Chapter Overview

The Virtual and the Real You

You often live it two worlds at once. You live in real world where you have friends that you
see daily. Many of you also live in the virtual world of computers and smartphones. While
very different, both of these worlds are connected and occupied by the same person—you!
Psychology explores all things that are you and all the things that you do in all of your
worlds.

1. Defining Psychology and Exploring Its Roots

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. As a

science, psychology uses scientific methods to observe, describe, and predict behavior.
Behavior is everything that a person does that can be directly observed. Mental
processes are the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences
privately but that cannot be observed directly.

A. The Psychological Frame of Mind

At the core of the scientific approach that psychologists use are four attitudes: critical
thinking, curiosity, skepticism, and objectivity.

Scientists, including psychologists, engage in critical thinking. Critical thinking is the

process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence.
Scientists are critical thinkers. They question and test what others consider factual. They
accept nothing at face value. Scientists are curious. A scientist wants to know why things
in the world are the way they are and how they became that way. Science is concerned
with asking questions. Scientists are skeptical. They ask questions about things that other
people take for granted. Psychological research often turns up the unexpected in human
behavior. Such results are called counterintuitive because they contradict our intuitive
impressions of how the world works. Scientists apply objectivity in conducting research.
They try to see things as they really are, not just as the observer would like them to be.
To gather objective evidence, they rely on empirical methods. The empirical method is
gaining knowledge through observation, collecting evidence, and logical reasoning.

B. Psychology as the Science of All Human Behavior

The scope of psychology as a whole is much more than that of the clinical psychologists
who treat and study psychological disorders. Psychology seeks to understand the truths of
human life in all its dimensions, including people’s best and worst experiences. The fact
is that to be a truly general science of human behavior, psychology must address all sides
of human experience.

C. Psychology in Historical Perspective

For thousands of years, people have been trying to answer the basic questions of human
behavior, such as:
(a) How do we learn?
(b) What is memory?
(c) Why does one person grow and flourish while another struggles?
Early philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, debated the nature of thought
and behavior, including the possible link between the mind and the body. Psychology has
its roots not only in philosophy but also in biology and physiology. Wilhelm Wundt, a
German philosopher-physician, created the academic discipline of psychology.

Structuralism was first studied by Wundt and his collaborators. They focused on the
basic elements or structures of mental processes. Introspection was the method used to
study these mental structures. Individuals were asked to think about what was occurring
mentally as events were taking place.

Functionalism, William James’ approach to mental processes, was concerned with the
functions and purposes of the mind in individuals’ adaptation to the environment. While
Structuralists were looking inside the mind, the Functionalists were focusing on how
humans interacted with the outside world. Functionalism fit well with another intellectual
development, Charles Darwin’s principle of natural selection, an evolutionary process in
which organisms that are best adapted to their environment will survive and, importantly,
produce offspring.

2. Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

A. The Biological Approach

The biological approach emphasizes the study of the body, especially the brain and the
nervous system. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure, function, development,
genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system. It emphasizes that the brain and nervous
system are central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.

B. The Behavioral Approach

The behavioral approach emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral

responses and their environmental determinants. John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner were the
first behaviorists. Behaviorism dominated psychological research during the first half of the
twentieth century.

C. The Psychodynamic Approach

The psychodynamic approach emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between

biological instincts and society’s demands, and early family experiences. Sigmund Freud, the
founder of the psychodynamic approach, theorized that early interactions with parents shape
an individual’s personality. His theory was also the basis for the therapeutic technique that he
called psychoanalysis, which involves an analyst unlocking a person’s unconscious conflicts
by talking with the individual about his or her childhood memories, dreams, thoughts, and
feelings.

D. The Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach emphasizes a person’s positive qualities, capacity for positive
growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny. Humanistic psychologists stress that people
have the ability to control their lives and are not simply controlled by the environment.

E. The Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach emphasizes the mental processes involved directing attention,
perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem solving.

F. The Evolutionary Approach

The evolutionary approach uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and
the concept of the survival of the fittest as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.

G. The Sociocultural Approach

The sociocultural approach emphasizes the ways in which the social and cultural
environments influence behavior.

H. Summing Up the Seven Contemporary Approaches

These seven approaches to studying psychology provide different views of behavior, and
therefore each may contribute uniquely valuable insights. These broad approaches are
reflected in the variety of specialties within which psychologists work (e.g., neuroscience,
learning, and development).

3. Psychology’s Scientific Method

The scientific method may be summarized in five steps.

Observing Some Phenomenon

The first step in conducting scientific research is observing some phenomenon. The
phenomena that scientists study are called variables. A variable is anything that can
change. A theory is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain
observations. A scientific theory must be falsifiable, which means a scientist who
believes a theory is true must be able to generate ideas about research that would prove
the theory wrong and test those ideas.

Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions

The second step in conducting scientific research is stating a hypothesis, a testable
prediction that derives logically from a theory.
Testing Through Empirical Research
The third step in conducting scientific research is to test the hypothesis by collecting
and analyzing data (i.e., doing empirical research). An operational definition
provides an objective definition of how a variable is going to be measured and
observed in a particular study. One of the key aspects of testing a hypothesis is data
analysis, which applies mathematical procedures to understand what the data means.
Data is the information collected in a study.

Drawing Conclusions
Based on the results of the data analysis, researchers can draw conclusions from their
research. A research finding is considered reliable when a study has been replicated again
and again and yields similar findings.

Evaluating Conclusions
Evaluation never really ends. Conclusions become part of the research community,
which continues to question them. In sum, steps 3, 4, and 5 of the scientific method
are part of an ongoing process.

4. Types of Psychological Research

A. Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is about describing some phenomenon. Research allows the researcher
to develop a sense for something but does not answer questions of causality. Descriptive
research methods include observation, surveys and interviews, and case studies.

Observation
For observations to be effective, they must be systematic. Researchers must know
what they are looking for, who they are observing, where and when observations will
take place, and how observations will be made.

Surveys and Interviews

One method to gain information about people is to interview them directly. When
information needs to be taken from a large group of people, a survey or questionnaire
can be used. A survey consists of questions about a person’s self-reported attitudes or
beliefs about a topic. Surveys and interviews can be problematic, because sometimes
participants will answer the questions in a way they believe is socially acceptable
instead of how they really feel. Survey construction can also be problematic due to
unclear language.

Case Studies
A case study (also known as a case history) is conducted when a researcher takes an
in-depth look at a single individual. A case study is usually conducted by a clinical
psychologist when the unique aspects of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated in
other individuals.
The Value of Descriptive Research
Descriptive research allows researchers to get a sense of something but cannot answer
questions about how and why things are the way they are. Descriptive findings
provide a foundation for researchers to further examine a topic or subject in different
cultural settings.

B. Correlational Research

Correlational research is conducted when studies are concerned with identifying the
relationships between two or more variables so it can be understood how the variables
change together. In a correlational study the variables are measured by the researcher to see
how they relate. The strength of the relationship between two variables is expressed as a
correlational coefficient, represented as a lowercase r.

The numeric value of a correlation coefficient falls between –1.00 and +1.00, where the
number determines the strength of the relationship between the variables and the – or + sign
determines the direction of the relationship between the variables. A positive correlation
occurs when the variables move in the same direction, so that if one variable increases the
other variable also increases, and if one variable decreases the other variable decreases as
well. A negative correlation occurs when the variables move in opposite directions, so that if
one variable increases the other variable decreases, and vice versa.

Correlation Is Not Causation

Correlation does not equal causation. A correlation between two variables states only
that there is a relationship between the two variables, not that one of the variables
causes the other one. The third variable problem occurs when an extraneous
variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two
variables. Third variables are also called confounds. Even with the risk of a third
variable, correlational studies are important because they allow us to research
variables that cannot be manipulated. Correlational studies can also be conducted on
variables that would be considered unethical to carry out in an experiment.
Correlational studies can be used when researchers are interested in everyday
experience. This practice is called experience sampling method (ESM). It can consist
of writing in a diary or recording a measurement of some kind upon being reminded
to do so by an electronic organizer.

Longitudinal Designs
Another way of systematic observation is called a longitudinal design in which the
measures of the variables are obtained in multiple waves over time. Longitudinal
designs provide ways by which correlational researchers may attempt to demonstrate
causal relations among variables. Keep in mind, however, that even in longitudinal
studies, causal relationships may not be completely clear.

C. Experimental Research
To determine a causal relationship, experimental methods must be used. In an experiment
the researcher manipulates one of the variables to see if it influences the behavior in question.
If the behavior changes when one of the variables is manipulated, then the manipulated
variable is considered to have caused the behavior to change. Researchers use random
assignment by dividing a study’s participants randomly into two different groups by chance.
Of course, random assignment does not always work. To improve the effectiveness of
random assignment the researcher should start with a large pool of subjects.

Independent and Dependent Variables

Experiments have two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent
variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment. The dependent variable is the
result of manipulating the independent variable. Researchers measure changes in the
dependent variable. A confederate is a person given a role in an experiment in order to
manipulate the social context.

Experimental and Control Groups

The experimental group is the group that receives the independent variable. The
control group is exactly like the experimental group, except that there is no
manipulation of the variable. The control group is used as a comparison group.
Within-participant design is one way to ensure that a control group and an
experimental group are as similar as possible. The participants serve as their own
control group. Another approach to experimental research is to use a quasi-
experimental design. The key difference is that a quasi-experimental design does not
include random assignment of participants to condition, because such an assignment
is either impossible or unethical.

Some Cautions About Experimental Research

Validity, experimenter bias, participant bias, and the placebo effect are issues to be
considered in experimental research.

Validity refers to the soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an
experiment. External validity refers to whether the experimental design is representative of
real-world issues. Internal validity refers to whether changes in the dependent variable are
actually due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Experimenter Bias
Experimenter bias occurs when the experimenter’s expectations influence the results
of the study. Demand characteristics are any aspects of a study that communicate to
the subject how the researcher wants them to behave.

Research Participant Bias and the Placebo Effect

Research participant bias occurs when the participant’s behavior during an
experiment is influenced by how the participant believes he or she is supposed to be
behaving. A placebo effect occurs when the participant’s expectations produce an
experimental outcome, even though the participant did not receive any manipulation.
A placebo is an innocuous, inert substance that has no effect on the behavior of the
participants. However, participants are kept unaware of this, so that they believe they
actually received the manipulation. One method to control for both experimenter and
participant bias is to conduct a double blind experiment. In this type of experiment,
neither the experimenter nor the participant is aware of which participants are in the
experimental group and which are in the control group.

D. Applications of the Three Types of Research

All three types of research—descriptive, correlational, and experimental—can be used to

examine the same topic.

5. Research Samples and Settings

A. The Research Sample

The researcher wants to be able to draw conclusions from the results that will apply to
a larger group of people or animals. This larger group is known as the population.
The group that the study uses is called the sample. The sample is a subset of the
population. As a way to more closely resemble the population, a researcher uses a
random sample. Choosing a random sample means that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected. In selecting a sample, researchers
need to be aware of gender bias and the need to include more people from diverse
ethnic groups.

B. The Research Setting

The setting where the research takes place does not determine what type of research it is.
Common settings include the laboratory and natural settings. Laboratory research takes place
in a controlled environment from which the complex factors of the real world are removed.
Although laboratory research provides a great deal of control, doing research in the
laboratory has drawbacks. First, the participants know that they are being studied. Second,
the laboratory setting is not the real world and therefore can cause the participants to behave
unnaturally. Third, the participants who go to a university setting to take part in laboratory
research may not be representative of the general population. Fourth, some aspects of the
mind and behavior are difficult to examine in a laboratory. When research is conducted in a
natural setting, it is naturalistic observation. In such research, people’s behaviors are being
observed in real-world situations.

6. Conducting Ethical Research

A. Ethics Guidelines

Subjects in a research study should be no worse off finishing the study than they were prior
to the study. Colleges and universities have what are termed institutional review boards
(IRB) that evaluate the ethical nature of research studies before approving them. The
American Psychological Association (APA) has developed guidelines for researchers to
follow when conducting research involving human participants. Researchers must obtain the
informed consent of the participants prior to the start of the experiment. That is, the
participants must know in advance what will be involved in the experiment and what, if any,
risks there might be. Researchers are responsible for the maintaining the confidentiality of all
the data collected from the participants in the experiment. After an experiment has been
conducted, the researcher is responsible for debriefing the participants. At this time the
participants are informed of the experiment’s purpose and the methods that were used in the
experiment. Deception is allowed in an experiment if telling the participants in advance about
the expected outcome of the study could potentially alter the participants’ behavior and
therefore invalidate the results of the experiment.

B. The Ethics of Research with Animals

Experiments using animals as research subjects have provided a better understanding

of and solutions for many human problems. Researchers are guided by a set of
standards for housing, feeding, and maintaining the psychological and physiological
well-being of animal subjects.

C. The Place of Values in Psychological Research

The issue of values in psychological research (the standards for judging what is worthwhile
and desirable) is two-sided. On the one side, psychologists believe that psychology should be
value-free and morally neutral. On the other side, people believe that because psychologists
are humans, they cannot be value-free.

7. Learning About Psychology Means Learning About You

A. Encountering Psychology in Everyday Life

Not all psychological information presented comes from professionals with excellent
credentials and reputations at colleges or universities or in applied mental health settings.
Media often focuses on sensationalistic and dramatic psychological findings to capture
public attention. They tend to go beyond what actual research articles and clinical
findings really say.

There are five guidelines for consuming psychological information.

Avoid Overgeneralizing Based on Little Information

Media reports of psychological information often leave out details about the nature of the
sample used in a given study, thus such information must be taken with a grain of salt.

Distinguish Between Group Results and Individual Needs

Before applying the results of a particular psychological research to one’s personal life, it
is important to keep in mind that statistics about a group do not necessarily represent each
individual in the group equally well.
Look for Answers Beyond a Single Study
In most psychological domains that prompt many investigations, conflicting results are
common. Answers to questions in research usually emerge after many scientists have
conducted similar investigations that yield similar conclusions.

Avoid Attributing Causes Where None Have Been Found

Drawing causal conclusions from correlational studies is one of the most common
mistakes the media makes. When a true experiment has not been conducted—that is,
when participants have not been randomly assigned to treatments or experiences—two
variables might have only a non-causal relationship to each other.

Consider the Source of Psychological Information

Studies conducted by psychologists are not automatically accepted by the rest of the
research community. They must go through a process called peer review, which means
that a research that is published in scholarly journals has survived the scrutiny of experts
in a particular area. Whatever the source—serious publication, tabloid, blog, online news
outlet, or even academic journal—one is responsible for reading the details behind the
reported findings and for analyzing the study’s credibility.

KEY TERMS

Behavior: Everything we do that can be directly observed.

Behavioral approach: An approach to psychology emphasizing the scientific study of
observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.
Biological approach: An approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain
and nervous system.
Case study or case history: An in-depth look at a single individual.
Control group: The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental
group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a
manipulated factor, the independent variable.
Correlational research: Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose
purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.
Critical thinking: The process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and
evaluating the evidence.
Demand characteristics: Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participant how
the experimenter wants them to behave.
Empirical method: Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of
data, and logical reasoning.
Evolutionary approach: An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as
adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human
behavior.
Experiment: A carefully regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates one or
more variables that are believed to influence some other variable.
Experimental group: The participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other
treatment under study—that is, those who are exposed to the change that the independent
variable represents.
Experimenter bias: The influence of the experimenter's expectations on the outcome of
research.
External validity: The degree to which an experimental design actually reflects the real-
world issues it is suppose to address.
Functionalism: James’ approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and
purpose of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment.
Humanistic approach: An approach to psychology emphasizing a person’s positive
qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction that derives logically from a theory.
Internal validity: The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the
manipulation of the independent variable.
Longitudinal design: A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational
researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves
over time.
Mental processes: The thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but
that cannot be observed directly.
Natural selection: Darwin’s principle of an evolutionary process in which organisms that are
best adapted to their environment will survive and produce offspring.
Naturalistic observation: The observation of behavior in a real-world setting.
Neuroscience: The scientific study of the structure, function, development, genetics, and
biochemistry of the nervous system, emphasizing that the brain and nervous system are
central to understanding behavior, thought, and emotion.
Operational definition: A definition that provides an objective description of how a variable
is going to be measured and observed in a particular study.
Population: The entire group about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions.
Psychodynamic approach: An approach to psychology emphasizing unconscious thoughts,
the conflict between biological drives (such as the drive for sex) and society’s demands, and
early childhood family experiences.
Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Random assignment: Researchers’ assignment of participants to groups by chance, to
reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences
between groups.
Random sample: A sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of
being selected.
Research participant bias: In an experiment, the influence of participants’ expectations,
and of their thoughts on how they should behave, on their behavior.
Sample: The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study.
Science: The use of systematic methods to observe the natural world, including human
behavior and to draw conclusions.
Sociocultural approach: An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social
and cultural environments influence behavior.
Structuralism: Wundt’s approach to discovering the basic elements or structures, of mental
processes.
Theory: A broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations and
to make predictions about future observations.
Third variable problem: The circumstance where a variable that has not been measured
accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as
confounds.
Validity: The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In
the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
Variable: Anything that can change.