Chapter 12

DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Retaining walls are used to retain earth or other

material in vertical or
position at locations where an abrupt a
nearly vertical
prevents the retained earth from change in ground level occurs. The wall, therefore
retained earth to exert a lateral assuming its natural
angle of repose. This cause the
pressure on the wall, thereby tending to overturn, slide and
settle the retaining wall structure, as shown in
base must therefore be suitably Figure 12.1. The wall including its supporting
and also
designed be stable under the effects of the lateral
to
pressure, to satisty the usual requirements of strength and
geotechnical design retaining walls is covered Eurocode
of serviceability. The
and do
by 7. Walls that retain soil or
water not involve exceptional riskdifficult soil
or
as Geotechnical Category 2 in Eurocode 7 Part 1.
or
loading conditions are classified

Overturning Sliding Settlement

Figure 12.1 Failure in a retaining wall

 370 | Reinforred Concrte Design
12.2 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

There are many types of retaining structures and they are generally divided into two main
in
categorices namely gravity wall and cantilever wall. The following are some of the
commonly used walls.

(1) Gravity wall

The gravity retaining wall, as shown in Figure 12.2(a) depends entirely on its own weight
to provide the necessary stability. It is usually constructed of plain concrete or stone
masonry. Plain concrete gravity walls are not used for height exceeding 3 m. The design
of this wall is concerned mainly in keeping the thrust line within the middle third of the
base width, so that no tensile stress is developed.

(2) Cantilever wall

Cantilever wall as shown in Figure 12.2(b) is the most common type of retaining
structures and is generally economical for heights of up to about 8 m. The structure
consists of a vertical cantilever spanning from a large rigid base slab. The stability of the
wall is maintained essentially by the weight of the soil on the base slab plus the self weight
of the structure.

3) Counterfort wall

The counterfort wall, as shown in Figure 12.2() is probably used where the overall height
of the wall is too large to be constructed cconomically as a cantilever. The wall and the
base are tied together at intervals by counterfort or bracing walls. This type of wall
becomes economical for high walls usually above 6 - 7 m of backfill.

(4) Buttress wall

Similar to counterfort wall but the bracing is constructed in front of the wall as shown in

Figure 12.2(d). In this case the bracing is in compression rather than tension. Althougn
buttresses are structurally more efficient than counterforts, the later is generally preterred,
as they provide free usable space in front of the wall.
 Design of Retaining W'alls | 371
(5) Gabion wall

Gabion wall is a
retaining wall made of
heavily galvanized wire, which is rectangular
filled with stone containers (baskets) fabricated of
tiers that step back with the and stacked
slope rather than on one
another, usually in
Gabions have advantages Over more vertically built as shown in Figure
12.2(¢).
movement, dissipate energy rigid structures because
from
flowing water, and they can conform to ground
drain freely.

(6) Crib wall

Crib wall, shown in Figure

12.2(t), is constructed by
from timber or pre-cast concrete interlocking individual boxes made
other coarse granular materials to members. The boxes are filled with crushed stone or
create a
free-draining structure.
(7) Tieback wall

A tieback is a horizontal wire or

rod, or a helical anchor used
to reinforce
for stability. With one end of the tieback
secured
the to retaining walls
a stable structure, such as a
concrete deadman which
wall, the other end is
anchored to
has been driven
anchored into the earth with sufficient resistance. into the ground or
The tieback-deadman
forces that would otherwise cause the wall to structure resists
lean. (Figure
12.2(g).
(8) Keystone wall

The Keystone wall system is made

up of concrete segmental block units, which are
to last. It is based around a made
system with interlocking fiberglass pins
unit and the soil reinforcement. The connecting wall
combination of all these features results in a
the
stable and durable
retaining wall system. The Keystone system offers aesthetic strong,
cost
efficiency, easy installation and strength. (Figure appeal,
12.2(h).
372 | Reinfored Concrete Design

( ) Greviy well
J(b) Cantdlever wal

(d) Buttress wall

()Countertortwall

( ) Gablon wall C r i b wall

T
T e b e c k wall (h) Keystone wall

Figure 12.2 Types of retaining walls

 Design of Retaining Walls | 373
AND DESIGN
12.3 ANALYSIS

The
of
design of reinforced
reinf concrete
retaining walls consists of
namely:stability analysis and section design.
two fundamental stages,

12.3.1 Stability Analysis

. lateral force due to earth
pressure constitutes the main force acting on the retaining
llwhich might cause it to overturn, slide and settle. So the safety of the wall
depends
on its stability against these three modes of failure under the ultimate limit state (EQU,
STRand GEO) as detined in EN 1990:2002 Eurocode.
Three sets of load combinations must be considered at the ultimate limit state. The
frst two combinations are used tor consideration of both structural failure, STR, and
gcotechnical failure, GEO. The third combination must be taken into consideration with
assible loss of equilibrium (EQU) of the structure such as overturning. The partial safety
factors to be used for these three combinations are as given in Table 12.1.

Table 12.1 Partial safety factor at the ultimate limit state

Leading variable Accompany1ng

Persistent or Permanent actions
action variable action
transient design
situation Unfavourable Favourable Unfavourable Unfavourable
For consideration
of structural or
geotechnical fail- 1.50 1.50
1.35 1.00
ure: combination 1 (0 if favourable) (0 if favourable)
(STR& GEO)
For consideration
of structural or
geotechnical fail- 1.30 1.30
1.00 1.00
ure: combination 2 (0 if favourable) (0 if favourable)
(STR& GEO)
For checking static 1.50 1.50
1.10 0.90 (0 favourable)(0 if favourable)
equilibrium (EQU) |
374 Reinfored Conerete Design

(1) Overturning
This occurs because of unbalanced moments, when overturning moment about toe due
to lateral pressure is larger than the resisting moment of the self-weights of wall and
weight of soil above the heel slab, as shown in Figure 12.3. The critical conditions occur
when the maximum horizontal force acts with a minimum vertical load.
A partial safety factor of 0.9 is applied to the permanent vertical load 2/k (weight of
wall+weight of soil) if its effect is 'favourable'. The 'unfavourable effects of the
permanent earth pressure loading Hk at the rear face of the wall are mult1plied by a partial
safety factor of 1.1. The 'unfavourable effects of the variable surcharge loading, if anv
are multiplied by a partial safety factor of 1.5. The stability requirement against

overturning then becomes 0.9(EVx) 2 YrHk y.

Surchage

Stability criteria:
H

0.9(2Vx) 2 7rHy

Figure 12.3 An overturning failure

(2) Sliding
The resistance against sliding is essentially provided by the friction between the bottom
surface of the base slab and the soil bencath it. Resistance provided by the passive carth
pressure on the front face of the base gives some contribution, but since this material is

often backfilled against the face, its resistance cannot be guaranteed and is usually ignored.
 Design of Retaining Walls | 375

rtialsafety factor of yr= applied to the permanent vertical load EV, if its effect
1.0 1s

the sliding resistance) and the 'unfavourable" effects of the

aurable' (i.e. contribute
to

and surcharge pressures at the rear face of the wall are multiplied by
is t a v o u r a b l e

ent carth
of friction
safety factor of Y= 1.35 and 1.5 respectively. Thus, if the coefficient
parta

berwee
the base and the soil is j4, the stability requirement against sliding then becomes

Surchagee

Stability criteria:
H
uCEV) 2 YH

Figure 12.4 A sliding failure

If this criterion is not met, a heel beam may be used, and the force due to the passive
the sliding force.
carth pressure over the face area of the heel may be included in resisting

(3) Settlement
The width of the base slab must be adequate to distribute the vertical force to the
1Oundation soil without causing excessive settlement or rotation. To determine the required
of the base, the bearing pressure underneath it is assessed on the basis of the ultimate
S1Ze
umit state (GEO). Since the base slab of the wall is subjected to the combined effects of an
moment, the analysis is similar to that
centric coupled with an overturning
vertical load
tortoundation design, discussed in Chapter 10.
nc distribution of bearing pressure will be as shown in the figure provided the effective
Cntricitye lies within the middle third of the base. The bearing pressure is then given by,
376 | Reinforced Concrte Design
P ENIA EM/Z

where
EM Ne +2Hky
area or base slab

cccentricity
section modulus of base about centroidal axis

Surchage

EVN

Stability criteria:
The maximum bearing pressure
must be less than or equal to
the soil bcaring capacity.

Pmin

Figure 12.5 A settlement failure

Two sets of load combinations must be considered at the ultimate limit state. For load
combination 1, the moment due to the horizontal load on the maximum bearing pressure
at the toe of the wall is 'unfavourable' whilst the moments of the weight of the wall and
the earth acting on the heel of the wall act in the opposite direction and are thus
favourable'. Hence the partial safety factor for the lateral earth pressure and lateral
surcharge are 1.35 and 1.5 respectively, whilst the partial safety factor for the effect of
weight of wall and soil is 1.0 and the partial safety factor for the weight of surcharge is 0.
For load combination 2, the partial safety factor for permanent action is 1.0 for both
'unfavourable' and favourable' effects and the partial safety factor for variable action is
1.3 and 0 for unfavourable and favourable effects
respectively.
 Design of Retaining Walls | 377

12.3.2 Element Design and Detailing

The three elements of the retaining wall, stem, toe slab and heel slab are designed as
ilevet slabs to resist the designed moments and shear forces, as shown in Figure 12.6.
canti

The stem is designed to resist the moment caused by the force yh, with yevalues
taken for load combination i t this load combination is deemed to be critical. The
evural reinforcement is provided near the rear face of the stem, and may be curtailed in
stages for economy.
In the case of toe slab, the net pressure is obtained by deducting the weight of the
concrete in the toe slab from the upward acting soil pressure. The net pressure acts
upward and the flexural reintorcement has to be provided at the bottom of toe slab.
The heel slab must be designed to resist the moment due to downward pressure from
the weight of the retained earth (plus surcharge, if any) and concrete slab. Since the net
pressure acts downward, the tlexural reintorcement is provided at the top of the heel slab.
The partial safety factor Yi, Y$2 and Ys should be considered to provide a combination
which gives the critical design conditions i.e., the worst of combinations 1 and 2.
Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement should be provided transverse to the main
reinforcement and also near the front face of the stem.

Horizontal
pressure

Net downward
pressure

Net upward
pressure

Figure 12.6 Design of elements

378 | Reinfored Concrete Desig
The back faces of the retaining walls will usually be subjected to hydrostatic forces from
m
ground water. These may be reduced by the provision of a drainage path at the face of th
wall. It is a usual practice to provide such a drain by a layer of rubble or porous blocks th
to remove water.
perforated pipes

Example 12.1
A cantilever reinforced concrete wall is to be constructed to retain a bank of carth of 4.0 m
high. The surface of the backfill is horizontal and will be subjected to a variable action
surcharge of 10 kN/m?. The soil is a well-drained sand with a density, y = 19 kN/m', angle
of internal friction, d 0, safe
=
35, cohesion, c =
bearing pressure, q =
200 kN/m3, and
coefticient of friction with concrete, u = 0.5.

(a) Suggest suitable dimensions of a cross-section of the wall, and check the suitability of
the wall against overturning, sliding and settlement. (Parts of the wall dimension
given in Figure E12.1, and may be used as a guide).

(b) Design all the reinforcement required in the stem and the base of the wall, using
Grade C30 concrete, Grade 500 steel reinforcement and a concrete cover of 45 mm.

(c) Check the capacity of the reinforcement provided against shear.

(d) Show in neat sketches the arrangement of reinforcement in each

component,
indicating clearly the position, size and pitch of the bars.
0.6h 15 kN/m2

4000
H

500

2 B=(0.6-0.7)H_

Figure E12.1
380 | Reinfored Concrte Design
wall
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever page 1/6

Ref. Calculations Output

SPECIFICATIONS
Surcharge
(a). Height of slope, h 4.0 m
(b. Surchage, w 10 kN/m
|h1 (c). Soil properties:
Density, 19 kN/mn
Internal friction angle, p 35
Friction coeficient, 0.5
Cohesion, C
Ultimate bearing capacity, Rd 200 kN/m
(d). Characteristic strength of concrete, fck 30 N/mmn
(e). Characteristic strength of steel, fyk 500 N/mm
(0. Unit weight ofreinforced concrete, Ye 25 kN/m
(g). Concrete cover, c 45 mm
(h). Bar diameter, bar 12 mm (Assumed)

DIMENSION &SOIL PRESSURE

wkN/m

H Data:
h1 4000 mmm
h2 500 mm
h3 4500 m
h3
h 400 mm
400 mm
240 mm
a 800 mm
a 2 2000 mm
25.9 B 3200 mm
A
a2
B 27.9
Active soil pressure
P
(y H +w) K. H P
where Ka =
(1 sin p)(1+ sin ø) (m) kN/m
(1 sin 35) /(1 sin 35) 0.27 0.00 2.7
P (19 H + 10)x 0.27 .50 25.9
5.15 H + 2.71
4.90 27.9

msy '1l
 Design of Retaining V'alls | 381
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever wall
page 2/6
Ref.
Calculations Output
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Element
Load Lever Moment(kNm)
Wall (kN) arm
(-1)x h3 x Ye /2
0.16 x4.50 x 25/2 9.0 0.91 8.2
|'eXh3 X Ye
0.24 x 4.50 x 25 27.0 .08 29.2
h xB x25
0.40 x 3.20 x 25 32.0 1.6 51.2

Soil Y xh3xa2
19 x 4.50 x 2.00 171.0 2.2 376.2

Surchage W xa2 10x .00 20.0 2.2 44.0

Active pressure Ckn) m)
Surchage 2.71 x4.9
13.3 2.45 32.5
Soil (27.9 2.71) x 4.9/2 61.8 1.63 100.9

|Moment, M Permanent 464.7 100.9

Variable 44.0 32.5
Vertical Permanent 239.0
TotalLpad, Vx Variable 20.0
Horizontal |Permanent 61.8
Load, H Variable 13.3
(i). Stability against overturning (@ point A)
Overturning moment=(1.10 x 100.9)+(1.50 x 32.5)
160 kNmn
Restraining moment = (0.90 x 464.7) +(0.0 x 44.0)
418 kNm

>Overturning moment Restraining moment Ok

ii). Stability against sliding

Sliding force (1.35 x 61.8) +(1.50 x 13.3)
103 kN

Friction force
=
0.45 [0.0 x 239.0) +(0 x 20.0)]
108 kN

Sliding force Friction force

Okk!

msy '1 1
382 | Reinfoned Concrete Desig
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever wall page 3/6

Ref. Calculations Output

(iii). Stability against settlement

k 239.0+ 20.0 = 259.0 kN

AM = 464.7 + 44.0 1 0 0 . 9 -32.5 A Bx1.0

375.3 kNm 3.20 x 1.0

x = AM/ Vk 3.2 m
375.3/259.0 1.6 m
1.45 mm 1.0 x 3.2'/12
Eccentricity, 2.73 mm
e B/2 - x
1.60 1.45 = 0.15 m
B/2
B/6 0.53 m No negative pressure

Bearing pressure, q= NIA £ My/I

Ed (259.0/3.2) (259.0 x0.15 x 1.6/ 2.73)
=
80.9 22. 9
Ed min 58.0 kN/m
103.9 kN/m2 Soil bearing capacity Ok!
Ed max
Rd 200kN/m

ELEMENT DESIGN

d 25.9

58.0
103.9
92.4 86.7

(0.40 x 25) = 10.0

(4.50 x 19) + 10=

95.4

18.8
93.9 82.4 47.5

m s y '11
 Design of Retaining Walls | 383
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever wall page 4/6

Ref.
Calculations Output

Main reinforcement
h 400 mm 1000 mm
b
fck 30 N/mm 500 N/mm
bar 12 mm 45 mm
a h - c
bsar2 349 mmm

(i). Wall
M ab 1.50 [ 2.7 x 4.50 x 4.50 /2]
+1.35 [ (25.9 -2.7) x (4.50 /2) x4.50/3)]
41.1 + 105.5 146.7 kNm/m
K MIbd fck
146.7 x 10°/ (1000 x 349x 30)
0.040 0.167
Z d [0.5 + 0.25 - K/1.134) ] = 0.96 d

As M /0.87fyk Z
146.7 x 10°/ (0.87 x 500 x 0.95 x 349) Use H12- 100
1017 mm/m 1131 mm/m

(ii). Toe
M ac 1.35 [ 82.4 x 0.80/2]
1.35 [(93.9 82.4) x (0.80/2) x (0.80 x 2/3)]
35.6 3.3 =
38.9 kNm/m
K M /bd fck
38.9 x 10/ (1000x 349 x 30)
0.011 0 . 167
Z d[0.5 + 0.25 K/1.134) ] = 0.99d
A M /0.87f ykZ
38.9 x 107 (0.87 x 500 x 0.95 x 349) Use: H12- 1500
270 mm/m 754 mm/m

(ii). Heel
Mbd 1.35 [ 18.8 x 2.00 /2]
1.35 [(47.5 -18.8) x (2.00/ 2) x (2.00 x 2/3)]
50.8+51.6 F
102.4 kNm/m
K M/bd fck
102.4 x 10°/ (1000 x 349 30)
0.028 0.167
d [ 0.5 + 0.25 - K/1.134) ] = 0.97 d

A, M/0.87f yhz
102.4 x 10°/ (0.87 x 500 x 0.95 x 349) Use H12- 150
710mm/m 754 mm/m

msy '111
 384 | Reinfored Concrete Design
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever wall page 5/6

Ref. Calculations Output

[Link] Minimum and maximum reinforcement area, Secondary bar :

0.26 x (2.90/ 500) x bd H12 2 0 0
0.26ctn/fn) bd =

A smin
0.0013 bd =0.0013 x1000 x 349 454 mm/m (566 mm/m)
0.04 x 1000 x 400= 16000 mm/m
[Link] 0.044

Shear
i). Wall
ab 1.50 [ 2.7 x 4.50] +

1.35 [ (25.9 2.7) x (4.50/2)] = 88.7 kN/m

ac
1.35 x (93.9 + 82.4) x 0.80/2
95.2 kN/m
1.35 x (18.8 + 47.5) x 2.00 /2
89.5 kN/m
Max. design shear force, Ed 95.2 kN/m
6.2.2 Design shear resistance,
VRde[ 0.12 k (100p fe]bd
k =

1+200/d)2s 2.0 = 1.8

1+(200/349)
P1 A s/bd 0.02
754/ (1000 x 349) = 0.0022

Rdc 0.12 x 1.8 x (100 x 0.0022 x 30)x 1000 x 349

137199 N = 137.2 kN
m i n [ O.035k f e k ] bd
0.035 x 1 . 8 x 30 2 x 1000 x 349

= 155817 N =
155.8 kN

So, Rd.c =
155.8 kN V Ed Ok

Cracking
7.3.3 h 400 mm 200 mm
Steel stress under the action of quasi-permmanent loading
Ss yk.15) quasi-pemanent N
utimate )(4 sreoA sprow
=
(500/ 1.15) x (245/ 352.7) (1017/ 113)
435 x 0.7 x 0.9 272 N/mm
Table 7.3N For design crack width = 0.3 mm
Max. allowable bar spacing= 150 mm
Bar spacing
Wall 100 mm 150 mm Ok!
Toe 150 mm 150 mm Ok!
Heel 150 mmm 150 mm Ok

msy '11
 | 385
Design of Retaining Walls
Example 12.1 Design of cantilever wall page 6/6

Ref. Calculations Output

DETAILING
240
Bar No.
H12- 100
H12- 150
H12-150
H12- 100
H12- 200
H12- 2000
H12-200

= 45 mm
Cover

480 4500

2250

500

400 A
L 2000
50 mm blinding

800 4001.

msy '11