Automotive
Instrumentation
and
Communication
Module-3 Content
Sl No Topic Date Date
planned Executed
1 Automotive Instrumentation and Communication:
Sampling
2 Measurement & Signal Conversion of various parameters
(Speed)
3 Measurement & Signal Conversion of various parameters
(fuel)
4 Measurement & Signal Conversion of various parameters
(pressure)
5 Serial Data,
6 Communication Systems
7 Protection,
8 Body and Chassis in Electrical Systems
9 Remote Keyless Entry
10 GPS
Sampling
• In contrast to an analog electronic system that operates in continuous time,
a digital system operates in discrete instants of time. This process of
representing a continuous-time quantity at specific discrete times is called
sampling and is illustrated .
• Figure illustrates a continuously varying quantity that is denoted x (which
might, for example, be intake manifold pressure). This continuous-time
quantity is sampled electronically at times that are multiples of a basic
sample period. Figure depicts the sample points of the continuous pressure
as asterisks.
• Each sample is the value of the continuous variable at a specific (discrete)
time. A sequence of samples is presented to the signal processor at the
corresponding sample times. The sequence of samples is shown in Figure
2.4b. In a digital electronic system, the signal processing is performed by
some form of digital computer.
• This computer requires time to perform its computations. The time between
samples provides an interval in which the necessary computations are
performed.
Sampling of a Continuous Variable
• The time between any successive samples is normally a constant
known as sample time. Sample time is a critically important
parameter for any digital system and is chosen with great care by the
system designer.
• It must be sufficiently long to enable the computer to perform its
computations on any given sample before the next sample is taken,
or the computer cannot keep up with the data stream in real time.
• On the other hand, if the sample time is too long, then the input
might change too much for the sampled data to adequately represent
the continuous quantity being sampled.
• The time required for computation on each sample is influenced in
part by the processor speed and by the efficiency of the program
being used to perform the computations.
• One more step, called quantization, is required to convert the
sampled analog data into data that can be read by the computer.
FUEL QUANTITY MEASUREMENT
During a measurement of fuel quantity, the MUX
switch functionally connects the computer input to
the fuel quantity sensor, as shown in Figure 9.9.
This sensor output is converted to digital format and
then sent to the computer for signal processing.
(Note: In some automotive systems the analog
sensor output is sent to the instrumentation
subsystem, where the A/D conversion takes place.)
Figure 9.9
Fuel Quantity
Measurement
• Several fuel quantity sensor configurations are available. Figure 9.10 illustrates the
type of sensor to be described, which is a potentiometer connected via mechanical
linkage to a float.
• Normally, the sensor is mounted so that the float remains laterally near the center of
the tank for all fuel levels. A constant current passes through the sensor
potentiometer, since it is connected directly across the regulated voltage source.
• The potentiometer is used as a voltage divider so that the voltage at the wiper arm is
related to the float position, which is determined by fuel level.
• The sensor output voltage is not directly proportional to fuel quantity in gallons
because of the complex shape of the fuel tank. The computer memory contains the
functional relationship between sensor voltage (in binary number equivalent) and
fuel quantity for the particular fuel tank used on the vehicle.
• The computer reads the binary number from the A/D converter that corresponds to
sensor voltage and uses it to address a particular memory location. Another binary
number corresponding to the actual fuel quantity in gallons for that sensor voltage
is stored in that memory location.
• The computer then uses the number from memory to generate the appropriate
display signal—either analog or digital, depending on display type—and sends that
signal via DEMUX to the display.
Computer-based signal processing can also compensate for fuel slosh. A the car
moves over the road, the fuel sloshes about and the float moves up an down
around the average position that corresponds to the correct level for stationary
vehicle. The computer compensates for slosh by computing a running average. It
does this by storing several samples over a few seconds and computing the
arithmetic average of the sensor output. The oldest samples are continually
discarded as new samples are obtained.
Figure 9.10
Fuel Quantity Sensor
Oil Pressure Measurement
Engine oil pressure measurement is similar to coolant temperature
measurement in that it uses a warning message display rather than an
indicated numerical value.
Whenever the oil pressure is outside allowable limits, a warning
message is displayed to the driver. In the case of oil pressure, it is
important for the driver to know whenever the oil pressure falls below
a lower limit.
It is also possible for the oil pressure to go above an allowable upper
limit; however, many manufacturers do not include a high oil pressure
warning in the instrumentation.
• The simplest oil pressure warning system involves a spring-
loaded switch connected to a diaphragm.
• The switch assembly is mounted in one of the oil passageways
such that the diaphragm is exposed directly to the oil pressure.
The force developed on the diaphragm by the oil pressure is
sufficient to overcome the spring and to hold the switch open
as long as the oil pressure exceeds the lower limit.
• Whenever the oil pressure falls below this limit the spring
force is sufficient to close the switch. Switch closure is used to
switch on the low oil pressure warning message lamp.
• An oil pressure instrument that operates with a load- or speed-dependent
threshold requires an oil pressure sensor rather than a switch. Such an oil
pressure warning system is illustrated in Figure 9.13. This system uses a
variable-resistance oil pressure sensor such as seen in Figure 9.14. A
voltage is developed across a series of fixed resistance that is proportional
to oil pressure.
Figure 9.13
Oil Pressure
Measurement
Figure 9.14
Oil Pressure Sensor
During the measurement time slot, the oil pressure sensor voltage is sampled through the MUX
switch and converted to a binary number in the A/D converter. The computer reads this binary
number and compares it with the binary number in memory for the allowed oil pressure limits.
The oil pressure limit is determined from load or crankshaft speed measurements that are already
available in the engine control system. These measurements serve as the address for a ROM
lookup table to find the oil pressure limit. If the oil pressure is below the allowed lower limit or
above the allowed upper limit, an output signal is generated that activates the oil pressure
warning light through the DEMUX.
VEHICLE SPEED MEASUREMENT
A block diagram of the instrumentation for vehicle speed
measurement that uses this digital speed sensor is shown in Figure
9.15.
The computer reads the number P in the binary counter, then resets
the counter to zero to prepare it for the next count. After performing
computations and filtering, the computer generates a signal for the
display to indicate the vehicle speed.
A digital display can be directly driven by the computer. Either mph or
kph may be selected. If an analog display is used, a D/A converter
must drive the display. Both mph and kph usually are calibrated on an
analog scale.
Figure 9.15
Vehicle Speed
Measurement
Communication Systems
• Each microprocessor-based electronic subsystem has the
capability of performing some limited self-diagnosis. A
subsystem can, for example, detect a loss of signal from
a sensor or detect an open circuit in an actuator circuit as
well as other failures. As long as the subsystem
computer is still functioning it can store fault codes for
detected failures. Such diagnosis within a given
subsystem is known as on-board diagnosis.
• However, a higher level of diagnosis than the on-board
diagnosis is typically done with an external computer-
based system that is available in a service shop. Data
stored in memory in an on-board subsystem is useful for
completing diagnosis of any problem with the associated
subsystem. Such diagnosis is known as off-board
diagnosis and is usually conducted with a special-
purpose computer.
• Intermodule communications within an automobile itself and between each on-board
subsystem and an off-board system are analogous to communications between computers.
• That is, they take the form of a local area network (LAN). There are several important issues
involved in any LAN, including the communication protocol, the bit rate, access to the
network, and synchronization between the various subsystems.
• In a LAN, each subsystem connected to the serial data link is called a node. Normally one of
the nodes serves as a master that has the capability of controlling access to the network. The
other nodes are called slaves and respond to software-controlled commands issued by the
master.
• One of the possible problems that can occur in a LAN is the simultaneous transmission of
messages by two separate nodes (called collision). Resolution of potential collisions is
controlled by the master using a software capability known as arbitration.
• An example of an automotive digital data system is the
Controller Area Network (CAN) that was developed by the
Robert Bosch Company in Germany.
• CAN is a serial asynchronous communication protocol that
connects electronic control modules’ sensors and actuators in
automobiles. Among its many functions and services is a
digital data link.
• CAN is an asynchronous system in that each node
synchronizes to others’ messages on the first bit leading edge
of a message and on subsequent bit leading edges throughout
the remainder of the message.
Occupant Protection System
• Conceptually, occupant protection by an airbag is quite
straightforward. The airbag system has a means of detecting when
a crash occurs that is essentially based on deceleration along the
longitudinal car axis.
• A collision that is serious enough to injure car occupants involves
deceleration in the range of tens of gs (i.e., multiples of 10 of the
acceleration of gravity), whereas normal driving involves
acceleration/deceleration on the order of 1 g.
• Once a crash has been detected, a flexible bag is rapidly inflated
with a gas that is released from a container by electrically igniting
a chemical compound.
• Ideally, the airbag inflates in sufficient time to act as a cushion for
the driver (or passenger) as he or she is thrown forward during the
crash.
• A typical airbag will require about 30 msec to inflate, meaning
that the crash must be detected within about 20 msec. With
respect to the speed of modern digital electronics, a 20 msec
time interval is not considered to be short.
• One of the early configurations employed a pair of
acceleration switches SW1 and SW2 as depicted in Figure
10.18a. Each of these switches is in the form of a mass
suspended in a tube with the tube axis aligned parallel to the
longitudinal car axis. Figure 10.18b is a circuit diagram for the
airbag system.
Figure 10.18
Airbag
Deployment
System
• The two switches, which are normally open, must both be closed to complete the circuit
for firing the squib. When this circuit is complete, a current flows through the squib
ignitor that activates the charge. A gas is produced (essentially explosively) that inflates
the airbag.
• In recent years there has been a trend to implement electronic airbag systems. In such
systems the role of the acceleration-sensitive switch is played by an analog
accelerometer along with electronic signal processing, threshold detection, and
electronic driver circuit to fire the squib. Figure 10.19 depicts a block diagram of such a
system.
Figure 10.19
Accelerometer-Based Airbag System
• The accelerometers a1 and a2 are placed at locations similar to where the switches
SW1 and SW2 described above are located. Each accelerometer outputs a signal
that is proportional to acceleration (deceleration) along its sensitive axis.
• Signal processing can be employed to enhance the collision signature in relation
to the normal driving signal. Such signal processing must be carefully designed to
minimize time delay of the output relative to the collision deceleration signal.
After being processed, the deceleration signal is compared with a threshold level.
• When this signal exceeds the threshold, the driver circuit sends a current of
sufficient strength to activate the squib and inflate the airbag.
Body and Chassis in Electrical Systems
• [Link]
Events/documents/7172Colt/Service7172Col
t_Group16_Chassis-[Link]
Remote Keyless Entry
• Remote keyless entry system consists of a remote,
which, when activated within a certain range, can
lock, unlock and perform various other functions
within a car.
• Such a remote consists of a short-range radio
transmitter that sends radio waves to a receiver unit
inside the car, which triggers the aforementioned
functions.
Block diagram for remote keyless entry (RKE) systems.
Over 70% of the vehicles made today come with a remote keyless entry (RKE) system
either standard or as an option. RKE systems are also a high volume after-market
accessory. Most remote keyless entry systems alarm the vehicle against theft and lock
and unlock the doors and trunk. Some include remote start and car finder functions.
Remote keyless systems consist of a key fob transmitter and a receiver inside the
vehicle. They most commonly use a frequency of 315MHz in the U.S. and Japan, and
433.92MHz in Europe. Europe has also opened up the 868MHz band to accommodate
the growing demand for remote keyless entry systems.
The key challenges for most remote keyless entry designs are achieving low power
consumption in both the RKE transmitter and receiver, while achieving good range and
reliability for the RKE system.
Global Positioning System (GPS)
GPS is a positioning system that is based on a network of
satellites that continuously transmit coded information through
radio signals. The receivers interpret the information transmitted
from the satellites to identify the locations on earth accurately.
This system is made up of several satellites which are located
nearly 20,000 km above the Earths surface and operates in all
weather conditions. This system is largely available in all parts of
the world, 24 hours a day.
GPS Architecture
Global Positioning System (GPS) Architecture
The Architecture of Global Positioning System consists of three segments or units namely:
•GPS Space Segment
•GPS Control Segment
•GPS Receiver (User) Segment
Global Positioning System (GPS) Space Segment
The Space Unit consists of 24 active satellites which are assembled with huge solar panels with
rechargeable batteries that act as a power source. The function of the satellites in space is to
route or navigate the radio signals received from the control unit to store and re-transmit the
message to the respective Receiver Unit.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Control Segment
The Control Unit consists of several monitoring and control stations. The monitor stations monitor
the GPS satellite signals. These signals are then sent to the master control station where
operational specifications are checked and revised before transmitting the control signals back to
the GPS satellites. They are sent back through ground antennas.
Global Positioning System (GPS) Receiver (User) Segment
The User Unit is the term given to all GPS receivers like mobile phones, laptops, PC or any other
device. The devices receives the signals from the GPS satellites and determines how far away it is
from each satellite.
The three elements of Global Positioning System work in unison resulting in accurate and
reliable operation of the positioning system. GPS positioning is based on “Trilateration Principle”
which determines the position by measuring distances to points at known coordinates.
Trilateration requires three ranges to three known points at a minimum but Global Positioning
System requires four “Pseudoranges” to four satellites.
Hence the positioning system uses two main factors in determining the position:
• Position of the Receiver (User) using Trilateration Principle
• Pseudorange Calculation
Position of the Receiver (User) using Trilateration Principle
To calculate the 2-D position (latitude and longitude) of a point of interest or track
movement, a GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites. A single
satellite tracks a general location of the point of interest on the Earth’s surface. This location
information is spread over a large area. Data from a second satellite, when added to this
information, allows the Global Positioning System to narrow the location. This will be the
point where the two areas of satellite data overlap. Adding data from a third satellite provides
more accurate position of the point.
The distance is measured using the equation:
Distance = Travel Time X Speed of Light
The fourth satellite is used to re-confirm and enhance the position of the point of
interest(Receiver). The receiver determines the 3-D position (latitude, longitude and altitude)
of the point of interest with the information from the fourth satellite. Precision increases with
increase in the number of satellites in the vicinity.
Trilateration Principle
Pseudorange Calculation
The GPS satellites which orbit the Earth twice a day transmits or broadcast signals on the same
two frequencies called L1 and L2. The primary signal is broadcast on L1 and is modulated with
two information signals called C/A (Coarse and Acquisition code) and P (for Precise code). This
signal undergoes spread spectrum modulation technique that basically consists of a carrier signal
that is repeatedly inverted having 180ᶿ phase shift. Replica of the Precise code is broadcast on the
second frequency called L2.
In addition to transmitting a specific phase-change pattern, additional data is also added to the
signal which comprises of the navigation message. This message has the information needed to
calculate the current position of the satellite at the time of transmission.
The signal generator consisting of 10-bit shift registers generates the C/A code pattern which acts
as the input to Exclusive–OR Gate. The resulting digital output is referred to as Pseudo-Random
Number or PRN sequence.
Schematic
Representation of
Pseudorange
Calculation
Applications of Global Positioning System (GPS)
Though initially designed for the military, Global Positioning System today is used by military as
well as civilians extensively. The applications of GPS include:
•Location – Determining a position
•Navigation –Moving from one location to another
•Tracking – Monitoring object or personal movement
•Mapping – Creating maps of the world
•Timing – Informing the world about precise timing
Advantages of Global Positioning System (GPS)
The advantages of Global Positioning System are:
•It provides reliable information as it is updated constantly.
•Allows the determination of exact location, distance and speed (also altitude, if required).
•Permits tracking and measuring weather conditions.
•Technology is available Free of Cost (mostly).