QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

The following principles in QDE must be noted, that:

1. Documents are questioned, disputed, and attacked on many grounds and for various reasons
2. Documents should be preserved, handled and cared for, in a manner that will not impair the slightest degree
of its value as evidence
3. Documents must be protected
4. Q.D. examination observes phases of specific approaches 

DOCUMENTS ARE QUESTIONED, DISPUTED AND ATTACKED

The great majority of questioned papers are included in the following classes:
1. Documents with questioned signatures - these are the most common disputed documents. They may be
commercial or legal paper, such as a check, note, receipt, draft, order, contract, agreements, assignments, will,
deed, or similar documents, the signature of which is under suspicion. Under this class are found the traced
forgery and the forgery produced by simulating or copying process.

2. Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations - Included here are all documents in which it is
alleged that some alteration was made by erasure, addition, interlineations or substitution. Questions may arise
as to the order or sequence of writing as shown by crossed lines, age and continuity of writing, erasures and
changes, identity of ink, identity of pen and condition, fraudulent interlineations in contracts, deeds, wills, and
other legal papers.

3. Holograph documents questioned or disputed- Here, the writing of an entire written document is all
questioned. Scrutinize the document, search, and pay attention to consideration of paper, watermarks, ink,
pens, style or system of writing, natural variation or variety of form in writing, continuity of writing, slant, spacing
and shading of writing, wording, subject matter, seals, folding and ruling. Examples are manuscripts, letters of
introduction and recommendations, letter of credit, diplomas, marriage certificates, marriage contracts, court
papers, book plates, etc.

4. Documents attacked on the question of their age or date. – Included here are documents in which the
age of an instrument or the age of some part of it is investigated or a document in which the comparative age
of different parts may have some bearing on the question of its genuineness.

5. Documents attacked on the question of materials used in their production. Some documents may be
shown to be false because they were dated many years before the paper was made on which they were
written. Other matters for investigation here are: type printed forms, lithographed forms, typewriting, envelops,
stamps, contents, or any tangible thing that has a date value.
[Link] investigated on the question of type writings/ computer prints. The question that maybe
raised in the document may either be the use of the same machine at different times or at different times on
different machines.

DOCUMENT. Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible that may present
or ultimately convey a meaning to someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or printing on
paper.

The term “document” applies to writings; to words printed, lithographed, or photographed; to maps or
plans; to seals, plates, or even stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its plural form,
“documents” may mean; deeds, agreements, title, letters, receipts, and other written instruments used to
prove a fact.

a) Latin word “documentum”, means “lesson, or example (in Medieval Latin “instruction, or official paper”), or;

b) French word “docere”, means to teach.

QUESTIONED. Any material which some issue has been raised or which is under scrutiny.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT. One in which the facts appearing therein may not be true, and ar contested
either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity, identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will, election
ballots, marriage contract, check, visas, application form, check writer, certificates, etc.

DISPUTED DOCUMENT. A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document, and
strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as well as through prior usage, however, “disputed document”
and “questioned document” are used interchangeably to signify a document that is under special scrutiny.

STANDARD (STANDARD DOCUMENT) - Are condensed and compact sets of authentic specimens which, if
adequate and proper, should contain a cross section of the material from a known source. "Standard" in
question documents investigation, we mean those things whose origins are known and can be proven and
which can be legally used as examples to compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consists
of the known handwriting of a person in such a case, "standard" has the same meaning as is understood by
the word "specimen" of handwriting.

EXEMPLAR. A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known material.
Standard is the older term.

HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT. Any document completely written and signed by one person; also known as a
holograph. In a number of jurisdictions, a holographic will can be probated without anyone having witnessed its
execution.

REFERENCE COLLECTION. Material compiled and organized by the document examiner to assist him in
answering special questions. Reference collections of typewriting, check writing specimens, inks, pens,
pencils, and papers are frequently maintained

TYPES OF PAPER

● WRITING PAPER PADS - common paper.

● CARBON PAPER - heavily coated with waxy layer which hold sufficient coloring matter to give clearly
defined transferred impression in use.
● SAFETY PAPER - paper which have been treated in such a way as to minimize the chances of a
successful forgery by erasure
● BOND PAPERS - commonly used in typing and writing documents.
● STATIONERIES, COLORED AND PERFUMED - commonly used for special letter.
●

WRITING INSTRUMENT

● Quills were used as instruments for writing with ink before the metal dip pen, the fountain pen, and
eventually the ballpoint pen came into use.
● Quill pens were used in medieval times to write on parchment or paper.
● A reed pen is cut from a reed or bamboo, with a slit in a narrow tip.
● Quill Pens (firstly appeared in Seville, Spain) were the writing instrument from 600 to 1800 AD.
● Pencil lead was invented independently in France and Australia.
 ● A metal pen point has been patented in 1803 but patent was not commercially exploited. Steel nibs
came into common use in the 1830s.
● While a student in Paris, Romanian Petrache Poenaru invented the fountain pen, which the French
Government patented in May 1827. Fountain pen patents and production then increased in the 1850s.
● The first patent on a ballpoint pen was issued on October 30, 1888, to John J Loud.

KINDS OF DOCUMENT

1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - notarized by a notary public or competent public official with solemnities
required by law. (Cacnio vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 742)
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT - issued by the government or its agents or its officers having the authority to
do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to issue and be
issued in the performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT -executed by a private person without the intervention of a notary public or of
any person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved,
evidenced or set forth (US vs Orera, 11 Phil. 596)
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or any Mercantile
Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.

Various Aspect of Questioned Document Examination

The examination of the questioned document principally covers the following.

1. Examination of Handwriting (which includes signature) and hand printing for purposes of determining their
genuineness or source.

2. Miscellaneous aspects such as detection of alteration, decipherment of erased writing, restoration of

obliterated writing, determination of age of documents, identification of stamps, seal and other authenticating
devices, currency bills and coins and the like.

The identification or so-called “verification” of signature is treated herein as a specialized branch of handwriting
identification.

Classes of Questioned Documents

a) Documents with questioned signatures.

b) Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.

c) Questioned or disputed holographic wills.

1. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator

2. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testa tor before a notary public with 3 witnesses.

d) Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.

1. with a view of ascertaining their source

2. with a view of ascertaining their date

3. with a view of determining whether they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted pages. e) Questioned
documents on issues of their age or date.
f) Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.

g) Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.

1. anonymous and disputed letters, and

2. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

Classes of Disputed Signatures

a) Simple or Spurious - which refers to a bogus signature where no attempt has been made to make a
facsimile or copy of the genuine writing or signature of a person purported to make or sign a document.

b) Traced forgery - This refers to a fraudulent signature which closely bears a resemblance to the genuine
signature but made by using any of the following: carbon outline process, indention process, transmitted
process or projection process or the laser method.

c) Copied or simulated forgery - Regarded as the most skillful form of forgery it is a fake signature resembles
the genuine signature executed in free-hand. Others refer to it as a freehand imitation forgery. (termed as the
“model”)

d) Forged signature of fictitious persons.

e) Genuine signature that the writer is honestly unwilling to accept as genuine.

f) Genuine signature obtained by trickery.

g) Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to avoid identification.

Different processes of tracing:

⮚ Carbon outlines method or Carbon process where a carbon paper is placed between the genuine
signature (top sheet) and the fraudulent document (lower sheet). Outline of model signature is traced
with dry pen or pointed object to make a carbon offset on the lower sheet. Outline is finally re-written or
retraced with suitable ink stroke.

⮚ Indention process where a canal like outline of the genuine is produced on the fraudulent documents
(lower sheets) by tracing the outline of the genuine signature (top sheet) with a pointed instrument. The
outline is then directly inked, in some instances; the outline is first retraced lightly when pencil before it
is finally retraced with suitable ink.

⮚ Transmitted light or projection process where the spurious document is placed immediately over
the genuine signature with strong light directed through the two sheets of paper from below or behind;
outline that is seen through upper sheet is then traced.

Proof of Traced forgery:

⮚ Discovery of the actual model or genuine signature from which it was made.
 ⮚ Presence of pencil, carbon or indented outlines that point to the tracing process.

⮚ Discovery of two or more identical attendant forgeries which could only have been drawn from one
model or original.

-ALTERATION-
Are the changes in the writing made by the party thereto, or by one person entitled there under after the
instrument has been executed.
Such changes are made without the consent of other party interested and give the instrument a
different effect from that where it originally possessed.

KINDS OF ALTERATION

1. ERASURE - Removal of writing, typewriting or printing from a document.

a. MECHANICAL OR ABRASIVE ERASURE - The writing is effaced by “rubbing “with a rubber eraser
or scratching out with a knife or other sharp instrument. It is usually made with a knife, rubber erasure
or fine memory paper that will injure the paper. When the paper surface is damaged the paper
becomes porous and the ink will penetrate the fiber.

b. CHEMICAL ERASURE - The writing is effaced by the use of liquid ink eradicator.

Chemical eradicator - are made in solution which bleach the color out of ink, making the writing appear
invisible. Frequently eradicators can be detected by the peculiar odor removed in the paper or with litmus
paper which reveal evidence of tampering.

A chemical alteration may sometimes be detected by the appearance of pale –yellow stains or a
slight discoloration around the suspected alteration / change.

2. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation. When there is sufficient
space between the words or at the end of a sentence to permit the insertion or addition of a single letter or
word or a punctuation mark, such alteration may change the part of the entire document of its monetary value.

3. SUBTRACTION / CANCELLATION - Any matter out, strike out or scratched out after its original
preparations.

An alteration by cancellation is occasionally found in a document of importance such as will, deed, or

contract where the writer intends to eliminate a word, name of sentence without the necessity of re-writing the
entire matter. The writer draws lines and vertical or horizontal lines through the writing having the effect of
cancellation.

2. INTERLINEATION / INSERTION - The term insertion and interlineation include the addition of writing and
other material between lines or paging or the addition of whole pages to a document.
Writing between the line of an instrument for the purpose of adding a part to it or correcting what
has been written.

DECIPHERMENT - The process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced.
- refers to the process of reading or making out the material which is illegible without actually
developing or restoring the original writing on the document itself.

DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Technical Terms
a. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation may be referred to as
addition.
b. CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by logical, common- sense
reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. The document examiner's conclusion, in legal terms is
referred to as "opinion".
c. DOCUMENT EXAMINER. One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to
identify their source or to discover other facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as
handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter title and involves other problems
than merely the examination of handwriting.
d. ERASURE - The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an erasure. It may be
accomplished by either of two means. A chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or bleached by
chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator); and an abrasive erasure is where the writing is effaced by rubbing
with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp implement.
e. EXAMINATION - It is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with questioned
documents, it is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken,
including microscopic, visual photographic, chemical, ultraviolet and infra-red examination.
f. EXPERT WITNESS. A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special training or
experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, which is
involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical information in his specialty in order to assist the
court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an expert witness.
g. INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION - The term “insertion” and "interlineations” include the addition of writing
and other material between lines or paragraphs or the addition of the whole page to a document.
h. NON-IDENTIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text it means that the source or authorship of the
compared questions and standard specimens is different.
i. OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original invisible to as an addition.
j. OPINION. In legal language, it refers to the document Examiners conclusion. In Court, he not only expresses
an opinion but demonstrates the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout this text, opinion and
conclusion are used synonymously.
k. QUALIFICATION. The professional experience, education, and ability of a document examiner. Before he is
permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule that he is qualified in his field.

REASON FOR QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Generally, examination of questioned documents is restricted to “Scientific Comparison” which means
that determination of authenticity, genuineness, falsification or forgery lies on the availability of known
standards for comparison. After thorough comparison, the following principle of identification is applied:
“When two items contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented
characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrence by mere
coincidence and there are no unaccounted for differences, it may be concluded that they are same in their
characteristics attributed to the same cause.”
SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
ACE-V Methodology
The ACE-V Methodology is the scientific method in the identification of questioned documents especially in the
identification of handwriting. This is derived from the scientific application done by Mr. Roy A. Huber, Analysis,
Comparison and Evaluation. Identification of handwriting, when it is difficult to establish the excellent
agreement of identity, may somehow be verified by other experts for the purpose of verification.
A. Analysis (Recognition) - properties or characteristics, observed or measured.
B. Comparison - Properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought analysis are now compared
with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
C. Evaluation- Similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain value for
identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrence. The weight or significance of each must therefore be
considered.
D. Verification - it is the process of double checking the accuracy and correctness of the examination usually
conducted by other experts in the said field
STANDARD - They are known writings, which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests fixed habits in
his writings that identify him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding any writing
identification problem.
EXEMPLARS - Specimens of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term standards
is a general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while exemplars refers more especially
to a specimens of standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or requested for comparison with the
questioned writing.
SAMPLE - A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text, the term "sample"
closely follows the statistical usage.
TYPES OF HANDWRITING "STANDARDS"
1. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature and
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and private documents and
other handwriting such as letters, memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life, both business and
socials.
2. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an individual upon
request for the purpose of comparison with other handwriting or for specimen purposes.
3. Post Litem Motam Exemplars - writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have come into
dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.

TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST COMMON TYPES OF
QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS
1. Submit collected and request standards signature from both individual cases.
2. When anonymous letter writings other than signature are in questioned:
a. Submit request standards writings of general nature from both victim and suspect (as much standards
writing as possible to obtain within reason).
b. Submit request standards of the questioned text written (or printed) - at least 3 writings by the suspect/s and
in some
SUGGESTED PROCEDURE FOR TAKING REQUEST HANDWRITING STANDARDS IN ALL TYPES OF
QUESTIONED-DOCUMENT PROBLEMS
1. Have the subject seated in a natural position at the table or desk having smooth writing surface.
2. Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used in questioned writings, lie; paper
should be the same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if the questioned document is in
written furnish subject with pen and ink, etc.
3. Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.
4. Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no assistance in
spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will produce the subject natural writing
habits.
5. Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number in consequence, date, time and identify by
initiating each, and request subjects to sign each specimen.
6. Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, and whether subjects appear to
be normally right or left-handed, etc.
HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT HANDWRITING STANDARDS?
Factors to Consider in the Selection of standards:
A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN
B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed
standard or exemplar.
C. RELATIVE DATES of the questions and the standards writing standard signatures or writing must be those
written five (5) years before or five (5) after the date of the questioned signature or writing. The importance of
contemporaneous standards are: 1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on one’s handwriting or
signature. 2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing variation
D. CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE PREPARED. Look
for standards prepared under comparable circumstances such as: paper rested on the knee; standing; sitting;
lying down; and/or while on a moving vehicle.
E. WRITING INSTRUMENT AND PAPER. Same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned
document must be obtained in the standard

PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. No two writers write exactly alike.
2. The physical condition and position of the person including his writing instrument may affect the
handwriting characteristics but they do not confine all its identifying elements.
3. A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skills without serious effort and training applied
over a period of time.
4. The combination of handwriting characteristics including those derive from form and writing movements
are essential elements of identification.
5. Individuality in writing can only be determined through comparative examination e=with the standard
written prepared under comparable condition.
6. Similarity does not mean identity.
7. Complete identity means definite forgery.
8. 8.1 A writing was written by one person when there is a sufficient number of identical writing habits and
identical primary controlling characteristics and in addition, the absence of divergent characteristics.
 8.2 A writing was not written by one person when there is a sufficient number of divergent writing
characteristics and the absence of primary controlling characteristics.
HANDWRITING - It is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a whole, a combination of
certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort. Some
defined handwriting as “visible speech.”
Types of handwriting:
Cursive writing – inscription or lettering wherein the letters are for the most part joined together.

Disguised writing – A writing specimen that is executed deliberately with an attempt to alter the usual writing
habits in the attempt to conceal the identity of the one executing the writing.

Guided – Also known as assisted writing it is executed while the writer’s hand is steadied in a way. They are
most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed and employed as a method for beginners in
writing.

Hand lettering – Refers to a specimen of writing characterized by a disconnected style.

Natural writing – Refers to that specimen of writing that is written or executed normally without any attempt to
control or alter its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
A signature is a combination of rather limited letters and designs and due to its frequent use; it
becomes almost automatic with its source. The identification or the so called “verification” of signature is a
specialized branch of handwriting examination.
Known signatures may contain elements and a feature not common to the writer’s other classes of
writing. Factors identification given closest style in signature examination may not be given the same special
emphasis in general writing.
Classes of Signature:
Formal or complete – It usually executed in signing significant and important documents and papers.
Cursory or Informal – It is usually executed in the conduct of one’s own daily affairs. Primarily of routine
nature.
Careless scribble – It is usually executed for signing receipts and similar insignificant documents.

Two Groups of Muscles Involved in Handwriting:

1. Extensor muscles - push up the pen to form the upward strokes
2. Flex muscles which push the pen to form the downward strokes. When flexor and extensor muscles are
combined with lumbrical muscles, lateral stroke is formed.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing - those which operate the joints of
the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.

KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion. Most
usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the wrist as the center of
attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting. i.e., blackboard writing

Classes of disputed Signatures:

✔ Forged signatures where no attempt has been made to make a copy of facsimile of the genuine
signature of the person purporting to sign the document.
✔ Forged signatures of fictitious persons.
✔ Forged signatures that closely resemble the genuine signature.
✔ Genuine signature which the writer is unwilling to accept as genuine.
✔ Genuine signature obtained by trickery.

A forged signature is a signature of another person, or of a fictitious character written by another

person who has no authority to do so, with intention to defraud.

Recognition of Writing Characteristics

Form – This refers to the shape or design of the individual
Slope or Slant – It is an angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline
Size – Size as a writing characteristic is somewhat divergent under varying conditions and may have but little
significance when applied to only one example, or to a small quantity of writing like a signature unless the
divergence is
Proportion – refers to the relative height of one letter to another letter. Proportion of letters is one of the
hidden features of writing. It is unknown even to the writer
Ratio – is the relationship between the tall and short letters.
a. Short – letters written entirely between the lines. Ex. a, c, e, I, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w and x.
b. Tall – letters with upper or lower loops or other projected portions. Ex. b, d, f, g, h, j, l, p, t, y and z
Connecting Strokes – this refers to the strokes of links that connects a letter with the one following. It is
classified as angular, elliptical or oblong, and circular or rounded.
Initial Strokes – it is the beginning strokes of a letter or words.
Terminal Strokes – it is the ending strokes of a letter or of words. “When a letter, word or name (signature) is
completed in a free, natural writing, the pen is usually raised from the paper while in motion with a “flying finish”
(or what is also referred to as “vanishing”, “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and with many writers,
the motion of the pen also slightly precedes the putting of the pen on the paper at the beginning with a “flying
start” so that the strokes at the beginning and end of words gradually diminish or taper to a “vanishing point.
Pen-Lift – It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the pen from the paper. Pen-lift or
disconnections between letters and letter combinations are maybe due to lack of movement control.
Hiatus – It is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing or defective writing instruments.
Lateral Spacing – It is the distance of a letter in a word or of words in a sentence. It is considered as a
common characteristic when it conforms to the ordinary copy-book-form.
Shading – It is the widening of the ink strokes with increased pressure on the paper surface. It is due to the
spitting of the pen-nib resulting in the widening of the ink lines, as controlled by the variation in pen pressure.
The consistent variation in width due to the variation in pressure of fine and delicate lines is more specifically
referred to as “unconscious emphasis”.
Line Quality – It is the visible records in the written stroke of the basic movement and manner of holding the
writing instrument. This quality of the visible record is derived from a combination of factors including writing
skills, speed, rhythm, shading, pen pressure, pen position and freedom of movement. It is the overall character
of the written strokes from initial to the terminal.
Alignment – It is the relation of the parts of the whole line of writing or line of individual letters in words or
signature to the baseline. In general, a signature is written in a more florid style and often associated with
greater degree of misalignment of the letters. Persistent errors in the alignment of letters in a signature often
considered individual characteristics.
Rhythm – It is the balance quality of movements of the harmonious recurrence of stress or impulse. It is the
flowing succession of motion that is recorded in a written record.
Writing Skill – is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency. Writing skills depend upon many factors,
manual dexterity being the most important of them. Manual dexterity is either inherent or acquired.
Pen pressure – It is the average force in which the pen contacts the paper or the usual force involved in the
writings. Pen pressure is one of the most personal but somewhat hidden characteristics in writing. Pen
pressure more accurately describes the proportion of strokes to each other in width as affected by shading and
by unconscious emphasis.
Tremor – it is a deviation from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly apparent even without
magnification.
⮚ Vertical Tremor – is the involuntary up and down movements or changing pressure which produces a line of
varying width or intensity as the pressure is suddenly increased or diminished.
Kinds of tremor:
A. genuine tremors such as:
i. tremor of age; ii. tremor of illiteracy; iii. Tremor of weakness
B. tremor of fraud
Natural Variation – it is due to a lack of machine-like precision of the human hand. It is also caused by
external factors, such as the writing instrument and the writing position, physical and mental conditions such as
fatigue, intoxication, illness, nervousness and the age of the writer, and the quantity of the writing prepared in
the course of time.
Rubric or Embellishment – It is the additional, unnecessary strokes, not necessary to legibility of letter forms
or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental purposes.
Common Terms and Description of Letters
1. Arc or Arch – any arcade form in the body of the letter.

2. Beard – a rudimentary curved initial strokes.

3. Blunt Ending or Beginning – blunt ending and initial strokes are results of the drawing process in
forgery.

4. Buckle Knot – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to complete such letters.
5. Central Part of the Body – the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that usually lies on the
line of writing.

6. Eye loop or Eye let – the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent direction.

7. Foot of the Letter or Oval – the lower portion of any down stroke which terminated on the baseline.

8. Diacritic – an element added to complete certain letters.

9. Hitch – the introductory backward strokes added to the beginning or ending of capital or small letters.

10. Hook or Through – the bend, crook or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or curve of small
letters.

11. Hump – the rounded outside of the bend, crook, or curve in small letters.

12. Spur – short, horizontal beginning strokes.

13. Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning or ending strokes.

14. Main Stroke or Shank Stem – downward strokes of any letter.

15. Whirl – the upward strokes usually on letters that have long loops.

16. Space Filler or Terminal Spur – an upward horizontal or downward final stroke usually seen in small
letters.

17. Retrace or Retracing – a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.

18. Retouching or Patching – a stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion of writing.

19. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.

20. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.

21. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into "O".
22. Staff – backspace of a letter.
23. Baseline – rules of the imaginary line where the writing rest.
24. Copybook Form – design of letter, which is fundamental to a writing system.
25. Pen Emphasis – it is the periodic increased in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen against the
paper surface with increase pressure.

HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER IDENTIFYING FEATURES

Writing Habits - Writing by all its thousand peculiarities in combination is the most personal and individual
thing that a man does that leaves a record which can be seen and studied. This is what constitutes individuality
in handwriting.

A. GENERAL(CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS - These characteristics  refer to those habits  that are  part  of
the basic writing system or which are modifications of the system of writing found among so large a group
of writers that  have  only slight identification value.

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS - They are characteristics which are the result of the writer's muscular
control, coordination, age, health, and nervous temperament, frequency of writing, personality
and character. They are found in Writing movement, Form and design of letters, Motor Coordination,
Shading, Skill, Alignment, Pen pressure, Connection, Pen hold, Rhythm, Disconnections or pen lifts
between letters, Speed, Slant as a writing habit, Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or
habit, Quality of stroke or line quality, Variation and Muscular control or motor control -
 a. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of regulation. This
is noticed especially in tall letters forms.
b. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you the impression
that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small. There is  distortion of
letter forms which may lead to illegibility.

Indications of speed (speedy) writing

a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right.
c. Marked uncertainty as to the location of the dots of small letters "I", "j" & crosses of small letter "t".
d. Increased spontaneity of words or small letter "t" connected with the following words.
e. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.
f. Wide writing - width of letters is greater than the connecting spaces adjoining it.
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and downstrokes.
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
i. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.

Indications of slow writing

a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c. Conspicuous certainty as to the location of the dots of small letters "I","j","or "t" crosses with
scarcely perceptible deviation from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters and retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke
h. Ornamental or flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines

C. EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

1. Ordinary copy-book form
2. Usual systematic slant
3. Ordinary scale of proportion or ratio
4. Conventional spacing

D. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Permanent characteristics - found always in his handwriting.
2. Common or usual - found in a group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
3. Occasional - found occasionally in his handwriting.
4. Rare - special to the writer and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a group of one hundred
individuals.

E. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE ACQUIRED

1. Outgrowth of definite teaching
2. Result of imitation
3. Accidental condition or circumstances
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by education, by environment
and by occupation.

F. EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Hook to the right and hook to the left
2. Shape, position, size and angle of "i" dots "t" crossing
3. Idiosyncrasies
4. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
 5. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings
6. Abbreviation of letters
7. Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
8. Labored movement producing ragged lines
9. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
10. Presence and influence of foreign writing, with the introduction of Greek "e"

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE defined – It is the name of a person written by him/her in a document as a sign of
acknowledgement. Or, it is a name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he is
its author or that he ratifies its contents. Microsoft Encarta Reference Library has these to say about signature:
signed name, signing of name, distinctive characteristic.
SIGNIFICANT TERMS
1. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude X. This
authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it can legally stand for a
signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks because of the common practice of marking with
an X.

2. EVIDENTIAL  SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a particular time

and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and
mental condition, using particular implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording his
name.

3. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a signature by

someone other than the person himself, without his permission, often with some degree of imitation.

4. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation rather than
by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.

5. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any
way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a legal document provided it is shown
that the writer requested the assistance. Guided signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness
or on a deathbed.

6. IMITATED SIGNATURE. Synonymous with freehand forgery.

7. MODEL SIGNATURE. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or traced
forgery.

8. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signatures  in  an inverted position to
weigh their  identifying significance,  the  reason being that those we fail  to see under  normal  comparison
may readily be  seen  under  this theory.

THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF HANDWRITING

IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production and is
written automatically.
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.

STYLES OR KINDS OF SIGNATURE

1. CONVENTIONAL SIGNATURE - Legible or readable.
2. HIGHLY INDIVIDUAL (INDIVIDUALIZED ) SIGNATURE - Series of intertwining strokes,
ornamentation and flourishes.

TYPES OF SIGNATURES
A. FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPYBOOK FORM) - complete correct signature for an important
document such as will.
B. INFORMAL (CURSORY) - usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
1. Personalized
2. Semi-personalized
C. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.\

SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE

STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or slide-by-side for
simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of execution (slow,
deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and an almost perfect
forgery is in the manner of execution.
STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth,
fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.
STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether the
appearance is blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity and
direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are the
often changed according to the whim of the writer.

REFERENCES

Domingo, C., Hernandez, E., Layona, Q. G., Jimenez, J. J., & Maglente, R. (2021). Forensic Reviewer (1st ed.).

WISEMAN’S BOOKS TRADING, INC.

Kalalang, S., & Kalalang, A. (2009). QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION : An Instructional

Handbook. WISEMAN’S BOOKS TRADING, Inc.

Richard T. Camara, Ph. D. (2016). Questioned Document Examination, An Instructional Material for
Criminology Students with Laboratory Manual
Jonas A. Gonzales (2008). Forensic Questioned Document Examination