• EXPERIMEN T 1 •

AIM: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting-a graph of potential di

Persus current.

APPARATUS

· Aresistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) Vand an ammeter (0-3) A of appropriate range, a ba

(battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
' Measurement of Resistance 47

'fl{EORY
According to the Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions,
pressure, etc.) of the conductor remain the same. If I be the ~ent [Link] through a conductor and
Vbe the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,
I oc V
or V oc I or V = RI
where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor.

Or I "vI=R I ...Wkinc
or g1ormula

R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.
In SI units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current I in ampere, the
resistance R is measured in ohm. _
(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio VII remains
constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference (V)
and the current (I) must be a straight line.

(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, ( =R) .

cmcurr DIAGRAM
Battery
+ I I
...-------'---- -
1 - -_ _ K_____ ,
ri Rheostat
+

Unknown resistance
R · wire
1\/V'v /'•---------,---------

Fig. Circuit diagram.

 49
Measurement of Resistance,.

OBSERVATION S
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l = ......
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter = .... ..
Range of the given voltmeter = .... ..
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter = .... ..
Least count of voltmeter = .... ..
4. Zero error
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = .... ..
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = .... ..
S. Zero correction
Zero correction for ammeter, c1 = - e1 = .... ..
Zero correction for voltmeter, c2 =- e2 = .... ..
6. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings

Voltmeter Jleading V (V) . V

•Serlil1No. of 1-------r------"'----'------+--___:._...----~_.;.:::__--____:::i - =R
Obsmed Corrected I
Obsen,ed
Ob,. (Ohm)
lo -{1,VO ... V=V0 +c2

(2a) ~-: (Sa) (Sb) (4)

(1)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of resistance, R = ...... ohms.

CALCULATION S
1. Find the ratio of Vand I for each set·of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V (column 3b) and current I (column 2b), taking
V along X-axis and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
From the graph, the resistance can be calculated.
AB Lil
InMBC, tan8= - = - ....(1)
CB JiV
t,.V
or cot8= - ... (2)
t,.J
 --
50
Practical Physics
.
....

But,

Fig. Graph between potential difference

and CUrrent. It is a straight line.
3. Constant ratio g1.._ [Link] of the Wire.
I
4. Resistance of the Wire per an • ...... ll an-,.
RESULT

(i) Resistance per an of the Wire is ...... ll an·'.

(ii) The graph between V and I is a straight line.
PRECAUTIONS
1.
2. 1he connections should be Mat, dun and tight.

'lldd,ends
their Wires should
by rubbing
ci>pPer withbe Used
sand for the connections after removu,g the insulations nea,
paper.
3.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of....,... ftnga.
S. Alow l'e8iatance rheostat should be used.

6. 1he br should
<otherwise be inserted
its resistance Willonly while taking observation, to avoid heating of r,si,tance
increase). .

7.
1he electric
effect of current.
current through resistance Wire should not be very high, so as to'
void heat:il)g
1he •Witch •hou!d l>e open when Y'lll/are not taking readings.
 ·• EXPERIMENT 2 •
UM: ro fintl resistance of a given ~re using metre bridge antl hence determine the resistivity
(.,,«ific resistance) ofits material.

\PPARATUS
A metre bridge (slide wire_bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a
a
esistance box, a jockey, one way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre scale, a set square,
onnecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

rHEORY
(i) The unknown resistance Xis given by,
X = (100-1) xR
l
where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap
of metre bridge. l cm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
(ii) Specific resistance (p) of the material of the given wire is given by,
X1rli
P=4r
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

~IRCUIT DIAGRAM
Known resistance [Link] .
R X

Resistance
11
box B

Galvanometer
40 50 60 70 80 90 100

C
, - --M4-- - - (100-l) - --.,
E
L - ---<1111 - - - - - -+
- , ,~-- - -• K - - ~
Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator)
Fig. Circuit diagram-Metre bridge.
-
Measurement of Resistance 53

For Specific Resistance

13. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length
by using a metre scale.
14. Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places, in two mutually perpendicUlar directions
at each place with the help of screw gauge. ·
1s. Record your observations as given in tables.

OBSERVATION S
1. Length of given wire, L = ...... cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)
Se,itil'No. of Rautace from t1ae . '- Unknown
raiffanU
01,,. nmtallce •
. .R X =R (100-l)
. t
. (omn)
(ohm)

(1) (2) (S)

1. Xl = .... ..

2. x2 = .... ..
. X3 = .... ..
3.
4. X4 = .... ..

3. Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch of screw gauge = ...... mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
Pitch
:. L.C. of the given screw gauge = ------------
No. of divisions on the circular scale
= ...... mm
Zero error, e = ...... mm
Zero correction, c =- e =...... mm
4. Table for diameter (D) of the wire
UnMrSOIU
Rell4ing N i--__._---~---------1
• u
arc,,JJp,[Link],ullng
f -L.--'-
: n~O~~
.,..1...
0,,.,..,_""'1netff
D, =N +n x £.C.
- D =D,+c
(nan) ,aw4bnaiono nx(l..C.) nun
(nan)
nu Hu (n) (nun)
(Ba) (31,) (4) (S)
(2)
D1 (a)= D1 (a)= ..... .
1. (a)
D 1 (b) = D 1 (b) = .... ..
, (b)
D2 (a)= D2 (a)= ..... .
2. (a)
D2 (b) = D 2 (b) ..... .
(b)
D3 (a)= D3 (a)= .... ..
3. (a)
D3 (b) = D 3 (b) = .... ..
(b)
D4 (a)= D4 (a)= .... ..
4. (a)
D 4 (b) = D 4 (b) = .... ..
(b)
 54
.
CALCULATIONS 1,bl• J.
1 · Calculation for X • -1'1 3 of
') w'~~-
,a Prom position of D, find I ail and wrfte 4. 11
(b) Find length (100 - 1) cm and write W ,oluit1
0
(c) Calculate X and write in coJUJllD
~ s. ,, ~-····· bttl
MeanX.. 4 I)4 (b)
2. Calculation for D +V/ a)+
D (a)+ Dib) +····
1
Mean corrected diameter "' "' ...... cfJl8
........ pUJl

3. Calculation
. . for Specific ResistaJl'e
. '\'ert ~e,
Specific resJStance of the material of the gt
,rJ)2
p=X--
4L
= ...... o}un-CJJl
= ...... ohP1-Pl ·al f the given wire (if given),
0
t the PlaterJ o
Standard value of the specific resistance
Po = ...... o}un-Pl
= £.:1?g.. x100
Percentage error Po
........ %.

RESULT
1. The value of unknown resistance, X = ......
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wife" ......
3. Percentage error= ......

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, dean and tight .
.2. All the plugs in the resistance boX should be tight, '
3. Move the joclceY gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it. •
4. The plug in key Kshould be iDoertad only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set ,.aare should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax·
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular diredi

8. The wire should not make a loop.

it
\,
Measurement of Resistance 55

• EXPERIMEN T l •
AIM: To verif1 the laws ofcombination (series) ofresistances using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS
Ametre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,
two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and connecting
wires.

THEORY
(i) . tance (r) of a res1s
The resIS · or coil IS
. tan ce wire · given by, r = (lOO- l) x R
1
where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
(ii) Wben two resistances r1 and r2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance,

R, = '1 + '2

cmcUIT DIAGRAM
(i) In series

_ _ _ _ _+-i
E

,1-- ------• K

I
I R

(100- l)

A C

Fig. Series combination of resistances.

(ii) Resistances in series

Fig. Resistances in series.

 .x . £.'-~\..VlU yuu1 UU~t:[ VdUUU~ di) [Link]'-' •

,e (1'
OBSERVATIONS esista
0 1:.-
Table for length (I) ao d un · ·· · ·
r-----,----,r----,---;,..,.,,,.=:;. (~ ) ~- .
Rautanc:e Smtd f Ill I . ·.
coll N o. of ,,,._ die l
Oh. rautace (on)

(1)
r
.,....,
1,o,r

(4)
(2) (3)
1.
r1 only 2.
3.
1.
r2 only 2.
3.
1.
r1 and r2 in
2. R,= ······
series
3.

CALCULATION S
1. Calculation for r1 only, r2 only, r1 and r2 in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R, = .•..•.
Theoretical value of R, = r1 + r 2 = ....•.
Difference (if any) =

RESULT

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rs are same. Hence,
law of resistances in series is verified.

PRECAUTION S

Same as given in Experiment 1.

...........

Meas U/iement of Resistance 57

• EXPERIMEN T 4 •
AIM: To verify the law, ofcombination (paraDel) of relistance, using a metre bridge.

APPARATUS
A metre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,
two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a s~t square, sand paper and connecting
wifes.

THEORY
. . (100-Z)
(i) Toe resistance (r) of a resistance wire or coil is given by, r = xR
1 1
where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
(ii) When r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance,
R= r1r2
P r1 +r2
cmcUIT DIAGRAM

t--, -----•
(i) In parallel
E
- - - - -+i K - -- - - - - - - - - - ,

I I

Fig. Parallel combination of resistances.

(ii) Resistances in parallel

Fig. Resistances in parallel.

 OBSERvATioNs · ·sta11<• (X)
Table for Jen (I) and unknown res1 - ~ ~ ~ 7 --P:-~ :;;;

(2) .
1.

r1 only 2. '1 =......

3.

1.

r2 only 2.
'2 =......
3.

1.
r1 and r2 in
2.
parallel RP= ......
3.

CALCULATION S
Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of RP = ......
Theoretical value of

=
Difference (if any) =
RESULT
Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of RP are same. Hence,
law of resistances in parallel is verified.

PRECAUTION S
Same as in Experiment 1.
 eter. Ammeter and Voltmeter 85
Galvanom ,

• EXPERIMEN T 7 •
,41Prf: To det~ine resiBtance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure
0(,nent,

I J\}'PARAfUS
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 '2 and
a) resistance boxes,•two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of
200
given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

TJIEORY
(i) The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method is given by,

G= R.S ...(1)
R-S
where Ris the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and Sis the shunt resistance.

E
(ii) The figure of merit, ... (2)
k = (R+G)6

where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and 8 is the deflection produced with resistance R.
(iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer,
Ig = nk ... (3)
where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.

cmcUIT DIAGRAM

r,
~ --+ I- - -• ~- ----,
R I

1-1,

Fig. (a) Resistance of galvanometer. Fig. (b) Figure of merit.

L
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION
1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer byhalf-deflection method
· s,;,,,.t
. ' 1 .
Serial No. Railtantl ' 'D,,,.,,m ,
ofOlis.
\ . '
1J .· , ··
. '

in th,. re·
G•otn1ttr
. ' }" , t '

: (olrm) · . .
• 8• . G= R-
(ohm)
(1) . (3) (4) (6)
1.
2.
3.
4.
 87
ometer. Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ga/van '
. Table for figure of merit
2
N ranJ,er of [Link].f. oftu ceU, Rautance 11pnofmnit
cel& B(V) orremffniof f,;nnR.B. B
{Battay elfminatcw R(ohm) k= (l+G)8
eliminator)
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1.
2.
3.
4.
Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = ..... .

1 . Calculation for G

(i) Calculate G, using formula, G = and write it in column 6 of Table 1.

R-S
(ii) Take mean of values of G recorded in column 6 of Table 1.
2. Calculation fork
E
(i) Calculate k, using formula, k = (R + G)S and write it in column 6 of Table 2.

(ii) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2.

t~
RESULT
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = ...... Q
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer= A/div.
4,!,
PRECAUTION S
1. All the connections should be neat, dean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit
ta
(otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or
ammeter can be damaged).
 - EXPERIMEN T 1 - ,rairror and to fand t~
concave e
O f
AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case a
focal length.

.
APPARATUS . . . i,d, two outer uprights with later~
An optical bench
. with three uprights (zero end. al upright fix thin,
ell (one . one thick), a knitting n ee dle
movement), concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optic nee es
and a half metre scale.

THEORY
1 1 1
From mirror formula, -=-+-
f V U

We have, f=~
u+v
where, f = focal length of concave mirror.
u = distance of object needle from pole of the mirror.
v = distance of image needle from pole of the mirror.
Note. According to sign-convention, u and V have negative values. Hence, f comes negative.

RAYDIAGRAM
Image

.--Object Needle
Image (thin)
Needle
(thick)
V---~---~

Fig. Focal length of a concave mirror.

 OBSERVATION S
·ven concave mirror = ······
Rough focal length Of the gi x = .. •.. ·
Actual length of the knitting nee~e, d ob. ect needle when
Observed distance between the mirror an J y = ......
knitting needle is placed in between them, dle when
.
Observed distance between the mirror an i d ·mage nee z = ......
knitting needle is placed in between them,
Index correction for the object distance u, x-y= ......
Index correction for the image distance v, x-z = ·......
1 1
Table for u, v and ,
U V

Serial
. -
lwitlonof .. Oh1err1etl tl&timce Correttetl_tl~ance l ,~ Poad
[Link] , .,
.
''.· ' .
, ··
,,,.
n
-Ii ' . -
l
.
length
Oh,. Conan,e Object Im,,ge P0=11 ,, Pl=v . . . . . u V V
mirror neetlk neetlk .
f =- '"' .
. . ,,
p .• . '.!' ' ~
·-
·, .,
0 I '" v+q
t ·.•
·(cm)
a,;: - •.
(an) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) ' (c,n:l) , ' (c,n·l)
(1) (2a) (21,) (2c)~ (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b) '(S) (6)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

CALCULATION S '

Calculations of focal length by graphical methods

(i) u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X'-axis and v along
Y'-axis. According to sign conventions, in this case u and v both are negative. Plot the
various points for different sets of values of u and v from the observation table. Tue graph
comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in figure. -
 herical Mirrors
tho/SP 131
19
f"°I "' . e OA making an angle of 45' with either axis (i.e., bisecting LY'OX') and meeting the
pra"'iJ]t• ]in
}.. praw AB and AD perpendicular
di on X'- and Y'-axes respectively. The values of u and
st po r oint A. So the coor nates of point A must be (2f, 2f) because for a concave mirror
;, ,,,.,; :nly when the object is placed at the centre of curvature.
l v dvsre eq u = v = R = 2f
ill . IJence,

doll
~ J,JI' . · or formula applied to point A
frornmiff 1 1 1
-=-+-
f V U

1 2 2 U V
},$
u =v' -f = -U or and f =- or 2
V 2
Hence, half the values of either coordinate of A (i.e., distance OD or OB) gives the focal length
cave mirror.
of the con
OD
(=--=- ......
2

Fig. Graph between u and v. It is a rectangular hyperbola.

Also OB
f=-2 =- .......

:. Mean value of
f --- ...... .
132

(ii)

Fig. Graph between ..!..

U
and ..!..
V
. It is a straight line.

The straight line cuts the two axes-X' and Y' at an angle of 45 at points A and B, respectively and
making equal intercepts of the axes. Measure the distance OA and OB.
Then focal length, 1 1
- -
f -- OA= -OB
-
=- ...... cm.
Explanation

From mirror formula, 1 1 1

-u +-=-
V f
1
(a) If - 0, then
u
=
-1
V
:: -1f
 ngth ofSpherical MirrofS
focal Le .
1 1
'lbUS, intercept OB - -
V
-
--
f
1 . 1 1
(b) If - = 0, then - --
-
V u f
1 1
'Ibus, intercept OA · --
u
-
- -
f
 RESULT
• determined from:
The focal length of the given concave mirror as

UV
(i) focal length calculated from f =-v+u =.. •··· cm
(ii) (u - v) graph =- ...... cm

(iii) f~.'- ~) graph =- ...... cm

(iv) (u - v) graph = - ...... cm.

PRECAUTION S
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and,parallel to the central line of the optical
bench.
2. The uprights should be nrtical.
3. Tip to tip parallaz should be removed between the needle I and image of the needle 0.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
5. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as that of p·ole of the concave
mirror.
6. Indez correction for u and v should be applied.
r 1iefl
0
gtnof5P
herical Lenses
149
:I f0' • EXPERIMENT 3 •
dthe fotal length of a convex lens "7 plotting graph, between u and v or between
.[Link]~ 1
.,
~··· ,,,J - -V ·
ros
If~
Mt optl·cal bench with
. three uprights (central
. upright fixed , two outer uprights with lateral
inent) , a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle
ffto¢ alf metre scale.
[Link]

~oRY
1berelation between u, v and
. f for a convex lens is,
' 1 1 1 1 u-v
-=--
f V U
-=- => f=--
UV

f UV u-v
where, f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
tJote. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f comes positive.

RAYDIAGRAM

L 8'

2F
A F . A'
--+---=~--+-----y~--:;;::--~2!;:F:--~ C
Object Image
Needle Needle
B D

Fig. Focal length of convex lens.

 .11th OJ .,,, .
,iet1, 151
I v¢oNS
,eig,
0 fl.O\lg
h focal length of the given convex len
. . S = ...... cm
length of the knitting needle
X= ...... cm
f. ed distance between the object ne ell
ot,serv e e and the lens
,.....;t:ting needle is placed between th
wheniu'6 em Y= ...... cm
ed distance between the image needl d
ot,se rv e an the
·••hen knitting needle is placed between th
tens yo em Z= ...... cm
JndeX correction for the object distance u,
x-y= ...... cm
eX correction for the image distance v,
Ind x-z= ...... cm
1
Table for u, v·, u and v

2.
3.
4.
s.
6.

cALCULATION S
calculations of focal length by graphical methods.
(0 u-v Gtaph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X'-axis and v along Y-axis.
According to sign conventions, in this case, u is negative and vis positive. Plot the various points
for different sets of values of u and v from observation table second quadrant. The graph comes
out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e., bisecting LYOX') and meeting the
curve at point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X'- and Y-axes, respectively.
The values of u and v will be same for point A. So, the coordinates of point Amust be (2f, 2f),
because for a convex lens, when u =2f, v =2f.
Hence, AB =AC =2f or OC =OB =2f
OB d f- OC
f= T an - 2

Mean value of f = ...... cm

 Fig. Graph between u and ·v. It is a rectangular hyperbola.

(ii) 1 1 1 . 1
g and V Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent U alongX'-axis and V aim
Y . B . 1 1
-axis. y sign conventions -U is negative and -V is positive. Plot the various points for differer
· · 1 1
sets of values of -U and -V from the observation table. The graph comes out to be a [Link]
1 1
as shown in graph between ,i and v·

The straight line cuts the two axes OX' and OY at an angle of 45° at points P and Q, respective]
and making equal intercepts on the axes. Measure the distance OP and OQ.
1 1
Then focal length, f = OP = OQ
- ...... .
 153

Fig. Graph between..!. and..!.. It is a straight line.

U V