) Area (NM )
ENDCE S Calc Dim’s NR of Legs
E/

E/

E/

E/

E/

E/

E/
Appendix L – Aircraft Accident Site Precautions

Appendix L – Aircraft Accident Site Precautions

Safety precautions and procedures at aircraft accidents
Always remember that ADF aircraft may be carrying ammunition, bombs, rockets,
etc. Ejector seats are powered by explosives. Contact ADF authorities as soon as
possible.
The following precautions should be observed at all aircraft accident sites:
a. Attendance at crash sites should be limited to essential personnel.
b. Personnel should wear Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) - see
paragraph 2.
c. All work at the crash site should be conducted upwind of the wreckage
wherever possible.
d. The location of helicopter landing zones in close proximity to crash sites
should be avoided to prevent the possible spread of contamination.
e. Eating, drinking, and smoking in or around the crash site should be prohibited.
f. Aircraft technical personnel familiar with the aircraft type should be utilised in
the location, identification, and salvage of hazardous materials and remnants.
g. Environmental health personnel should also be notified when suspected
dangerous substances are present at the accident site.
h. SAR personnel who were working at the accident site should shower as soon
as possible after leaving the area.
i. If time permits, advice to civilians in fallout areas that are not otherwise
threatened should be as follows:
i. Remain indoors,
ii. Shut external doors and windows,
iii. Turn off forced air intakes, and
iv. Await further notification.
Personnel working within 10 metres of any ADF crash site should wear the following
protective equipment:
a. Respiratory protection; wear National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health approved full-face or half-mask respirators with cartridges for organic
vapours (for protection from jet fuel) and for dust, mist, and fumes (for
airborne particulate fibres and other dust). All personnel must be fit, tested,
and trained in the use of respirators. The use of full-face respirators will
eliminate the need for goggles or safety glasses.
b. Eye protection such as goggles or safety glasses with side shields shall be
worn when a half-face respirator is used.
c. Skin protection;
i. Coverall - Tyvek, coated with 1.25mm polyethylene with hood. The
coveralls should have a zipper front, elastic sleeves, legs, and
drawstring hood.
ii. Gloves - Puncture resistant leather gloves shall be worn. The
environmental engineers will determine any additional requirements.
iii. Boots - Steel toed shoes or boots should be worn.
iv. All equipment should be thoroughly washed before removal.
Appendix M – Search and Rescue Units (SRUs)

APPENDIX M - Tier Capabilities and Locations of AMSA

Supported SRUs
FIXED-WING ROTARY-WING
TIER 1 Assigned aircraft and readily available crew for No operators contracted.
supply dropping, homing to beacons and visual
search at coastal regions. Two operators will be
FLIR equipped1

TIER 2 Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for supply Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for rescue,
dropping, homing to beacons and visual search at supply dropping, homing to beacons and visual search
coastal regions. at coastal regions. Some operators are FLIR equipped.

TIER 3 Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for helibox No operators contracted.
dropping, homing to beacons and visual search at
inland regions.

TIER 4 Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for homing Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for homing to
to beacons and visual search. beacons, visual search and rescue over land or close
inshore.
TIER 6 Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for visual Aircraft and crew on an opportunity basis for visual
search. search.
Table M-1

Figure M-1
Legend: F = Fixed Wing R = Rotary Wing Number relates to Unit Tier 1,2,3 or 4

1. A SAR Authority should coordinate the use of Tier 1 assets from Moorabbin, Wollongong
and Cairns through RCC Australia as these aircraft are on contract to the Commonwealth to be
on standby for SAR at all times.
Appendix N – RAAF SAR Equipment

Appendix N: RAAF SAR Equipment and Aircraft Capabilities

Minimum requirements for holdings of Search and Rescue equipment at RAAF bases.
BASE ASRK STORPEDO RAFTS SDB HELI-BOXES SALCOM RADIOS
See Note See note 2 See note See See note 5
1 3 note 4
Amberley 4 12 0 3 Sets 6 0
Darwin 0 0 0 0 0 0
(See note 6)
East Sale 0 0 2 1 Set 0 0
Edinburgh 8 6 0 4 Sets 6 16
Pearce 3 6 2 3 Sets 6 2
Richmond 8 6 0 6 Sets 6 16
Tindal 0 0 2 1 Set 0 0
Townsville 2 6 0 3 Sets 6 2
Williamtown 0 0 2 1 Set 0 0

Notes:
1 Except for the Air Sea Rescue Kits (ASRK) kept at Edinburgh, all are to be rigged for C130
Drop.
2. At each base, two Storpedoes are to be rigged for blood plasma, the rest for supply dropping.
(A Storpedo is a big droppable Cardboard container with one end crushable to absorb the
impact of landing)
3. The droppable rafts are to be 10 man rafts rigged for air dropping from Helicopters, as backup
for occasions where the helicopters cannot winch all survivors in one sortie.
4 Each set of SAR Datum Buoys consists of 4 buoys, which transmit on different frequency
pairs.
5. In addition to the radios specified, each ASRK is to contain two radios per raft.
6. Darwin SAR Store has been disestablished with the redeployment of the Caribou detachment.
Aircraft drop capabilities:
ACFT TYPE BASE ASRK (5) ASRK (4) STORPEDOS HELIBOXES SDB
C130H Richmond YES YES YES YES
C130J Richmond YES YES YES YES
DHC4 Amberley YES YES YES YES
Townsville
Pearce
P3C Edinburgh YES YES YES YES

Notes:
1 C1320H AND C130J deliver a standard five unit ASRK, consisting of two x 10 man rafts in
separate valises joined by waxed rope to three marine supply containers. The 10man RFD
rafts will be replaced by 8man Switlik rafts.
2. Each ASRK contains three marine supply containers, which are packed with stores to suit
prevailing requirements. The kit is delivered 50m upwind of the target and covers a distance
of 500m with a raft at each end and equidistant supply containers between.
3. The P3C uses a similar ASRK, but with four units. The ASRK, comprising two 8man Switlik
rafts, separated by two marine supply containers and 500m of rope, are positioned 50m
upwind of the target by bomb bay delivery. P3Cs also deliver storpedoes, heliboxes, SAR
datum buoys and sonobuoys. As a last resort, they can deliver the aircraft raft via the main
door. P3s are not cleared for single unit deliveries.
Appendix O – RAN Response

APPENDIX O: Royal Australian Navy response

HMA SHIP RESPONSIBILITY ON RECEIVING AN ALERTING OR DISTRESS MESSAGE
Subject to operational availability, HMA ships at sea receiving an alerting message or distress message are to be
guided by the following:
a. ALERTING MESSAGE indicates a vessel may subsequently be in distress.

Steaming Time Action

Less than 6 hours Acknowledge the call
Prepare to proceed with dispatch to
standby to give assistance.
Advise details of incident,
intentions, and fuel state to:
HQAST, OPCON AUTHORITY,
MHQAUST, HQAC, HQADF OPS,
NACOC, RCC AUSTRALIA
Greater than 6 hours Acknowledge the call.
Advise details of incident, position
and intended movement (PM) and
fuel state to:
OPCON AUTHORITY
HQAST, MHQAUST, HQADF OPS,
NACOC, RCC AUSTRALIA
Await further instructions

b. DISTRESS MESSAGE: SOS or MAYDAY - Vessels in distress.

Steaming Time Action
Less than 12 hours Acknowledge the call
Proceed with dispatch to give
assistance.
Advise details of incident and
intentions to:
OPCON AUTHORITY
HQAST, MHQAUST, HQADF OPS,
NACOC, RCC AUSTRALIA, HQAC
Greater than 12 hours Acknowledge the call.
Advise details of incident and
position and intended movement
and fuel state to:
OPCON AUTHORITY
HQAST, MHQAUST, HQADF OPS,
NACOC, RCC AUSTRALIA
Await further instructions
c. If the position of the vessel is not received.
Acknowledge the call.
Advise details of incident, PM and fuel state to: OPCON AUTHORITYHQAST, MHQ AUST,
HQADF OPS, NACOC, RCC AUSTRALIA
Attempt to get a position from vessel.
d. If the position is subsequently defined, act in accordance with instructions for ALERT or
DISTRESS messages.
Appendix O – RAN Response

e. If the position cannot be defined, await further instructions.

Note: All signals are to be IMMEDIATE UNCLASSIFIED and all addressees to be ACTION.

RAN Assistance to Local Authorities

Naval authorities and establishments are authorised to provide SAR assistance to appropriate local authorities
within the capacity of their resources, keeping MHQ AUST and HQAST informed.