PETROLEUM

OPITO OPEN LEARNING

Water Injection

Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series

 OPITO

Water Injection
 OPITO

Water Injection
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4
 Contents

Water Injection
(Part of the Petroleum Processing Technology Series)

Training Targets 6 Section 3 – Sea Water Treatment Equipment 22

3.1 Bacteria Control 22
Introduction 7 3.2 Filtration Equipment 23
Section 1 – The Reasons for Water Injection 8 3.3 Oxygen Removal 31
1.1 Reservoirs and Rock Properties 8
1.2 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms 11 Section 4 – A Typical Water Injection Treatment System 40
1.3 Oil Recovery 14 4.1 Sea Water Intake and Coarse Filters 41
1.4 Pressure Maintenance by Water Injection 15 4.2 Chlorination Facilities 42
Section 2 – Reasons for Treating Water Injection 17 4.3 Sea Water Reservoir 44
2.1 Bacteria 17 4.4 Fine Filtration 46
2.2 Suspended Solids 18 4.5 Deaeration 51
2.3 Dissolved Gases 18 4.6 Water Injection Pumps 53
2.4 Dissolved Solids 19 4.7 Water Injection Wells 55
2.5 Other Chemical Treatments 19
Check Yourself – Answers 58

5
 Visual Cues

?
Training Targets to Test Yourself Check Yourself Activities to Summaries to
achieve by the end
of the unit
questions to check
understanding
✓ answers to
questions check
understanding ☛ apply your new
knowledge
recap on the major
steps in progress

Water Injection
Training Targets

When you have completed this Unit, you will be able to:
• Define the terms porosity and permeability as applied to reservoir rock ❑
• Explain three basic reservoir drive mechanisms ❑
• Explain how reservoir pressure is maintained by water injection ❑
• Explain the reasons for treating water injection ❑
• Describe the function, construction and operation of sea treatment equipment, including filters,
sodium hypochlorite generators, and deaerators ❑
• Describe a typical water injection treatment ❑
• List and describe common chemicals used in the treatment of water injection. ❑
Tick the box when you have met each target.

6
 Water Injection
Introduction
The production efficiency of most oil reservoirs can be improved by
injecting water into the layer of water which underlies the oil in the
reservoir rock. But why is this the case? Where does the water come
from and what treatment does the water require before it is injected?

The Unit is divided into four sections.

• Section 1 looks at the reasons for injecting water into a reservoir

in oilfield operations, concentrating on the nature of a typical
reservoir and the properties which influence the way in which oil
is produced. The most common type of water used for injection
purposes is sea water
• Section 2 focuses on the problems which could result from
injecting untreated sea water into a reservoir rock, and the
methods used to overcome these problems
• Section 3 explains the construction and operation of equipment
used in the treatment of injection water
• Section 4 looks at a typical sea water injection system, going
through a hypothetical system step by step. This will provide an
overview of the operation and control of such a process.

7
 Water Injection
Section 1 — The Reasons for Water Injection
Before considering the equipment used and procedures involved in This type of reservoir is known as a dome structure. It looks rather like
water injection, it is necessary to look at the reasons for injecting a number of upturned saucers lying on top of each other.
water. This will involve a little bit of reservoir engineering. Each saucer represents a layer of rock.

Let’s start by having a look at a typical petroleum reservoir and the The rock layer which contains oil, water and gas is the reservoir rock.
way in which the oil is produced: On top of the reservoir lies a layer of rock called the cap rock. The cap
rock forms the upper boundary of the reservoir and stops any fluids
from migrating upwards. The whole structure is often called a reservoir
trap.
1.1 Reservoirs and Rock Properties
In order for reservoir fluids to be brought to the surface, wells are
Look at Figure 1, which shows a simplified cross-section through a
drilled into the reservoir rock. However, in order for these fluids to
typical reservoir structure.
enter the wells, they must be capable of flowing through the rock.

A reservoir rock, therefore, must be capable of holding fluids within

itself and allowing the fluids to move through it. The two properties of
rock which govern this are:
• Porosity
• Permeability

Porosity is the property of the rock which enables it to hold fluids

within itself. The oil, gas and water are contained in tiny holes in the
rock called pores.

Figure 1:

8
 ? Test Yourself 1

Sandstone is a common reservoir rock. It is made up of grains of Before moving on, complete the Test Yourself questions.
sand which are cemented together at the points where they touch.
Between the sand grains are void spaces — the pores.
1. What is the porosity of a rock whose
The ratio of the volume of the pores to total rock volume expressed as
a percentage is the rock porosity.
pore spaces occupy one fifth of its total
volume?
This means that, if you have a sandstone reservoir with a porosity of
25%, for every 4 m3 of reservoir rock, 1 m3 consists of holes and 3m3 2. What is the likely permeability of a cap
solid sand grains. rock?
Another common reservoir rock is limestone. This is a rather brittle 3. Which of the following materials is likely
rock which contains lots of tiny cracks and fissures. These tiny cracks to be porous and permeable?
give the limestone its porosity.

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to flow through the a. Sponge

rock from one pore to another. In order for it to be able to do this, the
pores must be interconnected. b. Glass
Permeability is measured in d’arcys, named after a French engineer
c. Sandstone
who studied the flow of liquids through filters. He found that the flow
increased in proportion to the pressure increase. However he also Figure 2: A porous and permable rock
discovered that the flow was affected by the thickness, or viscosity, d. Slate
of the fluid.
The following example may help fill in visualising porosity and
Generally there is a wide spread of permeability values in reservoir permeability in a reservoir.
rocks.
Consider an ordinary building brick. Have you ever examined one
Figure 2 is an illustration of a porous and permeable rock. carefully? Take a close look at a brick under a magnifying glass and
the surface is a mass of tiny holes. A building brick is both porous
and permeable. If you place one in a bowl of water you will see small Find the answers in Check Yourself 1 on page
bubbles rising from the surface. This occurs as water flows into brick 58.
and displaces the air. In many ways an oil reservior rock is similar, in
terms of porosity and permeability, to a building brick.

9
When wells are drilled into a reservoir, the fact that the reservoir is
porous and permeable enables the reservoir fluids to flow towards the
wellbores. But what causes this fluid flow? Gas / oil ratio — This is a term which relates the volume of
gas produced from a well to the volume of oil production.
The presence or absence of pressure within the reservoir has a great It is usually abbreviated to G.O.R. and has often been
deal to do with its ability to produce fluids. It was recognised in the expressed in units of cubic feet of gas per barrel of oil ([Link].
early days of the petroleum industry that, when pressure was high, / bbl). It is now more common to use the SI units of cubic
oil was easily produced. When pressure dropped, however, assistance metres of gas per cubic metre of oil (m3/m3).
was needed to help the wells produce.
Oil in place - is an estimate of the total amount of oil in the
The fact that pressure is required to drive oil to the wellbore is reservoir.
important but it doesn’t fully explain how oil is produced. A complex
set of circumstances causes this flow through the pores of the Recoverable oil - is an estimate of the amount of oil which
reservoir rock. may be produced from the reservoir and recovered for sale.

Most of the oil is driven to the wells by one of three basic mechanisms Recovered oil - means the actual amount of oil which has
which utilise existing energy forces within the reservoir. They are been removed from the reservoir.
referred to as drive mechanisms. We will look at these mechanisms
shortly. Before we do this, however, have a look at the list of terms
highlighted opposite. They are common terms used when discussing
oil reservoirs.

10
 1.2 Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

The three basic mechanisms are:

• Dissolved gas drive
• Gas cap drive
• Water drive

They are considered to be natural drive mechanisms.

No outside assistance is introduced.

Let’s consider each of them in turn.

Dissolved Gas Drive

Figure 3 is an illustration of a reservoir with a dissolved gas drive.

In this type of reservoir, the energy to drive the oil to the wellbores
comes from gas dissolved within the oil. This gas is liberated from the
liquid as bubbles when the pressure in the reservoir declines. Being Figure 3: Reservoir with a dissolved gas drive
highly expansive, the bubbles of gas provide the energy to push the oil
towards the wells as the pressure continues to decline.

Reservoirs behave characteristically during their producing lives. The Characteristics Trends
trends of these characteristics for a dissolved gas drive reservoir have Reservoir pressure Declines rapidly and continuously
been included in the table opposite.
G.O.R. Low initially then rises rapidly to a maximum and finally falls
Water production Very little
Recoverable oil 5 to 30% of original oil in place

Table 1 - Dissolved gas drive reservoirs

11
Gas Cap Drive
Let's move on to gas cap drives. Figure 4 is an illustration of such a
reservoir.

In many situations, oil has accumulated where there are considerable

volumes of gas present. In such situations, all of the gas may not
dissolve in the oil at the temperature and pressure of the reservoir. The
undissolved gas will then migrate to the top of the reservoir, forming
a layer of free gas above the oil. This layer of gas is called a gas cap.

The gas cap is usually in a compressed state. As such it becomes

a source of energy to drive the oil to the wellbore and lift it to the
surface.

The characteristic trends of a gas drive reservoir are given in the table
opposite.

Figure 4:

Characteristics Trends
Reservoir Pressure Falls slowly and continuously
G.O.R. Rises continuously in wells higher in the reservoir
Water production Low
Recoverable oil 20 to 40 percent of original oil in place

Table 2 - Gas cap drive reservoirs

12
Water Drive
Finally let's look at water drive mechanisms, as illustrated in Figure 5.

The greatest natural source of energy available to produce oil is the

water which underlies the oil in certain reservoirs. In these reservoirs,
the porous rock occupies tremendous volumes. However, the oil
bearing part of the rock will be only a relatively small proportion of the
total. The water occupies a very large volume compared with the oil.

We generally consider water to be incompressible. It can be compressed

to a very small extent, however, and when such tremendous volumes
are involved, this compressed water can have quite an influence on
the behaviour of the oil reservoir.

As oil is produced, the pressure in the reservoir tends to decline. This

decline is counteracted by the expansion of the water, as it moves to
replace the produced oil.

These types of reservoir are usually the most efficient. The table
opposite shows the characteristics of water drive reservoirs.

Figure 5:

Characteristics Trends
Reservoir pressure Remains high
G.O.R. Remains low
Water production Increases gradually to significant amounts
Recoverable oil 35 to 65% of original oil in place

Table 3 - Water drive reservoirs

Of course, in the natural world, reservoirs are seldom found which fit exactly into one of the classifications that has just been looked at.
Combinations must occur which further complicate the classifications. Before moving on, complete the Test Yourself questions.

13
 ? Test Yourself 2

1.3 Oil Recovery

Identify the type of drive mechanism present of the following reservoirs:
1. There is very little water production and we expect to recover up to 35% of the Look again at the expected oil recovery from the three types of drive mechanism.
original oil in place. • Dissolved gas drive expected recovery — 5 to 30% of original oil in place
2. The G.O.R. was 0.5 m3 of gas per m3 of oil when oil production began. It rose to 3 m3 • Gas cap drive expected recovery — 20 to 40% of original oil in place
per m3 after 10 years and is now 1 m3 per m3. • Water drive expected recovery — 35 to 65% of original oil in place

3. The reservoir pressure has declined continuously, there is little water production and Even the most efficient natural drive is likely to leave more than 35% of original oil
we expect to recover only 18% of the original oil in place. in place in the reservoir! It would make sense to try to improve the recovery of oil
in these circumstances.
4. The expected oil recovery is only 55% of the original oil in place.
So, how could more oil be released from a reservoir than is possible when relying
5. Water production is low and the G.O.R. has been rising especially in wells which are on natural drive mechanisms?
completed higher in the reservoir.
As already expalined, with high reservoir pressure, oil production is improved. If the
reservoir pressure could be maintained there would be an increase in recoverable
oil.

This could be done by one of two ways:

• Inject gas into a gas cap
• Inject water into the water layer

Find the answers in Check Yourself 2 on page 58.

14
It has already been explained that the most efficient natural drive
mechanism is the water drive. It would seem reasonable to assume,
therefore, that pressure maintenance by water injection would be
beneficial.

In the past water was injected later on in the life of a reservoir after
maximum recovery had been obtained by natural drive mechanisms.
It was referred to as secondary recovery. Nowadays water injection is
planned to start as soon as the field comes into production and is an
integral part of many production facilities.

1.4 Pressure Maintenance By

Water Injection

Figure 6 is an illustration of an artificial water drive being used on an

oil reservoir.

As the oil is removed from the reservoir via the oil production wells,
water is injected into the water layer beneath the oil. The water layer
is often called the aquifer. The injection of water into the aquifer helps
to maintain the reservoir pressure, and many of the problems which
decrease the efficiency of the reservoir are avoided.

It is usually necessary to inject more water than the volume of oil being
removed ­­— in some cases as much as 2 m3 injected per m3 produced.

Figure 6: An artificial water drive in an oil reservoir

Some reservoirs produce oil at over 16,000 m3 per day and water may
be injected at a rate of over 30,000 m3 per day. Imagine this amount
of water being forced through the reservoir rock, every day for the life
of the reservoir.

15
 Summary of Section 1

In this section the nature of oil and gas reservoirs was looked at. Relying on these drives can be inefficient in terms of oil recovery.
The section considered the shape of a basic dome type reservoir. Even the best drive is likely to leave behind more than 35% of the
From there it was explained that the two rock properties which original oil in place. It would make sense to try to improve the
influence the way in which oil and gas are produced are: ultimate recovery. One way of improving this recovery would be
to maintain the pressure in the reservoir for as long as possible.
• Porosity
This could be done by injecting gas into the gas cap or water into
• Permeability the water layer.

Reservoir drive mechanisms were then considered. There are The most efficient drive mechanism is water drive. Here the
three basic mechanisms which utilise natural forces to drive reservoir pressure tends to remain high and oil recovery is
fluids through a reservoir towards a well. These are: maximised.
• Dissolved gas drive
It would appear, then, that to simulate a natural water drive by
• Gas cap drive injecting water into the aquifer could prove beneficial.
• Water drive The next section discusses where this water comes from and why
it is necessary to treat it before injection.

16
 Water Injection
Section 2 — Reasons for Treating Water Injection
Section 1 showed that the injection of water into an aquifer could So let’s first look at the make-up of sea water,and what it is. It is Aerobic bacteria require oxygen in order to survive. They are
increase the recoverable oil from a reservoir. It may be necessary to basically everyday water which contains the following responsible for producing the green slimes which are seen on sea
inject considerable amounts of water. The actual amounts required walls, weirs and other highly oxygenated areas of water. This type
• Bacteria
will depend on the size of the field and the extent of the natural water of bacteria does not cause serious problems in itself. However, it
drive. But in any case a very large amount needs to be injected • Suspended solids consumes oxygen and creates anaerobic conditions which can lead to
continuously. the growth
• Dissolved gases
of anaerobic bacteria.
Where does all the water come from? In some land locations water • Dissolved solids
supply can be a problem. Surface supplies such as lakes or rivers Anaerobic bacteria thrive in conditions where there is no oxygen.
can be used if available. If not, water wells may have to be drilled or Each of the above substances poses its own particular problem in They are responsible for producing the black slimes which are seen
produced water used. water injection systems. Let’s consider each in turn and the ways in in sewers and other dark and dank places where the oxygen content
which the problem may be overcome. may be low or zero.
Offshore, there is no problem of supply. Oceans full of sea water are
available. In fact, sea water may be pumped to land locations for A special type of anaerobic bacteria is called sulphate reducing
injection purposes. As this is the most common type of water injected bacteria. These bacteria reduce the sulphates present in the water.
into oil reservoirs, this Unit concentrates on sea water treatment. 2.1 Bacteria (The term ‘reduce’ here means to remove oxygen or add hydrogen.) In
the case of sulphate reduction, the result is the production of hydrogen
If raw sea water were to be injected directly into the reservoir, issues Sea water contains tiny micro-organisms called bacteria. They are very sulphide. This gas, which has the formula H2S, is very corrosive and
would be encountered. Sea water requires a great deal of treatment simple life-forms which are split into two categories. They are extremely toxic. It is essential to try to limit the production of H2S in
before it can be injected and this is what this section looks at. The • Aerobic bacteria oilfield operations.
problems associated with the injection of sea water and the reasons
for treating it will also be discussed. • Anaerobic bacteria Certain bacteria are slime forming as explained earlier. These slimes
can cause fouling in pipework and, if injected, cause plugging in the
reservoir.

In view of this, It is necessary to maintain relatively low numbers of

bacteria. In particular, it is necessary to control the growth of sulphate
reducing bacteria.

17
 ? Test Yourself 3 & 4

In addition to bacteria, other marine organisms can enter the system. The combination of sea water and oxygen is, however, very corrosive. It
Hard shell creatures such as barnacles and mussels enter as embryos. will cause corrosion problems in the pipes and flowlines used to inject
These can accumulate and grow on pipes, restricting flow. Dead shell Explain what the consequences would be water into the reservoir. Corroded equipment will require expensive
debris can be carried to the reservoir once again to plug the reservoir of injecting water containing sand or clay replacement or repair. In addition, the products of corrosion, i.e. rust,
pores. may enter the reservoir as small particles and block the pores in the
particles into a reservoir rock. reservoir rock.
The only way of preventing the problems associated with the growth
of bacteria and other organisms is to kill them with some form of It is necessary then to remove the oxygen from the sea water. This can
chemical. The chemical which is used to do this is called a biocide. be done by mechanically deaerating the water, by injecting oxygen
scavenging chemicals, or both.

2.2 Suspended Solids

Sea water contains a whole variety of suspended solids. In areas of Find the answers in Check Yourself 3 on page
clear water small fishes, shrimps, jelly fish and other life forms may
be seen. In areas of muddy water very fine particles of sand and clay 58.
could be seen. All of these items are classed as suspended solids.

Bearing in mind what has already been said about the properties of It is necessary to remove oxygen from injec-
reservoir rocks, injecting water conatining suspended solids would
To prevent the problem, the suspended solids must be removed. This tion water but in itself could create further
have consequences.
is done by filtering the sea water to ensure that all but the very tiniest problems.
particles of suspended solids are taken out.
What problems are these?

2.3 Dissolved Gases

Sea water contains dissolved gases, the main one of which is air. The
air is made up mainly of oxygen and nitrogen. It is the oxygen from
the air dissolved in the sea water which provides fish and other living Find the answers in Check Yourself 4 on page
organisms with the means to live. 59.

18
 Where each of these chemicals is injected into the water is discussed
2.4 Dissolved Solids 2.5 Other Chemical Treatment in Section 4.

A large number of chemical compounds are dissolved in sea water. Sea In addition to the biocide and scale inhibitor which may be added to
water only has to be tasted to know that one of the dissolved solids is the sea water, it may be necessary to inject other chemicals. Some of
common salt. It is this salt, sodium chloride, which gives sea water its these will be looked at in more detail in a later section but as starting
distinctive taste. four further chemicals could be used

Elements such as potassium, calcium and magnesium are also present Oxygen scavengers —The removal of oxygen can be done by
as compounds which are dissolved in the water. These compounds are mechanically deaerating the water or by injecting oxygen scavenging
called dissolved solids. chemicals. These scavengers are chemicals which will react with
oxygen to remove it. In theory, all the oxygen could be
Sea water evaporates, the dissolved solids will come out of solution removed in this way but it would be a very expensive operation.
as small crystals. As the crystals leave the liquid, they are said to have Mechanical deaeration by itself usually leaves a small amount of
been precipitated from the water. dissolved oxygen in the water and the oxygen scavenger is used to
remove this residual amount.
In a sea water injection system the precipitated crystals will form
a deposit known as scale. This scale could block pipework and, if it Corrosion inhibitors — Chemicals which will retard the effects of
formed in the reservoir, could block the pores in the reservoir rock. various types of corrosion may be injected into the water.

To prevent the formation of scale, a chemical known as a scale Defoamers — The operation of mechanical deaeration equipment
inhibitor is injected into the sea water. may be improved by injecting chemicals to prevent foaming of the
water.

Polyelectrolytes — These chemicals are coagulants. They cause fine

particles in the water to stick together, forming larger particles. These
are then more easily filtered from the water.

19
 Summary of Section 2

This short section has explained the make-up of sea water which In order to overcome these problems:
renders it unsuitable for injection in its raw state.
• Bacteria and other marine organisms are controlled by dos-
It was explained that:
ing the water with a biocide
• Suspended solids are removed by
• Bacteria can cause slimes to form which can foul the system
• Filtering the water
• Bacteria can cause the formation of hydrogen sulphide, a
corrosive and toxic gas • Dissolved solids are treated by injecting a scale inhibiting
chemical
• Suspended solids can plug the pores of the reservoir
• Dissolved gases are removed by deaeration or oxygen scav-
• Dissolved solids can create scale
enging.
• Dissolved gases, particularly oxygen, can cause corrosion.
Other chemicals may also be injected into the water to prevent
foaming, inhibit corrosion and assist in filtration.

20
? Test Yourself 5

The next section looks at the equipment used to treat sea water.
Before moving on, complete the Test Yourself question.
Which of the problems associated with the
use of sea water as injection water is tackled
by each of the following treatments?

a. Passing the water through filters.

b. Injecting oxygen scavengers.

c. Passing the water through mechanical

deaerators.

d. Injecting scale inhibitors.

e. Injecting polyelectrolytes.

f. Injecting biocides.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 5 on page

59.

21
 Water Injection
Section 3 — Sea Water Treatment Equipment
There are a number of things that need to be done to the sea water
before it can be injected into the reservoir. They are: 3.1 Bacteria Control
• Kill off all the bacteria and other marine organisms so that they
cannot create slimes or corrosive products A biocide is used to kill the bacteria present in the sea water.
• Remove the suspended solids so that the pores of the reservoir
rock do not get blocked Look at the small print on a bottle of strong domestic bleach and it will
state that it contains sodium hypochlorite. This substance is a biocide
• Remove the oxygen so that the sea water does not corrode the — a chemical which is capable of killing bacteria. Sodium hypochlorite
pipework and equipment is a very powerful biocide and is the most common one used in sea
• Ensure that the sea water does not produce scale water treatment.

• Rreat the water with other chemicals to prevent foaming and The component of the bleach which does the job is chlorine. This is
inhibit corrosion. a gas, however, which would be difficult to handle. Hypochlorite is a
convenient way of storing chlorine in liquid form.
In this section, some of the equipment used to do these jobs will be
explained. Occasionally the sodium hypochlorite may be purchased and delivered
to the injection water treatment plant as bulk chemical. However,
it can be made from sea water on-site and this is often much more
convenient.

22
 One of the disadvantages of the chlorination cell is the fact that
hydrogen is produced. This is an inevitable by-product of this process.
Hydrogen gas is of course very explosive, so it must be safely removed.

This is done by routing the sea water plus the products of electrolysis
to a degassing tank. In the tank, the hydrogen is liberated and excess
air is introduced to dilute it. The hydrogen can then be safely vented.

3.2 Filtration Equipment

The next treatment which the sea water has to undergo is that of
removing the suspended solids. This is done using a filtration system.

Filtration is the process whereby solids are removed from liquids by

means of a permeable barrier which will allow the passage of liquid
but will strain out solid particles. The equipment used to do this is
called filters.

Figure 7: A sodium hypochlorite generator

Figure 7 shows a simplified illustration of a sodium hypochlorite Sea water flows through the space between the pipe and the tube.
generator, where the process takes place. It consists of a length of pipe The chemical reaction takes place as a high voltage direct current
with a titanium coated steel tube suspended in the centre. Electrical flows from the pipe walls, through the sea water, to the central tube
connections are made to the pipe and tube. The combination of outer and back to the power source.
pipe and inner length of tube is called a chlorination cell.
As the electricity passes through the sea water, electrolysis takes place.
The sodium hypochlorite which is generated remains in the sea water
as a dilute solution. It can be used as a biocide in this form. Sodium
hypochlorite generators may contain as few as two chlorination cells
in the smaller units to over twenty cells in the case of large units.

23
The efficiency of a filter is measured by the diameter of the largest
solid particle which will pass through it.

This is usually expressed in microns. A micron is a measurement of

length equal to one millionth of a metre.

Most sea water treatment plants are fitted with filter systems which
are designed to remove:
• All suspended solids which have a diameter of more than 5
microns
• 95% of all suspended solids which have a diameter of 5 microns
or less.

There are a range of filter types in common use.

Before we take a look at the different types of filter, let's look at two
features of these pieces of equipment.

Figure 8 shows three illustrations of a glass of water and a funnel

shaped mesh screen.

The water contains solid particles of three different sizes. The mesh
Figure 8: Three passes of filtration water
screen will only filter out the largest size of particle.

If the mixture is poured across the mesh screen once it will filter out If the water is then passed through the screen for a third time the
the largest particles. The medium and small particles will fall through medium sized particles assist the screen in removing most of the tiny
the screen. particles. If the water kept passing through the screen all of them
would eventually be removed.
But look what happens if the medium and small particles are poured
across the screen for a second time. On the second pass through the Remember that the particles which have already been filtered increase
screen the larger particles assist the screen to remove the medium the efficiency of the filter in removing other particles.
sized particles.

24
The second point to remember is that, as filtration progresses, the
filter itself will eventually become plugged with solids. When this
happens the filter must be cleaned. A common way of cleaning a filter
is to flush away the filtered particles with water. This process is called
backwashing.

The four main types of filter used for filtering sea water and see how
they work:
• Basket filters
• Sand filters
• Dual media filters
• Cartridge filters

Basket Filters
Basket filters use a sheet of fine wire mesh to remove the solids from
the sea water. They are most often used for coarse filtration, and are
usually found at the very start of the filtration process.

The sea water is pumped through the filter and the suspended solids
are trapped on the front face of the mesh. The solids build up on the
surface of the mesh and create a more efficient filtering medium than
the mesh itself.

Figure 9 shows a basket filter in normal operation.

Figure 9: Basket filter in operating mode

25
In this mode, the water enters the outer casing through the water inlet
on the inside of the filter basket. As the water flows across the basket
the solids are deposited on the inside of the mesh screen and removed
from the water. The filtered water leaves via the filtered water outlet.
Whilst filtering, the backwash valve is in the closed position.

The pressure differential transmitter (PDT) measures the differential

pressure between the water inlet and the filtered water outlet. As the
solids build up on the wire mesh screen of the basket the differential
pressure will rise. When this pressure reaches a preset level, the PDT
will activate a filter backwash through a backwash controller.

Figure 10 shows the flow of water through a basket filter when it is in

the filter backwash mode.

Figure 10: Basket filter in backwash mode

26
When the differential pressure switch activates a filter backwash, the In the example:
backwash valve opens and the cleaning head motor starts to rotate
• The support plate is a stainless steel plate which is drilled with
the cleaning head.
holes or slots which are smaller than the support material
With the backwash valve open, filtered water from the outside of the • The support material consists of layers of ceramic balls, graded
filter basket flows: according to their diameter
• Back through the basket • The top layer is garnet sand.
• Into the cleaning head
Garnet sand is a special type of sand which will not chip or flake easily.
• Through the backwash valve to drain.
Once again, as suspended solids are filtered from the water and collect
The filtered solids are washed off the front face of the wire mesh on the sand, the differential pressure across the filter will increase.
screen into the cleaning head. When the cleaning head has rotated When this pressure reaches a predetermined value, a backwash
through 360O the whole of the filtering surface will have been cleaned. sequence is activated. Water is pumped in the reverse direction
The main advantage of this type of filter is that it can be backwashed through the filter to remove the filtered solid particles.
whilst it is still on line and filtering water.
The major drawback of this type of filter is that only the top few
inches of the filter bed are effectively used. This means that the rate
Sand Filters of filtration is quite low. Therefore many filters are required for the
As the name implies, this type of filter uses grains of sand as the large volumes of water used in water injection systems.
filtering medium. Figure 11: Cross-section through a sand filter

Figure 11 shows a simplified cross-section through a sand filter.

The water to be filtered enters the filter at the top and filtered water
leaves from the bottom.

27
Dual Media Filters The larger grains of anthracite have larger gaps between them and Backwashing is carried out as for the sand filter.
Figure 12 shows a dual media filter which uses anthracite and garnet filter out large particles from the sea water. The smaller particles will
sand as the filter media. pass through the grains of anthracite to the layer of garnet sand. The Figure 13, shows a dual media filter with some of the ancillary valves
sand will then filter out the smaller particles. This technique increases and equipment.
the efficiency of the filter and reduces the frequency of backwashing.

Figure 12: Dual media filter

In the illustration the layer of anthracite lies on top of the layer of

garnet sand. The particles of anthracite are larger than the grains of
sand but because they are lighter they lie on top of the sand.

By having a layer of large particles on top of a layer of small particles

two different levels of filtration are created within the same filter.
Figure 13: Dual media filter

28
Study the illustration shows: Pressure Differential Transmitter In the examples, the cartridge is removed and replaced with a new
The pressure differential transmitter (PDT) measures the pressure one. This results in an ongoing cost and prevents the cartridge filter
• A turbidity analyser (TA)
difference between the inlet and outlet of the filter. As the filter being used more widely.
• A pressure differential transmitter (PDT) becomes blocked up with filtered particles, the differential pressure
will rise. Because of this lack of economy, cartridge filters are normally used
• A backwash sequence controller
where:
When this differential pressure reaches a pre-set limit, the PDT sends
Turbidity Analyser • A back-up is required to the normal filtering method, e.g. if an
a signal to the backwash sequence controller.
The turbidity analyser (TA) is an instrument which measures the upstream filter fails, the cartridge filter will remove the particles
turbidity of the water. Turbidity is a measure of clearness. By to the required standard
Backwash Sequence Controller
measuring the level of turbidity there is an indication of whether or
The backwash sequence controller will activate a backwash cycle, • A polishing stage of filtration is required, e.g. the cartridge filter
not the filter is performing properly.
which is a series of timed events designed to clean the filter. The is used to remove small amounts of very tiny particles to polish
backwash cycle in a dual media filter will be discussed in Section 4 of water which has already been filtered by other means.
Most turbidity analysers shine a light through a stream of water, which
this Unit.
is picked up by a receiver. The level of light transmitted is measured.
The level of light received is also measured. The difference between
the two is a measure of the turbidity of the water.
Cartridge Filters
It should be noted that turbidity is only an indication that a filter is The cartridge filter is one of the easiest filters to install, operate and
operating correctly. Two or three large particles per m3 (large enough maintain. It is also one of the most popular filters in everyday life.
to clog the reservoir) may register the same level of turbidity as 150
to 200 very fine particles per m3 (small enough not to affect the Two types of cartridge filter found in common usage are:
reservoir). • The filter in the engine lube-oil system of your car. When the filter
becomes blocked, the paper cartridge is removed and replaced
with a new one
• The paper bag in a vacuum cleaner. When it is full, the cleaner
bag (cartridge) is removed and replaced with a new one.

29
Cartridge filters are reliable because they:
• Guarantee a specified level of filtration
• Very seldom fail to filter to the required standard
• Are easy to install and monitor.

Figure 14 shows a cartridge filter arrangement. Normal flow through

the filter is from top to bottom. The water to be filtered:
• Passes through valve V1
• Passes through the filter cartridges
• Exits the filter via valve V2.

Figure 14: A cartridge filter arrangement

30
 ? Test Yourself 6

The cover plate allows the operator to gain access to the filter, to
remove the old cartridges and replace them with new ones. Because 3.3 Oxygen Removal
the cartridges are renewed, there is no backwash requirement on a Are the following statements true or false ?
cartridge filter.
In Section 2 it was established that sea water contained dissolved
The cartridges used for water filtration are most often a series of a. A non-permeable barrier is used oxygen. If the oxygen is not removed:
cotton or synthetic material layers wrapped around a slotted stainless to remove suspended solids in a • It will cause corrosion problems in the pipes and flowlines used to
steel tube. The type of material, and the number of layers, will decide filter. inject the sea water into the reservoir
the particle size which the filter will remove. Cartridges may be
installed, which will filter out all particles greater than, say, 5 microns b. A seven micron particle will pass • It will support bacteria which produce slimes, causing blocking
in diameter, regardless of the state of the water entering the filter. through a ten micron filter. of the small pores in the reservoir rock and rendering the rock
impermeable.
Now complete the Test Yourself question.
c. A common way to clean a filter is
to backwash it. The process of removing oxygen from the water is called deaeration.
d. A basket filter uses garnet sand as This can be accomplished by:
the filter medium. • Increasing the temperature of the water
e. In a sand filter the flow is: through • Decreasing the concentration of oxygen in the gas mixture in con-
the support plate, through tact with the water
the support material and then • Reducing the total pressure in the system.
through the sand.
f. A cartridge filter has a removable
cover plate which allows access to
the unit to replace filter elements.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 6 on page

59.

31
Section 4 explains that the injection water is used as cooling water in
various process systems. This means that the water itself is heated,
thus assisting in the oxygen removal.

Decreasing the concentration of oxygen in the gas mixture in contact

with the water can be achieved by a process known as gas stripping.

Gas Stripping
The process of stripping dissolved oxygen from water is conducted in
large stripping towers. Inside the tower the water is spread out to
increase the surface area and natural gas is passed over the surface
of the water. This reduces the concentration of oxygen which is in the
atmosphere in contact with the water.

Figure 15 shows a simplified view of a gas stripper tower.

Figure 15: A gas stripper tower

32
The flow of liquid and gas through the gas stripper is counter current. The packed section contains packing rings. These are designed to
As the liquid falls downwards through the column, the stripping gas increase the surface area of the water. A popular type of packing ring
flows upwards. used in stripping columns is the pall ring which may be made from
plastic or stainless steel. One of these rings is shown alongside the
In the illustration, the pre-heated sea water: stripping tower in Figure 15.
• Enters the stripper at the top of the column
Other features of the stripper tower which you can see in Figure 15
• Passes through a water distribution pipe which is often called a include:
sparge pipe
• Flows downwards through a packed section • The distribution plate, which ensures that the sea water is evenly
distributed across the packing
• Accumulates at the bottom of the stripper
• The demister pad, which ensures that the gas leaving the stripper
• Leaves the stripper from the bottom of the column.
is free from liquid droplets and mists
The stripping gas is often hydrocarbon gas from the • The oxygen scavenger inlet, which is used to introduce oxygen
oil and gas process. The flow through the tower is: scavenging chemical to the tower
• Into the stripper through the stripping gas inlet pipe • The vortex breaker on the deaerated water outlet which pre-
vents gas from being sucked into the pump with the water.
• Through a gas distribution sparge pipe
• Upwards through the packed section
• Out through an gas outlet located at the top of the tower.

33
Vacuum Deaeration
Note that the term vacuum is used to denote any pressure below
atmospheric pressure. A deep vacuum, is a vacuum well below
atmospheric pressure. A shallow vacuum, on the other hand, is a
vacuum which is only slightly below atmospheric pressure.

Figure 16 is a simple illustration of a two-stage vacuum deaerator.

It looks similar to the gas stripping deaerator. However, it does have
a number of different features. The first thing is that there are two
separate sections of packing. The upper section operates under a
shallow vacuum. The lower section operates under a deeper vacuum.
This, then, is a two-stage vacuum deaerator. Single stage and three-
stage deaerators have been used but two stages are the most common.

In this vessel, the sea water from the process heat exchangers enters
the deaerator through a sparge pipe and flows downwards over the
upper section of packing.

Oxygen and water vapour are sucked out of the vessel via an overhead
vapour line, creating a shallow vacuum in the vessel.

Figure 16: A two-stage vacuum deaerator

34
When the water reaches the bottom of the upper section of packing, Figure 17 is a simplified drawing of a vacuum pump. (An actual
it flows through a set of seal chimneys. These operate in a similar pump would look very different from this. However, the illustration is
manner to the ‘U' bend under a sink. The water has to flow upwards intended to explain the principles of operation.)
and over a weir before it can reach the lower section of packing. The
pressure difference between the two sections is maintained by the In Figure 17 there is a shaft, fitted with four vanes, rotating inside an
height of the chimney weirs. empty casing. The shaft and vanes have been positioned central to
the casing.
A simplified sketch of a seal chimney is shown alongside the deaerator
in Figure 16. In the second drawing of Figure 17, a water inlet and outlet is shown
which introduces service water into the casing at the near end and
After the sea water leaves the seal chimneys it is re-distributed and removes it from the far end. The spinning action of the shaft and the
flows downwards over the lower section of packing. Oxygen and water vanes imparts a centrifugal force to the water. The water is thrown
vapour are again sucked out of the vessel via a vapour line which goes against the inside wall of the casing due to this force.
to the deep vacuum section.
The water forced against the casing in this way is the liquid ring which
The deaerated water leaves the lower section of packing, falls into the gives the compressor its name. The central part of the casing is filled
bottom of the column, and leaves via the deaerated water outlet. with air.

Vacuum deaerators are very efficient. Most two-stage vacuum

deaerators can achieve an oxygen concentration as low as 0.1 to 0.15
ppm (parts per million) in the deaerated sea water outlet.

Now let’s take a look at two items of equipment which may be used to
create the vacuum in the deaerator.

The most common method of creating this vacuum is by the use of a

liquid ring compressor. These are also called vacuum pumps, which is
the term that shall be used moving forward.

Figure 17: A simplified diagram of a

vacuum pump

35
Figure 18 shows a difference in the position of the shaft and vanes. The shaft and vanes are offset from the centre of the casing. Service The differing sizes of these void spaces means that the pressure in
water is again introduced into the casing and again forced outwards to each will change as the shaft and vanes rotate. The pressure will:
form the liquid ring.
• Decrease when the void space increases
It should be noted that: • Increase when the void space decreases.
• Although the shaft and vanes are offset the water still forms a
If the flow of air is controlled into the unit so that it enters a void space
uniform liquid ring against the casing
at the low pressure side and leaves at the high pressure side, a liquid
• The offset shaft and the uniform liquid ring combine to form ring compressor has been created. The compressor will in fact suck
different sized void spaces. the air into the low pressure side and create a vacuum.

In real vacuum pumps, slide valves control the air inlet and outlet.

Vacuum pumps are only capable of creating a limited amount of

vacuum. Therefore, in order to create the deeper vacuum required in
the second stage of deaeration, the vacuum pump is augmented by an
ejector. This piece of equipment is also called an eductor or venturi.

Figure 19 shows how such a unit works.

Figure 18: Cross-section of a vacuum pump

36
 ? Test Yourself 7

Do the following statements apply to: gas

stripping deaerators, vacuum deaerators,
both types of deaerator or neither of them?
a. Water enters the column at the top and
is distributed through a sparge pipe.
b. A vortex breaker ensures that gas is
not drawn out of the vessel with the
deaerated water.
c. The upper packing support plate
accommodates seal chimneys.
d. The concentration of the oxygen in the
gas mixture in contact with the water is
reduced.
e. Pall rings may be used as packaging.
f. Renewable cartridges help to maintain
Figure 19: An ejector the water quality.
g. A liquid ring compressor is connected to
the upper outlet.
The discharge side of the ejector is connected to the suction of the Now complete Test Yourself 7.
vacuum pump. A line connects the nozzle of the unit to the deep h. Water flows through a distribution plate
vacuum section of the deaerator. located above the packing.
As the vacuum pump draws atmospheric air through the nozzle of the Find the answers in Check Yourself 7 on page
ejector the air speeds up. This creates an area of very low pressure at 60.
the nozzle which in turn pulls a deep vacuum on the deaerator.

37
 Summary of Section 3

This section has looked at the equipment and processes which are Injection water filters are typically designed to remove all The temperature is increased because the water is used as a
used to treat sea water. This equipment ensures that the water is suspended solids which have a diameter of more than 5 microns. cooling medium in heat exchangers.
rendered suitable for injection into a reservoir. In addition they will remove 95% of suspended solids which have a
diameter of 5 microns or less. Equipment is provided to backwash The remaining two methods use a deaeration tower.
The equipment used to make sodium hypochlorite from sea water the filters when they become plugged with solids.
was explained. The process to create sodium hypochlorite is one In the first method, gas stripping reduces the concentration
of electrolysis using a chlorination cell. In the final part of the section the equipment used to remove of oxygen. In the second, a vacuum is created in the tower by a
dissolved oxygen from the sea water was looked at. The process of vacuum pump augmented by an ejector.
From there the different types of filter which could be used to removing oxygen can be accomplished by:
reduce the suspended solids content of the injection water were The next section will show how this equipment is used in a typical
• Increasing the temperature of the water
shown. sea water injection system. Before moving on to that section,
• Decreasing the concentration of the oxygen in the gas mixture however, complete the Test Yourself.
The types which were looked at were: which is in contact with the water
• Basket filters • Reducing the total pressure in the system.
• Sand filters
• Dual media filters
• Cartridge filters.

38
? Test Yourself 8

To which piece of injection water treatment equipment or system do the following

components belong?

If the piece of equipment is a filter, state which type. You should indicate if the
components belong to more than one piece of equipment or system.

Sparge pipe .......................................................... Backwash controller...........................................

Degassing tank..................................................... Cleaning head motor .........................................

Support material ................................................. Demister pad .....................................................

Vortex breaker ..................................................... Vacuum pump ....................................................

Ejector .................................................................

Seal chimney .......................................................

Cartridges ............................................................

Find the answers in Check Yourself 8 on page 60.

39
 Water Injection
Section 4 — A Typical Water Injection Treatment System
In this, the final section of injection water treatment, a typical system Figure 20 is a simple block diagram which shows the flow through the
which might be found on an offshore oil production platform will be system.
looked at.
From the diagram you can see that the sea water is pumped:
However, remember that each water treatment system is unique. Each
• From the sea, via the sea water transfer pumps (or sometimes
one will differ, in types of equipment used and process layout. The sea
called Sea water lift pumps) through the coarse filters, to the sea
water treatment system which is described is not meant to represent
water reservoir
any particular facility. It is simply a hypothetical system which will give
an overview of the full sea water treatment process. • From the sea water reservoir, via the sea water supply pumps,
through the fine filters, crude oil coolers and the vacuum
deaerator to the surge vessel
• From the surge vessel, via the booster pumps and injection
pumps, to the injection wells and then into the reservoir.

(or sometimes
called Sea water
lift pumps)

Figure 20: A typical sea water treatment system

40
 4.1 Sea Water Intake and Coarse Filters

Figure 21, shows the sea water transfer pumps and the coarse filter
system. There is only one pump and one filter shown. In practice there
would probably be three of each.

The sea water transfer pumps (or sometimes called Sea water lift
pumps) are positioned inside caissons. These are long pipes which
are open to the sea and extend below the platform. The pumps are
selected and started manually by the operator.

At each pump suction there is fitted a simple filter to prevent larger

marine organisms from entering the system. It is also at this point that
the first treatment, the introduction of sodium hypochlorite, takes
place.

The sea water leaving the sea water transfer pumps is analysed by
an instrument called an analyser indicator controller (AQIC). This
monitors the sea water to ensure that there is a sufficient concentration
of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) to kill all of the bacteria. If the NaOCI
concentration is too low the controller opens valve AV1 further to
allow more NaOCI to flow into the suction of the pumps.

Figure 21: Sea water lift pump and coarse filter system

41
The sea water then flows to the coarse filters where the first stage of
filtration takes place. The coarse filters are basket filters which can
be backwashed whilst they are on line. A pressure differential switch
high (PDSH1) in Figure 21 monitors the differential pressure across
the filters.

If the differential pressure exceeds a pre-set limit, for example 1 barg

differential pressure, PDSH1 sends a signal to the backwash sequence
controller. The controller starts a backwash cycle which backwashes
each filter in turn. A backwash sequence controller will be looked at in
more detail when the fine filters are discussed.

The filtered water now flows to the sea water reservoir. A portion of
it is taken as a side stream to be used as feed for the NaOCI generator.
Let’s leave the main flow for a time and see how the NaOCI generator
fits into the overall system.

4.2 Chlorination Facilities

Figure 22 shows the main pipelines and controls to be found on the
NaOCI generator.

Figure 22: Main pipelines and controls on the NaOCI generator

42
Follow the line which enters the diagram at the top left. The feed from The NaOCI, sea water and hydrogen mixture leaving the chlorination A dosing pump increases the pressure of the NaOCI and sea water so
the coarse filters enters the NaOCI generator via: cells enters a hydrogen removal tank. Section 3 explained that the that it can be injected into a higher pressure area.
hydrogen removal tank is kept constantly purged with air from an air
• A flow switch low-low (FSLL1)
blower. Note from Figure 21 that the injection point to the main sea water
• An emergency valve (XV1) line is downstream of the take-off point to the NaOCI generator. If the
The hydrogen is diluted with the air which is then vented from the injection point was upstream of this take off, then NaOCI would be
• A pressure control valve (PCV1).
hydrogen removal tank to the atmosphere. To minimise the danger of re-circulated back to the generator resulting in high and dangerous
an explosion, a flame arrestor is fitted in the vent line to prevent the concentrations of NaOCI.
The flow switch is required to prevent the NaOCI generator from
backward movement of a flame should the vent ever ignite.
being damaged due to a low flow of sea water through the system.
Another line from the hydrogen removal tank takes the NaOCI / sea
If the supply of air from the blowers was to fail, a dangerous water mix to the transfer pump caissons. This is a simple gravity feed
If this switch is activated, the local control system will close the
concentration of hydrogen would rapidly build up in the hydrogen via the valve AV1 to the pump suctions. Look back to Figure 21 and
emergency valve, shut off the electrical supply and send an alarm to
removal tank. To guard against this, a pressure switch (PSLL1) is identify this injection point.
the operator to warn the individual of the problem.
installed in the discharge line from the air blowers. The switch will
sense a lack of air and activate a shutdown of the chlorination facilities There is a signal to the chlorination control system from a chlorine
The pressure control valve (PCV1) maintains a constant pressure on
via the control system. analyser at the inlet to the sea water reservoir. If there is insufficient
the chlorination cells during normal operation.
NaOCI at this point, then AIC2 will signal the NaOCI generator to
The liquid in the hydrogen removal tank is a mixture of NaOCI and increase the amount of NaOCI being produced and injected into the
The NaOCI generator is a skid mounted unit which is contained within
sea water. discharge of the coarse filters.
its own housing. If there is a leak of water within the housing, an
operator could be in severe danger of electrocution. To prevent this
The liquid level, is maintained by a controller (LIC1) operating valve Now complete Test Yourself 9.
danger from arising, the area under the chlorination cells is monitored
LV1.
by a level switch. This switch is designated LSHH 1 on the drawing. It
is activated by a rising water level. If the level switch is activated, the
The sodium hypochlorite and sea water mixture, in the line after LV1,
local control system will again close XV1, shut off the electrical supply
goes:
and send an alarm to the operator to warn them of the problem.
• Either into the main sea water line just downstream of the coarse
filters
• Or to the shock dosing connections.

43
 ? Test Yourself 9

The pre-service flush line, allows injection water to be circulated

4.3 Sea Water Reservoir through the fine filters and back to the reservoir prior to starting the
State the function of the following system.
equipment in the sea water intake, coarse The sea water from the coarse filters (which is now chlorinated) flows
The shock dosing connection requires a little more explanation at this
filters and chlorination facilities. towards the sea water reservoir.
point.
Figure 23, shows this part of the system. The main sea water line is a
As a general rule the NaOCI is injected at a reasonably steady rate
continuation of the one leaving the coarse filters which was seen in
a. The analyser indicator controller at the during operations. NaOCI is extremely effective but, after a number
Figure 21. Follow the flow through this part of the system starting at
of weeks, the bacteria may become resistant to the effects of NaOCI.
discharge from the transfer pumps. the bottom left hand side of Figure 23.
When this occurs the regular dosage rate becomes insufficient and
a shock dose, i.e. a large amount, of concentrated NaOCI is injected
b. The differential pressure switch Sea water flows towards the sea water reservoir via a level control
into the system over a short period of time. This usually kills off any
connected across the coarse filters. valve and an analyser indicator controller. These are designated LV2
resistant strains of bacteria. This shock dose can be injected at the
and AIC2 respectively.
connection upstream or, as can be seen in the diagram, downstream
c. The low flow switch at the inlet to the of the reservoir.
LV2 maintains the correct level in the reservoir and is operated by a
NaOCI generator. signal from a level controller which is marked LIC2 in the drawing.
The sea water reservoir has two outlets.
d. The air blower in the chlorination
AIC2 controls the amount of NaOCI injected into the sea water as it • An outlet to the sea water supply pumps
facilities. leaves the coarse filters.
• An outlet to the fine filter backwash pumps.
Note that, just before entering the reservoir, two lines join the main
The outlet to the sea water supply pumps is the main outlet from the
sea water line. They are:
sea water reservoir. The pumps transfer the water through fine filters.
• A pre-service flush line from the fine filters
• A shock dosing connection for NaOCI injection.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 9 on page

61.

44
 Figure 23: Sea water reservoir system

The backwash pumps provide water to clean the fine filters. These will • A biocide connection Let’s look at why these chemicals are needed before moving on to the
be looked at in more detail when the fine filter system is explained. fine filter section.
• A scale Inhibitor connection
There are four connections to the discharge line of the sea water sup- • A ferric chloride connection
ply pumps. These come from a chemical dosing skid and are:
• A polyelectrolyte connection.

45
As pointed out earlier a shock dose of concentrated NaOCI usually kills Figure 23 shows that the main flow line passes from the sea water
off any resistant strains of bacteria. However, if this shock dose of supply pumps to the fine filters.
NaOCI fails to do the trick, then a dose of another biocide is used.
The biocide connection is one of the points where such an alternative
biocide would be injected.
4.4 Fine Filtration
In Section 1, it was stated that the sea water may start to precipitate
Figure 24, shows one of the fine filters and its associated pipework.
dissolved solids as scale if it is not treated. The scale inhibitor is
The main flowline from the sea water supply pumps continues into
injected at this point to ensure that there is no scale precipitation later
this diagram at the top left hand side. In the example the fine filters
in the process.
are dual media filters. Once again only one filter with its associated
controls is shown. There would probably be a number of fine filters
Section 2 highlighted that polyelectrolytes are coagulants. They could
working in parallel.
also be termed flocculants. The word flocculant comes from 'flocking'
or 'gathering together'. These chemicals assist in gathering together
tiny particles of material and converting them into
larger particles. These larger particles are easier to filter out.

Ferric chloride does a similar type of job. It produces small electrically

charged particles which attract other particles to them. The combined
particles are large enough to be removed by the filters.

Both of these substance are aids to filtration. They are injected into
the water at this point, which is upstream of the fine filters.

46
Figure 24: Fine filter system

47
 ? Test Yourself 10

Locate the two turbidity analysers. One measures the turbidity in the The main flow is shown entering the system near the top left hand The filtered sea water leaves the fine filter via valve XV3. This valve
main sea water line before the filter. The other monitors the turbidity part of the diagram. Follow this bold line now. The flow passes through operates as part of the backwash sequence which will be looked at
of the water leaving the filter. the filter and continues towards the deaerator. This line then is very shortly. The water then joins the water discharged from the other
straightforward. The rest of the lines are part of the filter control filters before being fed to the deaerator via the crude oil coolers.
Think about the location of the two analysers, then attempt the Test system.
Yourself question. Before continuing, go over the last few paragraphs again, together
The total flow of sea water to the fine filters passes through flow with the drawing.
element 2 (FE2) which measures the water flow rate at this point. A
signal from FE2 is fed to flow relay 2 (FY2). Look now at two other devices which are fitted to the fine filter. They
are:
What is the significance of having two FY2 determines how much water should be flowing through each filter.
• Pressure safety valve (PSV1). This is a valve which will open and
It then sends a signal to a flow indicator controller located on each of
turbidity analysers in the system? the fine filters. In this case it is designated FIC3. This signal tells the FIC
release excess pressure from the filter should the pressure ex-
ceed a predetermined maximum value
how much water should be flowing through its own filter. It is called
a set point signal. The actual amount of water passing this filter is • Pressure differential switch high (PDSH2). This compares the
measured by the second flow element FE3. A signal from this element pressures upstream and downstream of the filter. If the differ-
is also fed to FIC3. The controller compares the actual flow rate with ential pressure exceeds a preset limit, PDSH2 will automatically
the flow rate determined by the flow relay. If there is a discrepancy activate a backwash sequence, through a controller.
between the two it sends a correcting signal to the flow control valve
FV3. The valve responds by opening or closing to maintain the correct
flow.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 10 on

page 61.

48
Now consider how the backwash is carried out. Let’s start from the This opens lines to dispose of the water in the filter via a dirty water Go back to Figure 23 and look at the second line leaving the sea
point where the filter is operating normally. sewer. It causes the water level in the filter to fall to just above the water reservoir. This line goes to the backwash pump then through a
filter bed. strainer. The strainer ensures that reasonably clean water is available
The flow of water would then be along the following path: for backwashing.
After five minutes has elapsed the backwash sequence controller will:
After the strainer, the water flows past a flow indicator controller
• Through valve FV3
(FIC4) and through a flow control valve (FV4). This system controls
5. Close valve XV7
• Through the filter the amount of water to be pumped to the filter as backwash water,
6. Open valve XV9 the actual amounts being determined by the backwash sequence
• Through flow element FE3
controller.
7. Start the air scour blower.
• Through valve XV3
After twenty minutes has elapsed the backwash sequence controller
• Across the turbidity analyser The air scour blower blows air through the filter. This violently agitates
will:
the filter bed to knock off any tiny particles which may be stuck to the
• On towards the deaerator.
grains of garnet sand.
13. Reduce the flow signal to FIC4
As the water is filtered, the differential pressure, as measured by
After ten minutes has elapsed the backwash sequence controller will:
PDSH2, would start to increase. When it reaches, say, 1 barg, the 14. Open valve XV5
backwash sequence would be activated. The sequence of events from
15. Close valve XV6.
now would be as follows: 8. Stop the air scour blower
9. Close valve XV9 The flow is reduced to allow the filter bed to settle down as the filter
The backwash sequence controller will send a backwash sequence in
is re-filled. The water will now flow back to the sea water reservoir
progress alarm to the operator, and then: 10. Start the sea water filter backwash pump
instead of to the dirty water sewer.
11. Open valve XV10 to direct the water back through the filter and
1. Send a zero flow signal to FIC3 to ensure that FIC3 closes FV3 to disposal via XV6
2. Close valve XV3. 12. Send a flow signal to FIC4 to regulate the amount of water being
pumped.
The fine filter is now isolated from the main sea water line. The
backwash sequence controller will now:

3. Open valve XV6

4. Open valve XV7.

49
 ? Test Yourself 11

After a further five minutes, the backwash sequence controller will: The fine filter is now back in service. A backwash sequence completed
signal will be sent to the operator. They will then check the outlet
16. Open valve XV8
turbidity meter to ensure that the filter is operating efficiently. The following steps, which are out of order, are
17. Open valve XV4 the first part of a typical backwash sequence.
The backwash sequence just described takes approximately sixty
18. Close valve XV5
minutes to complete.
Place the steps in the correct order. Start with
19. Close valve XV10 'inlet valve closes' and finish with 'filter is
20. Increase the flow signal to FIC4 to maximum.
There is just one line that hasn't been mentioned yet which appears now being backwashed'.
in Figure 24. That is the spill back line at the top right hand of the
diagram. It will be discussed shortly.
The filter is now in a pre-service flush sequence. The water is flowing a. Inlet valve closes
through the filter in the normal way, then back to the sea water Now complete the Test Yourself question. b. Lower valve to dirty water sewer closes
reservoir.
c. Air scour blower starts
After a further fifteen minutes, the backwash sequence controller d. Sea water backwash pump starts
will: e. Valves open to dirty water sewer
21. Close valve XV4 f. Air scour blower stops
22. Close valve XV8 g. Signal sent to controller on discharge
23. Remove the flow signal to FIC4
of backwash pump to regulate flow of
backwash water
24. Stop the sea water filter backwash pump
h. Controller closes outlet valve from filter
25. Remove the zero flow signal to FIC3, which opens FV3 i. Valve in line from air scour blower opens
26. Open valve XV3. j. Valve in line from backwash pump opens
k. Valve in line from air scour blower closes
l. Filter is now being backwashed.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 11 on page

61.

50
 4.5 Deaeration

The deaerator column in the system is a vacuum deaerator. Figure

25 shows the main components of the system and the associated
controls. Study this diagram before moving on. First of all try to
establish the main flow of sea water through the deaerator column to
the surge vessel and on towards the booster pumps.

Figure 25: Dearator Column

51
The sea water leaving the fine filters first flows through a turbidity The spillback line: After being injected with anti-foam agent, the sea water passes into
analyser then a pressure indicator controller (PIC3). The turbidity the dearator column where it gives up its dissolved oxygen. It then
• Protects the sea water supply pumps from damage if the flow to
analyser measures the turbidity of the combined flow of sea water accumulates at the bottom of the column, the water level there being
the deaerator column is stopped
from all of the fine filters. The PIC works together with a pressure controlled by LIC3 and LV3.
control valve, PV3, to prevent excess pressure building up in the line • Allows the fine filters to be brought on line without flowing sea
to the deaerator. water to the deaerator column At this point it can be treated with:
• Allows the filtered sea water to be diverted back to the sea water • A non-hypochlorite biocide
The sea water is then passed across crude oil coolers. These coolers
reservoir if the fine filters ever go off specification.
are not really part of the injection water treatment system. They • An oxygen scavenger.
simply use the cold sea water as a cooling medium in heat exchangers
After passing through LV3 the filtered sea water is injected with an
to reduce the temperature of oil. However the sea water itself is Remember how a vacuum deaerator works. The deaerated water
anti-foam chemical.
heated up in the exchanger and, as was explained in Section 3, heating leaves the column and flows to a surge vessel. This is in effect a storage
up the water will assist in the deaeration process. tank from which booster pumps can take their suction. A balance line
The anti-foam chemical is injected at this point because, as the sea
connecting the surge vessel to the deaerator column ensures that the
water passes across LV3, it may be subjected to a large pressure drop.
The sea water then flows through a level control valve (LV3) which is water level in each remains the same.
The pressure drop would cause a lot of the dissolved air to come out
activated by a level indicator controller (LIC3). LIC3 controls the level
of solution.
of water in the bottom of the deaerator column. Note a line entering the surge vessel at the top, from the booster and
injection pumps. This is part of the pump protection equipment which
The changing conditions may cause the water to foam. If foam is
If LV3 closes too far, the pressure on the filter side of LV3 will rise. This will be looked at shortly.
produced, the deaerator column cannot operate correctly. A lot of
will activate PIC3 which will open PV3. Water from the filters will be
water will be lost with the vapour and a lot of oxygen will pass through
spilled back to the sea water reservoir. This is the line that joins the Now let's explore the working of the remaining instruments which
the column with the water. The anti-foam chemical breaks down the
pre-service flush line from the fine filters, which was shown in Figure service the deaerator column and surge vessel.
bubbles in the foam.
24.

52
The first thing to notice is that there are two pressure relief valves The only lines that haven't been identified on Figure 25 are the ones
on the column. PSV4 is located on the top of the column and PSV5 is to the ejector and vacuum pump. 4.6 Water Injection Pumps
located on the outlet line at the bottom of the column. Both PSVs are
set to open at the maximum working pressure of the column (say, 1 The top line to the vacuum pump is connected to the deaerator
Figure 26, shows that the main flow from the surge vessel is through
barg). above the top packing. The other line is connected above the lower
the booster pumps and the injection pumps to the sea water injection
packing. It leads to the ejector and, from there, joins the upper line
wells via a header.
If the deaerator column ever completely filled with water, the before the vacuum pump. From the pump the line goes to an air /
pressure at the bottom of the column could exceed its maximum water separator. From here, the air is vented to the atmosphere and
The booster pumps, as their name suggests, boost or increase the
working pressure. the water is disposed of via the dirty water sewer.
pressure of the treated sea water. The pressure is increased from
that of the surge vessel to the pressure required at the suction of the
A pressure alarm high (PAH 4) is positioned just above the top layer Note the location of a hydrocarbon detector (HD). If the crude oil
injection pumps.
of packaging and is set to initiate an alarm if the pressure exceeds, coolers leak, crude could enter the sea water and cause severe
typically, 35 millibar. This could occur if: problems with the deaerator column and other equipment. The HD
will detect the presence of hydrocarbons in the air leaving the air /
• The level of water reached more than 0.35 m above PAH 4
water separator and activate an alarm to warn the operator that there
• The level of water was below PAH 4 and the internal gas pressure is a problem.
was greater than 35 millibar.
All that remains is to have to look at the injection pumps and injection
PAH 4 would activate and alert the operator to the fact that a pressure wells.
problem has occurred in the deaerator column. In both instances the
alarm would activate before the maximum pressure at the bottom of
the column was reached.

A pressure relief valve also protects the surge vessel from over
pressure. On the diagram it is designated PSV6.

53
 The combined discharge of the booster pumps is fitted with:
• An oxygen analyser (AE O2)
• A chlorine analyser (AE CI2)
• A pH analyser (AE pH).

The oxygen analyser ensures that the oxygen content of the water is
still below the maximum permitted level. The chlorine analyser ensures
that there is a sufficient amount of NaOCI in the injection water. The
pH analyser measures the acidity or alkalinity of the injection water.

As previously highlighted the scale inhibitor was injected into the

discharge of the sea water supply pumps just before the water
entered the fine filters. The level of pH is an indication of the tendency
of the sea water to form scale deposits. As a general rule, if the water
has a high pH (above 7.0) it is more prone to forming scale. The level of
pH is monitored at this point and the rate at which the scale inhibitor
is injected is adjusted accordingly.

The injection pumps will increase the water pressure to that required
for injection into the reservoir. This could be well over 200 barg in
many cases.

The discharge lines of both the booster pumps and injection pumps
are fitted with minimum flow controllers. They are FIC5 and FIC6
respectively.

Figure 26: A water injection pump

54
All centrifugal pumps require protection to prevent them from pumping The treated sea water then flows across:
at too low a flow rate. The minimum flow controllers measure the
• Wing valve (XV20)
flow from the pumps. If this flow falls below a predetermined level,
the controllers open their respective control valves (FV5 and FV6) and • Upper master gate valve (XV21)
allow the water to recycle back to the surge vessel. When sufficient
• Lower master gate valve (LMV7)
water is flowing through the pumps, FV5 and FV6 are fully closed.
• Sub-surface safety valve (XV22)
The treated sea water leaves the injection pumps and enters a
common water injection header. The flow lines to the individual water • Down into the reservoir.
injection wells are then taken from this header.
The injection well is completed in an almost identical way to the
oil and gas producing wells. Open learning packages on Oilwell
Drilling Technology and Oilwell Production Technology explain the
4.7 Water Injection Wells construction of these wells in great detail.

There may be as few as two or three water injection wells in small Before going through the summary, complete the final Test Yourself
oil reservoirs, or as many as twenty or more in larger ones. Figure 27 question.
shows a schematic drawing of a typical well.

The flow of treated sea water is measured by a flow element (FE7)

which is upstream of a choke valve. A choke is a specially designed
valve which allows the flow of high pressure injection water to be
controlled. In our example the choke is controlled manually and
would be adjusted by the operator to give the required flow rate, as
measured by FE7.

Figure 27: A water injection well

55
? Test Yourself 12

Make a simple block diagram of a water

injection system similar to the one at the
start of Section 4. In addition, your diagram
should show:

a. The chemical injection points.

b. Where the water is taken from for the fil-

ter backwashing.

c. Where water analysers may be located.

Find the answers in Check Yourself 12 on page

62.

56
 Summary of Section 4

This section looked at the operation of a typical sea water The operation of the coarse filters and fine filters was discussed
treatment system which uses: along with how they are backwashed.
• Sodium hypochlorite as a biocide
The operation and control of the vacuum deaerator was also
• Basket filters as coarse filters explained and how:
• Dual media filters as fine filters • Anti-foam agent is injected into the deaerator feed to
prevent foaming
• Vacuum deaeration to remove oxygen from the sea water.
• Oxygen scavenger is injected into the system to remove the
Generation of sodium hypochlorite was explained and how it is last few traces of oxygen.
injected into the sea water during treatment. A different biocide
may be used to shock dose the system to prevent resistant Finally the opeartion and control of booster pumps and the
bacteria from surviving the sodium hypochlorite injection. injection pumps were looked at, as well as a typical water
injection well.
Scale inhibitor is injected into the sea water and the efficiency of
the scale inhibitor is measured by a pH analyser.

57
✓ Check Yourself

Check Yourself 1 Check Yourself 2 Check Yourself 3

1. Gas cap drive The particles of sand or clay would block the pores of
a. One fifth is 20%. So the porosity is 20% the reservoir rock, reducing permeability and hence
2. Dissolved gas drive productivity.
b. A cap rock prevents oil migration so its permeability is 3. Dissolved gas drive
likely to be zero
4. Water drive
c. Sponge Sandstone 5. Gas cap drive
✓ Check Yourself

Check Yourself 4 Check Yourself 5 Check Yourself 6

Removing oxygen creates conditions which are ideal for the 1. Removal of suspended solids
growth of anaerobic bacteria. a. FALSE - a permeable barrier is used
2. Removal of dissolved gases (i.e. oxygen, which makes
the water corrosive) b. TRUE
3. Removal of dissolved gases
c. TRUE
4. Reduces scale deposition caused by dissolved solids
being precipitated
d. FALSE - a basket filter uses a fine mesh screen
5. Assists in removal of suspended solids
e. FALSE - the flow is in the opposite direction
6. Preventing growth of bacteria
f. TRUE
✓ Check Yourself

Check Yourself 7 Check Yourself 8

Sparge pipe .............................. deaerators

a. Both Degassing tank......................... NaOCI generator
b. Both (air is a gas) Support material ..................... filters (sand & dual media)
c. Vacuum deaerator Vortex breaker ......................... deaerators
d. Gas stripping deaerator Ejector ..................................... vacuum deaerator
e. Both Seal chimney ........................... vacuum deaerator
f. Neither Cartridges ................................ cartridge filter
g. Vacuum deaerator Backwash controller ................ filters (basket, sand, dual media)
h. Both Cleaning head motor ............... basket filter
Demister pad ........................... deaerators
Vacuum pump ......................... vacuum deaerator
✓ Check Yourself

Check Yourself 9 Check Yourself 10 Check Yourself 11

The correct sequence would be
a. To monitor sea water, in order to ensure a sufficient By checking the water turbidity upstream and downstream (a) — (h) — (e) — (b)
concentration of NaOCI to kill bacteria of the filter, the efficiency of the filter can be monitored. (i) — (c) — (f) — (k)
(d) — (j) — (g) — (I)
b. To monitor differential pressure. When this pressure
exceeds a pre-set maximum, the differential pressure
switch initiates a backwash, through a backwash
sequence controller

c. To protect the NaOCI generator from being damaged

due to a low flow of sea water

d. To purge the hydrogen removal tank with air

✓ Check Yourself

Check Yourself 12