Body Fluids and Circulation

Chapter- Five
23 August 2021 15:11

 It is essential to have efficient mechanisms for the movement of nutrients, substances to the cells and from the cells.
 In more complex organisms, special fluids are present within their bodies for transport of such materials.
 In most of the higher organisms including humans, Blood is the most commonly used body fluid for this purpose.
 Another body fluid, Lymph, also helps in the transport of certain substances.

➢ Blood- Blood is a specialized connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, Plasma and a cellular portion called Formed Elements.
○ Plasma constitutes approximately 55% of blood and the formed elements account for the remaining 45%.

❖ Plasma- It is a straw colored, viscous fluid forming the matrix of blood.

□ Composition of Plasma-
a) Water: 90- 92% of plasma is water
b) Proteins: The constitute about 6-8% of it. Fibrinogens, Globulins and Albumins are the major plasma proteins.
i) Fibrinogen- Important clotting factor produced by the liver.
ii) Globulins- Primarily involved in the defense mechanism of the body.
 Grouped into three subtypes-
a. α β G bu - Help in transportation of lipids and fat soluble vitamins, etc.
b. γ G bu - These are antibodies which function in immune responses of the body.
iii) Albumins- Help in the maintenance of osmotic balance.
 They maintain the osmotic pressure needed to draw water from the surrounding tissue fluid into the capillaries.
 This action is needed to maintain blood volume and pressure.
c) Minerals: Plasma contains small amounts of minerals like
d) Glucose, Amino Acids, Lipids, etc. are also present as they are always in transit in the body.
 They get carried by the plasma from one place to another.
 These substances enter and leave plasma at regular intervals.
 Plasma without clotting factors is known as Serum.
Factor Name
l Fibrinogen
ll Prothrombin
lll Tissue Thromboplastin
lV Calcium ions(
V Proaccelerin(Labile factor)
Vl Presence hasn't been proved.
Vll Proconvertin(Stable factor)
Vlll Antihaemophilic factor A
lX Antihaemophilic factor B(Christmas Factor)
X Stuart- Prower Factor
Xl Plasma Thromboplastin Antecedent
Xll Hageman Factor
Xlll Fibrin Stabilizing Factor
❖ Formed Elements- The formed elements include- Erythrocytes(red blood cells), Leucocytes(white blood cells) and
Thrombocytes(platelets).

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1) Erythrocytes(Red Blood Corpuscles)- Most abundant type of cell in blood.
 Number- 5 million to 5.5 million of RBCs m b
 Shape and Structure- RBCs are biconcave in shape and lack a nucleus.
◊ In camels and llamas, they are oval(although without nucleus).
 Red blood cells lack nucleus and other organelles as it helps in providing more room for oxygen binding pigment- Haemoglobin.
Due to absence of mitochondria, they respire anaerobically and do not use up any of the oxygen they carry.
 These cells also contain the enzyme Carbonic anhydrase which plays a role in carbon dioxide transport.
 Quantity of Haemoglobin in RBCs- A healthy individual has 12- 16 grams of haemoglobin in 100mL of blood.
◊ Iron is present in Haemoglobin.
 Formation- The formation of RBCs is known as Erythropoiesis.
◊ It occurs in the red bone marrow in adults and in yolk sac in embryo.
◊ They have a life- span of around four months.
 Functions:
i) Haemoglobin in RBCs plays a significant role in transport of respiratory gases.
It combines readily with Oxygen and form oxyhaemoglobin. Oxyhaemoglobin readily gives up its oxygen in the tissues
where it is used for oxidation or breakdown of food.
ii) RBCs also transport carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs. b b b b
 Haemopoiesis is the formation of blood.

2) Leucocytes(White Blood Corpuscles)- Colorless due to the lack of pigment Haemoglobin.

 Number- 6,000 to 8,000 of WBCs m b
 Shape and Structure- These cells possess nuclei and other cell organelles and can move in an ameboid fashion.
◊ Leucocytes can squeeze through pores in capillary walls and move to a site of infection.
This movement is referred to as Diapedesis.
[Link]. Name & Number/ Color & Structure Formation & Life- Span Function
Percentage
1. Leucocytes- • Colorless, rounded • Bone Marrow, Lymph • Act as soldiers, scavengers,
• 6K to 8K per or irregular, nodes, Spleen, thymus, and some also help in healing.
cubic millimeter nucleated. Tonsils and Peyer's
of blood. • 12-20 µm wide. patches.
• Number
increases during
an Infection.
1. i. Agranulocytes • Cytoplasm lacks
granules.
• Nucleus is not lobed.
i. a. Lymphocytes- • Large rounded • Bone Marrow, Lymph • Motile, non- phagocytic,
• 20- 25% nucleus. nodes, Spleen, thymus, secrete antibodies, help in
• Scant cytoplasm. Tonsils and Peyer's healing.
patches.
• Life span is about few
days or months or even
years.
i. b. Monocytes- • Largest of all types • Bone Marrow • Motile, phagocytic, engulf
• 6- 8% of WBCs. • Life span is about 10- germs and cell debris, often
• Nucleus is bean- 20 hours. change into Macrophages.
shaped.
• Enough cytoplasm.
1. ii. Granulocytes • Cytoplasm has
granules.
• Nucleus lobed.
ii. a. Eosinophils- • Bilobed nucleus. • Bone Marrow • Increase in number during
• 2- 3% • Course granules in • Life span is about 4- 8 Allergy.
cytoplasm hours in blood and 4- 5 • Play a significant role in
• Take acidic stain. days in the tissue. immunity.
ii. b. Basophils- • Usually • Bone Marrow. • Release heparin and
• 0.5- 1% trilobed(three • Life span is about 4- 8 histamine.
(Least in number) lobed). hours in blood. • Thus, they act as Mast cells
• Less number Basic of Connective tissue.
stain.

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 ii. c. Neutrophils- • Many lobed nucleus. • Bone Marrow. • Phagocytic
• 60- 65% • Fine granules. • Life span is about 4- 8 • Engulf germs and dead cells.
(Most abundant) • Take acidic as well hours in blood and 4- 5
as basic stains. hours in the tissue.
 Formation- Formation of leucocytes is called Leucopoiesis.
◊ It takes place in the bone marrow.
◊ β- Lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow itself but T- Lymphocytes mature in the Thymus.
 Life Span- The life span of granulocytes is normally 4- 8 hours in blood and 4- 5 days in tissue.
◊ Monocytes have a life span of 10- 20 hours whereas the Lymphocytes have life spans of few days or months or even years.
 Leucocytosis- Rise in the count of WBCs is known as Leucocytosis.

3) Thrombocytes(Platelets)- Smallest among the formed elements.

 Number- 1,50,000- 3,50,000 platelets m b
 Shape and Structure- They are cell fragments rather than true cells.
◊ They are rounded or oval disc- like bodies.
◊ They lack nuclei and contain a few cell organelles and secretory granules in them.
 Formation- They are produced from special cells in the bone marrow called as Megakaryocytes.
 Life Span- Normal life span of thrombocytes is about a week.
◊ They are destroyed in the spleen and liver.
 Functions:
i) They play an important role in blood clotting.
ii) They can release a variety of substances, most of which are involved in coagulation of blood.
iii) They constitute most of the mass of the clot and activate the clotting factors in plasma that results in formation of
threads of Fibrin.
 A reduction in the number of platelets is called Thrombocytopenia which leads to excessive loss of blood from the body .
 Purpura is a group of bleeding diseases due to thrombocytopenia.

➢ Blood Groups- There are certain molecules on the surfaces of all cells in the body that can be recognized as foreign by the immune system of
another individual and hence can induce the immune system of latter.
○ These molecules are known as Antigens.
○ As a immune response, particular lymphocytes, secrete a class of proteins called Antibodies.
○ Antibodies bind in a specific fashion with the Antigens.
○ The membranes of RBCs also possess some several antigens.
○ Depending on the nature of antigens, various types of blood grouping has been done.
○ Two such groupings-
i. The ABO grouping and
ii. The Rh grouping
are widely used all over the world.

 ABO Grouping- Karl Landsteiner and his coworker in 1901 recognized four types of blood groups in human beings, commonly known as ABO
blood grouping.
 It is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens on the RBCs namely A and B.
 The plasma of different individuals also contain two natural antibodies called anti-A and anti-B.
 Landsteiner Law- It states that if an antigen is present on the RBCs, the corresponding antibody must be absent from the plasma and
vice versa.
 Transfusion Reactions- In many clinical conditions blood transfusion is needed. In such cases donor's blood and recipient's blood must be
compatible to avoid severe problems of clumping(destruction of RBCs).
 A major cross match is made by mixing serum from the recipient with blood cells from the donor.
 If the blood doesn't match, the recipient's antibodies attach to the donor's red blood cells and cause clumping(agglutination).
 Errors that result in agglutination can result in blockage of small blood vessels and cause hemolysis(rupturing of RBCs).
 The donor's compatibility is shown below-
Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor's Blood Group
A A anti- B A,O
B B anti- A B,O
AB A,B nil AB,A,B,O
O nil anti- A,B O
 From the above mentioned table it is evident that blood group 'O' can be donated to a person with any other blood group and hence 'O'
group individuals are called 'Universal Donors'.
 People with blood group 'AB' can accept blood from persons with AB as well as other blood groups . Such people are known as 'Universal
Recipients'.

Rh Grouping- Another group of antigens found on the red blood cells of most people is the Rh factor(Rh stands for Rhesus monkey, in which

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  Rh Grouping- Another group of antigens found on the red blood cells of most people is the Rh factor(Rh stands for Rhesus monkey, in which
these antigens were first discovered).
 It was discovered by Landsteiner and Wiener.
 People who have these antigens are said to be Rh+ve whereas those who lack these antigens are called as Rh-ve.
 An Rh-ve person if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigen.
 Hence, Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.

 Rh Incompatibility- A special case of Rh incompatibility(mismatch) has been observed between the Rh -ve blood of a pregnant mother
and Rh+ve blood of the foetus.
□ The Rh-ve mother isn't usually exposed to the Rh antigen of the foetus during the first pregnancy as the foetal and maternal
blood are normally kept well separated by the placental barriers.
□ However, at the time of birth, there is a slight possibility of exposure of the maternal blood to the small amounts of the Rh +ve
blood from the foetus.
□ The mother then starts preparing antibodies against Rh antigen in her blood.
□ These antibodies could cross the placental barriers in subsequent pregnancies and cause hemolysis of the Rh+ve red blood cell s of
the foetus.
□ This could be fatal to the foetus or could cause severe anaemia and jaundice to the baby(HDN - Haemolytic Disease of Newly Born).
□ This condition is called Erythroblastosis Foetalis.
□ This can be prevented by injecting the Rh-ve mother with an antibody preparation(anti-Rh antibodies) against the Rh factor
immediately after the birth of each Rh+ve baby.

 Coagulation of Blood- After experiencing a cut on the finger, one might notice that the wound doesn't bleed for a long time.
 It usually stops bleeding after sometime as blood exhibits coagulation or clotting in response to an injury or trauma.
 A dark- reddish brown scum forms at the site of a cut or an injury over a period of time.
 It is known as a Clot or Coagulam formed mainly of a network of threads known as Fibrins in which dead and damaged formed elements
of blood are trapped.

❖ Mechanism of Blood Coagulation:

□ An injury or trauma stimulates the platelets in blood to release coagulation promoting substances known as Thromboplastins which
activate the mechanism of coagulation.
□ Tissues at the site of injury also release Tissue Thromboplastins.
□ Thromboplastins help in the formation of an enzyme complex Thrombokinase.
□ This complex is formed by a series of linked enzymatic reactions(cascade process) involving number of factors present in the
plasma(i.e., Plasma clotting factors) in an inactive state.
□ Thrombokinase converts an inactive protein Prothrombin, present in plasma, into Thrombin.

□ Thrombin is an enzyme which converts soluble fibrinogen of plasma into insoluble fibrin.
□ b b

□ Fibrins form a network of threads which traps dead and damaged formed elements of blood to form the blood clot or coagulam .
□ The clot seals the wound in the vessel to stop the bleeding. This is known as Blood Clotting.

➢ Lymph(Tissue Fluid)- As blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water alongside small water soluble substances move out in the
spaces between the cells of tissue leaving the larger proteins and most of the formed elements(erythrocytes and platelets) in the blood
vessels.
 The fluid released out is called as the Interstitial fluid or Tissue fluid.
 The mineral distribution of both plasma and tissue fluid are similar.
 Exchange of nutrients, gases, etc. between the blood and the cells always occurs through the tissue fluid which acts as middl e man.
 This fluid is then collected and then drained back to the major veins by an elaborate network of vessels called the Lymphatic System.
 The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the Lymph.
 Lymph is a colorless fluid(lacks haemoglobin) containing specialized lymphocytes which are responsible for the immune responses of the
body. It consists of plasma and leucocytes.
 The lymphatic system comprises of Lymphatic capillaries, Lymphatic vessels, Lymphatic nodes and Lymphatic ducts .
 Lymphatic capillaries are the smallest vessels of the lymphatic system.
 These are microscopic, close- ended tubes that form vast networks in the intercellular spaces within most organs.
 Interstitial fluid, proteins, microorganisms and absorbed fat(in the intestine) can easily enter the lymphatic capillaries as the walls of
the lymphatic capillaries are composed of endothelial cells with porous junctions.

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 the lymphatic capillaries are composed of endothelial cells with porous junctions.
 Once the tissue fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries, it is known as Lymph.
 The capillaries merge and form larger lymphatic vessels.
 The walls of larger lymphatic vessels are similar to that of veins.
 They have valves to prevent the backflow.
 The larger lymphatic vessels empty into one of two principal vessels-
□ The Thoracic duct(in the left) or
□ The right Lymphatic duct(in the right)
 These ducts drain the lymph into the left and right subclavian veins, respectively .
 These veins connect with a number of smaller veins and drain into superior Vena Cava(major vein) which connects to heart.
 Hence, the tissue fluid formed by filtration of plasma out of blood capillaries is ultimately returned to the major veins or
cardiovascular system.

 There are lymph nodes located at regular intervals along the course of lymphatic vessels. Lymph is filtered through these lymph nodes.
 These are abundant in neck, groin and armpits.
 These nodes contain phagocytic cells which help to remove pathogens and are sites for lymphocyte proliferation.
 The Tonsils, Thymus, and Spleen are also the lymph nodes.
 They are called Lymphoid organs.

 Functions:
1) Lymph transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, etc., to the body cells and brings carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes, from
the body cells and finally pours the same into the Venous system.
2) Lymphocytes colonize in lymph nodes. Lymph transports lymphocytes and antibodies from the lymph nodes to the blood .
3) Lymphocytes destroy the invading microorganisms and foreign particles in the lymph nodes.
4) It absorbs fats from the intestine. In the intestinal villi, lymphatic capillaries are present which are called as Lacteals. Lacteals
ultimately release the absorbed fats into the blood stream.

➢ Circulatory Pathways- The circulatory patterns are of two types-

1) Open Type
2) Closed Type
 In open circulatory system, blood pumped by the heart passes through large vessels into open spaces or body cavities called Sinuses.
 This type of system in present in Arthropods and Molluscs.
 In closed circulatory system, the blood pumped by the heart is always circulated through a closed network of blood vessels.
 This system or pattern is considered to be more advantageous as the flow of fluid can be more precisely regulated.
 The closed circulatory system is present in Annelids and most Chordates.
 In all Vertebrates, the heart consists of 1 or 2 atria and 1 or 2 ventricles.
 The heart of lower vertebrates has additional chambers, namely, Sinus venosus and Conus arteriosus or Truncus arteriosus .

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  All vertebrates have muscular heart. Fishes have a two- chambered heart with an atrium and a ventricle, while lung fishes have three-
chambered hearts.
 Amphibians and reptiles(except crocodiles) have a three- chambered heart with two atria and a single ventricle, whereas crocodiles,
mammals and birds possess a four- chambered heart with two atria and two ventricles.
 In fishes, the heart pumps out deoxygenated blood which undergoes oxygenation in the gills. The oxygenated blood is then supplied to
the body parts from where deoxygenated blood is returned to the heart . This is known as single circulation.
 In amphibians and reptiles, except crocodiles, the left atrium gets oxygenated blood from the gills/ lungs/ skin and the righ t atrium
receives the deoxygenated blood get mixed up in the single ventricle. The heart thus pumps out mixed blood. The is known as
incomplete double circulation.
 In crocodiles, mammals and birds, the left and the right atria receive oxygenated and deoxygenated blood respectively which i s passed
onto the ventricles of the same sides. Here, there is no mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Thus, the ventricles pump it out
without any mixing, i.e., two separate circulatory pathways are present in these organisms, hence, these animals have double circulation.

➢ Human Circulatory System- Human Circulatory System, also known as the Blood Vascular System consists of a muscular chambered heart a
network of closed branching blood vessels and blood, the fluid that is circulated.

 Structure of Human Heart:

 Heart is located in the thoracic cavity, in between the two lungs, slightly tilted towards the left. It is derived from the Mesoderm and
has the size of a clenched fist.
 Heart is protected by a double walled membranous bag called Pericardium. The pericardium consists of two layers, an outer parietal
pericardium and an inner visceral pericardium attached to the heart. A space called Pericardial Cavity is present between the two
layers which is filled with a fluid called pericardial fluid. The pericardium protects the heart from shock and mechanical injuries.
 Our heart is divided into four chambers, two relatively small upper chambers called atria(singular - atrium) and two lower chambers
known as ventricles. The walls of the ventricles are much thicker than that of the atria. The left and the right atria are se parated by
as thin, muscular wall called the Interatrial Septum, whereas the right and left ventricles are separated by the Interventricular
Septum.
 A thick, fibrous tissue, called the Atrio- Ventricular Septum separates the atrium and the ventricle of the same side. However, both
the Atrio- Ventricular septa are provided with an opening through which the two chambers of the same side are connected.
 The openings between the atria and ventricles are guarded by the Atrioventricular(AV) Valves. The AV Valve between the right atrium
and right ventricle has three flaps or cusps and is therefore called the Tricuspid Valve. The AV Valve between the left atrium and the
left ventricle has two flaps or cusps and is thus called the Bicuspid Valve or Mitral Valve.
 Special fibrous cords called the Chordae Tendinae are attached to the flaps of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves at one end and their
other ends are attached to the ventricular wall with the special muscles, called as the Papillary Muscles. The chordae tendinae prevent
the bicuspid and tricuspid valves from collapsing back into the atria during powerful ventricular contractions.
 Three Semilunar Valves(half- moon shaped pockets) are found at the points where the pulmonary artery(arising from the right
ventricle and carrying deoxygenated bloods to lungs) and aorta(large artery arising from left ventricle and carrying oxygenated blood
to all parts of the body) leave the heart. These valves prevent blood from getting back into the ventricles.

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 to all parts of the body) leave the heart. These valves prevent blood from getting back into the ventricles.
 The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood through Coronary Sinus and two large veins called Venae Cavae(one superior vena cava
and other inferior vena cava). The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through two pairs of pulmonary veins.

 Conducting System in Human Heart:

 The entire heart is made up of cardiac muscles. A specialized cardiac musculature called the Nodal tissue is also distributed in the
heart.
 A patch of this tissue, called the Sino- Atrial Node(SAN) is present in the upper right corner of the right atrium . Another mass of
this tissue known as the Atrio- Ventricular Node(AVN) is present in the lower left corner of the right atrium , close to the atrio-
ventricular septum.
 AV Node is continuous with the bundle of His, which gives off a right and left bundle branch at the top of the Interventricular septa.
 These branches give rise to minute fibers called Purkinje fibers throughout the ventricular musculature of the respective sides.
 The nodal musculature has the ability to generate action potentials without any external stimuli, i.e., it is autoexcitable. Action
Potential is a short- lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential(difference in electrical potential between the interior and
exterior of a biological cell) of a cell rapidly rises and falls.
 Although all the heart muscle cells have the ability to generate the electrical impulses(or action potentials)that trigger ca rdiac
contraction, the SAN initiates it, simply because it generates the maximum number of action potentials, which is, 70 -75
b
 Therefore, it is called the Pacemaker of the heart.
 Our heart normally beats 70- 75 times in a minute(average 72 beats

 Cardiac Cycle:
 The cardiac cycle refers to the repeating pattern of contraction and relaxation of the heart. The phase of contraction is kno wn as
Systole and the phase of relaxation is known as Diastole.
 To begin with the functioning of heart, all the four chambers of heart are in a relaxed state, i.e., they are in Joint Diastole. Blood from
Pulmonary Veins and Venae Cavae, fill the left and right atria respectively . The buildup of pressure that results, causes the AV Valves
to open and let the blood flow from atria to the ventricles. Nearly 70% of ventricles get filled with blood during joint diastole. At this
stage, the semilunar valves are closed.
 The SAN now generates an action potential which stimulates both the atria to undergo a simultaneous contraction known as Atrial
Systole. It results in increase of blood flow into the ventricles by about 30%.

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  The action potential generated by the SAN is conducted to the ventricular side by the AVN and AV bundle from where the Bundle of
His transmits it through the entire ventricular musculature. This causes contraction of the ventricular muscles known as Ventricular
Systole. The atria now undergo relaxation called Atrial Diastole which coincides with ventricular systole. As the ventricles begin their
contraction, the intraventricular pressure rises, causing the closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves(AV Valves) to prevent backflow of
blood into the atria.
 When the pressure in the left and right ventricles becomes greater than the pressure in aorta and pulmonary artery respectively , the
semilunar valves are forced open. Opening of semilunar valves, guarding the pulmonary artery(right side) and aorta(left side) allow the
blood in ventricles to flow through these vessels into the circulatory pathways. Now the ventricles relax, i.e., Ventricular Diastole
occurs and the ventricular pressure falls, causing the closure of semilunar valves. It prevents the backflow of blood into the ventricles.
 The ventricular pressure declines further and the AV valves are pushed open due to the pressure in the atria exerted by the blood
which was being emptied into them by veins. Once again the blood moves freely into the ventricles.
 The ventricles and atria are again in joint diastole(relaxed state) as earlier. Soon a new action potential is generated by SAN and the
events described above are repeated in that sequence and the process continues.
 The sequential event which is cyclically repeated in the heart constitute the Cardiac Cycle which consists of systole and diastole of
both the atria and ventricles.
 Our heart beats 72 times per minute, i.e., 72 cardiac cycles are performed every minute. Hence, if 72 cardiac cycles take pla ce in one
minute i.e. is 60 seconds, then, one cardiac cycle would take 0.8 seconds to happen.
 During a cardiac cycle, each ventricle pumps out approximately 70mL of blood. This is called the Stroke Volume. The stroke volume
multiplied by the number of beats per minute(heart rate) gives the Cardiac Output. The Cardiac Output is 72 x 70 or 5040mL per
minute, i.e., about 5 liters per minute. Therefore, the volume o blood pumped out by each ventricle per minute is known as the cardiac
output.
 The body is able to alter the stroke volume as well as he heart rate and thereby the cardiac output .
Example- The cardiac output of an athlete will be much higher than that of an ordinary man .
 During exercise, the cardiac output can increase upto five folds- from about 5L per minute to 25L per minute. This is primarily due to
an increase in heart rate which increases the blood flow to skeletal muscles. The heart rate, can however increase only upto a maximum
value, which is determined mainly by a person's age. In well- trained athletes, the stroke volume can also increase significantly, allowing
these individuals to achieve cardiac output during strenuous exercise upto six- seven times greater than their resting values. The high
cardiac output results in increased oxygen delivery to the exercising muscles. This is the major reason for the much higher than
average maximal oxygen uptake of elite athletes.
 Note- • Isovolumetric Systole/ Contraction- It is the duration between closure of AV valve and opening of Semilunar valve.
• Isovolumetric Diastole/ Relaxation- It is the duration between closure of Semilunar valves and opening of AV valves.

 Heart Sounds- During each cardiac cycle, two prominent sounds are produced which can be easily heard through a stethoscope. These
sounds are of clinical diagnostic significance.
First Heart Sound(LUB) Second Heart Sound(DUB)
• It is produced by closing of AV Valves(tricuspid and bicuspid valves) • It is produced by closing of semilunar valves at the beginning of
during ventricular systole. ventricular diastole.
• It is low pitched and of long duration. • It is high pitched and of short duration.

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  Electrocardiogram(ECG)- The SAN exhibits a spontaneous depolarization that causes action potentials, resulting in the automatic beating
heart. Impulses which travel through cardiac muscles during the cardiac cycle produce electric currents . The electrical impulses are
conducted through the body fluids to the body surface, where the amplified currents can be detected by placing electrodes on the skin
and recorded as an Electrocardiogram(ECG).
 Einthoven recorded the first ECG in the world in 1903.
 ECG is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle. The machine used to obtain an
electrocardiogram is known as Electrocardiograph and this technique is called Electrocardiography .
 To obtain a standard ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads(one to each wrist and one to the left
ankle).

 The P wave is a small upward wave that represents electrical excitation(or depolarization) of the atria which leads to contraction of
both atria.
 The QRS(wave) complex represents the depolarization of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular contraction(ventricular
systole). The contraction of ventricles starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of systole.
 The T wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited(depolarized) to normal state(i.e., repolarization). The end of T wave
marks the end of systole.
 Thus, by counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, the heart beat rate or pulse of an individua l can be
determined. ECGs obtained from different individuals have roughly the same shape for a given lead configuration.
 Enlargement of P wave indicates enlargement of the atria.
 The enlarged Q and R waves indicate Myocardial Infarction(Heart Attack).
 The S-T segment is elevated in Myocardial Infarction and depressed when the heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen.
 T wave is flat when the heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen as in Atherosclerotic Heart Disease.

➢ Double Circulation- Double circulation means that the blood passes through the heart twice for each circuit of the body .
❖ It includes Pulmonary circulation and Systemic circulation.

i. Pulmonary Circulation- The deoxygenated blood pumped into the pulmonary artery is passed onto the lungs from where the oxygenated
blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
 This pathway is known as Pulmonary Circulation.

ii. Systemic Circulation- The oxygenated blood entering the aorta is carried by a network of arteries, arterioles and capillaries to the tissues
from where the deoxygenated blood is collected by a system of venules, veins and vena cava and emptied into the right atrium.
 This is Systemic Circulation.
 Thus, the systemic circulation provides nutrients, oxygen and other essential substances to the tissues and take
u ub

 The systemic circulation has numerous small muscular arteries and arterioles that offer greater resistance to blood flow than those in the
pulmonary circulation.
 Despite the differences in resistance, the rate of blood flow through the systemic circulation must be matched to the flow rate of the
pulmonary circulation.
 As the amount of work performed by the left ventricles is greater than that performed by the right ventricle, so the musculature wall of
the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle.

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➢ Circulation through Special Regions- A Portal Vein is a vein which does not carry blood directly to heart but forms a network of capillaries in
another or intermediate organ before reaching the heart.
 A portal vein together with small veins through which it receives blood and capillaries constitute the portal system.
 A portal system is named after the organ to which it carries blood.
a) Renal Portal System- The function of this portal system is to supply blood to renal tubules when glomerular filtration is absent or down
regulated.
→ It's main channel is Renal Portal Vein.
→ It brings blood from the tail and groin to the Kidney.
→ Renal Portal System is found in fishes and amphibians but is reduced in reptiles and birds but absent in mammals, lampreys and hag
fish.
b) Hypophyseal Portal System- A Hypophyseal Portal Vein collects blood from hypothalamus and enters the anterior lobe of pituitary.
c) Hepatic Portal System- There is a unique vascular connection between the digestive tract and liver called as Hepatic Portal System .
→ Liver receives blood from two sources. The hepatic artery supplies oxygenated blood to the liver and the hepatic portal vein brings
deoxygenated blood from the digestive organs to the liver.
→ The flow of deoxygenated blood from the digestive organs to the liver before returning to the systemic circulation is called as
Hepatic Portal Circulation.

→ Importance of hepatic Portal Circulation:

1- The blood which comes from the alimentary canal contains food like glucose and amino acids. The excess of glucose is
converted to glycogen and is stored in the liver for later use. When the body of an individual feels deficiency of food, the
glycogen is converted into glucose and is transferred to the blood stream via hepatic veins.
2- Harmful nitrogenous waste like ammonia is converted into urea which is later removed by kidneys. Thus, the blood is
detoxified(purified) of harmful nitrogenous wastes.
3- Liver produces blood proteins which are released into blood circulation.

d) Coronary Circulation- The flow of oxygenated blood from the ascending aorta to the heart muscles and the return of deoxygenated
blood from the heart to right atrium is called Coronary(Cardiac) Circulation.
→ From the ascending aorta, the right and left coronary arteries arise which supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscles.
→ The deoxygenated blood from the heart wall is carried by the coronary veins that join to form coronary sinus.
→ The coronary sinus carries deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.

➢ Blood Vessels- Blood vessels form a tubular network throughout the body that allows blood to flow from the heart to all the living cells of the
body and then back to the heart.
 Blood from the heart passes through vessels of progressively smaller diameters, known as Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, V enules
and Veins.
 The walls of arteries and veins consist of three coats or 'tunics'-
a) Tunica externa- The outermost layer is the Tunica externa and is composed of fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibers.

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 a) Tunica externa- The outermost layer is the Tunica externa and is composed of fibrous connective tissue with collagen fibers.
b) Tunica media- The middle layer is the Tunica media and is composed primarily of smooth muscles and elastic fibers.
c) Tunica intima or Tunica interna- The inner layer is Tunica interna/ intima. It consists of two parts -
1) Elastic Membrane- This membrane is made up of elastic tissue of yellow fibers(bundles of elastic protein).
 It is thicker in artery.
2) Endothelium- It is made up of flattened squamous epithelial cells lining the lumen.
 Its cells are more elongated in the artery.

Arteries Veins
• Arteries distribute blood from the heart to different parts • Veins collect blood from different parts of the body and pour
of the body. it into the heart.
• Tunica media is thick, having more muscle fibers. • Tunica media is thin, having fewer muscle fibers.
• Tunica interna has strong elastic membrane and more • Tunica interna has simple, elastic membrane and elongated
elongated endothelial cells. endothelial cells.
• The walls of the arteries are thick and muscular. • The walls of veins are thin.
• Arteries are not collapsible as they have thick walls. • Veins are collapsible because they have thin walls.
• Arteries have no valves. • Veins have valves which prevent backflow of the blood.
• The flow of the blood is fast as the blood in them is under • The flow of the blood is not so fast as the blood in them is
great pressure. under low pressure.
• Except the pulmonary arteries, all the arteries carry • Except the pulmonary vein, all the veins carry deoxygenated
oxygenated blood. blood.

 Capillaries- These are the narrowest blood vessels, through which the exchange of gases and nutrients between the blood and the tissue
fluid occurs.
▪ The walls of capillaries are composed of just one cell layer- a simple squamous epithelium or endothelium.
▪ This permits a more rapid exchange of materials between the blood and the tissue.

➢ Regulation of Cardiac Cycle- Normal activities of the heart are regulated intrinsically, i.e., autoregulated by specialized muscles(nodal tissue),
hence the heart is called myogenic.
 This automatic rhythm is produced by the spontaneous depolarization, which leads to the contraction of heart.
✓ Nervous Control- A special neural center in the Medulla oblongata(in the brain) can moderate the cardiac function through autonomic
nervous system(ANS).
□ Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nerves(parts of ANS) are connected to the heart and can modify the rate of spontaneous
depolarization of the SA Node.
□ Sympathetic nerve endings release noradrenaline which stimulates the SAN that accelerates the heartbeat, the strength of
ventricular contraction and thereby, the cardiac output.
□ Parasympathetic nerve endings release acetylcholine which decreases the rate of heart beat, speed of conduction of action
potential and thereby, the cardiac output.
✓ Hormonal Control- The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline and noradrenaline.
□ Both the hormones are rapidly secreted in response to stress of any kind and during emergency situations.
□ These hormones increase the heartbeat and the strength of heart contractions.
Thus, adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.

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 □ Thus, adrenal medullary hormones can also increase the cardiac output.
✓ High levels of potassium and sodium decrease heart rate.
✓ An excessive amount of calcium ions increase heart rate.

➢ Disorders of Circulatory System:

i. High Blood Pressure(Hypertension)- Hypertension is the term used for blood pressure that is higher than normal.
▪ A blood pressure of 120/80 is considered normal.
▪ In this measurement, 120mmHg(millimeters of Mercury) is the systolic or pumping pressure and 80mmHg is the diastolic or resting
pressure.
▪ If repeated checks of blood pressure of an individual result in pressure values around 140/90 or higher, it shows hypertension which
leads to heart diseases and also affects vital organs like brain and kidney.
▪ Pulse Pressure- Difference between systolic and diastolic pressure, i.e., 120- 80 = 40 40mmHg.
▪ Blood pressure is measured by an instrument called Sphygmomanometer.
ii. Angina Pectoris- A symptom of acute chest pain appears when not enough oxygen is reaching the heart muscles.
▪ The term angina pectoris means chest pain.
▪ It occur in both men and women of any age but is more common among the middle aged and elderly people.
▪ It occurs due to conditions that affect the blood flow.
iii. Heart Failure- It is the state of heart when it does not pump blood effectively enough to meet the needs of the body.
▪ It is sometimes called congestive heart failure because congestion of the lungs is one of the main symptoms of this disease.
iv. Heart Attack/ Myocardial Infarction- Heart attack occurs when the heart muscles are suddenly damaged by inadequate blood supply.
v. Cardiac Arrest- Cardiac Arrest means complete stoppage of the heartbeat, i.e., when the heart stops beating.
vi. Coronary artery Disease(CAD)- Coronary Artery Disease, often referred to as Atherosclerosis, affects the vessels that supply blood to
the heart muscles.
▪ It is caused due to the deposition of calcium, fat, cholesterol and fibrous tissues in the arteries supply the heart musculature.
▪ These depositions make the lumen of arteries narrower.

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