Chapter

ALPHA 1
 Atomic structure

Long time ago, There were many attempts to discover the structure of
the atom.

Greek philosophers They said that matter can be divided into smaller parts
and these parts can be divided into smaller ones and so on, until we obtain an
individable fragment. They called it " ATOM "
( In Greek … A= not , Tom = divide )

Aristotle → He refused the idea of the atom.

→ He said that " all matters are composed of four components
which are : Water , air , dust and fire . "

☺ Because of that, scientists at that time thought that it is possible to convert

cheap metals such as iron and copper into precious metals such as gold by
changing the ratio of the four components.

Boyle → He refused Aristotle's idea .

→ He was the first scientist who defined THE ELEMENT as :-
" Pure simple substance that cannot be changed to simpler forms

by the traditional chemical methods "

Dalton's atomic Theory

He put the first atomic theory which states that:

1. The matter is composed of very tiny particles known as atoms.

2. The atom is solid undividable.
3. Atoms of the same element are identical and atoms of different elements
are different.

ALPHA 2
 Discovery of the cathode rays

♣ It was known that , under normal pressure and temperature, all gases
don't conduct electricity . But !
If we bring a highly evacuated glass tube ( of 0.01 to 0.001 mm/ Hg ) ,
and a potential difference of about 10.000 volts was applied between its
two ends , a stream of invisible rays will emitted from the cathode
causing a fluorescent glow on the tube wall , These rays were named the
" cathode rays "
High volt

Gas under low pressure Cathode rays

- +

cathode Vacuum pump anode

♫ Properties of the cathode rays :

1. Formed of very fine particles .
2. They Move in straight lines
3. They are negatively charged
4. Affected by both electric and magnetic field
5. They have a thermal effect
6. Its behavior and its nature are not affected by changing the material of the
cathode nor the type of gas used. This proves that it is found in all types of matter

Thomson's atom
Thomson took into his consideration the existence of electron from the previous
experiment, Then he considered the atom as:

" The atom is a sphere of +ve charge in which a number of -ve

charged electrons are embedded to make the atom electrically neutral "

ALPHA 3
 Rutherford's atom

Two of Rutherford's students ( Geiger and Marsden ) performed a famous

experiment as the following :
Most particles pass
some α particles
straight through foil
are scattered

Thin
gold foil

Screen to detect
Source of
α particles α particles
Beam of Reflected
α particles particles

1. A radioactive element which radiates alpha particles ( +ve charged ) was

placed in a box made of lead having a small hole .

2. A metal sheet (in form of incomplete circle) covered from inside with a layer
of zinc sulphide [ZnS] ( which glows at the site of collision with (α particles )
So , we can detect the location and the number of alpha particles that hit the
metal sheet, by counting the glows.

3. A very thin gold foil was placed in front of the alpha particles before hitting
the metal sheet .

Observation Conclusion
1. Most of alpha (α) particles hit the Most of the atom is empty space , and not
same place as if the gold foil is not dense as described by both Dalton and
present . Thomson .
2. Very small amount of alpha particles The atom must contain a tiny part of a
did not penetrate the gold foil and very high density ( named the nucleus )
reflected back .
3. Some (α) particles penetrated the gold The charge of that dense part must be
foil but were deflected . positive as alpha particles .
 repulsion took place .

ALPHA 4
cFrom the above experiment , and other experiments , Rutherford could
conclude the atomic model :
1. The atom : has a structure resembles that of the solar system , where
the nucleus is similar to the sun and electrons as the planets .

2. The nucleus :
a- It is much smaller than the atom, Present in the center of the atom ,
most of the atomic mass and the positive charge are concentrated in it.
b-There is a vast space between the nucleus and the orbits of the electrons
( i.e. the atom is not uniformly dense )

3. The electrons :
a- Have negligible mass to that of the nucleus .
b- The number of –ve electrons = number of +ve protons ( i.e. the atom is
electrically neutral )
c- Electrons travel around the nucleus in special orbits with very high speed
, where the attraction force of nucleus is overcome by another force that
equals in quantity and opposes it in direction called centrifugal force .

Objection on Rutherford's model : Maxwell's theory

Maxwell's theory , based on classical Newton's laws of mechanics , stated that :

"When an electrically charged particle moves in an orbit ,it will lose its energy
gradually by emission of radiation resulting in a gradual decrease in its orbit radius "

By applying Maxwell's theory on the atomic structure , we will find that

electrons are in a state of continues emission with gradual decrease in orbital
radius , so electrons will spiral inwards till it hits the nucleus . which don't
happen in reality .
☺The truth is that Newton's laws of mechanics can be applied only on
the relatively large bodies and not on the small components of the atom .

G.R There was a contradiction between the classical mechanical laws of

Newton and Rutherford .

ALPHA 5
 Bohr's atomic theory

The study of the atomic spectra is considered the key which solved the puzzle
of the atomic structure .

Niels Bohr was rewarded the Noble Prize due to his works in atomic spectra

Question : What is the atomic spectrum ?

On heating a mass of very closed atoms On heating gases under reduced
( solid , liquids or compressed gases ) pressure ( not very closed atoms ) to
to high temperature high temperature

It radiates light , and by examining this It radiates light , and by examining this
light using spectroscope(1) it appears light using spectroscope it appears like
like a rainbow of mixed colors without limited number of colorless lines called
any separation between them . this is line spectra(2) .
called Continuous spectra - line spectra is characteristic for each
element like finger print .

G.R 1. Line spectra is used to distinguish between elements .

☼Because Line spectra is characteristic for each element like finger print .

2. There are no two elements having the same spectral lines ?

☼ Because every element has its own electronic configuration .
N.B. By studying the spectral lines of the sun light we concluded that the sun is
made of hydrogen and helium .

Bohr's postulations

Bohr used the atomic spectra to developed Rutherford's model of atomic

structure and NOT by using the classical mechanics theory of Newton as
Maxwell had done .
1
Spectroscope is an optical instrument for light analysis .
2
Line spectra = spectral line

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Bohr adopted some of Rutherford's concepts like :
1. The nucleus is a positively charged, exists in the center of the atom.
2. The number of positive charge (inside the nucleus) = The number of
negative electrons.
3. Centrifugal force of electrons = The attraction force of the nucleus for the
electrons.

Then Bohr added :

4. Electrons rotate in their energy levels without losing or gaining energy

5. Electrons orbit the nucleus in definite energy levels ( They cannot be found
at intermediate distances )

6. Each electron in the atom has a definite amount of energy depending on the
distance between its energy level and the nucleus , the energy of any level
increases as its radius increases .

7. The electron remains in the lowest possible energy level ( ground state ) ,
However if it acquired amount of energy ( termed quantum ) , it becomes excited
and the electron jumps (temporarily) to a higher energy level , depending on the
absorbed quantum .

Excited electrons are unstable , they loose the acquired energy and soon return
back to their original level , the lost energy appears in form of radiant light of
definite wave length producing a characteristic spectral line ( atomic spectrum ) .

8. The multitude of atoms absorb different amount of energy, then radiate them
back producing spectral lines. Theses lines correspond to the energy levels from
which their electrons are transmitted back to the ground state.

G.R Hydrogen atom has many spectral lines.

Answer : Point No. 8

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Remarks :
- Bohr reconciliate between Maxwell and Rutherford ( point No. 4 )
- The energy of each electron equals the energy of its level .
- The atom may contain 1or 2 …… up to 7 energy levels , and they take the
symbols ( K , L , M , N , O , P , Q ) .

Quantum : "It is the amount of energy absorbed or emitted when an

electron jumps from one energy level to another "

►Bohr proved that the difference in energy between any two successive levels
is not equal , [therefore quantum is not a fixed amount of energy] (Why?)
☼ Because the distances between the energy levels are not equal , where the
gap decreases as we go further from the nucleus .

►It is impossible for the electron to move from its energy level to another one if
the energy absorbed or emitted is less than one quantum .
- There are no fractions or multiples of the quantum i.e. no half quantum nor two
or three quantums . ( 1 only )

♣ Energy levels in Bohr’s atom, may be represented by the

steps . A ball can’t be found in mid air between the steps.
It jumps only on the steps.

♠ Advantages of Bohr's atomic model :

1. He could explain the hydrogen atom spectrum .
2. He was the first scientist to introduce the term " quantum "
3. He proved that electrons don’t lose or gain energy when the atom is in the
ground state, so they will not fall in the nucleus
( Reconciliation between Rutherford and Maxwell )

ALPHA 8
 ♠ Disadvantages of Bohr's atomic theory :
1. He succeeded in explaining the spectrum of hydrogen atom only, which is
the simplest one but failed to explain the spectrum of any other atom even
that of helium which contains only two electrons. .
2. He considered the electron as a particle only, and did not consider that it
also has wave properties.
3. He said that it is possible to determine both the location and speed of the
electron at the same time , which is practically impossible .
4. He described the electron as a particle moving in a circular planner orbit which
means that the hydrogen atom is planar. ( the truth is that the atom has 3D )
♠ Scientists then tried to solve the disadvantages of Bohr's model , solving of
these disadvantages led to the appearance of :

The Modern Atomic Theory

1- The dual nature of electron ( De Broglie )

" Bohr considered the electron as just a materialistic particle " But ,,,
De Brogli proved that " any moving object such as the electron , tennis ball … etc.
it's movement is associated with a wave, this type of waves is called matter wave "

► The difference between matter wave and electromagnetic wave .

Matter wave Electromagnetic wave
Matter wave is not separated form the Electromagnetic wave is separated
moving body from the moving body
Its speed doesn't equal to the speed of light Its speed is equal to the speed of light

2- The uncertainty principle of " Heisenberg "

" It is practically impossible to determine both speed and location of the electron
at the same time , we can only speak in terms of probability "

G.R It is practically impossible to determine both speed and location of the

electron at the same time .
☼ Because the apparatus used now can measure speed or location at the time
but it can't measure both of them at the same time ( give false results ) .

ALPHA 9
3- Schrodenger equation :
Applying the ideas of Planck , Einstein , De Broglie and Heisenberg , he derived a
WAVE EQUATION , that describes the wave motion of the electron in the atom .
Instead of speaking about fixed circular orbits having definite radii and saying
that electrons cannot be found between these orbits ( Bohr's theory ) , we now use
the term Orbital .

Orbital : " It is the region of space around the nucleus in which the electron
most probable exists "

Electron cloud " it is the existence of the electron in all directions and
distances from the nucleus "

Orbit Orbital

- Described by Bohr - Described by Schrödinger .

- The electron rotates in a fixed circular - The electron may exist in all directions
orbit and distances from the nucleus .

♦ In the electron cloud , regions of high density of dots represent high probability
of finding the electron .
♦ An electron cloud is used to describe any orbital .
♦ The mathematical solution of shrodinger's equation introduced the four quantum
numbers .

ALPHA 10
 Quantum Numbers
“ They are numbers which define the volume of space where the electrons are
most probably exist (orbitals) , and they define also the energy , shape and
direction of obritals “

Any electron in the atom , is defined by FOUR quantum numbers which are :

1- The principle quantum number (n) used by "Bohr"

It determines :
► The order of principal energy levels ( their number in the heaviest atom is 7 )
► The number of electrons in each principal energy level by the rule ( 2n2 )

- Bohr had used this number in explaining the spectrum of hydrogen atom .
- Principle quantum number ( n ) is a whole number which takes the value of
1,2,3,4,….. etc. except Zero . where :
"n" of the first energy level (K) =1
"n" of the second energy level (L) = 2 and so on ….

N.B.
To calculate the number of electrons for the third energy level using the rule
2n2 2(3)2 = 18 electrons .

G.R The rule ( 2n2) is applied only up to the fourth energy level "N" ?
☼ Because if the number of electrons in any energy level exceeds 32 electrons ,
the atom will be unstable .

2- Subsidiary (orbital or azimuthal) quantum number "L"

Used by " Sommerfield"

- Determines the number of sublevels within each principal energy level .

-The number of sublevels within any principal level = principle quantum number .

ALPHA 11
 4f
4th energy level 4d
4p
4s
3d
3rd energy level 3p
3s

2nd energy level 2p

2s
1st energy level 1s

♠ Sublevels of the same energy level are close in energy , but they still differ ,
and we can arrange them according to increasing energy as follow :
S < P < d < F

♠ "Sommerfield " used a powerful spectroscope ( instead of the old one ) he

found that the single spectral line ( which appeared in the old spectroscope ) is
indeed a number of fine spectral lines , which means that the principal energy
level is consisting of sublevels .

Question : Calculate the number of sublevels in each of the following energy

levels : K , L , M & N .

3-Magnetic quantum number "m"

It determines the number and the shape of orbitals in each sublevel . where :
( sublevel "S" has 1 orbital and its shape is spherical )
( sublevel "P" has 3 orbitals " Px , Py , Pz " with a dumb-bell shape)∞
( sublevel "d" has 5 orbitals )
(sublevel "f " has 7 orbitals )

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 ► Px , Py , Pz orbitals are perpendicular to each other , where the electron cloud
of each orbital takes the shape of two pears meeting heat to heat (dumb-bell
shaped) where the density of the cloud is zero at the node.
► Orbitals of the same sublevel are equal in energy .
► Each orbital is saturated by 2 electrons only .

4-Spin quantum number "ms"

It determines the direction of spinning of the two electrons inside each orbital
where one of them rotate clockwise and the other one anti-clockwise [↑↓]

G.R Although the two electrons in the same orbital are negatively charged ,
yet they do not repel .
☼ Because one electron spins in a clockwise direction , the other one spins in
anticlockwise direction producing two opposite magnetic fields and that decrease
the repulsion between them .

- N.B. the two electrons in an orbital are represented as [↑↓] and this is known as
Spin paired state .

- Spin quantum number has only 2 values [↑] or [↓]

# The relation between the four ( 4) quantum numbers :

Principal levels Sublevels Orbitals Electrons
[n] [n] [n2] [2n2]
1 1 1 2e
2 2 4 8e
3 3 9 18 e
4 4 16 32 e

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♫ Principles of distributing electrons :
(1) Aufbau principle [ Building up principle ]
" Electrons occupy sublevels in the order of increasing their energy, where the
lowest energy sublevels are filled first "

The order of filling the energy sublevels by increasing their energy :

1s , 2s, 2p , 3s , 3p , 4s , 3d , 4p , 5s , 4d , 5p , 6s , 4f , 5d , 6p , 7s , 5f , 6d , 7p

Note : As you see some energy levels are similar like :

2nd (is similar to) 7th 3rd (is similar to) 6th 4th (is similar to) 5th

G.R Although the sublevel 4s is in the fourth energy level , yet it is filled with
electrons before the sublevel 3d which is in the third energy level .
☼Because the sublevel 4s has less energy than 3d.

Sublevel No. of orbitals No. of electrons

S 1 2
P 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

ALPHA 14
♪ How can you make electronic configuration ..
Na11 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p6 , 3s1
Ca20 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 4s2
Ar18 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6
Fe26 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p6 , 3s2 , 3p6 , 4s2 , 3d6

(2) Hund's rule :

" No electron pairing takes place in a given sublevel until each orbital contains
one electron "
e.g.

N7 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p3 O8 : 1s2 , 2s2, 2p4

2p ↑ ↑ ↑ 2p ↑↓ ↑ ↑
2s ↓↑ 2s ↓↑
1s ↓↑ 1s ↓↑

G.R
1. Electrons prefer to occupy orbitals of the same sublevel unpaired rather than
paired .
☼ Because pairing cause repulsion which decreases the stability of the atom.
( increase its energy )

2. An electron prefers to occupy an orbital in a given sublevel paired rather than

being transferred to a higher sublevel .
☼ Because from the energy point of view, the energy of pairing in a lower energy
level is less than the energy needed to transfer an electron to a higher sublevel .

3. The spin of the single electrons must be in the same direction .

☼ Because this gives the atom maximum stability .

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 Ta i l
Compare :
Principal Q. no. Subs. Q. no. Magnetic Q. no. Spin Q. no.

N L M ms
Definition Definition Definition Definition

♫ The electronic configuration of an atom may be written in three ways :

e.g. Fluorine atom [ F9 ]

1. According to the principal energy levels : 2,7

2 2
2. According to Aufbau principle : 1s , 2s , 2p5 (The most common)
2 2 2 2 1
3. According to Hund's rule : 1s , 2s , 2p x , 2p y , 2p z

Z Give Reason :
1. On generating cathode rays, the cathode ray tube should be discharged to very
low pressure.
☼Because gases don’t conduct electricity under the normal conditions of pressure
and temperature.
2. Alpha particles deviate in the opposite direction of cathode ray deviation when
they are exposed to electric or magnetic field.
☼Because alpha particles have positive charges while cathode rays have negative
charges.
3. Electron does not fall inside the nucleus in spite of the attraction force between them.
☼Because the attraction force of the nucleus is overcome by the centrifugal force
produced from rotating the electron around the nucleus.

ALPHA 16