Unit 4: Branches in Philosophy: Ideology and Decolonisation

4.1 Introduction to Ideology

4.2 Introduction to Decolonisation
Introduction
Welcome to Unit 4 of MPU3193/03 Philosophy and Current Issues. This unit will cover the topic of ideology and
decolonisation. The meaning of ideology will be explained. You will also be exposed to the development of modernism
and postmodernism. The theory of relativism in postmodernism will also be discussed. The impact of this theory to the
society will also be explored. The challenges faced by postmodernists will be covered in this unit as well.

Decolonisation will be introduced in this unit as well. The history of colonisation will be discussed from 16th century all
the way to 20th century. The various philosophers in these centuries will also be introduced here. This unit also covers the
thinking by these philosophers and the impact of colonisation to society. You will also be exposed to how we can free
ourselves from the colonial influence and form Malaysia’s own philosophical [Link]
Unit Learning Outcomes
1. Explain the challenges of postmodern relativism as the reaction towards the failure of
modernism.
2. Elaborate the implications of postmodern relativism in denying the truth and reality of
life through the perspectives of religion and traditions.
3. Understand the meaning of colonisation and decolonisation.
4. Discuss the history of Western colonisation in the 16th to 19th century.
5. Elaborate the two main streams of colonisation through two Western philosophers.
6. Demonstrate understanding of the concept of Sejahtera following the pattern of our
own nation.
 1. Introduction to Ideology
The word “ideology” stems from the English word, “idea” which means concept or basic understanding. The word
“logy” stems from Greek word, “logos” which means knowledge. Therefore, ideology is the knowledge of ideas,
sciences of ideas or the study of basic understanding. Ideology, particularly ideology and contemporary thinking can
be linked to philosophy because it is a common framework influenced by ideas from philosophy. Ideas in philosophy
are theoretical in nature. However, when it is practiced or applied in our daily lives especially in politic, social and
economy, the idea will become an ideology. When an idea is used to rise up political, economical or social movements
that involve the mobilization of man, society and country, it becomes an ideology.

The Western ideology was originally theocentric where God is placed in the center. Europeans were dominantly
leading religious lifestyle. However, during the Renaissance, their lifestyles moved from God-centric to people-centric
where they began to distance themselves from religion and God. They began a more anthropocentric lifestyle.

Modernism emerges during this time. Focus is placed on science as the absolute truth. They believe that rationality is
the only way to seek truth and development became the main aim in life.
Modern philosophy began in the 17th century in Europe by Rene Descartes (1596-1650). He was the Father of
Modern Philosophy on his effort in finding a method in human research and introducing many concepts and
arguments that can be the basis of philosophy. He has changed the traditional Scholastic thinking pattern and the
human movement in the Renaissance. Modern philosophy in general has three main characteristics. It is rational
which means it uses the mind as the highest authority in acquiring knowledge, naturalistic in which it explains the
phenomenon of inner and outer realms without assumptions that they are supernatural and it is scientific. Following
the development of modern philosophy in the 20th century, new streams of philosophy such as Analytic and
Pragmatism emerged.
Modernism and Postmodernism
Modernism has been around in the West since the 18th century while Postmodernism which has begun since
the 18th century reemerged in the 20th century as a reaction to the modernist. Philosophers such as Immanuel
Kant, John Locke, David Hume were part of the modernist group. This group is then continued by Logical
Positivism, and Karl Popper.

Modernism began around the 18th century with the Enlightenment movement brought by Enlightenment
philosophers such as Immanuel Kant in Germany, John Locke and also David Hume in Britain. Modernism
brought by these Enlightenment philosophers emphasise on the importance of rational thinking in determining
truth, the social organisation and others. These philosophers glorified the success of science and scientific
methods at that time which showed progress in the knowledge of man. The success of science based on
empirical and rational methodology brought new confidence that man is able to create a better life on earth. It
brought a new culture based on rationality, scientific methods and the concept that man can acquire progress
using their own mind and is able to create a new life and society, abandoning old characteristics that revolves
around religion in the Medieval society.
The Enlightenment Project and modernity continue to develop with the success in science and achievements in
physics, astronomy and chemistry. It further strengthens the view of the philosophers who believe that with rational
thinking, knowledge of science and scientific methodology, they can create success based on human and not on
religion. In the 20th century, the emergence of new philosophers such as Bertrand Russell and Karl Popper brought in
modernism and logical positivism stream.

Science became the yardstick for truth in all field of knowledge and aspects in life. It is a radical and huge project but
the emergence of such philosophy that emphasises on intellectual aspects, reason and science received opposition
from a group who later called themselves postmodernists. Postmodernists opposed modernity brought by the
Enlightenment and Logical Positivism group. They believe that the approach is too logocentric and imbalanced. This is
because human does not only have intellect but also made up of other aspects like emotions, intuition and spiritual.
Postmodernists rebel against logocentrism, rationality, objectivity and scientific methodology. They claim that science
is not a paradigmatic knowledge. They reject the notion that if a knowledge does not have the characteristics of
science knowledge, then it is not deemed as knowledge as claimed by Logical Positivism who reject metaphysic.
Postmodernists reject this concept. Thomas Kuhn questions the statement that science is a knowledge that is objective,
rational, progressive and lead to truth. Kuhn claims that science knowledge also consists of non-rational aspects. For example,
the changes in science theory is not solely on rational or logical factors but also influenced by psychological and sociological
factors. These factors are not rational. Psychology is about feelings and how human perceive reality. It is not solely based on
logic but perhaps more on other aspects like aesthetic. The acceptance of theories in sociology can be determined by certain
groups of people who has their own interest in the society. Another group that can be linked to the Postmodernists is the
Social Constructivists who believe that knowledge does not necessary mirror the actual truth of the universe. Instead,
knowledge is a construct that is related to the public interest or the view of society which is built into the knowledge of
science. For example, we would choose something that has interest to us to create useful knowledge. Scientists choose what
they would like to learn about the universe. Hence, the knowledge of science is not objective but reflects the interest to the
person who studies it.

For example, Ludwick Fleck, a sociologist who research on the history of medicine discovers that the terms and concepts used
in the medical research shows aspects of social constructivism. An example would be the sentence, “bacterial attack on human
body” and how “human body created a defense mechanism”. The metaphors used come from the knowledge of wars and
from the perspective of human interest. The researchers in the medical research used these terms because if we look from the
perspective of human interest, human suffer from the consequences of the reaction from the bacteria. Bacteria is said to
attack our body and our antibody form a defence mechanism. Objectively, all these are just reactions organisms but when
discussed, it seems like man are threatened in terms of health. However, if seen from the level of bacteria, the reality is not as
portrayed. Hence, the terms are not objective as the research is on the nature but seen it through the perspective of human
interest.
The theory by Darwin in the field of biology, where they research on the theory of evolution by natural selection is also
influenced by the situation of the society around it. In fact, Darwin himself admitted that he was influenced by the
book written by Thomas Malthus entitled “Essay on Population” and how the population can decrease due to
insufficient food, wars, epidemic illnesses as those who are unable to overcome the negative and adverse condition will
die. They are not able to compete well due to their weakened body. Hence, the phrase “the survival of fittest”
emerged. It is a concept applied by Victorian Britain in the 18th and 19th century and also the concept used to explain
how a species went through the process of evolution, where the species with lesser ability and strength to face the
challenges of the nature will extinct. This shows that the society can influence the discussion of biology. Therefore,
social constructivist claims that this shows that science is not objective but influenced by external factors.

There are also other theories that can be related to the postmodernism such as deconstruction by Derrida, the concept
of knowledge and its relationship with power by Michael Foucault, continental philosophy that is related to German
and French philosophers such as Albert Camus with existentialism which emphasises on the aspect of human, public
interest, emotion and intuition. These are against the concept of objectivity, rationality and scientific method
emphasized by Modernists. Thus, it can be seen that post modernism is a reaction to Modernism which continues till
today.

Watch the following video to understand modernism and postmodernism better:

[Link]
Impact of relativism theory to the society
The current ideology is made up of three streams, Modernism, Postmodernism and one that is related to Religion.
One of the theories in Postmodernism is relativism. The theory of relativism is a theory that rejects truth as
something objective and absolute. The main element of Relativism opposes the concept of truth in Modernist who
focuses on objectivity. In this theory, truth is seen as something that can change according to the surroundings,
limitless and can be interpreted from various angles and perspectives. Postmodernists see the theory of relativism is
a way to deny the concept of absolute truth such as the claim made by science that only science is able to give the
real knowledge of this universe. For instance, in science, we can accept theory A as truth and from other
perspectives, theory B can also be true. Hence, if we consider that truth is not something that is absolute, we can
also accept the various point of view. We would be able to accept that there are many ways to understand the actual
truth.

One of the critiques is that we cannot claim that there is no absolute truth. “To say there is no absolute truth means
that you are saying that even your statement about there is being no absolute truth is not true because it is
subjected to that same belief.” Hence the understanding of Relativism itself has contradictions in logic. It is evident
that the arguments by the believers of Relativism is not logically consistent.
Besides that, this theory indirectly implicated the belief in religion. This is because religion is dogmatic which means
the belief in religion can neither be altered nor challenged. Hence, its acceptance must be absolute and the truth
conveyed through the religion cannot be doubted. This understanding is criticized by philosophers with their
arguments. For example, in Islam, there are a few beliefs such as believing in God, are accepted by Islam believers
and cannot be doubted. Those truth are seen as absolute truth. However, based on the theory of Relativism, that
truth that God exists can be accepted and at the same time, can be untrue from another perspective. Hence, from
religion’s perspective, Relativism is rejected because the belief in God is a believe that is absolute and can neither
be altered nor given a different interpretation. Relativism will cause doubt in the belief.
Overcoming postmodernism
There are several distinctive phenomena in postmodernism.

For example,
(a) No universal narrative or truth;
(b) Truth is temporary and impermanent;
(c) All forms of systematic and scientific thinking are doubted;
(d) Discourses has the power to destroy authority and language structure; and
(e) Political influence is used as the source of power to allow the movements of feminism,
postcolonialism, LGBT, and globalism.
These phenomena became main challenge to postmodernism as it could bring to self-destruction. According to
Friedrich Neitzsche, these phenomena could bring to Nihilism (nothingness) and cynicism in life. Life that has
absolute truth as foundation transformed to relativism, and limitless pluralism causes doubts and questions
such as which is the truth to emerge.

Narrative comes from the word “narrate” which means to tell a story. Scholars who does research on
postmodernism claim that narrative is needed. We need to know our origin, where we are going and we need
vision in life. Without these, we will lose the purpose and direction in life. In postmodernism, they emphasise
on group identifications and not individuals. However, we need to build individuals. History, literature and
religion have important roles in life which provide us perspectives to life. Therefore, the human enlightenment
project in the contexts of philosophy in Malaysia such as Rukun Negara, National Education Philosophy and the
philosophy of Sejahtera must be continued.
There are several postmodernist scholars such as Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Jean-Francois Lyotard and Jean
Baudrillard. Jacques Derrida introduced the theory of deconstruction. His theory aims to break down the original
narrative by arguing about the elements in texts. He is said to be a postmodernist sceptic. He attacked the basic
principles in modern West philosophy. He is influenced by the founder of postmodernism, Nietzsche, and claims that
meaning is relative. He believes that our existence is fictional and constantly changing. As our identity is not pure,
our existence is a fiction that we create in this game of life that is filled with changes.

Michel Foucault is a scholar who claims that language is merely a power framework and denies all grand scheme or
power narratives. He claims that language only appears in discourse and all social relationships are power
relationship. Whatever that we say, think and read has been decided in the world we live in. It is as though we are
governed by a system that is controlling us at all times and we are constantly being monitored. He spent most of his
life to learn and question the relationship and concept of knowledge and power.
Postmodernism marks the fall of Grand Narratives. Jean-Francois Lyotard is famed for his definition of postmodernism
as incredulity towards metanarratives. This means that there is a meaning behind any narratives even if it is hard to
believe. In his book entitled “The Postmodern Condition”, he claimed that knowledge has lost its framework or grand
narrative. With rational arguments, the certainty of truth has also lost its authority. He claims that an advanced
society carries the culture of computer. Knowledge no longer holds truth and authority. Even knowledge fails to
escape the network of trade and power in the society to obtain even more money. Instead of building mind,
knowledge and education have become a buy-and-sell-commercial commodity.

Jean Baudrillard, a French sociologist, is another postmodernist scholar. He explained the existence of materialism
culture. This brought about reality television, mass media and consumerism. Reality or false truth are created. Singers,
preachers or even actors can be created in just one season. A singer’s popularity and glamour can be built in just one
season but be lost just as fast. There are also issues that are not as depicted found in the reality television. These are
all characteristics of postmodernism. It gives an illusion of grand life with the propaganda in mass media and
popularity culture. Baudrillard believes that the electronic media destroyed the relationship between man and their
historical background. It builds a chaotic situation and causes people to feel empty. The things that we see on media
does not exists in reality. It influences the thinking and behaviour of human and our experiences. He claims this
situation to be dissolution of life into television. We live in a hyper reality or manmade reality. Mass media became the
messenger. For example, America became the lense of paradigm of our lives today. Things like Hollywood, American
fast food, Starbucks, Mcdonald’s became a global phenomenon. Television became the world of postmodern society
(Shahrom, 2001).
It is evident that ideology influences our lives. It is used as a guide in making decisions and thus shape our
choices and actions in life. Hence, the ideology that we believe in should be based on strong justifications
and logical thinking. It should celebrate the human nature that we not only have a physical body but also
spirit and emotion. The chosen ideology should also celebrate the local value.

In summary, the modernism thinking is an ideology that emphasises on scientific and rational thinking in
determining the nature of existence. On the other hand, postmodernism appreciates the various elements
such as our emotions, spiritual beliefs and surrounding in achieving or determining the nature of existence.
Relativism claims that there is no such thing as absolute truth which religion opposes.