OSHA 30

Introduction to OSHA
By the 1960s, the number and severity of occupational injuries and illnesses in the US
were increasing. Disabling injuries grew 20 percent, and 14,000 workers were dying on
the job each year.

On December 29, 1970, President Richard Nixon signed The Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970. The OSH Act charged the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration with assuring safe and healthful conditions for working men and women.
The mission of OSHA is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of

America’s workers. Since the agency was created in 1971, workplace fatalities have
been cut in half and occupational injury and illness rates have declined 40 percent. At
the same time, U.S> employment has nearly doubled from 56 million workers at 3.5
million worksites to 105 million workers at nearly 6.9 million sites.

Topic 1: OSHA Overview

The Need for the OSHA Act
As the workforce continued to grow and workers continued to be injured or killed on the
job, the human cost and the burden on the nation’s commerce became staggering in
terms of lost production and wages, medical expenses, and disability compensation.

The Act
The OSHA Act establishes three permanent agencies:
 The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) within the Labor
Department to set and enforce workplace safety and health standards
 The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) in what was
then the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to conduct research on
occupational safety and health.
 The Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC), an
independent agency to adjudicate enforcement actions challenged by employers.

The general purpose of the OSHA Act is

“…to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the Nation safe and
healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources.”
 THE ACT
“To ensure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women; by
authorizing enforcement of the standards developed under the Act; by assisting and
encouraging the States in their efforts to assure safe and healthful working conditions;
by providing for research, information, education, and training in the field of
occupational safety and health; and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of

America in Congress assembled, that this Act may be cited as the ‘Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970.”

What does the OSH Act cover?

The Act covers all employers and their employees in the 50 states, the District of
Columbia, Puerto Rico, and all other territories under federal jurisdiction.
The Act applies to private sector employers and employees in virtually all fields
including manufacturing, construction, longshoring agriculture law, medicine, charity,
disaster relief, organized labor, and private education. Coverage is provided by Federal
OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state program.

Purposes of OSHA
The Act created OSHA to oversee the federal standards for occupational safety and
health. The mission is to save lives, prevent injuries, and protect the health of America’s
workers.

The following are the basic tasks performed by OSHA:

 Encourage employers and employees to reduce workplace hazards and
implement safety and health programs
 Provide for research in occupational safety and health in order to develop
new ways of dealing with occupational safety and health problems.
 Maintain a reporting and recordkeeping system and competence of
occupational safety and health personnel
 Develop mandatory job safety and health standards and enforce them
effectively
 Provide for the development, analysis, and approval of stat occupational
safety and health programs.

Three Decades of OSHA

In the 1970s, OSHA’s main task was to put an initial base of standards in place by
adopting existing, widely recognized, and accepted standards. During this period,
OSHA employed several enforcement strategies.
In the 1980s, OSHA began to focus on Minimizing regulatory burdens. Its goal was to
provide a balanced mix of enforcement, education, training, standard-setting, and
consultation activities.
In the 1990s, OSHA re-examined its goals. The “New OSHA” focused on reducing red
tape, streamlining standard-setting, and inspecting workplaces where employees were
un greatest need of protection.

State Plans
The Act encourages states to develop and operate state job safety and health plans
under OSHA guidance. OSHA approves and monitors state plans.

Topic 2: OSHA Safety Services

Services
OSHA provides many services to promote safety and health in the workplace
 OSHA Consultation: To help employers who want help in establishing and
maintaining a safe and healthful workplace.
 Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP): represent one part of OSHA’s effort to
extend worker protection beyond the minimum required by OSHA standards.
 OSHA Training Institute (OTI): provides basic and advanced training and
education in safety and health.

Topic 3: OSHA Standards

This topic teaches what OSHA standards are, the development process for standards,
and how to read them.

There are two types of standards:

 Vertical Standards: (Specific industry) such as Fall Protection Subpart M and
Scaffolds Subpart L
 Horizontal Standards: (Universal) such as Hazard Communication, BBP,
Powered Industrial Trucks.

The Standards-Setting Process

The stages of development:
 OSHA initiates the development of standards
 OSHA published the intentions of changes in the Federal Register as a “Notice of
Proposed Rulemaking.”
 The proposed standards go through public comment period and public hearings
 OSHA publishes in the Federal Register the full, final text of any standard
amended or adopted and the date it becomes effective.
Topic 4: General Duties
General Duty Clause:
In the event that OSHA does not have specific standards to address a workplace
hazard, employers are responsible for following the ACT’s General Duty Clause, a
provision within the OSH Act.

The General Duty Clause allows OSHA to cite employers even if there is no specific
standard the employer violated.

The following elements are necessary for a General Duty Clause violation to exist:
 The employer failed to keep the workplace free of hazards to which employees
were exposed.
 The hazard was recognized.
 The hazard was causing or was likely to cause death or serious harm
 There was a feasible and useful method for correcting the hazard.

The General Duty Clause of the ACT states that each employer
“Shall furnish…. a place of employment free from recognized hazards that are causing
or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to their employees.”

Rights and Responsibilities

The OSH Act establishes general rights and responsibilities of both employers and
employees in the workplaces of this nation.
These are the rights and responsibilities of employers:
 Comment on standards during their formulation
 Apply for a temporary or permanent variance
 Be present during an inspection
 File a Notice of Contest
 Have confidentiality of trade secrets
 Obtain assistance from OSHA with compliance

These are the rights and responsibilities of employees:

 Work in a safe work environment
 Complain to OSHA without fear of punishment or discrimination
 Comment on standards during their formulation
 Review OSHA injury/illness summaries, personal medical records, or monitoring
records
 Be informed of a variance
 Review OSHA citations
 Have an employer representative present during an OSHA inspection
 Observe monitoring or measurement of toxic substances
 General Safety Provisions
In order to ensure workplace safety and health, OSHA has determined that each
employer must set up a program to manage it. The goal of any safety and health
program is to reduce injuries, illnesses, and fatalities, while achieving compliance with
OSHA standards and the General Duty Clause.

Topic 1: Overview
Why is safety important?
The formal safety program is a set of written documents that describe a company’s
safety policies, priorities, and responsibilities.
The entire workforce must have an occasional reminder of what accident prevention is
all about.
o Workers: need to know what is specifically required of you in order to
perform your job safety.
o Supervisors: need the tools and guidance to help you manage safe
construction process
o Management: must continually protect the greatest asset- the workforce.

Competent person/Qualified person

Competent Person: one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards
in the surroundings or working conditions which are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Qualified Person: One who, by possession of a recognized degree, certificate, or

professional standing, or by extensive knowledge, training, and experience, has
successfully demonstrated their ability to solve or resolve problems relating to the
subject matter, the work, or the project.

KEY POINT: The difference between a “competent” person and a “qualified”

person, lies in the “Authority” granted to the “competent” person to take action to
correct or eliminate hazards.

OSHA construction standards that require competent persons:

 Accident prevention
 Hearing protection
 Welding and cutting
 Respiratory protection
 Scaffolding
 Slings
 Cranes and derricks
  Electrical
 Fall protection
 Ladders

Topic 2: Elements of a Safety and Health Program

According to OSHA, a safety and health program should have the following core
elements:
 Management Leadership
 Employee participation
 Hazard identification and assessment
 Hazard prevention and control
 Information and training
 Evaluation of program effectiveness

Management Leadership
Management demonstrates leadership by providing the resources, motivation, priorities,
and accountability for ensuring the safety and health of its workforce.

Employee Participation
When employees are involved in a variety of safety-related activities it is more likely that
they will:
 Appreciate the potential hazards that exist on the jobsite
 Avoid unsafe behaviors
 Buy in to the overall safety culture of the organization

Without employees’ participation and cooperation, accidents are difficult to prevent.

Safety responsibilities at every level of the organization must be clearly defined in
writing and in training, so everyone has a fair and equal chance to live up to what is
expected of them.

Hazard Identification and Assessment

Worksite Analysis:
If employees are to be protected from workplace hazards, those hazards must be
identified first. A means of systematically identifying workplace hazards is needed so
that the hazards can be eliminated before accidents occur.

What is a job Hazard Analysis?

JHA is a method of reviewing the individual steps in performing a job/task and
identifying the associated occupational safety and health hazards.
JHA is very similar to a safety inspection, in that both are intended to identify hazards
and provide solutions to problems. JHA is focused on covering a specific task in detail.
If an accident or injury occurs on a specific job, the JHA should be reviewed
immediately to determine whether changes are needed in the job procedure.
The JHA should be considered a checklist for accident investigations. JHA can be used
to train new employees.
Conducting A Job Hazard Analysis
1. Selecting the task to be analyzed
2. Breaking the task down into each of its individual steps
3. Identifying the hazard(s) that are associated with each step
4. Developing safe operating procedure to eliminate or control the hazards.

Hazard Prevention and Control

The goal of a hazard prevention and control program is to make the workplace as
foolproof as possible. This is an ongoing process.
Engineering Controls
Attempt to eliminate hazards, they do not necessarily require that an engineer design
the control. They can be very simple.
The work environment and the job itself should be designed to eliminate or reduce
exposure to hazards based on the following principles:
 If feasible, design the jobsite, equipment, or process to remove the hazard or
substitute something that is not hazardous or is less hazardous
 If removal is not feasible, enclose that hazard to prevent to prevent exposure in
normal operations
 Where complete enclosure is not feasible, establish barriers to reduce exposure
to the hazard in normal operations.

Administrative Controls
Include lengthened rest breaks, additional relief workers, exercise breaks to vary body
motions, and rotating workers through different jobs to reduce stress or repetitive
motions on one part of the body. They are normally used in conjunction with other
controls that more directly preventor control exposure to hazards.

Personal Protective Equipment

When exposure to hazards cannot be engineered completely out of normal operations
or maintenance work, and when safe work practices cannot provide sufficient additional
protection, a further method of control is using personal protective equipment or
clothing. These include face shields, steel-toed shoes, hard hats, respirators, hearing
protection, gloves, and safety glasses.

Specific Written Programs

Federal and State laws also require that critical jobsite hazards must be controlled
through specific written programs and extra employee training. These include:
 Confined Space Entry
 Lock out/ Tag out
  Fall Protection
 Scaffolding Safety
 Hazardous Materials

Accident/Incident Investigations
Tools for uncovering hazards that either were missed earlier or have managed to slip
out of the controls planned for them, thus prevent future occurrences. All incidents,
whether a near miss or an actual injury-related event, should eb investigated. Near miss
reporting and investigating allow you to identify and control hazards before they cause a
more serious incident.

Safety Training
Training can help employees develop the knowledge and skills they need to understand
workplace hazards. OSHA considers safety and health training vital to every workplace.
 New employees: need training not only to do the job, but also to recognize,
understand, and avoid potential hazards to themselves and others in their
immediate work area and elsewhere in the workplace.
 Contract workers: need training to recognize your workplace’s hazards or
potential hazards.
 Experienced workers: need training if new equipment is installed or process
changes
 Employees needing to wear PPE and persons working in high-risk situations:
need special training
 Employees or contract workers in worksites needing complex work practices to
control hazards and experiencing more frequent occupational injuries and
illnesses; need periodic safety and health training to refresh their memories and
to learn new methods of control.

NOTE: New training also may be necessary when OSHA or industry standards
require it or new standards are issued

What are the Common Types or Specialized Training?

Safety and Health Training for Managers:
Training managers in their responsibilities is necessary to ensure their continuing
support and understanding. It is their responsibility to communicate the program’s goal
and objectives to their employees, as well as assign safety and health responsibilities,
and hold subordinates accountable.

Safety and Health Training for Supervisors:

Supervisors may need additional training in hazard detection, accident investigation,
their role in enduring maintenance of controls, emergency handling, and use of PPE.
Job Orientation:
The format and extent of orientation training will depend on the complexity of hazards
and the work practices needed to control them.

Specific OSHA Training:

The employer must instruct each employee in the recognition and avoidance of unsafe
conditions and the regulations applicable to his work environment to control or eliminate
any hazards or other exposure to illness or injury.

Safety Meetings:
Responsibilities and safety procedures are rarely followed by everyone without an
occasional reminder. You do not need to wait for a safety meeting to correct a
potentially hazardous situation.

Evaluation of Program Effectiveness

Initiating an audit trail for evaluating a safety and health program is a way to test the
effectiveness of written or informal programs.
The checklist follows OSHA guidelines for establishing a safety and health program.
Each of these program elements should be present in establishing a safety and health
program:

Management Commitment and Leadership

 Policy statement: goals established, issued, and communicated
 Program revised annually
 Participation in safety meetings, inspections, and agenda items in meetings
 Commitment of resources is adequate
 Safety rules and procedures incorporated into site operations
 Management observes safety rules

Assignment of Responsibility
 Safety designee on site, knowledgeable, and accountable
 Supervisors (including foremen) safety and health responsibilities understood
 Employees adhere to safety rule

Identification and Control of Hazards

 Periodic site safety inspection program involves supervisors
 Preventative controls in place (PPE, maintenance, engineering)
 Action taken to address hazards
 Safety Committee, where appropriate
 Technical references available
 Enforcement procedures by management
Training and Education
 Supervisors receive basic training
 Specialized training taken when needed
 Employee training program exists, is ongoing, and is effective

Recordkeeping and Hazard Analysis

 Records maintained of employee illnesses, injuries, and posted
 Supervisors perform accident investigations, determine causes, and propose
corrective action
 Injuries, near misses, and illnesses are evaluated for trends, similar causes,
corrective action initiated

First Aid and Medical Assistance

 First aid supplies and medical service available
 Employees informed of medical results
 Emergency procedures and training where necessary

Topic 3: Basic Safety Standards

First Aid
Certified First Aid Providers are persons who are certified and trained to certain levels in
first aid and CPR.

OSHA states, “In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, or hospital in the near
proximity of the workplace which is used for the treatment of all injured
employees, a person or persons shall be adequately trained to render first
aid. First aid supplies approve by the consulting physician shall be readily
available.”

Housekeeping
Is a very important part of your job. It improves the overall appearance of your work
area.
 To reduce trip and fall hazards
 To increase production. You won’t have to waste time looking for a misplaced
tool. You will always know where tools are when you put them where they belong
after you use them
 To reduce a potential fire hazard by removing unneeded combustibles from the
work area

OSHA has the following requirements for housekeeping:

 Form and scrap lumber with protruding nails and all other debris, must be kept
cleared from work areas, passageways, and stairs, in and around buildings or
other structures
  Combustible scrap and debris must be removed at regular intervals during the
course of construction
 Containers must be provided for the collection and separation of waste, trash,
oily and used rags, and the other refuse
 Containers used for garbage and other oily, flammable, or hazardous wastes,
such as caustics, acids, harmful dusts. Must be equipped with covers
 Garbage and other waste must be disposed of at frequent and regular intervals.

Tips to Maintain a Clean Work Area

 Plan the job. Make a list of the needed tools/materials.
 Develop a routine for cleaning up at the end of the shift or periodically during the
shift.
 Do not allow employees to eat, drink, or smoke in the work area.

Illumination
OSHA requires that the following areas on a construction site be lighted, either naturally
or by using illumination devices:
 Aisles
 Stairs
 Ramps
 Runways
 Corridors
 Offices
 Shops
 Storage areas

Means of Egress
OSHA requires that every building or structure must have exits that are free from
obstruction at all times when it is occupied. There cannot be any lock or fastening
device attached that would prevent workers from using any means of egress.
In addition, the exits must be marked with a sign that is visible to the occupants.

Emergency Action Plans

Emergency action plans that are required by any particular OSHA standard, such as fire
protection, must meet the following requirements.
1. The emergency action plan has to be in writing
2. It must cover the designated actions employers and employees have to take in
order to ensure employee safety fire and other emergencies

The following elements, at a minimum, must be included in the plan:

 Emergency escape procedures and emergency escape route assignments
  Procedures to be followed by employees who remain to operate critical; plant
operations before they evacuate
 Procedures to account for all employees after emergency evacuation has been
completed
 Rescue and medical duties for those employees who are to perform them
 An employee alarm system
 The method of evacuation to be used in emergency circumstances
 The preferred means of reporting fires and other emergencies
 Names or regular job titles of persons or departments who can be contacted for
further information or explanation of duties under the plan

Before implementing the emergency action plan, the employer must designate and train
a sufficient number of employees to assist in the safe and orderly emergency
evacuation of employees.

The employer must review the plan with each employee covered by the plan at the
following times:
 Initially when the plan is developed
 Whenever the employee’s responsibilities or designated actions under the plan
change
 Whenever the plan is changed

Access to Medical Records

Employers must provide record access to all employees exposed to toxic substances
and harmful physical agents, their employee representatives, health professionals, and
OSHA. The rule does not require creation of any records, only preservation.
 SUBPART D: Health Hazards
The term health hazard “means a chemical for which there is statistically significant
evidence based on at least one study conducted in accordance with established
scientific principles that acute or chronic health effects may occur in exposed
employees. The term health hazard includes chemicals which are carcinogens, toxic or
highly toxic agents, reproductive toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins,
nephrotoxins, agents which act on the hematopoietic system, and agents which damage
the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucus membranes.”

Topic 1: Overview
Infectious Diseases
Diseases that pass from oner person to another. These are referred to most commonly
as bloodborne pathogens or airborne pathogens. PPE is required when providing first
aid.

Basic guidelines to follow that will help reduce body fluid transmission when rendering
first aid care:
 Avoid direct contact with bodily fluids and blood whenever possible
 Place barriers, such as gloves or a clean, dry cloth, between the victim’s bodily
fluids and yourself.
 Wear protective clothing, such as disposable gloves, to cover any cuts, scrapes,
or skin conditions you have
 Wash your hands with soap and water immediately after care
 Do not eat, drink, or touch your mouth, nose, or eyes when giving first aid
 Do not touch objects that may be soiled with blood or other bodily fluids
 Be prepared by having a first aid kid stocked and easily accessible.

Basic Provisions
Washing facilities
There is required to be adequate washing facilities for employees who work with paints,
coatings, herbicides, or insecticides, or in other operations where they are exposed to
harmful contaminants. The washing facilities should be near the job site, be properly
equipped to allow employees to remove these types of substances, and maintained in a
sanitary condition

Showers
Whenever showers must be required by a particular standard, they must meet the
following criteria
 One shower for every 10 employees of each sex.
 Body soap or other cleansing agents and have hot and cold options
Change Rooms
Whenever employees are required by a particular standard to wear protective clothing
because of the possibility of contamination with toxic materials, change rooms equipped
with storage facilities must be provided

Vermin Control
Every enclosed workplace should be constructed to prevent the entrance or harborage
or rodents, insects, and other vermin. A continuing and effective extermination program
must be instituted where their presence is detected

Process Safety Management

The contract employer working on-site must be informed of the hazards by the host
employer and must train each of the employees in the safe work practices for that
project.
The safety and health procedures of the host employer as well as those of the
contractor must be followed.

Waste Operations
Written safety and health programs for hazardous waste operations are required.
Training, medical surveillance, engineering controls, work practices, and personal
protective equipment are included in the standard

Spray Booths
OSHA has specific regulations covering spray booths.

Topic 2: Heat, Cold, and Noise

Heat Hazards
During the summer months or in hot operations, employers should be especially aware
of the dangers associated with working in high-heat environments. Heat and humidity
combined with physical exertion can do more than just make employees uncomfortable
– it can lead to a variety of heat-related illnesses that can debilitate employees.
Basic methods for preventing heat-related illnesses on the job include the following:
 Wear loose-fitting clothing
 Drink water often (don’t wait until you’re thirsty)
 Schedule “hot” jobs for the cooler part of the day
 Schedule routine maintenance and repair work in hot areas during the cooler
seasons of the year.
 Provide additional breaks and comfortable break areas
 Add additional breaks to reduce exposure time
  Permit workers the freedom to interrupt work when they feel extreme heat
discomfort

Heat-Related Illnesses
Cramps
Heat cramps are painful muscle cramps. They can occur after vigorous exercise or
intense physical activity in extreme temperatures. If cramping occurs, rest and cool
down, drink water with one teaspoon of salt per quart.

Rash
Heat rash, or prickly heat, appears as fine red spots or small bumps. It’s usually found
where clothing is somewhat restrictive. This rash is triggered by hot, humid weather
when one is dressed too warmly and develops when skin is persistently wetted by
perspiration.

Exhaustion
Is a result of excessive heat and dehydration. It is caused by insufficient water and salt
intake and too little sweat, which evaporates on the skin to cool the body.
Symptoms include:
 Pale, clammy skin
 Fatigue
 Dizziness
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Labored breathing
 Rapid pulse
 Syncope
 Intense thirst

A victim of heat exhaustion should be cooled as rapidly as possible by placing the

individual flat or with feet slightly elevated in front of a fan or in a cool room. Administer
cool liquids (not icy) and seek medical attention.

Heat Stroke
Caused by overexposure to extreme heat and a breakdown of the body’s heat-
regulating mechanisms. In the initial and most crucial stage of heat stroke, the victim will
exhibit n altered mental state such as disorientation or confusion. This altered
consciousness is the key to diagnosing heat stroke.

Victims of heat stroke often have hot, dry, flushed skin; rapid heartbeat; and abnormally
high blood pressure. Until medical assistance is available, the victim should receive any
or all of the following treatments:
  Cooled rapidly by placing him or her in a shady area
 Submersed in a cool bath
 Wrapped in wet sheets
exposed to increased air movement to improve evaporative cooling
 Sprayed with lukewarm water and fanned with a towel

Cold Hazards
People who work outside or enjoy outdoor recreational activities face the risks of
hypothermia and frostbite.
Hypothermia: risk that is often overlooked or not recognized. It is a decrease in core
body temperature to a level at which normal muscular and cerebral functions are
impaired.

The most common cause of this loss of body temperature is exposure to cold and/or
wet conditions. When exposed to cold conditions, the body can lose that heat through a
variety of routes:
 Conduction: contact with cold or wet objects, such as snow
 Convection: heat being carried away from the body by wind, windchill
 Evaporation: sweating and respiration

Once the body’s core temperature begins to drop below 98.6F, the symptoms of
hypothermia will start to appear.

Is Frostbite a Threat?
Frostbite is a very real concern in cold weather conditions. The extremities are
particularly susceptible to frost bite. Symptoms include:
 Paling
 Numbing
 Hardening of skin
To treat frostbite, seek medical attention as soon as possible and:
 Remove any wet clothing or clothing that may restrict blood flow to the affected
area.
 Soak the frostbitten appendage in warm water
 Dry the area and wrap it in a dry cloth.
 Hypothermia Treatment
Severity Body Temp Symptoms Treatment
Mild 98.6 - 97 Shivering Begins
cold sensation,
Remove all wet clothing, replace it with
numbness, goose
97 - 95 warm, dry clothes. Drink warm liquids,
bumps, lack of hand
stay active.
coordination

intense shivering,
general lack of
muscular
Moderate 95 - 93 coordination, slow
or stumbling pace,
mild confusion, pale
skin

violant shivering,
gross lack of
replace wet clothing with warm dry ones.
muscular
Cover the head. If able to swallow, give
93 - 90 coordination,
warm sugery liquids. Place warm objects
mental sluggishness,
around the victim.
amnesia, difficulty
speaking

Shivering stops,
muscular stiffness,
extreme confusion
or incoherence,
Severe 90 - 86
irrational behavior,
inability to stand,
skin appears blue
and/or puffy

Muscular ridgidity,
semiconsciousness,
decreased pulse and
86 - 82
respiration, dilation
of pupils, skin ice-
cold to touch

unconsciousness,
pulmonary edema, A person suffering from severe
erratic pulse and hypothermia may easily be mistaken for
82 - 78
heartbeat, caardiac dead. Even if there is not detectable pulse,
and respiratory continue treatment.
failure, death

Cold stress Prevention

Individuals exposed to wet clothing, high winds, low temperature, or any combination
thereof are potentially susceptible to cold stress. An individual’s best defense against
cold stress is wearing the proper clothing, following cautions work guidelines, and/or
using engineering controls.

Preventing Hypothermia
Clothing
 Waterproof clothing is necessary for wet or rainy conditions
 Tight-knit clothing provides wind resistance
 Insulated hats, gloves, and footwear keep the extremities protected
  Layering clothing allows the individual to adjust to changing temperatures

Work practices
 Perform work practices during the warmest part of the day
 Take frequent short breaks in a warm, dry place
 Drink beverages that are warm and sweet, avoid caffeine and alcohol
 Eat warm, high-calorie foods to fuel the body and help prevent fatigue
 Use the buddy system when spending time outdoors
 Be familiar with the signs of hypothermia

Engineering Controls
 An on-site heat source, such as radiant heaters or contact warm plates
 A shielded work area for drafty or windy conditions
 A heated shelter for employees exposed to wind-chill temperature of 20F or less
 The use of thermal insulating material on equipment handles when temperatures
drop below 30F

Noise Hazards
Occupational noise exposure may be one of the most significant health hazards present
in the modern industrial workplace.

Occupational Noise Exposure Standard

The standard implements a three-pronged approach to addressing industrial noise. The
basic components are:
 Recognition
 Evaluation
 Control

Noise Recognition
Safe noise levels
90 decibels (dB) based on an eight-hour time-weighted average (TWA) as the absolute
safe level of noise exposure.

Control Measures
Implement measures to reduce exposure. Establish a hearing conservation program for
any level that is for 85 dB and above.

Hearing Conservation Program

Conduct noise exposure monitoring, perform audiometric testing on employees, provide
hearing protection, conduct employee training, and retain records of the aforementioned
activities.
Monitoring Noise Levels
Two basic types of instruments are available to monitor noise levels:
 Sound level meters
 Noise dosimeter

Institute Audiometric Testing and Training

Establish an audiometric testing program for those exposed. Institute a training program
for all affected employees. The training program must be conducted annually and
ensure that employees are informed of the:
 Effects of noise on hearing
 Purpose of hearing protectors
 Advantages, disadvantages, and attenuation of various types of hearing
protectors.
 Instructions on the selection, fitting use, and care of protectors
 Purpose of audiometric testing
 Test procedures

Evaluating Noise
What types of hearing tests are there?
An audiometric program that documents an employee’s hearing level consists of two
types of tests, or audiograms: baseline and annual.

How are the test results evaluated?

By comparing the annual audiogram to the baseline.
STS: a change in hearing threshold relative to the baseline audiogram of an average of
10dB or more at 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz in either ear.
Should the audiogram results indicate an STS has occurred, OSHA requires that the
affected employee be fitted with hearing protectors, trained on their proper use, and
required to wear them.

Who administers the testing?

OSHA references the criteria for those who can perform audiometric tests. OSHA
requires a licensed or certified audiologist or a technician who is certified by the council
of Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation and gives detailed specifications
for the instrumentation required.
The employer is required to retain all of the audiometric test records for a given
employee for the duration of the affected employee’s employment.
Controlling noise
TABLE- PERMISSIBLE NOISE EXPOSURES

When employees are subjected to sound levels exceeding those listed in the table
above, feasible administrative or engineering controls must be instituted. If such
controls fail to reduce sound levels within the levels of the table, PPE as required by
OSHA must be provided and used to reduce sound levels within the levels of the table.
NOTE: although not required by OSHA, it is good management practice to implement a
hearing conservation program at the 85dB action level.
PPE is available in two basic formats:
 Earmuffs
 Ear plugs

TOPIC 3: Radiation, Gases, and Lead

Radiation
Employers must protect against occupational exposure of ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation.

Training Levels:
 Only competent and trained persons can use equipment that involves radioactive
materials or X-rays
 Laser equipment operators must have proof of qualification. Signs, safety
equipment, and safe practices must be used with lasers.
 In construction and related activities involving the use of sources of ionizing
radiation, the pertinent provisions of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Standards for Protection Against Radiation (10 CFR Part 20), relating to
protection against occupational radiation exposure, must apply.
 Any activity that involves the use of radioactive materials or X-rays, whether or
not under license from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, mut be performed by
competent persons specially trained in the proper and safe operation of such
equipment
  In the case of materials used under Commission license, only persons actually
licensed, or competent persons under direction and supervision of the licensee,
may perform such work.
 Only qualified and trained employees must be assigned to install, adjust, and
operate laser equipment
 Proof of qualification of the laser equipment operator must be available and in the
operator’s possession at all times.

Operating Equipment
 Areas in which lasers are used must be posted with standard laser warning
placards
 Beam shutters or caps must be used, or the laser turned off, when laser
transmission is not actually required
 When the laser is left unattended for a substantial period of time, such as during
lunch hour, overnight, or at shift change, the laser must be turned off
 Only mechanical or electronic means may be used as a detector for guiding the
internal alignment of the laser.
 The laser beam must not be directed at employees
 When it is raining or snowing, or when there is dust or fog in the air, the operation
of laser systems must be prohibited where practicable; in any event, employees
must be kept out of range of the area of source and target during such weather
conditions
 Laser equipment must bear a label to indicate maximum output

Employee Protection
 Employees must not be exposed to light above these levels
o Direct staring: 1 microwatt per square centimeter
o Incidental observing: 1 milliwatt per square centimeter
o Diffused reflected light: 2 ½ watts per square centimeter
 Employees, when working in areas with a potential exposure to direct or reflected
laser light greater than 0.005 watts (5 milliwatts), must be provided with anti-laser
eye protection devices as specified by OSHA
 A laser unit in operation should be set above the heads of the employees, when
possible
 Employees must not be exposed to microwave power densities in excess of 10
milliwatts per square centimeter.

Gases, Vapors, and Fumes

Administrative or engineering controls must be used if feasible to avoid employee
inhalation, ingestion, or skin exposure to airborne contaminants. OSHA specifies
controls for the operations and contaminants listed in this table
 Operations
  Air contaminants
 Abrasive blasting
 Grinding
 Polishing
 Buffing
 Spray finishing operations
 Open surface tanks
 Formaldehyde
 Airborne asbestos
 Tremolite
 Anthophyllite
 Actinolite dust

Ventilation systems must be effective and safe. Whenever respirators are used, their
use must comply with OSHA standards
Employee’s exposure to airborne asbestos, tremolite, anthophyllite, formaldehyde, or
actinolite dust is covered by OSHA in other Standards

Lead
In October 1992, President Bush, required OSHA to develop an interim standard for
lead in the construction industry. The standard had to provide guidelines for protection
of construction workers from occupational exposure to lead.

Where can lead be found?

Lead can enter your body by means of ingestion or inhalation. Once it has entered the
body, it is then absorbed by the blood stream, which circulates it throughout the entire
body. While the lead is being circulated, the body attempts to filter it out. Some of the
lead is filtered out, but much of it is absorbed by soft tissue such as the kidneys, liver,
and brain tissue or hard tissue such as bones and cartilage.

How does the lead exposure affect the body?

Health effects vary depending on the length and level of exposure. Some symptoms
include:
 Loss of appetite
 Dizziness
 Metallic taste

In an acute exposure, an individual is exposed to a high level of contaminant over a

short period time. Exposure like this can result in a condition called encephalopathy,
which affects the brain and quickly develops into seizures, coma, and death from
cardiorespiratory arrest.
How is lead exposure tested?
 Determination of air concentrations, two pieces of equipment are needed for this:
a personal air sampling pump and a membrane filter. These can be attached to
an employee for personal monitoring or used for area monitoring.
NOTE: the exposure level to lead in construction and general industry is 50
ug/m3 (microgram per meter cubed) for air concentration.
 Determination of water/soil concentrations. Obtain a water/soil test kit or submit a
sample to a lab.
 Determination of blood lead level. A physician can determine this by testing a
blood sample.
NOTE: once the lead level has been determined, it should be compared with the
recommended level
 Remediation of lead. Lead can be handled in the following ways:
o Replacement - remove the entire piece and replace
o Encapsulation - cover the lead with another material
o Chemical removal – remove lead by chemical process
o Physical removal – remove lead by heat gun and manual scraping
o Blasting – remove by water or vacuum

NOTE: before removing lead, consult with state OSHA and EPA regulations.
Lead must be disposed of according to state or local ordinances.

What are safe work practices?

When working with lead, you should follow certain practices.
 Provide exhaust ventilation
 Use only HEPA (High-Efficiency Particulate Absolute) vacuums for cleanup
 Use a NIOSH/MSHA – approved respirator. (The type will be determined by the
exposure level.)
 Do NOT eat, drink, or smoke in lead – contaminated areas
 Use proper protective clothing, shoe covers, and gloves
 Wash hands thoroughly before eating
 Shower and change into clean clothes before leaving the worksite

Methylenedianiline
Is an industrial chemical that is not known to occur naturally. It is also commonly known
as MDA. It occurs as a colorless-to-pale yellow solid and has a faint odor. OSHA has
set an occupational exposure limit of 0.081 milligrams of MDA per cubic meter of air for
an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. Overexposure may cause skin irritation and liver
damage.

Employers must follow these precautionary guidelines:

 Compline written plans for emergency situations
  Provide training
 Monitor exposure
 Establish and mark regulated areas where exposure can occur
 Provide PPE
 Provide decontamination areas and keep work areas as clear of MDA as
possible
 Share information with other contractors
 Provide a medical surveillance program including initial and subsequent periodic
exams

Topic 5: Health Hazard Communication

OSHA Standards
A written hazard communication program is required that includes training, labeling, and
the availability and use of SDS.
The Hazard Communication Standard, also known as the Right-To-Know law, was first
enacted on November 25, 1983, by OSHA. It was latter modified with minor changes
and technical amendments to take effect March 11, 1994.
The purpose of the standard is to ensure that chemical hazards in the workplace are
identified and evaluated, and that information concerning these standards is
communicated to employers and employees
Comprehensive hazard communication program includes:
 Labeling
 Warning labels
 SDS
 Employee training

Standard Categories
The standard has six major categories
 Hazard Determination
 SDS
 Chemical Labeling
 Employee Training
 The written program
 Trade secrets

Hazard Determination
Hazard determination requires employers to identify and evaluate all chemicals used in
the workplace. This evaluation is based on two hazard categories
 Listed
o OSHA 29 CFR 1910.000 Z tables
o American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)
Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
 o The National Toxicology Program
o The International Agency for Research on Cancer
 Defined
o Combustible liquids
o Oxidizers
o Corrosives
o Reproductive toxins
o Non-toxins

Chemicals exempted from the standard include:

 Wood and wood products (except wood dust)
 Regulated hazardous waste
 Tobacco products
 Food
 Drugs
 Cosmetics
 Alcohol beverages
 Agricultural or vegetable seed treated with pesticides
 Various types of pesticides
 Nuisance particulate
 Articles
These are exempt because they are all regulated by separate government standards

Safety Data Sheet (SDS)

SDS require documentation of chemical hazards. Once you have evaluated and
identified all the hazardous chemicals in your workplace, you must document them and
obtain an SDS for each item. SDS are available from the chemical supplier or
manufacturer. These sheets contain specific chemical hazard information such as:
 Physical hazards
 Health hazards
 Routes of entry
 Exposure limits (if any)
 Precautions for safe handling and use (if known)
 Spill cleanup procedures
 PPE to be used
 Emergency and first aid procedures
 Name, address, and telephone number of the chemical manufacturer
All the information on the SDS must be in English and be available to employees
working with or near the hazardous chemical.
Chemical Labeling
Chemical labeling requires labels on all chemicals in the workplace. The label should
contain these items.
 Identity of material
 Appropriate hazard warnings
 Name and address of the manufacturer, importer, or other responsible party

Other appropriate waning information (pictures and symbols) may be used in

conjunction with the hazard information. Labels must be legible and in English. Labels in
a second language may be added as long as the English label is present.

Employee Training
Employee training requires employers to provide with effective information and training
on hazardous chemicals in their work area at the time of their initial assignment and
whenever a new physical or health hazard is introduced into the area.
The training must include
 Methods and observations used to detect the presence or release of the
chemical
 Physical and health hazards
 Protective measures
 Labeling and explanation of the SDS

The written Program

Requires employers to fully document the actions taken to comply with all provisions of
the standard and to list the responsible person(s) for each area of the program. A copy
of the written program must be made available, upon request, to all employees and
OSHA officials.

Trade Secrets
Hazard communication involves manufacturer trade secrets. The chemical
manufacturer may withhold the chemical identity, including the chemical name and
other specific information, from the SDS. However, under special conditions health care
professionals may obtain this secret information.
 Personal Protective Equipment
Introduction
Bureau of Labor Statistics data reflect an alarming number of injuries each working day.
On average, they are:
 200 eye injuries
 475 head injuries
 650 foot injuries
 1150 hand injuries
PPE for the head, ears, hands, eyes, foot, body, and respiration are designed to prevent
or lessen the severity of injuries in your workplace.

Topic 1: The Types of Hazards Requiring PPE

Two Categories of Hazards
Physical Hazards
Can lead to bodily harm as a result of contact with the hazardous agent, such as being
struck by tools or equipment, falling from an elevation, being splashed by chemical
agents, or being burned. The following injuries can result from contact with a physical
hazard:
 Cuts and bruises
 Broken bones
 Head and eye injuries
 Burns
 Smashed fingers and hands

Health Hazards
A health hazard causes sickness or disease as a result of exposure to the hazardous
agents, such as exposure to silica, asbestos, or lead. Health hazards include:
 Biohazards – blood-borne disease from contact with blood and bodily fluids
 Gases – exposure to poisonous carbon monoxide from mechanical equipment
and vehicles
 Fumes – from welding certain metals

Types of Hazards
The OSHA standards for PPE require that the employer perform a hazard assessment
to identify the sources of hazards.

Impact Hazards
Occur during work operations from various tools, equipment, materials, or the work
environment itself. Tools, debris, or building materials can fall or be dropped from
elevated surfaces. Stacked and suspended materials also have the potential to fall
when they are loaded or stored improperly.
Penetration Hazards
Some impact hazards must be evaluated to determine if they are potential penetration
hazards. A falling object with a sharp edge or point could cause a penetrating injury.
There also are many penetration hazards on the construction site that workers can
come into contact with either by stepping on them or striking against them.

Compression Hazards
Machinery or processes where there is movement of equipment or building products
has the potential for compressing anything that is caught in its path or in pinch points
that are created by the movement

Hazards From Chemicals/Harmful Dusts

The use of solvents, adhesives, and gases are common sources of chemical
contaminants. In addition, fumes from welding operations or other cutting or burning
operations can release toxic substances into the air. Dusts from operations such as
grinding can be just as harmful as any chemical.

Temperature Hazards
Excessive temps due to weather or work operations pose a serious hazard to workers.
A cold winter day or excessive summer heat can dictate the need for [Link] addition,
handling hot or cold materials, performing hot work such as welding, or the potential for
fire must be considered when identifying the need for PPE.

Light/Radiation Hazards
Welding, cutting, and brazing are common sources of radiation. PPE must be selected
based on the type of exposure. With the increased use of lasers in the industry, other
sources must be considered when assessing workplace hazards.

Noise Hazards
Exposing the ear to high levels of noise may cause temporary or permanent hearing
loss. Temporary hearing loss occurs after only a few minutes of exposure to an intense
noise but is recoverable following a period of time away from the noise. If the noise
exposure is repeated, there may be only a partial hearing recovery and the loss can
then become permanent.

Electrical Hazards
The danger of electrical hazards is often overlooked. In any hazard assessment, the
power used to operate all equipment should be checked. Particular attention must be
paid to temporary power and extension cords. Faulty wiring is frequently the cause of
electrical shock and a leading source of fires in the construction industry.
Topic 2: The Types of PPE
Why You Must Wear PPE

Head Protection
Prevent head injuries is an important factor in every safety program. A survey by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) of incidents and injuries notes that most workers who
suffered impact injuries to the head were not wearing head protection. The majority of
workers were injured while performing their normal jobs at their regular worksites.

Hearing Protection
Many suffer significant hearing loss after 15 to 20 years of working unprotected in an
environment where they are subjected to excessive noise from machinery, daily
operations on the site, tools, and even traffic.
The loss of one’s hearing can have a dramatic impact on the quality of one’s life.

Hand Protection
It has been estimated that almost 20 percent of all disabling incidents on the job involve
the hands. Without your fingers or hands, your ability to work would be greatly reduced.

Eye Protection
A BLS study found that about 60 percent of workers who suffered eye injuries were not
wearing eye protection. Wear eye protection all the time to protect your eyes.

Foot Protection
Steel toe boots to protect the feet at all times.

Protective Clothing
The hazards faced on any particular day may change, but the fact that your safety
depends on dressing appropriately for the job is constant. Don’t wear any loose-fitting
clothes around machinery with moving parts. Dress appropriately for the job. Take any
action you take to avoid or reduce injury will be to your benefit.

Respiratory Protection
Welding fumes and vapors from solvents being used, and the dusts that are generated
by many of the construction site operations fill the air with potentially harmful
contaminants. Dust masks are good for keeping out most large particles of dust, but
that’s about all they do. Respirators are a lot more effective. They may not be the best
way to prevent chemical exposure, but for many construction jobs they are the only
practical way.
Topic 3: Head Protection
Typical Hazards Requiring Head Protection Equipment
The most common hazard is falling objects. Tools, materials, or debris can fall from
elevated positions and present hazard to employees working below. Falling objects are
not the only hazard. Flying objects from site operation such as grinding, hammering, or
chipping also pose a hazard.

Head Protection Devices

A hard hat is the device to be worn to protect your head. Hardhats protect you by
providing the following features:
 A rigid shell resists and deflects blow to the head
 A suspension system inside the had act as a shock absorber
 Some hats serve as an insulator against electrical shocks
 It shields your scalp, face, neck, and shoulders against splashes, spills, and drips
 Some hardhats can be modified so you can add face shields, goggles, hoods, or
hearing protection
OSHA has cited the standards specified by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Z89.1. The following information must be marked inside the hat:
 The manufacturer’s name
 The legend, “ANSI Z89.1”
 The class designation (A, B, or C)

Requirements of ANSI Z89.1

Bump caps do not comply with ANSI guidelines and are not acceptable for occupations
or applications where OSHA requires an ANSI-compliant hardhat.

The ANSI standard separates hardhats into two types and three classes. Of the two
types:
 Type 1 helmets incorporate a full brim (the brim fully encircles the dome of the
hat.)
 Type 2 helmets have no encircling brim but may include a short bill on the front
(similar to a baseball cap)

In terms of electrical protection, ANSI recognizes three classes:

 Class A helmets are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling objects and
to reduce the danger of contact with exposed low-voltage electrical conductors.
 Class B helmets are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling objects and
to reduce the danger of contact with exposed high-voltage electrical conductors
 Class C helmets are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling objects, but
offer no electrical protection
Construction workers wear Class A hard hats. Class B is for electrical workers.
Hard hats are also tested for impact and penetration resistance from blows to the top of
the head, flammability resistance, and water absorption.
In 1997 ANSI published a revision to its Z89.1 protective headwear standard. While the
revision, ANSI Z89.1 (1997), has not yet been adopted into 29 CFR 1910.135, it does
contain some notable changes. The revision eliminates the old Type 1 and Type 2
design designations. In the new standard, “Type” is used to designate whether a helmet
provides protection strictly from blows to the top of the head (Type I) or protection from
blows to both the top and sides of the head (Type II)

Under Z89.1 (1997), the following three classes are recognized:

 Class G (General) helmets: this is equivalent to the old Class A. Class G helmets
are proof tested at 2200 volts
 Class E (Electrical) helmets: this is equivalent to the old Class B. Class E
helmets are proof tested at 20,000 volts
 Class C (Conductive) helmets: this class provides no electrical insulation; the
alpha designation did not change from the old standard
Hardhats must be marked with the date of manufacture. Instructions pertaining to sizing,
care, and service life guidelines also must accompany the hardhat.

Care and Use of Hardhats

Adhere to the following guidelines:
 NEVER paint the hardhat or apply stickers to it. This can hide defects in the
hardhat. Some paints also may weaken the compound used to construct the
hardhat or ma limit its resistance to electrical hazards.
 NEVER use a hardhat that appears damaged. This could limit the level of
protection the hardhat provides.
 NEVER store or carry hardhats in the rear window of an automobile. Sunlight and
severe heat can adversely affect the degree of protection provided by certain
hardhat components.
 NEVER drill holes in the hardhat.

Do hardhats have a predetermined service life?

Hardhats do not have a predetermined service life. Hardhat components should be
inspected daily for signs of dents, cracks, penetration, and any damage due to impact,
rough treatment, or wear.

Checklist for Hardhats

Follow this checklist before and when you wear a helmet.
 ANSI Z89.1 should be stamped inside the hardhat
 The suspension should be free from defects such as broken connectors
 The suspension should be adjusted properly to provide clearance
  The shell should still have a glossy finish
 The hardhat should be free from paint, stickers, or other marks that could hide
defects
 The shell should be free from cracks or indentations

Topic 4: Hearing Protection

Typical Hazards Requiring Hearing Protection Equipment
Damage can occur instantaneously from extremely loud noises or gradually from
exposure to elevated noise levels over an extended period of time
Vibration creates sound waves. The greater the energy source, the greater the volume
of sound. If the noise exceeds 90dB during the work shift, OSHA requires hearing
protection to prevent permanent damage to the ears.

Many of the tools and equipment used on the job site create loud sounds. Loud noise
can cause:
 Hearing loss, temporary or permanent
 Tinnitus, a constant or periodic ringing or roaring in the ears
 Inability to hear signals and safety warnings
 Stress, poor concentration, headaches, etc., from straining to hear.

Hearing Protection Devices

The purpose of hearing protection devices is to reduce the noise level to an acceptable
level. The following types of hearing protection devices are used most commonly on
construction sites:
 Earplugs
 Ear caps
 Earmuffs
Each hearing protection device should have a noise reduction rating (NRR) that will be
expressed in decibels (dB). Earplugs and earmuffs should have an NRR that will reduce
noise levels in the work area below 90dB. There are no standards for ear caps.

Earplugs
Earplugs are made of soft, pliable material that is designed to protect your ear from
noise hazards by fitting into and sealing the ear canal. There are many different types of
earplugs:
 Triple flange
 Single flange
 Silicone
 Foam

Ear caps
Small, soft pods, pads, or flexible tips that seal the ear at or near the entrance to the ear
canal with only a minimal amount of insertion.

Earmuffs
Noise-attenuating cups with soft cushions and a connecting band that are worn around
the outer ear to seal out the noise.

Care and Use of Hearing Protection Devices

Care and maintenance:
 Inspect hearing protection before each use. Report and don’t use loose, cracked,
or don’t seal well
 Wash hands thoroughly before inserting or putting on hearing protection
 Clean hearing protection devices regularly with warm, soapy water and following
the manufacturer’s recommendation. Do not use alcohol to clean
 Store hearing protection devices where they will stay clean and dry

Checklist for Earmuffs and Earplugs

Earmuffs
 The headband should provide the proper tension
 The earmuffs should be free from cracks or tears, allowing a proper seal around
the ears
 The cushions of the earmuffs should be soft, clean, and ensure a proper seal
around the ears
 The earmuffs should have an NPR that will reduce noise levels in the work area
below 90dB

Earplugs
 Performed plugs should be fitted properly and used only by the individual for
whom they were made.
 Foam and silicone plugs should be pliable, allowing the user to form the plug and
properly insert the plug into the ear
 Disposable foam and silicone earplugs should be kept readily available and in
the original package until ready to use
 Reusable, preformed and form earplugs should be kept cleaned and disinfected
 Reusable plugs should not be hardened or discolored
 Earplugs should have an NRR that will reduce noise exposure below 90 dB
 Employees should know how to insert earplugs properly

Ear Caps
 The headband should provide the proper tension
 The ear caps should be free from cracks or tears, allowing a proper seal
  The ear caps should not be hardened or discolored
 There are no standards NRR for ear caps
 Employees should know how to insert ear caps properly

Topis 5: Hand Protection

Typical Hazards Requiring Hand Protection Equipment
Hands are constantly at risk of injury. Some of the work that is performed on the
construction site requiring the use of hand protection includes:
 Welding
 Handling chemicals
 Electrical work
 Working with concrete
 Handling metals

Hand protection Devices

Heat-resistant gloves: Protect against burns and discomfort when the hands are
exposed to sustained conductive industry
Metal mesh gloves: Used by those who work constantly with knives, protecting against
cuts and blows from sharp or rough objects
Rubber gloves: Worn by electricians
Neoprene and vinyl gloves: Used when handling chemicals and corrosives. Neoprene
and vinyl are particularly useful when handling petroleum products
Leather gloves: used for most heavy-duty work, due to their ability to resist spark,
moderate heat, chips, and rough objects
Cotton fabric gloves: suitable for protection against dirt, slivers, chafing, or abrasions.
Not heavy enough for multi-purpose use in handling rough, sharp, or heavy materials.

Care and Use of Hand protection Devices

Is a glove is damaged or inappropriate for the job, it can do more harm than if you were
wearing no glove at all.
 Wear the type of glove with the hazard involved
 Many gloves are suited to a particular hazard. If the glove you have is not proper
for the work being done, select another glove.
 Check for holes, scratches, and cracks
 If welding leathers have holes, our hands will be unprotected if molten metal hits
those areas
 Check the color of the gloves – discoloration is a sign of a breakdown in the
glove’s composition. It is time to replace the glove
 Check the elasticity of the glove. When a glove is hardened, it means it is
defective. This will result in cracks and exposure to hazards
 Check the thickness of the glove. If the glove shows signs of thinning, it is time
for a replacement
  Make sure the glove fits properly

Checklist for Gloves

Remember the following checklist before and when you wear gloves
 Gloves should provide protection necessary for the hazard being encountered
 The gloves should be free from holes and tears
 The gloves should be free from scratches and cracks
 There should be no discoloration of the gloves
 The gloves should still be thick enough to provide protection
 The gloves should fit properly
 The employee should be able to perform his or her job while wearing the gloves.

Topic 6: Eye Protection

Typical Hazards Requiring Eye Protection
Eye protection should protect you from:
 Flying particles
 Molten metal
 Liquid chemicals
 Acid and caustic substances
 Chemical gases or vapors
 Light ray radiation

Dust and flying particles are very common on the site. Drilling, chipping, and hammering
are some of the most routine tasks that can result in potentially harmful, flying objects.
Chemicals and radiation are also common on a site and pose a very different hazard.
Acids, hot tar, and molten metal can splash into the face or eyes and cause severe
damage.

Eye Protection Devices

There are four types of eye and face protection devices: safety glasses, safety goggles,
face shields, and welding helmets. Each type of eye protection is designed to provide
protection against a particular hazard. They also are classified as Primary or Secondary
protectors.
 Primary Protector: device that may be worn alone or with a secondary protector.
 Secondary Protector: device that must be worn with a primary protector.

Key Point: Secondary protectors should not be used unless you are also wearing a
primary protector. Always wear safety glasses or goggles when using face shields or
welding helmets.

Safety Glasses (Primary Protectors)

Safety glasses shield your eyes from a variety of hazards. They are commonly used to
protect against impact and optical radiation. Lenses on safety glasses are available in
different tints. Some safety glasses have side shields to provide protection to the eyes
from hazards that are encountered at an angle.

Safety Goggles (Primary Protectors)

Goggles are intended to fir the area of the face surrounding the eyes and shield the
eyes from a variety of hazards. Goggles are designed to cover the eye socket
completely.

Face Shields (Secondary Protectors)

Face shields are protective devices intended to shield your face and eyes. Face shield
should be used only with primary protectors. Special purpose face shields are available
to provide a range of protection.

Welding Helmets (Secondary protectors)

Welding helmets shield the eyes and face from optical radiation and impact. They
should be used with primary protectors. The three major classifications of welding
helmets are stationary front, lift front, and hand shields.

Care and Use of Eye Protection Devices

Most eye protection is rated to absorb one serious impact. Eye protection selected must
be suitable for the work to be performed.

Checklist for Eye Protection Devices

Checklist for pre and post work.
 Evaluate the hazards to determine proper eye and face protection
 All protective devices should meet ANSI standards (Z87.1) and be appropriately
marked
 The lenses of protective prescription lenses worn by employees should meet
ANSI specifications and be appropriately marked
 The spectacles used should have side shields
 All protective devices should be fitted to the user
 The lenses of face shields and glasses should be free from scratches, chips, and
scrapes
 The elastic in headbands should be in good condition
 Headbands should be free of fraying, tears, or other worn parts
 All ratchet headbands should provide a snug fit
 All temple and face piece hinges should be in a good condition
 Eye and face equipment should be kept in clean and sanitary condition

Topic 7: Foot Protection

The OSHA construction standards depend on ANSI Z41, “American National Standard
for Personal Protection-Protective Footwear,” to provide the specification for footwear.

Typical Hazards Requiring Foot Protection Equipment

Employees must use protective footwear when working in areas where there is a
danger of foot injuries due to falling or rolling objects, objects piercing the sole, or
electrical hazards. Footwear should slip resistant, protect against sharp objects, hot
surfaces, and materials, also electrical and chemical exposure.

Foot Protection Devices

Safety shoes provide compression and impact resistance. They also offer slip-resistant
protection, they can also protect the foot from hot or cold environments.
Electrical Hazard Shoes: Made to provide extra protection where incidental contact
with energized circuits is possible.
Slip-Resistant Shoes: Have soles that increase friction with wet or otherwise slippery
surfaces to prevent falls.
Other protective footwear (such as metatarsal and shin guards) can be used in
conjunction with standard safety shoes.
Safety Boots: Protect from exposure to splash or spark hazards (chemicals, molten
materials)
Neoprene or Nitrile Boots: Used when working with corrosives, caustics, cutting oils,
and petroleum products to prevent penetration.
Foundry or “Gaiter” style Boots: Often used in welding operations; quick-release
fasteners or elasticized insets to allow speedy removal should any hazardous
substance get into the boot itself.

Care and Use of Foot Protection Devices

The ANSI Protective Footwear Standard provides a guide for classifying the
performance characteristics of safety footwear. Every pair of approved safety should be
stamped, usually on the inside lining, with its Z41 performance classification and
identification.

Checklist for Foot Protection Devices

Please remember the following checklist before and when you wear foot protection
devices.
 Shoes should be free of cracks in the soles
 All shoes should meet ANSI standards and be appropriately marked
 The soles should be free of metal or other objects that can become imbedded in
the sole or other portions of the shoe.
 The upper portion of the sole should be free of tears, cracks, or loose stitching
 The upper portion of the sole should be firmly attached to the shoe.
  The appropriate shoes should be worn for the task being performed.

Topic 8: Protective Clothing

Typical Hazards Requiring Protective Clothing
The hazard assessment must consider all clothing that is necessary to perform a job
safely.
Chemical exposure that requires the use of full-body chemical protective suits is less
common, but it does occur. Contracts with chemical plants, refineries, or other
hazardous chemical processes can involve potential exposure to chemicals that may
splash onto all parts of the body. If the hazards are present, protection must be
provided, the type of coverall will depend on the chemical to which there is potential
exposure. Protective clothing also protects the workers from cuts and scrapes from
handling various building materials, tools, and equipment. Radiation from the sun can
cause painful skin conditions.

Protective Devices/Materials
Protective Devices
Special vests, aprons, and jackets are available to protect workers from hazardous
environments. The torso also can be used as the site for protective gear needed to
make others aware of your presence.
 Special vests: Night workers and flagmen who might be struck by moving
vehicles need suits or vests designed to reflect light
 Aprons: For protection from sparks and molten metal, welders should use leather
aprons
 Jackets: workers performing tasks over water need a Coast Guard approved life
jacket or buoyant work vest
 Disposable suits: these may provide protection from dusty materials or materials
that can splash. If the substance is extremely toxic, a completely enclosed suit
may be necessary. The clothing should be inspected to assure proper fir and
function for continued protection.

Protective Materials
Some materials and fabrics are specifically designed to protect workers from such
hazards as heat, cold, splashes from hot metals and liquids, impacts, cuts, acids, and
radiation. The material must be selected to protect you from the specific hazard.
 Wool and specially treated cotton are two natural fibers which are fire-resistant
and comfortable, since they adapt well to changing workplace temperatures
 Duck, a closely woven cotton fabric, is good for light duty protection. It can
provide some protection against cuts and bruises on jobs where employees
handle heavy, sharp, or rough material/
 Heat-resistant clothing such as leather is often used to guard against dry heat
and flame
  Rubber, rubberized fabrics, neoprene, and plastics give protection against some
acids and chemicals
Care and Use for Protective Clothing
Employers are responsible for assuring the adequacy of the clothing, including proper
maintenance, and sanitation. Clothing that is exposed to hazardous chemicals, dusts, or
any potential contaminants should be cared for and cleaned separately from other
clothing.

Checklist for Protective Clothing

 Protective clothing and equipment should meet OSHA and/or ANSI requirements
 Affected workers should be given the opportunity to practice and demonstrate
their competence putting on and taking off the PPE before entering the
hazardous environment
 Clothing should be free of any holes, tears, or cracks
 Equipment for cleaning, maintaining, and storing protective equipment should be
made available

Affected workers should be trained on:

 Hazards in the workplace
 When and where the use of protective clothing is required
 Fit-testing protective clothing
 Putting on protective clothing
 Monitoring the effectiveness of protective clothing
 Inspection of protective clothing
 Procedures to follow if protective clothing fails
 Storage of protective clothing
 Maintenance of protective clothing
 Limitations of protective clothing
 Hazards encountered when using protective clothing

Topic 6: Respiratory Protection

Typical Hazards Requiring Respiratory Protection
Construction employees can be exposed to a variety of respiratory hazards that include
vapors, fumes, and particles. Welding operations release gases and fumes filled with
metals and other toxins. The solvents used in many operations give off harmful vapors.
Particles are released as dust is generated during grinding operations and placement of
insulation materials such as fiberglass.

What types of hazards require respiratory protection:

Gaseous Contaminants
Add harmful, invisible gases or vapors to the air. Chemicals can be gases at room
temperature but become solids or liquids at low temperatures or high pressure. Carbon
Dioxide is a gas at room temperature, at low temperatures it becomes dry ice, under
pressure in cylinders it is a liquid. Vapors are like gases except that they are formed by
the evaporation of liquid substances. Examples include acetone and trichloroethylene,
which ordinarily exist as liquids.
Particulate Contaminants
Are tiny particles or droplets of hazardous material in the air. They are classified as
dusts, mists, and fumes. Dusts are solid and can be created by grinding, crushing,
sanding, or mixing operations. Examples include sand and plaster dust. Mists are liquid
droplets and are given off by the spraying or mixing of liquids. Fumes are very small
metal particles given off as metals are heated. Welding, brazing, soldering, and other
molten metal processes produce fumes.

NOTE: Gaseous and particulate contaminants often occur together. Spray

painting operations produce particulates in the form of paint mists and solvent
vapors that are gaseous contaminants.

Atmospheres Immediately Dangerous to Life and Death (IDLH)

IDLH are conditions that can result in severe injury or death in a short time or have
serious delayed effects. Carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulfide exposures can result in
death even within a short period. Radioactive materials or cancer-causing chemicals
can have serious delayed effects.

Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres
Are areas that do not have a safe level of oxygen in the air. These areas are classified
as Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH). However, not all IDLH are oxygen-
deficient atmospheres (e.g., radioactive materials or cancer-causing chemicals).
Exposure to these atmospheres can cause brain damage and death. Low levels of
oxygen are frequently found in confined and poorly ventilated spaces such as silos and
storage tanks. Oxygen can be used up by chemical reactions or move away by other
gases when leaks occur. Fire is a common chemical reaction that uses up oxygen.

Type of Respirators
There are two types of respirators.

Atmosphere-supplying respirators:
 Designed to provide breathable air from a clean, supplied air source
 These are suitable for oxygen-deficient atmospheres
 Range from self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) and supplied air
respirators (SARs) to complete air supplied respirators

Air-purifying respirators:
 Use filters to remove hazardous substances from the air you breath
 They range from simple, disposable masks to powered air-purifying devices
  They do not supply oxygen and may not be used in oxygen-deficient
atmospheres
Selecting Respiratory Equipment
Step 1 – Identify the Hazard
 Each respirator is designed to protect you against a specific hazard. It is critical
to select the correct respirator.
Step 2 – Select the Proper Respirator
 Is the identified hazard the only hazard present
 Does the hazard have adequate warning properties such as an odor, taste, or
irritation that would alert the worker to its presence
 Will the hazard harm or irritate the eyes
 Can the hazard be absorbed through the skin and injure the worker
 Determine what the hazard is and its concentration
 Choosing equipment that is certified for the function and assuring the device is
performing the intended function
 The form of the hazard (vapor, particle, gas, solid, or liquid)

OSHA requires that only approved respirators be used. They have been tested by the
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and
Health Administration (MSHA)

Care and Use of Respirators

Respirators must be properly clean, inspected, stored, and in good repair.

Cleaning:
At the end of each work shift, the respirator should be cleaned and disinfected. If the
respirator is shared with other employees, it should be cleaned and disinfected between
users. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning and disinfecting all
respirators. Ask a supervisor if you are not sure how to clean and disinfect them

Inspection
Inspect before and after each use. A damaged respirator should not be used. Follow
the manufacturer’s instruction for inspecting your respirators.
Storage
Store in clean and convenient location. They need to be protected from dust, sunlight,
heat, extreme cold, excessive moisture, and damaging or contaminating chemicals.
Never place objects on the respirator or put in in positions that would cause the sealing
surfaces to distort or bend out of shape. Always handle the respirator with care. Follow
the manufacturer’s instructions for storing.

Repair
The laws require that people who repair respirators be trained. Replacement parts must
come from the manufacturer.
Checklist For Disposable Respirators
Pre-work check
 The respirator must be free of holes and tears
 The strap should still have its electricity
 The metal nose clip should allow for a proper fit

Air-purifying Respirators
 Face piece
o should have its original form, allowing a proper fit
o should be free of cracks or tears
o should be clean
 the head strap’s elastic should be free of tears and broke buckles
 the exhalation valve should be clean
 the exhalation and inhalation parts should be free of cracks, tears, or distortion
 the proper filter should be used

Atmosphere-Supplying Respirators
 the facepiece
o should have its original form, allowing a proper fit
o should be free of cracks and tears
o should be clean
 the head strap’s elastic should be free of tears and broken buckles
 the exhalation valve should be clean
 the exhalation and inhalation parts should be free of cracks, tears, or distortion
 the air quality provided by the compressor or other device should be breathable
 all connections should be tight
 the regulators should be set according to the manufacturer's specifications
 the hoses should be free of kinks, tears, or cracks
 if a hood or helmet is used, the:
o suspension should be adjusted for the wearer
o face shield should be free of cracks or breaks
 Fire Protection and Prevention
Introduction
Every 45 seconds in the US, someone’s home catches on fire. There is a fire related
death every two hours. The National Fire Protection Association estimates that more
than 3,500 lives are lost to fires each year and more than 21,000 persons suffer injuries.
Workplace fires and explosions kill over 200 and injure more than 5,000 workers each
year. Fire in the workplace is one of the most significant hazards to employees’ lives
and health. It can strike any workplace.

Topic 1: General Information

The fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in New York City in 1911, killed nearly 150
women and young girls. In 1991, the fire in the poultry plant in Hamlet, NC, killed 25
workers and injured 54. The Ybor City Apartment Complex fire in Florida. The Old
Cotton Mill fire in Atlanta.

OSHA Fire Safety Standards

Statistics show that fire has a major impact on our lives at work and at home. An
integrated structure of fire safety institutions and regulations by local, state and federal
government agencies is in place to prevent workplace fires.
OSHA standards establish minimum requirements for fire prevention, for workplace
evacuation in the event of fire, and for protection of workers who may become involved
in firefighting in the workplace.

Responsibilities
Employer: responsible for the development and maintenance of an effective fire
protection and prevention plan.
Employee: responsible to comply with all applicable OSHA standards and to follow all
employer safety and health rules and policies.

Topic 2: Fire Basics

Essential Elements of Fire
Do you know what a fire needs in order to burn?
Fire needs three elements in order to burn
 fuel
 heat
 oxygen

Fuel: anything that will burn – solid, liquid, or gas. Sources of fuel may include paper,
wood, flammable gases, and combustible liquids.
Heat: the energy needed to increase the temperature of the fuel to its ignition
temperature. Sources of heat may include cutting, grinding, roofing, and welding
operations.
Oxygen: needed to accelerate combustion. Fire needs about16 percent oxygen to
sustain the rate of combustion. The air we breathe is about 21 percent oxygen
In recent years, this fire triangle has been expanded to include a fourth element, that of
the chemical reaction, thus creating the fire tetrahedron.

NOTE: Essentially, the process of fire is a chemical reaction that involves the
rapid oxidation or burning of a combustible material. The technical term for this
combustion process is chemical chain reaction or exothermic reaction.

Types of Fuel Sources

Fuel Source Types:
 Class A: includes ordinary solids like paper, wood, trash, scrap lumber, cloth,
rubber, and some plastics. This fuel source will leave an ash
 Class B: includes flammable liquids like gasoline, oil, grease, acetone, solvents
paints, propane, and any nonmetal in a liquid state. This fuel source usually will
boil.
 Class C: involves fires that are energized by electrical equipment, motors, cords,
temporary power and switchgears. This fuel source comes from a current or
circuit
 Class D: includes combustible metals like sodium, aluminum, magnesium, and
potassium.

Topic 3: Fire Hazards and Prevention

Common Hazards
Electrical Equipment
Electrical systems and equipment, including wiring, cords, and switches, are major
sources of fire ignition sparks, or heating hazards. Overloaded, damaged, or flawed
electrical circuits generate heat in wiring that can reach a temperature capable of
igniting flammable materials.
 Only approved electrical equipment should be used in flammable areas.
 A qualified individual should inspect all electrical equipment including switches,
outlets, boxes, and panels for frayed, broken components or other damage.
 All electrical cords should be inspected for cuts or abrasions that could alter the
integrity of the equipment
 All electrical tools should be inspected for damage that could make the tools
hazardous

Welding Operations
Welding, cutting, and grinding operations can produce sparks that can ignite materials,
gases, or flammable liquids in the work area. Open containers of flammable liquids can
generate gases that may accumulate, and when they reach a flame or spark, they can
cause explosive ignition that leads back to the flammable liquid source.
 Welding, cutting, and grinding operations that could create a spark should be
completed 30 minutes prior to the end of the work shift
 You also should use a welding curtain or screen and post a fire watch to monitor
the area for fire
 You should inspect the area where you are welding, cutting, or grinding before
you start work
 You always should keep your area clear of debris

Smoking
Uncontrolled smoking and careless disposal of used cigarettes or other tobacco
products is a major hazard and the cause of many workplace fires.

Fueling and Refueling

Flammable and combustible liquids used in service areas for fueling vehicles and
equipment, can be spilled and create an ignition source for fires
 There should be no smoking or open flame in the areas used for fueling,
servicing fuel systems, or receiving or dispensing flammable or combustible
liquids. Conspicuous and legible signs prohibiting smoking should be posted in
these areas.
 The motors of all equipment being fueled must be shut off during the fueling
operation
 Each service or fueling area should be provided with at least one fire extinguisher
having a rating of not less than 20-BC. Extinguishers should be within 75 feet of
each pump, dispenser, underground fill pipe opening, and lubrication or service
area.
 Flammable liquids must be stored in approved safety cans with spring-closing
lids and a flame arrestor. Approved containers have a laboratory listing or label
recognized by OSHA
 Always inspect the area for potential fire hazards and always keep the area free
of debris that can be a fuel source for fire

Storage Areas
Specific safety requirements for open yard storage:
 Combustible materials should be piled to ensure stability and in no case higher
than 20 feet
 All driveways near combustible storage piles should be at least 15 feet wide and
be free of accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or other articles or materials
  The entire storage site should be free of accumulation of unnecessary
combustible materials
 Combustible materials should not be stored outdoors within 10 feet of a building
or structure
 Portable fire extinguishing equipment, suitable for the fire hazard involved,
should be provided at convenient, conspicuously accessible locations
 Portable fire extinguishers, rated less than 2A, should be placed so that
maximum travel distance to the nearest extinguisher is not more than 100 feet.

Specific safety requirements for indoor storage:

 Storage should not obstruct any exits
 All materials should be stored, handled, and piled with due regard to their fire
characteristics
 A barrier having fire resistance rating of at least 1 hour should segregate
noncompatible materials that could create a fire hazard
 Aisle space should be maintained to safely accommodate the widest vehicle that
would be used within the building for firefighting purposes.
 There should be a clearance of at least 36 inches between the top level of the
stored material and the sprinkler deflectors
 Clearance must be maintained around lights and heating units to prevent the
ignition of combustible materials
 There should be a clearance of 24 inches around the path of travel of fire doors
unless a barricade is provided
 Material should not be stored within 36 inches of a fire door opening

Heating Devices
Temporary heating devices also need special care to avoid or control the hazards
associated with their use. Fire ignition hazards include open flames, some chemical
agents, sparks, and heat-producing equipment or materials.
 Inspect the surrounding area before you start up any heating device and always
consider housekeeping to prevent debris from building up around any heating
devices
 When temporary heaters are used, fresh air should be supplied to maintain the
health and safety of the workers
 If there is not an adequate natural supply of fresh air, then mechanical ventilation
must be provided
 When heaters are used in confined spaces, special care must be taken to
provide sufficient ventilation that:
o Ensures proper combustion of the heater
o Maintains the health and safety of workers
o Limits temperature increases in the area
 Key Point: Solid fuel salamanders are prohibited in buildings and on scaffolds

Key Point: flammable liquid-fired heaters must be equipped with a primary

safety control to stop the flow of fuel in the event of flame failure.
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Is not in widespread use but still seen on some construction sites. It is highly flammable
material and poses a serious fire hazard.
 LPG poses a serious fire hazard
 When LPG is being used, the following safety requirements must be followed:
o Each system should have approved containers, valves, connectors,
manifold valve assemblies, and regulators, and all cylinders must meet the
Department of Transportation specification identification requirements
published in 49 CFR Part 178, Shipping Container Specifications
o Welding is prohibited on containers
o Connections to containers, except safety relief connectors, liquid-level
gauging devices, and plugged openings, should have shutoff valves
located as close to the container as possible
o Every container and every vaporizer should be provided with one or more
approved safety relief valves or devices
o Storage of LPG within buildings is prohibited
o Containers should be in a suitable, ventilated enclosure or otherwise
protected against tampering
o Precautions should be taken to eliminate the risk of damage to LP gas
systems by vehicular traffic

Other Prevention Methods

In addition to specific control mechanisms associated with using equipment, storage,
and materials, there are other methods for fire control and prevention:
 Housekeeping
 Inspection
 Using SDS
 Hazard communication training

Housekeeping
Fire prevention involves the elimination or control of conditions or substances that could
ignite or fuel a fire. Maintaining a clean and orderly workplace is an essential element of
fire prevention.

Inspection
Every employer should routinely inspect the workplace to identify fire ignition and fuel
hazards and then take appropriate steps to eliminate them. Certain materials generate
heat from inherent chemical decomposition processes and if accumulated to critical
mass can generate enough internal heat to spontaneously combust. Sawdust debris
accumulation, oily rags in open containers, and fuel storage areas are particularly
susceptible to spontaneous combustion.

Using SDS
SDS (Safety Data Sheet) from the supplier can help determine which materials are
flammable and which are only combustible or will not burn. The SDS will also tell us
which fire extinguishing agent is effective on the specific material if it were to catch fire.
The most important to those contractors that work with easily ignitable materials such as
flammable liquids and gases and those that use equipment that depends on liquid or
gaseous fuels.

Hazard Communication Training

Hazard communication training is required by OSHA and as part of the training, advises
you on the proper use of SDS.

Topic 4: Handling Flammable or Combustible Liquids

Storage of Flammable/Combustible Liquids
 Use only approved containers and portable tanks for the storage and handling of
flammable and combustible liquids
 Metal safety cans are the appropriate container for the handling and use of
flammable liquids in quantities greater than one gallon. For quantities of less than
one-gallon, flammable liquid materials that are highly viscid (extremely hard to
pour) may be used and handled in their original shipping containers
 Flammable or combustible liquids are not to be stored in the areas on the job site
that are used for exits, stairways, or normally used for the safe passage of
people.
 At least one portable fire extinguisher, with a minimum rating of 20-B, should be
located within 10 feet of the entrance into any room used for the storage of more
than 60 gallons of flammable or combustible liquids.

Transferring Flammable/Combustible Liquids

 The areas where flammable or combustible liquids are transferred in quantities
greater than 5 gallons from one container to another need to be at least 25 feet
away from all other operations
 Drainage or other mechanical ventilation must be provided to prevent the buildup
of flammable vapors.
 Adequate natural or mechanical ventilation must be provided to prevent the
buildup of flammable vapors
 Transfer of flammable liquids from one container to another can be performed
only when the containers are electrically interconnected (bonded)
  Transferring flammable or combustible materials by means of air pressure is
prohibited
 The dispensing devices and nozzles for flammable liquids must be protected
against collision damage.
 At least one portable fire extinguisher with a minimum rating of 20-B:C should be
provided on all tank trucks or other vehicles used for transporting and/or
dispensing flammable or combustible liquids

Use of Flammable and Combustible Liquids

 Flammable liquids should be kept in closed containers when they are not actually
in use
 Any leakage or spillage of flammable or combustible liquids needs to be
disposed of promptly and safely
 Flammable liquids may be used only where there are no open flames or other
sources of ignition a minimum of 50 feet from the operation.

Topic 5: Fire Extinguishers

Types of Fire Extinguishers
There are basically four different types or classes of fire extinguishers, each of which
extinguishers specific types of fires.
 Class A: will put out fires in ordinary combustibles, such as word and paper
 Class B: should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as grease,
gas, oil, etc.
 Class C: suitable for use on electrically charged fires
 Class D: are designed for use on flammable metals and are often specific to the
type of metal in question.

Ratings of Fire Extinguishers

Class A and Class B extinguishers have a numerical rating which is based on tests
conducted by Underwriter’s Laboratories (UL) that are designed to determine the
extinguishing potential for each size and type of extinguisher
Class C extinguishers have only a letter rating
Class D extinguishers do not have a numerical rating either and their effectiveness is
described on the extinguisher faceplate.

Class A Extinguishers rating

The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water the
fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will extinguish. An extinguisher for Class
A fires could have any one of the following ratings: 1-A, 2-A, 3-A, 4-A, 6-A, 10-A, 20-A,
30-A, and 40-A. the bigger the size, the greater the volume of extinguishing agent it has.

Class B Extinguishers Rating

The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher states the approximate number of
square feet of a flammable liquid fire that a non-expert person can expect to extinguish.
An extinguisher for Class B fires could have any of the following ratings: 1-B, 2-B, 5-B,
10-B, 10-B, 30-B, 40-B, and up to 640-B
Class C Extinguishers Rating
This class does not have a numerical rating. The presence of the letter C indicates that
the extinguishing agent is nonconductive. No extinguisher gets a Class C rating without
also having a Class A or Class B rating.

Class D Extinguishers Rating

These extinguishers generally have no rating; nor are they given a multipurpose rating
for use on other types of fires. Their effectiveness is described on the extinguisher
faceplate.

Note: Multi-Class Rating: Many extinguishers available today can be used on

different types of fires and will be labeled with more than one designator, e.g., A-
B, B-C, or A-B-A. Make sure that is you have a multipurpose extinguisher it is
properly labeled.

Different Fire Extinguishing Agents

Dry Chemical Extinguishers
 They are usually rated for multipurpose use. Those labeled ABC are designed to
extinguish Class A, B, and C fires. Those labeled BC are designed to extinguish
Class B and C fires.
 They contain an extinguishing agent and use a compressed, nonflammable gas
as a propellant. They are effective in reducing the fuel element and the chemical
chain (or exothermic) reaction element of the fire tetrahedron. The powder or
chemical that is released from the extinguisher coats the fuel source and
interrupts the chemical chain reaction.
Note: the dry chemical extinguishers can reduce visibility and leave a
residue that may cause irritation.

Halon Extinguishers
Contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that take place when fuels burn.
These types of extinguishers are often used to protect valuable electrical equipment
since they leave no residue to clean up. Halon extinguishers have limited range, usually
4 to 6 feet.

Water Extinguishers
Contain water and compressed gas and should be used only on Class A fires. A water
extinguisher is an effective, inexpensive, and nontoxic means of reducing the heat
element of the fire tetrahedron.
 Note: water extinguishers should be used only on Class A fires because water
can spread flammable liquid and is a good conductor that can electrocute the
individual using a water extinguisher on an electrical fire. Water can also freeze.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Most effective on Class B and C fires. Since the gas disperses quickly, these
extinguishers are effective only from 3 to 8 feet. The CO2 is stored as a nonflammable
compressed liquid in the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools the surrounding air. The
cooling often will cause ice to form around the “horn” where the gas is expelled from the
extinguisher. Since the fire could reignite, continue to apply the agent even after the fire
appears to be out.

How to use an Extinguisher

P A S S – Pull, Aim, Squeeze, and Sweep
Pull the pin at the top of the extinguisher that keeps the handle from being accidently
pressed. This will allow you to discharge the extinguisher.
Aim the nozzle toward the base of the fire.
Squeeze the handle to discharge the extinguisher while standing approximately 8 feet
away from the fire.
Sweep the nozzle back and forth at the base of the fire.

Topic 6: FPP and EAP

Effective Fire Prevention
Effective fire prevention requires vigilance, action, and cooperation.
 Vigilance involves regular inspection of the workplace to identify fire hazards
 Action is necessary to correct hazardous situations by
o Cleaning debris and installing effective storage and ventilation systems for
hazardous materials
o Establishing and enforcing work rules and maintenance policies that
prevent hazardous situations from arising
o Shielding or ventilating heat sources
o Repairing or replacing faulty equipment or electrical systems
 Cooperation between employers and employees in necessary to ensure
understanding of your common interests in fire prevention and to ensure
maximum effort by all concerned to notice and correct fire hazards

Complete Fire Protection Programs

A complete fire protection program should include
 Fire Prevention Plan: how to be proactive in preventing fires
 Fire Evacuation Plan: how to act in the event of leaving a fire site
 Emergency Action Plan: how to react to the fire.
Fire Prevention Plan (FPP)
Employers need to implement a written fire prevention plan (FPP) to complement the
fire evacuation plan in order to minimize the frequency of evacuation. Stopping
unwanted fires from occurring is the most efficient way to handle them.
The following are some essential components in a fire prevention plan:
 Housekeeping procedures for storage and cleanup of flammable materials and
flammable waste must be included in the plan.
 Procedures for controlling workplace ignition sources such as smoking, welding,
and burning must be addressed in the plan.
 All employees are to be informed of the potential fire hazards of their job and the
procedures called for in the employer’s fire prevention plan.
 Review the policy to ensure that the plan will be reviewed with all new employees
when they begin their job and will all employees when the plan is changed

Fire Evacuation Plan (FEP)

A workplace fire safety plan has to include provisions for fire suppression or
extinguishing and emergency evacuation of employees.
FEP must be in place and should contain the following components:
 Evacuation routes- clearly marked, safe, and accessible exit routes are essential
to ensure that workers and other occupants can escape quickly in the event of a
fire.
 Alarm systems, fire detecting systems, and communication systems – are useful
means of reducing the harm to people and property in the event of a fire.
 Training – all employees must be familiar with the plan, and the plan must be
reviewed prior to and during each job.

Emergency Action Plans (EAPs)

EAPs must describe he routes that are to be used and procedures to be followed by
employees in the event of an emergency.
The following are the requirements of an emergency action plan:
 Procedures for accounting for all evacuated employees must be part of the plan
 The written plan must be available for employee review
 Where needed, special procedures for helping physically impaired employees
must be addressed in the plan
 The plan must include procedures for these employees who must remain behind
temporarily to shut down critical plant equipment before they evacuate
 The preferred means of alerting employees to a fire emergency must be part of
the plan
 An employee alarm system must be available throughout the workplace and
must be used to alert employees in an emergency evacuation.
 Employees must be trained in what is to be done in an emergency
  Employers must review the plan with newly assigned employees, so they know
the correct actions to take in an emergency.

Employer’s Firefighting Policies

OSHA does not require any employer to assign firefighting duties to an employee. The
employer has the option to adopt a policy requiring complete and immediate evacuation
in the event of a fire.

Fight or Flee: The Critical Decision

The general rule is that employees should attempt to extinguish only small fires at the
beginning stages.

Do you know when you shouldn’t fight a fire?

Do not fight s fire:
 If you do not know what is burning
 If it is spreading rapidly
 If you do not have adequate or appropriate equipment
 If it is producing large amounts of smoke
 If you are uncomfortable or your instincts tell you to get out
 If it cannot be immediately extinguished
 Do not take chances. Always leave yourself an out.
 Signs, Signals, and Barricades
Introduction
An unidentified hazard can lead to personal injury, property damage, or even death.
Signs are recognized as one of the first attempts made to protect workers and prevent
accidents. OSHA and ANSI enforce safety specifications for your protection!

Topic 1: Accident Prevention Tools

Accident prevention communication tools help protect employees. These tools alert
employees of hazards or isolate employees and the public from the hazards associated
with construction work.
Accident prevention signs, tags, and barricades are used to:
 Alert workers that PPE is required
 Identify areas that are off-limits
 Identify specific hazards that may be present.
It is critical that employers educate the workforce on the proper use and placement of
signs, tags, signals, and barricades

OSHA’s Communication Program

Communication program includes:
 Accident prevention signs
 Signaling systems
 Barricades
 Accident prevention tags

OSHA has specifications for accident prevention signs and tags in 29 CFR 1926.200.
these specifications apply to the design, application, and use of signs or symbols to
prevent injuries or property damage. The OSHA specifications do not cover bulletin
boards, safety posters, or street signs.

ANSI is a private organization which creates voluntary standards through consensus.

Many OSHA standards reference ANSI as the minimum requirements to follow for
compliance.

Which requirements should be followed, those of OSHA or ANSI?

Where OSHA has specific requirements, they must be followed. In the absence of
OSHA requirements, employers should refer to ANSI standards.
Topic 2: Safety and Colors
Safety Color Identification
Colors have long been used to inform us of hazards, at home, on the road, and
especially on the job. OSHA and ANSI recognize that the consistent use of colors for
accident prevention signs can lead to protection for workers.
Color-Coding System required by OSHA and ANSI:
 RED: identifies danger and the command to Stop and is the color used to mark:
o Fire protection equipment
o Safety cans or other portable containers of flammable liquids, excluding
shipping containers
o Emergency stop bars, hazardous machines, stop buttons, and other
electrical switches used for emergency stopping
 YELLOW: the basic color for designating caution and for marking physical
hazards, such as striking against, stumbling, falling, and getting caught in
between objects. Solid yellow, yellow and black stripes, or yellow and black
checkers must be used for maximum contrast with the particular background
 ORANGE: Identifies dangerous parts of machines or energized equipment
 GREEN: designates safety, emergency egress, and the location of first aid and
safety equipment
 BLUE: identifies safety information used on informational signs and bulletin
boards

COMBINATIONS: Safety Black, White, Yellow, or combinations of Black, White, and

Yellow are used to designate traffic or housekeeping markings.

Topic 3: Types of Signs

Danger Signs: These signs indicate that immediate danger is present and special
precautions are necessary. Danger signs are limited to the most extreme situations.
OSHA specifies that the red, black, and white colors used for Danger signs be in
accordance with ANSI standards Z53.1.

Caution Signs: Warn against potential hazards or caution the workers against using
unsafe practices. OSHA specifies that yellow and black are the standard colors for
Caution signs. The use of the colors must be in accordance with ANSI standards Z53.1.
Safety Instructions Signs: Used where there is a need for general instructions and
suggestions relative to safe work practices, reminders of proper safety procedures, and
guides to the location of safety equipment. OSHA specifies that the standard color for
Safety Instruction signs shall be a white background, green panel, and white letters. Any
letters used on the white background shall be black. The colors must be in accordance
with ANSI z53.1-1979
Warning Signs: indicate a potentially hazardous situation, which if not avoided, could
result in death or serious injury

Notice Signs: indicate a statement of company policy as the message relates directly
or indirectly to the safety of personnel or protection of property
Fire Safety Signs: indicate the location of emergency firefighting equipment

Exit Signs: indicate the means of exiting the area and, when required, must be lettered
in legible red letters at least six inches high on a white background

Directional Signs: other than road traffic signs, should be white with black panel and a
white directional symbol. Any additional wording in the sign must be in black lettering on
a white background.

Traffic Signs: are posted on construction sites at all points of hazards. All traffic control
signs and devices used for protection of construction workers must conform to ANSI
D6.1-1971, manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways

Topic 4: Proper Use of Signs

General Requirements
OSHA is not specific on sign design, only its colors.

Compliance
Whenever you are using signs on the construction job site, it is important to check under
the specific sign requirement to be sure you are complying with the OSHA regulations

Design
OSHA requires that signs have rounded or blunt corners and that they are free from
sharp edges, burrs, splinters, or other sharp projections. This is to prevent the accident
preventions signs from becoming hazards themselves

Materials
OSHA does not dictate the materials that are used to make the signs. Manufacturers
make signs from a variety of materials including plastic, fiberglass, and aluminum. The
user would keep in mind the environment the signs will be used.

Size
OSHA does not have size specifications for signs and refers to the ANSI standard
regarding these technicalities. The size of the sign, height, and width of the letters, and
viewing distances are all defined by ANSI Z535.2-1998. Key requirements include:
 The wording on any sign should be concise and easy to read
 The size of the lettering must be as large as possible for the intended viewing
distance
 The minimum letter height for the signal word (Danger, Caution, Notice) is one
unit of height for every 150 units of safe viewing distance.
 The minimum letter height for other words on the sign is one unit of height for
every 300 units of safe viewing distance.

Placement
ANSI developed rules for the placement of signs. Signs must be placed/equipped:
 To alert and inform employees of hazards in sufficient time to avoid the hazard
and take appropriate action. Employees should not be in harm’s way before
seeing the sign
 For legible, do not create a distraction, and are not hazards themselves
 Not be placed on movable objects or adjacent to movable objects like doors and
windows.
 With emergency illumination or be reflective or both when illumination may be
necessary under emergency conditions.

Topic: Other Communications

Signaling
Understanding how and when to use signals that communicate important directions for
the movement of equipment and personnel on the job site is critical.

Flagmen
When operations exist where the use of signs, signals, and barricades do not provide
necessary protection on or adjacent to a highway or street, flagmen or other appropriate
traffic controls have to be provided. Flagmen observe these guidelines:
 Conform signaling directions to ANSI D6.1, manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices for Streets and Highways
 Perform hand signaling with red flags that are at least 18 inches square or use
sign paddles. They must use red lights when it is dark
 Wear a red or orange warning garment while flagging. Any warning garments
that are to be worn at night must be made of reflective material

Barricades
Barricades and barricade tape offer good visual awareness and provide physical
obstacle to hazards. Barricades that are used for the protection of employees must
conform to ANSI standards
Accident Prevention Tags
Used as a temporary means of warning employees of an existing hazard, such as
defective tools and equipment. They should not be used in place of, or a substitute for,
accident prevention signs.

Material Handling
Introduction
Handling and storing materials involve diverse operations, such as hoisting tons of steel
with a crane. Other operations include:
 Driving a truck loaded with concrete blocks
 Carrying bags and materials manually
 Stacking drums, barrels, kegs, lumber, or loose bricks

Topic 1: Control Methods

Hazards
When manually moving materials, workers should be aware of potential injuries,
including the following:
 Strains and sprains from improperly lifting loads, or from carrying loads that are
either too large or too heavy
 Fractures caused by being struck by materials, or by being caught in pinch points
 Cuts and contusions caused by falling materials that have been improperly
stored, or by incorrectly cutting ties or other securing devices

Methods
Some very basic safety principles can help reduce workplace violations and incidents.
These include:
 Work practices
 Training
 Education

Housekeeping
OSHA’s standards have a common theme concerning housekeeping, and it is very
simple.
A tidy job site is a more efficient and safer job site

Storage areas must be kept free from accumulation of materials that constitute hazards
from tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harborage. In addition, vegetation control should be
exercised when necessary.

Hierarchy of Controls
Reducing the risks associated with construction work is very important. To meet this
goal, there is a hierarchy or preferred order of control. These controls are not usually
are not mutually exclusive. There may be occasions when more than one control must
be used to reduce a risk. However, prevention would be best served by implementing
your hierarchy or control methodology before you start any construction operation. The
preferred order is presented in the graphic.
By using controls, including protective equipment and proper work practices, you can
work with confidence. Administrative and engineering controls can be used to eliminate
material handling hazards before beginning operations. PPE as a protection device is
your last line of defense and protects you from material handling hazards.

OSHA Requirements
OSHA is dedicated to providing a safe workplace for handling materials. Click each
graphic to learn about OSHA’s recommendations for the specific area.

Disposal
 Whenever materials are dropped more than 20 feet to any point lying outside the
exterior walls of the building, an enclosed chute of wood or equivalent material
must be used. For the purposes of this lesson, an enclosed chute is a slide,
closed in on all sides, through which material is moved from a high place to a
lower one.
 When debris is dropped through holes in the floor without the use of chutes, the
area onto which the materials is dropped must be completely enclosed with
barricades not less than 42 inches high and not less than 6 feet back from the
projected edge of the opening above.
 Signs warning of the hazard of falling materials must be posted at each level
 Removal must not be permitted in this lower area until debris handling ceases
above
 All scrap lumber, waste material, and rubbish must be removed from the
immediate work area as the work progresses
 Disposal of waste material or debris by burning must comply with local fire
regulations
 All solvent waste, oily rags, and flammable liquids must be kept in fire-resistant,
covered containers until removed from the worksite.

Manufacturers
Your manufacturer can provide you with not only the proper equipment but also the
proper training on the specific equipment.

Training
OSHA requires that an employer instruct each employee in the recognition and
avoidance of unsafe conditions and the standards applicable to his or her work
environment to control or eliminate any hazards or other exposure to illness or injury
Topic 2: Material Handling
Moving Materials
Manually
When manually moving materials, employees must:
 Seek help when a load is so bulky it cannot be properly grasped or lifted, when
they cannot see around or over it, or when a load cannot be handled safely
 Make sure handles and holders are attached to loads to reduce the chances of
getting fingers pinched or smashed
 Use appropriate PPE to protect themselves from heave or bulky loads or loads
with sharp edges
 When an employee is placing blocks under raised loads, they must:
o Not release the load until the hands are clearly removed from the load
o Use large and strong blocking materials and timbers to support the load
safely
o Not use materials with evidence of cracks, rounded corners, splintered
pieces, or dry rot

Mechanically
When mechanically moving materials with forklifts or cranes, workers must follow these
guidelines
 The equipment must not be overloaded
 All materials handling equipment has rated capacities that specify the maximum
weight the equipment can safely handle and the conditions under which it can
handle those weights
 The equipment capacity ratings must be displayed on each piece of equipment
and must not be exceeded except for load testing
 When picking up items with a powered industrial truck:
o The load must be centered on the forks and as close to the mast as
possible to minimize the potential for the truck tipping or the load falling
o Do not overload
o Extra weight must not be placed on the rear of a counterbalanced forklift
to offset an overload
o The load must be at the lowest position for traveling, and the truck
manufacturer’s operational requirements must be followed
o All stacked loads must be correctly piled and cross-tiered, where possible.
Precautions also should be taken when stacking and storing material
Dockboards (Bridge Plates)
When using dockboards, workers must follow these policies:
 Portable and powered dockboards must be strong enough to carry the load
imposed on them
 Potable dockboards must be secure to prevent their slipping. Handholds,
anchored or other effective means, must be provided on portable dockboards to
permit safe handling
 Positive protection must be provided to prevent railroad cars from being moved
while dockboards or bridge plates are in position

General Storage
Accumulated materials: Storage areas must be free of accumulated materials that may
cause tripping, fires, or explosions, or that may contribute to the harboring of rats and
other pests.

Stacked and piled materials: When stacking and pilling, materials, it is important to be
aware of such factors as the material’s height and weight, how accessible the stored
materials are to the user, and the condition of the containers in which the materials are
being stored. Material that cannot be stacked due to size, shape, or fragility can be
safely stored on shelves or in bins. For quick reference, walls or posts may be painted
with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights.

Bound materials: All bound materials should be stacked, placed on racks, blocked,
interlocked, or otherwise secured to prevent them from sliding, falling, or collapsing. A
load greater than the approved by a building official may not be placed on any floor of a
building or other structure. Where applicable, load limits approved by the building
inspector should be posted conspicuously in all storage areas.

Materials stored in tiers: all materials stored in tiers must be stacked, racked, blocked,
interlocked, or otherwise secured to prevent sliding, falling, or collapse. Maximum safe
load limits of floors within buildings and structures, in pounds per square floor, must be
posted conspicuously in all storage areas, except for floor or slab on grade. Maximum
safe loads must not be exceeded.

Aisles and passageway: Aisles and passageways must be kept clear to provide for the
free and safe movement of materials handling equipment or employees. Such areas
must be kept in good repair. When a difference in road or working level exits, means
such as ramps, blocking, or grading must be used to ensure the safe movement of
vehicles between the two levels.

Materials in buildings under construction: Materials stored inside buildings under

construction must not be placed within 6 feet of any hoistway or inside floor openings, or
within 10 feet of an exterior wall that does not extend above the top of the material
being stored.

Working on stored materials: Each employee required to work on stored material in

silos, hoppers, tanks, and similar storage areas must be equipped with personal fall
arrest equipment meeting OSHA’s fall protection requirements.

Incompatible Materials: Incompatible materials must be segregated in storage.

Material Storage
A number of specific materials pose unique hazards.

Lumber
Lumber must be stacked on level and solidly supported sills and must be so stacked as
to be stable and self-supporting. The piles must not exceed 20 feet high, and lumbar to
be handled manually must not be stacked more than 16 feet high. All nails must be
withdrawn from used lumber before stacking.

Pipes and bars

Pipes and bars should not be stored in racks that face main aisles; this could create a
hazard to passers-by when supplied are being removed.

Cylindrical materials
Structural stee, poles, pipes, bar stock, and other cylindrical materials, unless racked,
must be stacked and blocked so as to prevent spreading or tilting.

Bagged materials
Bagged materials must be stacked by stepping back the layers and cross keying the
bags at least every 10 bags high

Bricks
Brick stacks must not be more than 7 feet high. When a loose brick stack reaches a
height of 4 feet, it shall be tapered back 2 inches in every foot of height above the 4-foor
level

Blocks
When masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, the stack must be tapered back
one-half block per tier above the 6-foot level.

Drums, barrels, and kegs

Drums, barrels, and kegs must be stacked symmetrically. If stored on their sides, the
bottom tiers must be blocked to keep them from rolling. When stacked on end, put
planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier to make a firm, flat,
stacking surface. When stacking materials two or more tiers high, the bottom tier must
be chocked on each side to prevent shifting in either direction.

Topic 3: Material Handling Equipment

Rigging
When moving and storing construction materials, workers engage in rigging. Rigging is
the act of attaching hoisting equipment to the load. Slings and hoists are tools used in
many industries for moving large, heavy loads. Slings and hoists are available in
hundreds, if not thousands, of styles. This tremendous selection can make the job of
choosing the correct sling or hoist very challenging. The wrong choice has led to
thousands of incidents and even death each year in the US.

Hoisting
A hoist is a manual or power-operated lifting device for raising and lowering loads. Its
service is vertical over its mounting. Hoists may be attached to fixed or moveable
structures by an upper hook or bracket and are used in combination with other
equipment. The types of hoists are:
 Direct geared
 Drum
 Friction Drum
 Lever-operated
 Come along

Hoist Selection
The best way to select the proper hoist is to consider the working conditions the hoist
will be subjected to and the type of application it will be required to perform. Before
selecting a hoist, carefully consider these factors:
 Selection Consideration
 Duty cycle
 Distance
 Lift
 Efficiency
 Headroom
 Safety
 Atmosphere
 Economy
 Speeds

The primary concern for selection will be the capacity required for the load to be lifted.
Not only must you consider the largest load you intend to handle, you must include the
weight of any hook-lifting devices such as spreader bars, grabs, and slings.
You can find OSHA’s recommended safe working loads under Regulations. Rigging
equipment for material handling – 1926.251. Subpart H, Subpart: Materials Handling,
Storage, Use, and Disposal.

Hoist Inspection
It is important to check this ancillary as well as the hoist. An engineer should verify that
both devices will tolerate the stress applied to them. Despite the fact that most hoists do
have a safety factor allowance, never exceed the rated capacity, even for a short
period, will cause equipment damage and can result in serious injury.
Here are specific rigging applications:
 Rigging equipment for material handling must be inspected prior to use on each
shift and as necessary during its use to ensure that it is safe.
 Defective rigging equipment must be removed from service
 Rigging equipment must not be loaded in excess of its recommended safe
working load
 Rigging equipment, when not in use, must be removed from the immediate work
area so as not to present a hazard to employees.
 Special custom-design grabs, hooks, clamps, or other lifting accessories for such
units as modular panels and prefabricated structures must be marked to indicate
the safe working loads and be proof-tested to 125 percent of their load prior to
use.

Slings
Slings are used in combination with a lifting device. The most common lifting devices
are overhead cranes, hoists, and forklifts. When working with slings, you must visually
inspect them before each use and during operation, especially if they are being used
under heavy stress. Also observe the following safety guidelines:
 A damaged or defective sling must be removed from service
 Slings cannot be shortened with knots or bolts or any other makeshift devices,
and sling legs that have been kinked must not be used.
 Manufacturers of slings rate their capacity, and they should not be loaded
beyond that rifting

Sling Selection
To select the correct sling, two questions must be answered:
1. What types of sling and their applications are:
a. Chain: Combines superior strength, ease of handling, and durability. The
combination of heavy loads, elevated working temperatures, and severe
life conditions usually dictate that an alloy chain sling be used. It typically
is used in steel mills, foundries, and heavy machining operations that
require repetitive lifts.
 b. Wire rope: the most commonly used sling. It has the lowest cost per ton of
lift and is used in the construction industry and other industries where
heavy loads and rugged conditions exist.
c. Mesh – Wire and Chain: excellent for lifting objects that are hot or have
sharp edges, such as bar stock or plate steel. Mesh slings usually have
wide load-bearing surfaces that greatly enhance load balancing. Machine
shops and steel warehouses typically have applications requiring mesh
slings.

Sling Inspection
Each day before use, the sling and all fasteners, and attachments must be inspected for
damage or defects by a competent person designated by the employer. Additional
inspections must be performed during sling use, where service conditions warrant.
Damaged or defective slings must be removed from service immediately

Alloy Steel Chain

 Welded alloy steel chain slings must have permanently affixed durable
identification stating size, grade, rated capacity, and sling manufacturer.
 Hooks, rings, oblong links, pear-shaped links, welded or mechanical coupling
links, or other attachments, when used with alloy steel chains, must have a rated
capacity at least equal to that of the chain.
 Job or shop hooks and links, or makeshift fasteners formed from bolts, rods, etc.,
or other such attachments, must not be used.
 Rated capacity (working load limit) for alloy steel chain slings must conform to
the values shown in the attached tables
 Whenever wear at any point of any chain link exceeds that shown in the attached
tables, the assembly must be removed from service.

Inspections
In addition to the inspection highlighted in other parts of this lesson, a thorough periodic
inspection of alloy steel chain slings in use must be made on a regular basis, to be
determined on the basis of:
 Frequency of sling use
 Severity of service conditions
 Nature of lifts being made
 Experience gained on the services life or slings used in similar
These inspections must in no event be less often than once every 12 months. The
employer must make and maintain a record of the most recent month in which each
alloy steel chain sling was thoroughly inspected and must make such record available
for examination.

Wire Rope
Conditions
Standard tablets must be used to determine the safe working loads of various sizes and
classifications of improved plow steel wire rope and wire rope slings with various types
of terminals. For sizes, classifications, and grades not included in these tables, the safe
working load recommended by the manufacturer for specific, identifiable products must
be followed, provided that a safety factor of not less than 5 is maintained.
Safety factor means the ratio of the ultimate breaking strength of a member or piece of
material or equipment to the actual working stress or safe load when in use.

Follow these conditions:

 Standard tables must be used
 Protruding ends of strands on slings and bridles must be covered or blunted
 Knots must not secure wire rope, except on haul-back lines on scrapers

Limitations
The following limitations must apply to the use of wire and for endless rope: An eye
splice made in any wire rope must have not less than three full tucks. However, this
requirement shall not operate to preclude the use of another form of splice or
connection that can be shown to be as efficient and is not otherwise prohibited.
 Except for eye splices in the ends of wires and for endless rope slings, each wire
rope sued in hoisting or lowering, or in pulling loads, must consist of one
continuous piece without knot or splice
 Wire rope clips or knots must not form eyes in wire rope bridles, slings, or bull
wires
 When U-bolt wire rope clips are used to form eyes, the tables must be used to
determine the number and spacing of clips
 Slings must not be shortened with knots or bolts or other makeshift devices
 Sling legs must not be kinked
 Slings used in a basket hitch must have the loads balanced to prevent slippage
 Slings must be padded or protected from the sharp edges of their loads
 Shock loading is prohibited

Minimum Sling Lengths

 Cable laid, 6x19, and 6x37 slings must have a minimum clear length of wire rope
10 times the component rope diameter between splices, sleeves, or end fittings
 Braided slings must have a minimum clear length of wire rope 40 times the
component rope diameter between the loops or end fittings
 Cable laid grommets, strand laid grommets, and endless slings must have a
minimum circumferential length 96 times their body diameter.
 End Attachments
 Welding of end attachments, except covers to thimbles, must be performed prior
to the assembly of the sling
  All welded end attachments must be proof tested by the manufacturer or
equivalent entity at twice their rated capacity prior to initial use
 The employer must retain a certificate of proof test and make it available for
examination

Natural Rope
Conditions
Eye Splices
 For all eyes splices, the eye must be sufficiently large to provide an included
angle of not greater than 60 degrees at the splice when the eye is placed over
the load or support
 Knots must not be used in lieu of splices
 In manila rope, eye splices must contain at least three full tucks, and short
splices must contain at least six full tucks (three on each side of the center line of
the splice)
 All splices in rope slings provided by the employer must be made in accordance
with the fiber rope manufacturer's recommendations
 In layed synthetic fiber rope, eye splices must contain at least four full tucks, and
short splices must contain at least eight full tucks (four on each side of the center
line of the splice)
 Fiber rope slings must have a minimum clear length of rope between eye splices
equal to 10 times the rope diameter
 Clamps not designed specifically for fiber ropes must not be used for splicing

Tails
 Strand end tails must not be trimmed short (flush with the surface of the rope)
immediately adjacent to the full tucks.
 For fiber ropes under 1-inch diameter, the tails must project at least six rope
diameters beyond the last full tuck
 For fiber ropes 1-inch diameter and larger, the tails must project at least 6 inches
beyond the last full tuck
 In applications where the projecting tails may be objectionable, the tails must be
tapered and spliced into the body of the rope using at least two additional tucks
(which will require a tail length of approximately six rope diameters beyond the
last full tuck)

Safe Operating Temperatures

Natural and synthetic fiber rope slings, except for wet frozen slings, may ne used in
temperature range from minus 20 degrees to plus 180 degrees without decreasing the
working load limit.
For operations outside this temperature range and for wet frozen slings, the sling
manufacturer’s recommendations must be followed.

End Attachments
Fiber rope slings must not be used if end attachments in contact with the rope have
sharp edges or projections.

Removal From Service

Natural and synthetic fiber rope slings must be removed from service immediately if any
of the following conditions are present:
 Abnormal wear
 Powdered fiber between strands
 Broken or cut fibers
 Variations in the size or roundness of strands
 Discoloration or rotting
 Distortion of hardware in the sling

Synthetic Webbing

Slings
The employer must have each synthetic web sling marked or coded to show:
 Name or trademark or manufacturer
 Rated capacities for the type of hitch
 Type of material
 Webbing
Synthetic web slings must be removed from service immediately if any of the following
conditions are present:
 Acid or caustic burns
 Melting or charring of any part of the sling surface
 Snags, punctures, tears, or cuts
 Broken or worn stitches
 Distortion of fittings

Fittings
Fittings must meet these standards:
 Fittings must be of a minimum breaking strength equal to that of the sling
 They must be free of all sharp edges that could in any way damage the webbing
 Attachment of end fittings to webbing and formation of eyes
 Stitching must be the only method used to attach end fittings to the webbing and
to form eyes
 The thread must be in an even pattern and contain a sufficient number of stitches
to develop the full breaking strength of the sling
Environmental Conditions
When synthetic web slings are used, the following precautions must be taken:
 Nylon web slings must not be used where fumes, vapors, sprays, mists, or liquids
of caustics are present
 Polyester and polypropylene web slings must not be used where fumes, vapors,
sprays,
 Web slings with aluminum fittings must not be used where fumes, vapors,
sprays, mists, or liquids of caustics are present

Safe Operating Temperatures

Synthetic web slings of polyester and nylon must not be used at temperatures in excess
of 180˚F. polypropylene web slings must not be used at temperatures in excess of 200˚
F.

Shackles and Hooks

Tables must be used to determine the safe working loads of various sizes of shackles,
except that higher safe working loads are permissible when recommended by the
manufacturer for specific, identifiable products, provided that a safety factor of not less
than 5 is maintained.
The manufacturer’s recommendations must be followed in determining the safe working
loads of the various sizes and types of specific and identifiable hooks.
All hooks for which no applicable manufacturer’s recommendations are available must
be tested twice the intended safe working load before their initial use.
The employer must maintain a record of the dates and results of such tests.

Sling Size
The size of the sling is determined by the weight, shape, and size of the load. When
determining the stress that will be applied to a sling, the length of the sling is divided by
the vertical distance from the top of the load to the lifting device. The resulting quotient
is multiplied by the shared weight of the load.
 Manual Lifting
Introduction
It is estimated that 85 percent of the population will suffer from back pain at some time
during their lives. The construction industry is one of the economy’s largest employers.
Most construction jobs are physically demanding, and the employee is faced with many
different variables throughout the day that may lead to back injuries.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), back injuries account for one of every
five injuries and illnesses in the workplace. Of these injuries, 80 percent involve the
lower back and are associated with the manual handling of materials.

Topic 1: Anatomy of the Back

In order to understand why back injuries are so common, you have to understand a little
bit about the anatomy of the back and the physical forces that come into play.
The back is composed of:

Vertebrae: the back has 33 vertebrae, which are cylinder-shaped bones covering the
spinal cord, stacked vertically together, and separated by discs to from the spine.

Discs: The discs are made up of a dense cartilage that is positioned between the
vertebrae. Each of the spinal discs is made up of a jelly-like center surrounded by rings
of tough, fibrous tissue. The discs of the spine serve as shock absorbers during
activities like sitting, standing, walking, lifting, bending, and twisting.

Nerves: are a collection of fibers that act much like electrical wiring which carry
messages throughout the body. The spinal cord is a large nerve that runs the length of
the vertebrae. The spinal cord also has smaller nerves that branch off the main spinal
cord and send messages to other parts of the body.

Muscles, Ligaments, and Tendons:

 Muscles: are tissues within the body that support the skeleton and contract to
allow movement.
 Ligaments: are bands of tough tissue that connect the bones and cartilage
together and help support the joints.
 Tendons: are made up of a tough, cord-like material that connects the muscle
to the bones.
The basic functions of the spine are to:
 Provide support
 Protect the spinal cord
 Allow the flexibility to move forward, bend side to side, and rotate
When the spine is aligned correctly, it forms three natural curves called the cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar curves. When these natural curves are maintained, the spine
remains healthy and in balance.

The Lower Back

The lower part of the back holds most of the body’s weight. Even a minor problem with
the bones, muscles, ligaments, or tendons in this area can cause pain when a person
stands, bends, or moves around. Less often, a problem with a disc can pinch or irritate
a nerve from the spinal cord. Causing pain that runs down the leg or below the knee,
called sciatica. Every time you bend or move, these disc compress with the motion of
the spine.
Eventually, discs collapse or herniate, vertebrae can shift, and bone spurs can develop.
Tearing or straining ligaments and muscles can cause acute or immediate injuries to the
back. Muscles can also spasm due to stress or tension.

The Forces involved

The amount of force placed on your back under certain conditions can be surprising.
Any time you bend or lean over to pick up something, you put tremendous pressure on
your lower back.
To demonstrate this, think of your back as a lever. With the fulcrum in the center of the
lever, how many pounds would it take to lift a 10-pound object?
With the fulcrum in the center, it takes 10 pounds to lift the 10-pound object.
However, if you shift the fulcrum to one side, this will change.

Topic 2: Back Injuries

Causes of back pain
Back pain is caused by anything that puts pressure on your back muscles and/or
nerves. This can happen as a result of stress, tension, strain, injury, illness, and poor
conditioning. Injuries are often caused by physical activities such as lifting, bending,
twisting, pulling, and pushing.

Other factors that may increase the risk of back injury or complicate recovery include
age, weight, diet, smoking, and hereditary. A back injury can be a minor irritant or
extremely painful.

Some back pain comes on slowly over time while some injuries happen suddenly. The
pain following an injury might last a short time or could last the rest of your life. Strains
and sprains are the most common forms of back injury in construction industries. They
occur when muscles are weak and unprepared to accept the load required for many
construction tasks.

The disc is the most likely site of a back injury. Discs can become injured when too
much pressure is put on them or they can degenerate with age.
Improper lifting techniques tire the back muscles. When ligaments that don’t normally
stretch are stretched, they remain extended. Because of its progressive nature, it is
known as a cumulative trauma disorder, and this sets the stage for a back injury that
can require long period or recovery.

Risk Factors for Back Injury

There are five risk factors that lead to back injuries

Poor Posture
Being aware of your posture throughout the day will help maintain the natural curves of
the spine. Being more aware of the spine’s alignment allows for the back to be more
prepared to accept the difference stresses it will face throughout the day.
Do the following to prevent back injuries that result from poor posture:
 Always maintain good posture so your body is balanced and gives you proper
support
 Stretch often throughout the day to keep your body flexible
 Do not force your body to conform to its workspace
 Raise or lower your work surface to prevent awkward positions
 Take mini breaks throughout the day to allow your spine to rest and straighten

Remember, combinations of awkward posture, force, repetition, and insufficient rest

periods are a setup for injury

Do the following to prevent back injuries that are due to poor physical condition:
 By performing simple back conditioning exercises, such as partial sit-ups and
pelvic tilts, you can promote a healthy back
 By keeping your body weight under control, you avoid putting excess weight and
pressure on the lower back
 By avoiding tobacco and alcohol and participating in some form of exercise three
times a week for 30 minutes each session, you can improve the overall
conditioning that protects you back.

Improper Body Mechanics

If you have to move or lift a load, you must think about your back. Remember to lift with
common sense and be aware of your body’s position at all times. Try to avoid working in
awkward positions. The safe lifting zone is between the knees and the shoulders. If the
load to lift is below your knees, then bend your knees and lift with the legs. If the load is
above your shoulders, you should use a stool or a ladder. If the load is too heavy, get
help.
Most back injuries with a lifting and twisting motion at the waist. Try to prevent lifting and
twisting by first lifting the load and straightening the back. Then turn by stepping to the
side, not pivoting at the waist. This prevents the spine from twisting, which can make it
weaker.
Remember these rules:
1. Lift with common sense!
2. Remember, no single technique will work in all circumstances
3. Be careful!

Incorrect Lifting
Most back injuries occur while performing s simple movement. The problem is that the
movement is usually done improperly, for instance bending, lifting, and twisting at the
same time. The average back cannot handle the stresses of these combined
movements while lifting heavy or even light objects. Don’t forget, you should keep your
back as vertical as possible and bend at the knees

Jobs That Require a High Level of Energy (Physically Demanding)

Construction workers typically have one of the most physically demanding and
dangerous jobs in all industries. Construction workers are frequently forced to lift heavy
objects. To complicate these lifts, they are required to bend, twist, and reach while
lifting. Construction worker also requires lifting and carrying awkward objects such as
lengths of steel and wood and large sections of plywood. These objects can shift while
being carried, which requires a quick recovery by the worker to precent falling or
dropping the object. These quick recovery movements are a major cause of injury in the
construction industry.

Why the correct technique for lifting?

Do the following to prevent most of the back injuries that are due to incorrect lifting:
 Stand close to the object with your feet spread shoulder width apart and one foot
slightly in front of the other.
 Bend at the knees (not the waist)
 Get a firm grip of the object, by holding it from opposite edges
 Slowly lift the object with your legs
 Once the lift is complete, keep the object clos to your body.
 To place the object below the level of your waist, follow the same procedure in
reverse order.

Did you know?

 An average woman’s arm and torso can lift 60 percent as much as a man’s
  At age 65, the average person’s strength is 75 percent of someone who is 20 or
25, but endurance remains the same
 Manual material handling accounts for 30-40 percent of the workers’
compensation claims in the US

Back Hazards and Occupations

The following shows common back hazards for particular occupations
 Heavy lifting: construction, manufacturing
 Twisting and lifting construction, material handlers, assembly workers
 Lifting oddly shaped objects: construction, hospitals
 Have to reach and lift construction, mechanics
 Bending and overexerting: construction, maintenance
 Lifting variable-weight items: construction, baggage handlers
 Standing/sitting in constant position: office, assembly

Key point: as you see, almost all back hazards affect construction workers. This
means you should be more careful not to hurt your back when you perform the
above tasks.

Topic 3: Proper Lifting Techniques

Safe Lifting
Before lifting, take a moment to think about what you are about to do. Examine the
object for sharp corners, slippery spots, breakage, or any other potential hazards. Know
your limit and don’t try to exceed it. Always ask for help if needed, divide the load to
make it lighter. Know where you are going to set the object down and make sure it and
your path are free of obstructions

When lifting, DO:

 Prepare for the lift by stretching to prepare your muscles
 Plant your feet firmly
 Bend at the knees
 Tighten your abdominal muscles to support your spine
 Get a good grip and use both hands
 Keep the object close to your body
 Use your legs to lift
 Keep your back straight and try to maintain the natural curve of the spine
 Lift steadily and smoothly, avoid jerking
 Breaths while lifting, if you have to hold your breath while lifting, it’s too heavy
 Stand close to the object
  Use a wide stance to gain balance
 Keep the arms straight
 Tuck the chin into the chest
 Do not attempt the lift if you are not convinced that you can handle the load
safely
 Avoid lifting heavy objects if possible. Push or slide the object or use lifting
equipment

Key Point: wearing a back-support belt will not increase maximum lifting potential.

While lifting, DO NOT:

 Lift from the floor with the object too low
 Twist your back while lifting
 Lift with one hand or with load unbalanced
 Lift loads and objects across obstacles, such as over a wall
 Lift while reaching
 Lift from an uncomfortable posture
 Fight to cover a dropped object
 Hold your breath while lifting

Here are some tips to help your body when lifting:

 Stretch often! And shift positions
o Change (shift) your posture often
o Stretch frequently throughout the day
o Keep your body flexible
o Don’t force your body to conform to its workplace
o Slow down if you are doing a lot of heavy, repetitive lifting
o Don’t overdo it
 Listen to your body! Be careful!
o Feeling discomfort of pain is an indication that something is wrong
o Heed the signs…Combinations of awkward posture, force, repetitions, and
insufficient rest periods are a setup for injury
o Take more frequent breaks before you become too fatigued
o Stand up and stretch your back, neck, and arms
o Become aware of mounting stresses, aches, and pains
o Handle materials carefully

Principles to Reduce the Risk of Back injury

If you have to move or lift a load, you must think about your back. Following the
procedure below can help you reduce the risk of back injury.
Assess
Ask these questions: is the task absolutely necessary? Is the load very heavy or
unstable?

Plan
Think about these: how are you going to the lift the load? Do you need help or
equipment? Is there enough room for a safe move?

Prepare
Explain to anyone helping what you intend to do. Remove any obstacles from the
environment
Posture
Keep your spine in line, feet apart, elbows in, knees and hips bent, get close to the load,
and avoid twisting

Perform
One person should coordinate the move – “ready, set, go.” Aim for smooth, flowing
movement

Evaluate
Reflect: did everything go according to plan? Is there anything that could have been
done to make the move safer?

Checklist:
Before performing any kind of lift, you should assess the situation and ask yourself
these questions
 Is the load big, bulky, and heavy?
 Do you need help? Avoid lifting materials that exceed 1/3 – ½ of your body
weight. GET HELP!
 Can you slide it instead of lifting it? PUSH, DON’T PULL!
 Must you twist or stretch to get it? Readjust the load or your position before you
lift. Again, GET HELP!
 Do you need equipment to help move it?
 Have you stretched your muscles or warmed up before lifting?
 Are you wearing slip-resistant shoes?
 Have you cleared a pathway before you move the item?
 Is the design of this lifting and handling task ergonomically correct?

Assisted Lifting
In some cases, there will be no way to reduce the load. When this is the case and it is
not possible to reduce the load or prevent heavy lifting, you should follow these steps:
  Use a hoist, crane, or forklift system to assist in the lift and movement of heavy
objects
 Use overhead joists to pull an object from one location to another
 Provide sufficient time to avoid sudden, jerking motions by the operator.
 Use lifting sides such as a rope sling, grappling hooks, suction cups, and move
objects with the help of pneumatic or electric devices
 Use roller conveyors or powered conveyors that pull objects closer to the body
before lifting
 Use gravity-fed slides and shelves
Moving Loads
Here are some less stressful ways of moving loads
1. Push/pull using carts, trolleys, or wheelbarrows
a. This is hazardous if an object is too heavy
b. Pilling is more strenuous on the lower back than pushing loads
c. Do not exceed hand force requirements of 50 pounds when hands can be
at hip and waist level.
2. If you have a cart or wheelbarrow:
a. Use handles that can be grasped at various points
b. Use large rubber tires and good bearings that do not hang up on irregular
surfaces
c. Use wheels that pivot easily
d. Make sure the cart is designed to handle the intended load
e. Wear shoes with good traction
f. Make sure the floor surface or ground is free of debris
g. When applying force to move the cart or wheelbarrow, place one foot back
to use the large muscles of the legs and back to move the load, not the
arms.
h. If moving a high load, make sure the overhead area is clear
i. If the load cannot be moved, get help

When carrying a load, is it all right to turn or twist my body as long as I turn with
my torso?
No, you should try to minimize any turning or twisting; but if you must turn while carrying
the load, turn using your feet.

Topic 4: Controlling Hazards

Specific Engineering Controls
Engineering controls can directly involve redesigning the workstation, adapting
equipment, and minimizing awkward movement. Through the use of engineering
controls, one attempts to ergonomically redesign a job to fit the worker so that tasks
such as lifting or bending become less hazardous.
OSHA suggests the following engineering controls:
1. A reduction in the size or weight of the object lifted
 a. Maximum allowable weight of the object lifted
b. The compactness of the objects/materials to be lifted
c. The presence of handles and the stability of the material being handled
2. Adjusting the height of the pallet or shelf to bring the object to be lifted to the
proper lifting level.
3. Installation of mechanical aids such as pneumatic lifts, conveyors, and/or
automated materials-handling equipment

Specific Administrative Controls

In conjunction with engineering controls, back strain prevention can also be targeted
through administrative controls. These controls focus on minimizing worker through
administrative controls. These controls focus on minimizing worker exposure to Insafe
conditions through careful training and education about the mechanics and constraints
of the body. Emphasizing physical fitness and training workers that avoiding loads that
exceed their capacities will prevent the risk of back injury.
However, in some jobs such as construction, police work, and firefighting, it is difficult to
control the ergonomic environment. In these instances, OSHA suggest reliance on
administrative controls – in particular, extensive training of workers so they can safely
perform lifting tasks.
Checklist:
 Let employees know that you are concerned about workplace safety and their
health
 Let them know that your expectation is to eliminate job-related accidents and
illnesses
 Be responsive to employees’ suggestions, safety committee recommendations,
and other input regarding workplace safety
 Provide ongoing training programs for old and new employees
 Involve your employees input concerning production and company goals and
some measure of control over the pace of their work
 Have a hand-written return-to-work program
 Contact injured employees as soon as possible following an injury to let them
know you care.
 Have a written drug and alcohol policy and follow it
 Follow good personnel management coaching, and ensure that your safety
results and practices are integrated into these areas
 Make your workplace a positive environment

Exercise to Strengthen Your Muscles

The following is exercises for strengthening your muscles. Exercise whenever you are
able.
Wall slides (to strengthen back, hip, and leg muscles)
  Stand with your back against the wall and feet shoulder-width apart
 Slide down into a crouch with the knees bent about 90 degrees
 Count to 5 and slide back up the wall
 Repeat 5 times

Leg raises to strengthen back and hips muscles

 Lie on your stomach
 Tighten the muscles in one leg and raise it from the floor
 Hold your leg up for the count of 10 and return it to the floor
 Do the same for the other leg
 Repeat five times on each leg

Leg raises to strengthen the stomach and hip muscles

 Lie on your back with your arms at your sides
 Lift your leg off the floor and hold it up for the count of 10, then return it to the
floor
 Do the same with the other leg
 Repeat 5 times on each leg

Partial sit-up to strengthen stomach muscles

 Lie on your back with your knees bent and your feet flat on the floor
 Slowly raise your head and shoulders off the floor and reach with both hands
toward your knees
 Count to 10 and repeat 5 times

Back leg swing to strengthen hip and back muscles

 Stand behind a chair with your hands on the back of the chair
 Lift one leg back and up while keeping the knee straight
 Return slowly
 Raise the other leg and return
 Repeat 5 times with each leg

Exercises to decrease the strain on your back

 Lie on your back with your knees bent and your feet flat on the floor
 Raise your knees toward your chest
 Place your hands behind your knees and gently pull your knees as close to your
chest as possible
 Do not raise your head
 Do not straighten your knees as you lower them
 Start with five repetitions, several times a day
Back extensions
 Stand with your feet slightly apart
 Place your hands in the small of your back
 Keep your knees straight
 Bend backwards at the waist as far as possible and hold the position for one or
two seconds

Tools
Topic 1: Hazards and Controls
Hazard Recognition
Tools are such a common part of our lives that is easy to forget that they pose hazards.
All tools are manufactured with safety in mind but, tragically, a serious incident often
occurs before steps are taken to search out and avoid or eliminate tool-related hazards
To remove or avoid hazards, workers must learn to recognize the hazards associated
with the different types of tools and the safety precautions necessary to prevent those
hazards

Hazard Prevention
Reducing the risks associated with construction work is very important. To meet this
goal, there is a hierarchy, or preferred order, of control. These controls are not mutually
exclusive, and there may be occasions when more than one control must be used to
reduce a risk. However, prevention is best served by implementing your hierarchy or
control methodology before you start any construction operation.
1. Engineering controls
2. Administrative controls
3. PPE
By using controls, including PPE and proper work practices, you can operate hand and
power tools safely and with confidence. Administrative and engineering controls can be
used to eliminate fall hazards prior to the beginning of operations. PPE as a protection
device is your last line of defense and protects you from fall hazards

Engineering Controls
Engineering controls, which attempt to eliminate hazards, do not necessarily require an
engineer to design them. Engineering controls can be very simple. To the extent
feasible, the work environment and the job itself should be designed to eliminate or
reduce exposure to hazards based on the following principles:
 If feasible, design the job site, equipment, or process to remove the hazard or
substitute something that is not hazardous or is less hazardous
  If removal is not feasible, enclose the hazard to prevent exposure in normal
operations
 Where complete enclosure is not feasible, establish barriers to reduce exposure
to the hazard in normal operations

Administrative Controls
Administrative controls normally are used in conjunction with other controls that more
directly prevent or control exposure to hazards. They include lengthened rest breaks,
additional relief workers, exercise breaks to vary body motions, and rotations or workers
through different jobs to reduce stress or repetitive motions on one part of the body.
Administrative controls also include work practices that reduce risk by:
 Limiting the amount of time, a person is exposed to a particular hazard
 Implementing and documenting safe working procedures for all hazardous tasks
 Training and instructing all personnel
 Identifying hazards prior to starting work

PPE
The last method of control is the use of PPE, and it should be considered only when
other control measures are not practicable or to increase a person’s protection as an
additional measure. PPE includes:
 Hard hat
 Eye protection
 Fall-arrest harnesses and lanyards
 Foot protection
 Hand protection
 Respirators
 Hearing protection

Personal Protective Equipment

PPE as a protection device is your last line of defense to protect you from tool hazards
Power tools present more hazards than hand tools due to the speed at which they
operate. Although similarities exist, there are distinct differences between the PPE
suggested for use with hand tools and the PPE recommended for safe power tool use.
They type of PPE you need when using hand tools depends on the tool being used.

Head Protection
A protective helmet is required when working in an area where there is a potential for
injury from falling objects and /or electrical shock

Eye Protection
At a minimum, eye protection in the form of safety glasses or goggles must be worn at
all times. Others working around the area where power tools are used should wear
protective eyewear also. Eye protection is especially important when using power tools.
the speed in which drills, saws, grinders, sanders, and routers operate can propel small
particles much faster and farther than can hand tools. Certain power tools may require
using a face shield in addition to safety glasses or goggles.

Hand Protection
It is also important to protect your hands from cuts, abrasion, and repeated impact.
Standard cotton or leather work gloves can protect your hands from wood splinters, skin
abrasions, and minor scrapes and cuts when handling lumber. Unfortunately, cut-
resistant gloves are not designed for, or even capable of, providing protection against a
moving blade or bit. Cut-resistant gloves made of Kevlar, Spectra, or stainless steel can
help protect against a misplaced blade.
The best ay to prevent injury from moving parts is to keep your hands on the tool’s
handles and keep all guards in place. On jobs that require long periods of hammering,
anti-vibration gloves minimize the vibration created by hammerdrills and rotary
hammerdrills. Impact-resistant gloves with gel or rubber palms can reduce vibration
also.

Foot Protection
Safety shoes with a reinforced toe help protect your feet from injury caused by a
dropped tool. Safety footwear is recommended when using power tools, because power
tools are heavy and thy can cut. Safety shoes with a nonslip, insulated sole and a steel
toe protect against dropped objects and misdirected electricity

Hearing Protection
The sound generated by some power tools, especially if used over extended periods of
times, may require the use of earplugs or earmuffs. Each situation must be analyzed to
determine the type of PPE that is required for the safe use of each type of power tools.

Clothing
Along with PPE, proper attire is also important while using power tools. Avoid loose
clothing to avoid being caught in moving blades. Also, long hair should be tied back or
covered for the same reason; remove all jewelry as well.

Respirator Protection
Any operation that generates harmful airborne levels of dusts, fumes, sprays, mists,
fogs, smokes, vapors, or gases or that may involve oxygen-deficient atmospheres
requires the use of wither an atmosphere-supply respirator or an air-purifying respirator.

General Safety Precautions

Employees who use hand and power tools and who are exposed to the hazards of
falling, flying, abrasive, or splashing objects or harmful dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, or
gases must be provided with the personal equipment necessary to protect them from
the hazard
All hazards involved in the use of tools can be prevented by following five basic safety
rules:
1. Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance
2. Use the right tool for the job
3. Examine each tool for damage before use
4. Operate according to the manufacturer's instructions
5. Provide and use the proper protective equipment
Employees and employers have a responsibility to work together to establish safe
working procedures. If a hazardous situation is encountered, it should be brought to the
attention of the supervisor immediately.

Topic 2: hand and Power Tool Safety

Hand Tools
Hand tools are non-powered, they include anything from axes to wrenches. The
employer is responsible for the safe condition of tools and equipment used by
employees, but the employees have the responsibility of properly using and maintaining
tools. Here are general guidelines:
 Employers should caution employees to direct saw blades, knives, or other tools
away from aisle areas and other employees working in close proximity
 Knives and scissors must be sharp. Dull tools can be more hazardous than sharp
ones
 Appropriate PPE should be worn due to hazards that may be encountered while
using portable power tools and hand tools
 Safety requires that floors be kept as clean and dry as possible to prevent
accidental slips with or around dangerous hand tools.
 Around flammable substances, sparks produced by iron and steel hand tools can
be a dangerous ignition source. Where this hazard exists, spark-resistant tools
made from brass, plastic, aluminum, or wood will provide for safety.

What are some examples of using tools incorrectly?

 Using a screwdriver as a chisel may cause the tip of the screwdriver to break and
fly, hitting the user or other employees.
 If a wooden handle on a tool such as a hammer or an axe is loose, splintered, or
cracked, the head of the tool may fly off and strike the user or another worker
 A wrench must not be used if its jaws are sprung, because it might slip.
 Impact tools such as chisels, wedges, or drift pins are unsafe if they have
mushroomed heads. The heads might shatter on impact, sending sharp
fragments flying.

Hand Tool Safety

As described, the greatest hazards posed by hand tools result from misuse and
improper maintenance. Select each tool on the pegboard to review its safety dos and
don’ts.

Screwdrivers
Intended for turning a variety of threaded fasteners, such as machine or wood screws,
in and out of materials. Screwdriver tips come in a variety of different shapes and sizes.
The slotted and Phillips tips are the most common, however, torx, hex, square, and
various others are use also. As with any tool, it is important to match the screwdriver to
the job you’re doing
Dos
 Use a screwdriver tip that properly fits the slot of the screw
 Throw away screwdrivers with broken or worn handles
 Turn power off and use electrically insulated screwdrivers when working on or
around electrical components.
 Straighten tips or redress rounded edges with a file
 Use magnetic or screw-holding screwdrivers to start fasteners in tight areas
 Use both hands when using a screwdriver – one to guide the tip and the other to
turn the handle
 Use both hands on the screwdriver handle for final tightening
 Use non sparking screwdrivers in the presence of flammable vapors or dusts

DON’Ts
 Never use a screwdriver as a pry bar, chisel, punch, stirrer, or scraper
 Never expose screwdrivers to temperatures that could reduce tip hardness
 Never use pliers on a screwdriver for extra leverage. Use a wrench only on
screwdrivers specifically designed to accept them.

Wrenches
Wrenches come in an endless variety of styles, such as socket, open-end, combination,
adjustable, and torque, just to name a few. Wrenches are designed to turn or hold bolts,
nuts, or multiple-threaded fasteners. They are sized to keep the leverage and load in an
acceptable balance

DOs
 Choose a wrench that properly fits the fastener you wish to turn. Use metric
wrenches for metric bolts and American inch wrenches for inch-sized bolts. By
using the correct size, the wrench is less prone to slip or round off the fastener
corners.
 Apply penetrating oil on frozen fasteners before using a striking face box, socket,
or heavy-duty box wrench
 Pull on a wrench in case the fastener loosens
  Adjustable wrenches must be adjusted tightly to the fasteners and then pulled,
putting the force on the fixed end
 Turn power off and use electrically insulated wrenches when working on or
around electrical components
 Inspect wrenches periodically for damage, such as cracking, severe wear, or
distortion
 Use non sparking wrenches around flammable vapors or dust

DON’Ts
 Do not expose a wrench to temperatures that could weaken tool hardness
 Never alter a wrench
 Do not over-torque a fastener. Use a torque wrench to tighten the fastener to the
exact torque required
 Do not use open-end or adjustable wrenches for final tightening or for loosening
frozen fasteners. These wrenches do not have the strength of a box-end or
socket wrench
 Avoid using an extension to improve the leverage of a wrench

Pliers
Pliers come in all shapes and sizes, such as lineman, diagonal cutting, needle nose, slip
joint, locking tongue and groove. Pliers’ uses include gripping, cutting, turning, and
bending. Pliers are a versatile tool, but they must be used according to how they are
designed

DOs
 Cut hardened wire only with pliers designed for that purpose
 Be sure the plier’s jaws can grasp properly when bending rigid wire
 Cute wire at right angles without bending wire back and forth against the cutting
edge of the pliers
 Use non-sparking pliers around flammable vapor or dust

DON’Ts
 Do not hammer with pair of pliers
 Do not substitute for a wrench when turning nuts and bolts
 Do not increase a plier’s handle length to gain more leverage; instead, choose
larger pliers
 Never subject pliers to temperatures that could decrease tool hardness

Hammers and Striking Tools

Hammers are one of the most used tools in our toolboxes. Nail, soft-face, ball-peen,
chipping, sledge, and setting are just a few of the hammers we use in the workplace
and home. Many hammer types are specific to a particular industry, such as bricklaying,
machining, and logging. Each kind of hammer has a head that is tailored to work best
for a particular application. Recently, even hammer handles have been improved to be
stronger and ergonomically shaped to transmit less shock to the user.

Dos
 Use a hammer of the proper weight and size for the task
 Use a hammer face that is 3/8” larger in diameter than the striking tool
 Remove from service any hammer exhibiting signs of excessive wear, cracks,
mushrooming, or chips
 Use non-sparking hammers around flammable vapors or dust

DON’Ts
 Do not use one hammer to strike another
 Do not use the wrong hammer for the job; match the hammer to the task it is
designed to perform
 Do not strike the surface at an angle. The hammer face should contact the
striking the surface squarely, so the two are parallel
 Do not use a hammer if the handle is damaged or loose
 Never weld, heat, or regrind a hammer head

Power Tools
Power tools offer more power, adaptability, and dependability than ever before. Portable
power tools are designed for a wide variety of uses. Circular saws, jigsaws, drills,
hammerdrills, sanders, grinders, routers, and numerous other power tools save us time
and effort on the job. But along with enhanced tool performance comes the
responsibility to address power tool safety issues. Power tools can be hazardous when
improperly used. Workers responsible for specifying and using power tools also have a
responsibility to check out a tool’s safety features. Supervisors must also ensure that
manufacturer safety precautions and common sense are followed at all times.

Know the Power Tool

Operators must select a tool based on the task it is designed to do and read and
understand the owner’s manual on that tool. Know tool applications and limitations.
Labels affixed to the tool or included in the shipping container must be read and
understood.
 Use only attachments specifically recommended for your power tools and ensure
their proper installation
 Avoid excessive force to make cutting tools cut faster
 Avoid accidental starting. The worker should not hold a finger on the switch
button while carrying a plugged-in tool
 Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool
Ground All Tools Unless Double Insulated
Where a tool is equipped with a three-prong plug, it must be plugged into a three-hole
electric receptacle known to be grounded. If an adapter is used to accommodate a two-
hole receptacle, attach the adapter with a screw to a known ground.

Avoid Dangerous environments

 Do not use power tools in a dam, wet, or explosive atmosphere; avoid fumes,
dust, or flammable materials
 Protect yourself from electric shock by ensuring that your tools are properly
grounded; use a ground fault circuit interrupter for coded tools
 Keep observers at a safe distance from the work area or provide shields to stop
flying debris and other distractions

Be Aware of Mechanical Hazards

Be aware of all power lines and electrical circuits, water pipes, and other mechanical
hazards in your work area, particularly those below the worksurface and hidden from
the operator’s view. In addition, inspect tools for damage, including the cord, presence
of guards, correct alignment, binding of components, or any condition that would affect
the operation of the tool

Maintain Tool Control

When using power tools, keep a tight grip on the tool and maintain your balance; plus,
do not overreach. Also, do not operate a power tool if you are under the influence of
medications or alcohol or if you are tired or distracted.

Plug/Unplug Cords Safely

 Disconnect tools when not in use, before servicing, and when changing
accessories such as blades, bits, and cutters
 Never carry a tool by the cord or hose
 Never yank the cord or the hose to disconnect it from receptacle
 Tighten and remove any adjustment keys before use

Wear Proper Apparel

Do not wear loose clothing, dangling objects, or jewelry. Long hair must be pulled back.
Gloves should not be worn when operating certain power tools. Check appropriate tool
manuals

Maintain Tools with Care

 Tools should be maintained with care. They should be kept sharp and clean for
the best performance. Follow instructions in the user’s manual for lubricating and
changing accessories
  If a tool is damaged, or a condition develops while a tool is in use, have the tool
fixed before putting it back into service
 All portable electric tools that are damaged shall be removed from use and
tagged “Do not Use”

Accessories, Guards, Switches

A variety of accessories, tool guards, and safety switches are available to use on or with
power tools. Caution must be exercised when selecting any of these tool aids. Selecting
the wrong aid or using it improperly may result in serious injury.
You should not use any power tool accessory or attachment unless:
 The power tool manufacturer recommends its use on the product
 The accessory limitations and specifications – such as speed, size, mounting,
and guarding requirements – match the limitations and specifications of the
power tool as shown in the owner/operator’s manual
 The accessory does not require the removal of or defeating of any guards,
barriers, or other safety-related devices on the power tool, unless other
appropriate guards or protective devices replace them
 Also, unplug tools before installing, adjusting, and changing any accessory or
attachment of any kind.

Tool Guards
Hazardous moving parts of a power tool need to be safeguarded. For example, belts,
gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, fly wheels, chains, or other
reciprocating, rotating, or moving parts must be guarded if such parts are exposed to
contact by employees.
Guards, as necessary, should be provided to protect the operator and others from the
following:
 Point of operation
 In-running nip points
 Rotating parts
 Flying chips and sparks

Safety guards must never be moved when a tool is being used. For example, portable
circular saws must be equipped with guards. An upper guard must cover the entire
blade of the saw. A retractable lower guard must cover the teeth of the saw, except
when it contacts the work material. The lower guard must return to the covering position
automatically when the tool is withdrawn from the work.

Safety Switches – Momentary

The following hand-held power tools must be equipped with a momentary contact “on-
off” control switch:
 Drills
 Tappers
 Fastener drivers
 Horizontal, vertical, and angle grinders with wheels larger than two inches in
diameter disc and belt sanders
 Reciprocating saws
 Saber saws

These tools also may be equipped with a lock-on control, provided that a single motion
of the same finger or fingers that turn it on can accomplish turnoff

Safety Switches – positive

The following hand-held power tools may be equipped with only a positive “on-off”
control switch
 Platen sanders
 Disc sanders with discs two inches or less in diameter
 Grinders with wheels two inches or less in diameter
 Routers
 Planers
 Laminate trimmers
 Nibblers
 Shears
 Scroll saws
 Jigsaw with blade shanks ¼ - inch wide or less

Other hand-held power tools, such as circular saws having a blade diameter greater
than 2 inches, chain saws, and percussion tools without positive accessory holding
means, must be equipped with a constant pressure switch that will shut off the power
when the pressure is released.

Topic 3: Types of Tools

Power-operated tools
Electric Tools

Hazards
Employees using electric tools must be aware of several dangers, the most serious of
which is the possibility or electrocution

Among the chief hazards of electric-powered tools are burns and slight shocks, which
can lead to injuries or even heart failure. Under certain conditions, even a small amount
of current can result in fibrillation of the heart and eventual death. A shock also can
cause the user to fall off a ladder or other elevated work surface.

Control
To protect the user from shock, tools must be grounded by a three-wire cord, be
doubled insulated, or be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer. Three-wire
cords contain two current-carrying conductors and a grounding conductor. One end of
the grounding conductor connects to the tool’s metal housing. The other end is
grounded through a prong on the plug. Any time an adapter is used to accommodate a
two-hole receptacle, the adapter wire must be attached to a known ground. The third
prong should never be removed from the plug.

Double insulation is more is more convenient. The user and the tools are protected in
two ways: by normal insulation on the wires inside, and by a housing that cannot
conduct electricity to the operator in the event of a malfunction
These general practices should be followed when using electric tools:
 Electric tools should be operated within their design limitations
 Gloves and safety footwear are recommended during use of electric tools
 When not in use, tools should be stored in a dry place
 Electric tools should be stored in a dry place
 Electric tools should not be used in damp or wet locations
 Work areas should be well lighted

Powered Abrasive Wheel Tools

Hazards
Powered abrasive grinding, cutting, polishing, and wire buffing wheels create special
safety problems because they may throw off fragments

Control
Inspecting Wheels
Before an abrasive wheel is mounted, it should be inspected closely and sound- or ring-
tested to be sure that it is free from cracks or defects. To test, wheels should be tapped
gently with a light non-metallic instrument. If they sound cracked or dead, they could fly
apart in operation and so must not be used. A sound and undamaged wheel will give a
clear metallic tone or “ring”

Wheel maintenance
To prevent the wheel from cracking, the user should be sure it fits freely o the spindle.
The spindle nut must be tight enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the
flange. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations. Care must be taken to assure that
the spindle wheel does not exceed the abrasive wheel specifications. Because of the
possibility of a wheel disintegrating during start-up, the employee should never stand
directly in front of the wheel as it accelerates to full operating speed
Grinding Tools
Portable grinding tools need to be equipped with safety guards to protect workers not
only from the moving wheel surface, but also from flying fragments in case of breakage.
In addition, when using a powered grinder:
 Always use eye protection
 Turn off the power when not in use
 Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise

Pneumatic Tools
Hazards
Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and chippers, drills hammers, and
sanders. There are several dangers encountered in the use of pneumatic tools. The
main one is the danger of being hit by one of the tool’s attachments or by some kind of
fastener that worker is using with the tool. Noise is another hazard. Working with noisy
tools such as jackhammers requires proper, effective hearing protection.
Control
 Eye protection is required, and ace protection is recommended for employees
working with pneumatic tools
 When using pneumatic tools, employees must check to see that they are
fastened securely to the hose to prevent them from becoming disconnected.
 A short wire or positive locking device attaching the air hose to the tool will serve
as an added safeguard
 A safety clip or retainer must be installed to prevent attachments, such as chisels
on a chipping hammer, from being shot from the barrel unintentionally.
 Screens must be set up to protect nearby workers from being struck by flying
fragments around chipper, riveting guns, staplers, or air drills.
 Compressed air guns should never be pointed toward anyone. Users should
never “dead-end” it against themselves or anyone else.

Fuel-Powered Tools
Hazard
The use of fuel-powered tools exposes the employee to hazardous vapors. There is
also the risk of fire, explosion, or hazardous chemical spills.

Control
All fuel-powered tools must be stopped while being refueled, serviced, or maintained,
and fuel must be transported, handled, and stored in accordance with OSHA
regulations.

Hydraulic Power Tools

Hazards
There is a serious hazard of fire and explosion when hydraulic powered tools are used.
Control
The fluid used in hydraulic powered tools must be approved, fir-resistant fluids and must
retain its operating characteristics at the most extreme temperatures to which it will be
exposed the manufacturer’s safe operating pressures for hoses, valves, pipes, filters,
and other fittings must not be exceeded.
Pneumatic Power Tools
Hazards
There is a hazardous exposure that can result from disconnection, expelling hoses and
whips. In addition, the discharge can create flying particles.

Control
Secure Devices
 Pneumatic power tools must be secured to the hose or whip by some positive
means to prevent the tool from becoming accidently disconnected
 Safety clips or retainers must be securely installed and maintained o pneumatic
impact tools to prevent attachments from being accidently expelled
 All pneumatically driven nailers, staplers, and other similar equipment provided
with automatic fastener feed, and which operate at more than 100 pounds per
square inch (psi) at the tool, must have a safety device on the muzzle to prevent
the tool from ejecting fasteners, unless the muzzle is in contact with the work
surface.

Compressed Air
 Compressed air must not be used for cleaning purposes except were reduced to
less than 30 psi, and then only with effective chip guarding and PPE that meets
OSHA requirements
 The 30 psi requirements do not apply to concrete form, mill scale, and similar
cleaning purposes
 The manufacturer’s safe operating pressure for hoses, pipes, valves, filters, and
other fittings must not be exceeded
 The use of hoses for hoisting or lowering tools must not be permitted
 All hoses exceeding ½-inch diameter must have a safety device at the source of
supply or branch line to reduce pressure in case of hose failure.

Airless Spray Guns

 Airless spray guns that atomized paints and fluids at high pressure (1,000
pounds or more per square inch) must be equipped with automatic or visible
manual safety devices that will prevent release of the paint or fluid until the safety
device is manually released
  In lieu of the above, a diffuser nut, which will prevent high pressure, high velocity
release while the nozzle tip guard that will prevent the tip from coming into
contact with the operator, or other equivalent protection, must be provided
 Abrasive blast cleaning nozzles must be equipped with an operating valve, which
must be held open manually
 A support shall be provided on which the nozzle may be mounted when it is not
in use

Powder-Actuated Tools
Hazards
Powder-actuated tools operate like a loaded gun and should be treated with the same
respect and precautions. In fact, they are so dangerous that only specially trained
employees must operate them

Control
Maintenance
 Before using the tool, the worker should inspect it to determine that it is clean,
that all moving parts operate freely, and that the barrel is free from obstructions
 Any tool found not in proper working order, or that develops a defect during use,
must be removed from service immediately

Operations
 Only employees who have been trine in the operation of the particular tool in use
must be allowed to operate a powder-actuated tool
 To prevent the tool from firing accidentally, two separate motions are required for
firing: one to bring the tool into position, and another to pull the trigger
 Tools must not be loaded until just prior to the intended firing time, and neither
loaded nor empty tools are to be pointed at any employees
 The tools must not be able to operate until they are pressed against the work
surface with a force of at least 5 pounds greater that the total weight of the tool
 If a power-actuated tool misfires, the employees should wait at least 30 seconds,
then try firing it again. If it still will not fire, the user should wait another 30
seconds so that the faulty cartridge is less likely to explode, and then carefully
remove the load. The bad cartridge should be put in water.
 All tools must be used with the correct shield, guard, or attachment
recommended by the manufacturer
 Driving into materials easily penetrated must be avoided unless such materials
are backed by a substance that will prevent the pin or fastener from passing
completely through and creating a flying missile hazard on the other side

Precautions
  Suitable eye and face protection is essential when using a powder-actuated tool
 The muzzle end of the tool must have a protective shield or guard centered
perpendicular to the barrel to confine any flying fragments or particles that might
otherwise create a hazard when the tool is fired
 The tool must be designed so that it will not fire unless it has this kind of safety
deice
 All powder-actuated tools must be designed for varying powder charges so that
the user can select a powder level necessary to do the work without excessive
force
 Loaded tools must not be left unattended, especially where it would be available
to unauthorized persons

Fasteners
 Fasteners must not be given into very hard or brittle materials including, but not
limited to, cast iron, glazed tile, surface-hardened steel, glass block, live rock,
face brick, or hollow tile.
 No fastener must be driven into a spalled area caused by an unsatisfactory
fastening
 Welding and Cutting

Topic 1: Welding Health Hazards

Health hazards associated with exposure to fumes, gases, and ionizing radiation formed
or released during welding, cutting, and brazing. These risks vary, depending upon the
type of welding materials and welding surfaces, but include heave metal poisoning, lung
cancer, metal fume fever, flash burns, and others.

History
Bronze Age
if we define welding in its broadest sense as the achievement of a metallic bond, then
we can find examples in the Bronze Age City of Ur around 3,000 B.C. when swords
were joined by hammering and jewelry produces by hard soldering. However, it took
nearly 5,000 years for welding to become accepted as suitable industrial process.

Iron Age
During the Iron Age, forge welding came into favor. By applying pressure and heat two
metals could be fused together (blacksmith welding), although a fully fused joint could
not be guaranteed; success depended on the operator’s skill and experience

1800s
During the 18th century the use of cast iron and steel for structural and mechanical
engineering increased. Cast iron ships such as the S.S. Great Britain built by Brunel in
1845 showed the extent of construction until large-scale steel production superseded
cast iron. Problems with riveting, such as weight and overlap, demanded a more
improved method of joining.
The basic principles of modern welding processes were discovered in 1724 (pressure
welding), 1820s (electric arc), and 1856 (resistance butt)

1900s
In the early 1900s the struggle began between riveting and welding since the main
advantages of welding were its improvement in structural design and savings in weight
and cost/time. During the 1930s, welding was applied to the construction of German
pocket battleships to keep the weight within the treaty limit of 10,000 tons. World War II
forced many manufacturers to use the developing processes to increase productivity
and reduce costs; this in turn accelerated welding technology to such an extent that
welding is now regarded as a separate industry.

Welding Fires
One of the worst factory fires in history was started by sparks from a portable welding
outfit, which ignited liquid in a conveyor drip pan. The French liner Normandie was
being refitted to carry troops during World War II when welding sparks fell into waste
wood and excelsior, causing the fire that destroyed the ship. An aircraft carrier fire in the
Brooklyn Navy Yard in 1960 started when welding sparks and slag fell into spilled motor
fuel.

In each case, there either was inadequate protection or no protection of the flammable
material from flame and sparks. The ships were steel but were filled with flammable
material. The factory steel, concrete, and glass, but contained flammable fixtures, stock,
and process material. Practically anything can burn and be damaged if it gets hot
enough. On any construction site, there’s plenty of oil, grease, and other combustible
materials such as lumbar and scrap. Sparks often drop or are carried long distances by
the wind. Slag falls on surfaces or materials and a welding torch flame can ignite many
substances within a radius of several feet.

Hierarchy of Controls
Reducing the risks associated with construction work is very important. There may be
occasions when more than one control must be used to reduce a risk. Prevention would
be best served by implementing control methodology before the start of any
construction operation.

Engineering Controls
Attempt to eliminate hazards, do not necessarily require an engineer to design them.
They can be very simple. The work environment and the job itself should be designed to
eliminate or reduce exposure to hazards based on the following principles:
 Is feasible, design the job site, equipment, or process to remove the hazardous
substitute something that is not hazardous or is less hazardous.
 If removal is not feasible, enclose the hazard to prevent exposure in normal
operations
 Where complete enclosure is not feasible, establish barriers to reduce exposure
to the hazard in normal operations

Administrative Controls
Are normally used in conjunction with other controls that more directly prevent or control
exposure to hazards. They include lengthened rest breaks, additional relief workers,
exercise breaks to vary body motions on one part of the body. Administrative controls
also include introducing work practices that reduce the risk, by means including the
following:
 Limiting the amount of time, a person is exposed to a particular hazard
 Implementing and documenting safe work procedures for all hazardous tasks
 Training and instructing all personnel
 Identifying hazards prior to work commencing

Personal Protective Equipment

The last method of control is the use of PPE, and it should only be considered when
other control measures are not practicable or to increase a person’s protection as an
additional measure. PPE must include:
 Hard hats
 Eye protection
 Fall-arrest harnesses and lanyards
 Foot protection
 Hand protection
 Respirators
 Hearing protection

Topic 2: Precautions for General Safety, fire and PPR

General Safety Precautions
To prevent injury to personnel, exercise extreme caution when using any type of
welding equipment. Injury can result from fire, explosions, electric shock, or harmful
agents. Workers who weld or cut metals must strictly observe both the general and
specific safety precautions in this lesson.
General precautions to prevent welding incidents include:
 Do not permit unauthorized persons to use welding or cutting equipment.
 Do not weld in a building with wooden floors, unless the floors are protected from
hot metal by fire-resistant fabric and/or other fireproof material. Be sure that hot
sparks or hot metal will no fall on the operator or any welding equipment
components
 Remove all flammable material, such as cotton, oil, and gasoline from the vicinity
or welding
 Before welding or cutting, warn those in close proximity to wear proper clothing
or goggles
 Remove any assembled parts from the component being welded that may
become warped or damaged by the welding process
 Remove hot rejected electrode stubs, steel scrap, or tools from the floor or near
the equipment to prevent accidents and/or fires
  Keep a suitable fire extinguisher nearby at all times. Ensure the fire extinguisher
is in operable condition
 Mark all hot metal after welding operations is completed. Soapstone is commonly
used for this purpose
 First aid guidelines include:
o First aid equipment must be available at all times. On every shift of
welding operations, there should be personnel who are trained to render
first aid.
o All injuries should be reported as soon as possible for medical attention.
First aid should be rendered until medical attention can be provided

Fire Hazards and Safety

Fire prevention is the responsibility of welders, cutters, and supervisors. Portable cutting
and welding equipment and welding activities done in areas not specifically designated
for such work cause approximately six percent of industrial plant fires. Details of basic
precautions to be taken for fire prevention during welding or cutting are found in the
Standard for Fire Prevention in Use of Cutting and Welding processes, national Fire
protection Association Standard 51B, 1962.

Fire Safety
Fire safety precautions for fire prevention in welding or cutting work are:
 Sparks and molten spatter formed during welding and cutting operations can
sometimes fly considerable distances. Sparks also have fallen through cracks,
pipe holes, or other small openings in floor and partitions, starting fires in areas
that temporarily may go unnoticed. Welding or cutting should not be performed
near flammable materials unless every precaution is taken to prevent ignition
 Hot pieces of base metal may come in contact with combustible materials and
start fires. Fires and explosions also have been caused when heat is transmitted
through walls of containers to flammable atmospheres or to combustibles within
containers. Anything combustible or flammable is susceptible to ignition by
cutting and welding.
 No welding, cutting, or heating should be done where the application of
flammable paints, the presence of other flammable compounds, or heavy dust
concentrations creates hazards
 When welding, cutting, or heating is performed on walls, floors, and ceilings, the
same precautions must be taken on the opposite side as are taken on the side
on which the welding is being performed, since direct penetration of sparks or
heat transfer may introduce a fire hazard to an adjacent area
 To eliminate possible fire in enclosed spaces from gas escaping through leaking
or improperly closed torch valves, positively shut off the gas supply to the torch
outside the enclosed space whenever the torch is not to be used or is left
unattended for a substantial period of time, such as during the lunch period.
Hazard Removal
 When welding or cutting parts of vehicles, the oil pan, gasoline tank, and other
parts of the vehicle considered fire hazards must be removed or effectively
shielded from sparks, slag, and molten metal.
 Whenever possible, remove flammable materials attached to or near equipment
requiring welding, brazing, or cutting. If removal is not practical, use a suitable
shield of heat-resistant material to protect the flammable material. Fire
extinguishing equipment, for any type of fire that may be encountered, must be
present.
 When practical, move objects to be welded, cut, or heated to a designated safe
location; if these objects cannot readily be moved, all movable fire hazards in the
vicinity must be taken to a safe place or otherwise protected. Positive means must
be taken to confine the heat, sparks, and slag, and to protect the immovable fire
hazards from them.

Fire Equipment and Personnel

 Suitable fire extinguishing equipment must be immediately available in the work
area and must be maintained in a state or readiness for instant use.
 When normal fire prevention precautions are not sufficient, additional personnel
must be assigned to guard against fire while the actual welding, cutting, or
heating operation is being performed and for a sufficient period of time after
completing work to ensure that no possibility of fire exists.
 Such personnel must be instructed on the specific anticipated fire hazards and
how firefighting equipment provided is to be used.
 Equipment Removal
 The torch and hose must be removed from the confined space overnight and at
the change of shifts.
 Open-end fuel gas and oxygen hoses must be immediately removed from
enclosed spaces when disconnected from the torch or other gas-consuming
device.
 Drums, Pails, and Containers
 Drums, pails, and other containers that contain or have contained flammable
liquids must be kept closed except when the contents are being removed or
transferred. Empty containers must be moved to a safe area apart from hot work
operations or open flames.
 Before welding, cutting, or heating begins on drums, containers, or hollow
structures that have contained toxic or flammable substances, either fill the
containers with water or thoroughly clean, ventilate, and test them for such
substances.
 Before applying heat to a drum, container, or hollow structure, provide a vent or
opening for the release of any built-up pressure during the application of heat.
Personal Protective Equipment
Protective clothing and equipment must be worn during all welding operations
because the electric arc is a very powerful source of light, including visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared light.
 During all oxyacetylene welding and cutting processes, operators must use
safety goggles to protect the eyes from heat, glare, and flying fragments of hot
metals.
 During all electric welding processes, operators must use safety goggles and a
hand shield or helmet equipped with a suitable filter glass to protect against the
intense ultraviolet and infrared rays.

Helmets and Shields

Welding arcs are intensely brilliant lights. They contain a proportion of ultraviolet light
that may cause eye damage. For this reason, the arc should never be viewed with the
naked eye within a distance of 50 feet (15.2 meters). The brilliance, exact spectrum,
and the danger of the light are determined by the welding process, the metals in the
arc, the arc atmosphere, the length of the arc, and the welding current.

Operators, fitters, and those working nearby need protection against arc radiation.
The intensity of the light from the arc increases with increasing current and arc
voltage. Arc radiation, like all light radiation, decreases as the distance from the light
increases.

Processes that produce smoke surrounding the arc have a less bright arc since the
smoke acts as a filter. The spectrum of the welding arc is similar to that of the sun,
and exposure of the skin and eyes to the arc is the same as exposure to the sun.
Click each picture to learn more.

Helmets
Being closest, the welder needs a helmet to protect his eyes and face from harmful
light and particles of hot metal. The welding helmet generally is constructed of a
pressed fiber-insulating material. It has an adjustable headband that makes it usable
by persons with different head sizes. To minimize reflection and glare produced by
the intense light, the helmet is dull black in color. It fits over the head and can be
swung upward when not welding. The chief advantage of the helmet is that it leaves
both hands free, making it possible to hold the work and weld at the same time.

Shield
The hand-held shield provides the same protection as the helmet, but is held in
position by the handle. An observer or a person who welds for a short period of time
frequently uses this type of shield.
Do not weld with cracked or defective shields because penetrating rays from the arc
may cause serious burns.

Lens Holders
The protective welding helmet has lens holders that grip the cover glass and the filter
glass or plate. Standard size for the filter plate is 2 x 4 1/4 inches. In some helmets,
lens holders open or flip upward.

Lenses
 Lenses are designed to prevent flash burns and eye damage by absorbing the
infrared and ultraviolet rays produced by the arc. The filter glasses or plates
come in various optical densities to filter out various light intensities, depending
on the welding process, type of base metal, and the welding current.
 The color of the lens, usually green, blue, or brown, is an added protection
against the intensity of white light or glare.
 Colored lenses make it possible to see the metal clearly and weld.
 A magnifier lens placed behind the filter glass sometimes is used to provide
clear vision.
 A cover plate should be placed outside the filter glass to protect it from weld
spatter.
 The filter glass must be tempered to prevent breaking if hit by flying weld spatter.
 Filter glasses must be marked showing the manufacturer, the shade number, and
the letter H indicating it has been treated for impact resistance.
 Gas metal-arc (MIG) welding requires darker filter lenses than shielded metal arc
(stick) welding. The intensity of the ultraviolet radiation emitted during gas metal-
arc welding ranges from 5 to 30 times brighter than welding with covered
electrodes.
 Gas metal arc (MIG) welding requires darker filter lenses than shielded metal arc
(stick) welding. The intensity of the ultraviolet radiation emitted during gas metal
arc welding ranges from 5 to 30 times brighter than welding with covered
electrodes.

Colored Glass Plates

Be sure that the colored glass plates are the proper shade for arc welding. Protect the
colored glass plate from molten metal spatter by using a cover glass. Replace the
cover glass when damaged or spotted by molten metal spatter.

Safety Goggles
During all electric welding processes, operators must wear safety goggles to protect
their eyes from weld spatter that occasionally gets inside the helmet. These clear
goggles also protect the eyes from slag particles when chipping and hot sparks when
grinding. Tinted safety glasses with side shields are recommended, especially when
welders are chipping or grinding. Those working around welders should also wear
tinted safety glasses with side shields.

The OSHA policy regarding the wearing of contact lens in industry is consistent with
the attached position set forth by the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness
(Secretariat for the ANSI Z87.1 - Committee).

If properly protected in accordance with the OSHA Standards applicable to eye

protection (ANSI Z87.1), the use of contact lenses is acceptable during the welding
operation. The exception to this would be where the welding process may produce
gas or vapors that could be harmful to employees wearing contact lenses.

Protective Clothing
Personnel exposed to the hazards created by welding, cutting, or brazing operations
must be protected by personal protective equipment in accordance with OSHA
standards. Welders should wear work or shop clothes without openings or gaps, to
prevent arc rays from contacting the skin. Those working close to arc welding also
should wear protective clothing. The appropriate protective clothing required for any
welding operation will vary with the size, nature, and location of the work to be
performed. Clothing always should be kept dry, including gloves.

Woolen clothing should be worn instead of cotton, since wool is not easily burned or
damaged by weld spatter and helps protect the welder from changes in temperature.
Cotton clothing, if used, should be chemically treated to reduce its combustibility. All
other clothing, such as jumpers or overalls, should be reasonably free from oil or
grease.

Review this partial list of recommendations for clothing used in welding and cutting:
 Flameproof aprons or jackets made of leather, fire resistant material, or other
suitable material should be worn for protection against spatter of molten metal,
radiated heat, and sparks.
 Capes or shoulder covers made of leather or other suitable materials should be
worn during overhead welding or cutting operations.
 Leather skull caps may be worn under helmets to prevent head burns. Sparks
may lodge in rolled-up sleeves, pockets of clothing, or cuffs of overalls and
trousers. Therefore, sleeves and collars should be kept buttoned and pockets
should be eliminated from the front of overalls and aprons. Trousers and overalls
should not be turned up on the outside. For heavy work, fire-resistant leggings,
high boots, or other equivalent means should be used. In production work, a
sheet metal screen in front of the worker's legs can provide further protection
against sparks and molten metal in cutting operations.
 Flameproof gauntlet gloves, preferably of leather, should be worn to protect the
hands and arms from rays of the arc, molten metal spatter, sparks, and hot
metal. Leather gloves should be of sufficient thickness so that they will not shrivel
 from the heat, burn through, or wear out quickly. Leather gloves should not be
used to pick up hot items since this causes the leather to become stiff and crack.
Do not allow oil or grease to come in contact with gloves because this reduces
their flame resistance and causes them to be readily ignited or charred.

Respiratory Protection
Construction employees can be exposed to a variety of respiratory hazards that
include vapors, fumes, and particles. Welding operations release gases and fumes
filled with metals and other toxins. The solvents used in many operations give off
harmful vapors. Also, particles released as dust are generated during grinding
operations and placement of insulation materials such as fiberglass.

What types of hazards require respiratory protection?

Gaseous Contaminants
Gaseous contaminants add harmful, invisible gases or vapors to the air. Chemicals
can be gases at room temperature but become solids or liquids at low temperatures
or high pressure. Carbon dioxide is a gas at room temperature. At low temperatures
it becomes solid dry ice. Under pressure in cylinders, it is a liquid. Vapors are like
gases except that they are formed by the evaporation of liquid substances. Examples
include acetone and trichloroethylene, which ordinarily exist as liquids.

Particulate Contaminants
Particulate contaminants are tiny particles or droplets of hazardous material in the
air. They are classified as dusts, mists, and fumes. Dusts are solid and can be created
by grinding, crushing, sanding, or mixing operations. Examples include sand and
plaster dust. Mists are liquid droplets and are given off by the spraying or mixing of
liquids. Fumes are very small metal particles given off as metals are heated. Welding,
brazing, soldering, and other molten metal processes produce fumes.
Gaseous and particulate contaminants often occur together. Spray painting operations
produce particulates in the form of paint mists and solvent vapors that are gaseous
contaminants.

Atmospheres Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH)

IDLH are conditions that can result in severe injury or death in a short time or have
serious delayed effects. Carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulfide exposures can result in
death even within a short period. Radioactive materials or cancer-causing chemicals
can have serious delayed effects.

Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres
Oxygen-deficient atmospheres are areas that do not have a safe level of oxygen in
the air. These areas are classified as Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH).
However, not all IDLH are oxygen-deficient atmospheres (e.g., radioactive materials
or cancer-causing chemicals). Exposure to these atmospheres can cause brain
damage and death. Low levels of oxygen are frequently found in confined and poorly
ventilated spaces such as silos and storage tanks. Oxygen can be used up by
chemical reactions or moved away by other gases when leaks occur. Fire is a common
chemical reaction that uses up oxygen.

Protective Equipment
In confined spaces where there is exposure to sharp or heavy falling objects or a
hazard of bumping, hard hats or head protectors must be used. For welding and
cutting overhead or in confined spaces, steel-toed boots and ear protection also must
be used.

When welding in any area:

 The operation should be adequately screened to protect nearby workers or
passers-by from the glare of welding.
 Screens should be arranged to prevent serious restriction of ventilation.
 Screens should be mounted so they are about two feet above the floor, unless
the work is performed at such a low level that the screen must be extended
closer to the floor to protect adjacent workers from the glare of welding
 The height of the screen is normally 6 feet but may be higher depending upon
the situation.
 The screen and surrounding areas must be painted with special paints that
absorb ultraviolet radiation yet do not create high contrast between the bright and
dark areas. Light pastel colors of a zinc or titanium dioxide base paint are
recommended. Black paint should not be used.
 When welding must be performed in a space entirely screened on all sides, the
screens must be arranged so that no serious restriction of ventilation exists.

Topic 3: Health Protection and Ventilation

Ventilation refers to changing room air as often as necessary to prevent welders and
other workers from breathing high levels of airborne contaminants. Ventilation
provides adequate breathing air that is required for all welding, cutting, brazing, and
related operations. Proper ventilation can be obtained either naturally or
mechanically. Adequate ventilation depends on:
 Volume and configuration of the space where welding operations occur
 Number and type of operations generating contaminants
 Natural airflow rate where operations are taking place
 Locations of the welders' and other workers' breathing zones in relation to the
contaminants or sources of room air.

General Information
Monitoring instruments should be used to detect harmful atmospheres. Where it is
impossible to provide adequate ventilation, air-supplied respirators or hose masks
approved for this purpose must be used. All welding and thermal cutting operations in
confined spaces must be adequately ventilated to prevent the accumulation of toxic
materials, combustible gases, or possible oxygen deficiency. In these situations,
lookouts must be used on the outside of the confined space to ensure the safety of
those working within.
Established requirements for arc and gas welding and cutting mandate:
 The amount of contamination to which welders may be exposed
 Dimensions of the area where the welding process occurs especially the ceiling
height
 Number of welders in the room
 Possible development of hazardous fumes, gases, or dust from the metals
involved
 Location of welder's breathing zone with respect to rising plume of fumes

In specific cases, other factors involved mandate that respirator protective devices
(ventilation) should be provided to meet the equivalent requirements. They include:
 Atmospheric conditions
 Generated heat
 Presence of volatile solvents

In all cases, the required health protection, ventilation standards, and standard
operating procedures for new and old welding operations should be coordinated and
cleared through the safety inspector and the industrial hygienist responsible for the
safety and health aspects of the work area.

What is a fume plume?

The fume plume is the clearly visible column of fume which rises directly from the
spot of welding or cutting. Welders and cutters should take precautions to avoid
breathing this area directly. Ventilation can direct the plume away from the face.
Fume removal is most effective when the air flow is directed across the face of the
welder, rather than from behind.

Respiratory Protective Equipment

Individual respiratory protective equipment must be well maintained. Only respiratory
protective equipment approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health, or other government-approved testing agency must
be used. Guidance for selection, care, and maintenance of respiratory protective
equipment is given in Practices for Respiratory Protection, American National
Standard Institute Standard 788.2 and TB MED 223.

Precautionary Labels
A number of potentially hazardous materials are used in flux coatings, coverings, and
filler metals. These materials, when used in welding and cutting operations, become
hazardous to the welder as they are released into the atmosphere. These include but
are not limited to fluorine compounds, zinc, lead, beryllium, cadmium, and mercury.
The suppliers of welding materials must determine the hazard, if any, associated with
using their materials in welding, cutting, etc.
All filler metals and fusible granular materials must carry the following notice, as a
minimum, on tags, boxes, or other containers:

CAUTION
Welding may produce fumes and gases hazardous to health. Avoid breathing these
fumes and gases. Use adequate ventilation. See American National Standards
Institute Standard Z49.1-1973, Safety in Welding and Cutting published by the
American Welding Society.

Brazing (welding) filler metals containing cadmium in significant amounts must carry
the following notice on tags, boxes, or other containers:

WARNING
CONTAINS CADMIUM - POISONOUS FUMES MAY BE FORMED ON HEATING
Do not breathe fumes. Use only with adequate ventilation, such as fume collectors,
exhaust ventilators, or air-supplied respirators. See American National Standards
Institute Standard Z49.1-1973. If chest pain, cough, or fever develops after use, call
physician immediately.

Brazing and gas welding fluxes containing fluorine compounds must have a
cautionary wording. One such wording recommended by the American Welding
Society for brazing and gas welding fluxes reads:

CAUTION
CONTAINS FLUORIDES
This flux, when heated, gives off fumes that may irritate eyes, nose, and throat.
Avoid fumes - use only in well-ventilated spaces.
Avoid contact of flux with eyes or skin.
Do not take internally.

Concentration of Toxic Substances

Local exhaust or general ventilating systems must be provided and arranged to keep
the amount of toxic frees, gas, or dusts below the acceptable concentrations as set by
the American National Standard Institute Standard 7.37; the latest Threshold Limit
Values (TLV) of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists; or
the exposure limits as established by OSHA. Compliance must be determined by
sampling the atmosphere. Samples collected must reflect the exposure of the persons
involved. When a helmet is worn, the samples must be collected under the helmet.
 NOTE: Where welding operations are incidental to general operations, it is
considered good practice to apply local exhaust ventilation to prevent
contamination of the general work area.

Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation is considered sufficient for welding and brazing operations if the
present work area meets these requirements:
 Provide more than 10,000 square feet. of space per welder.
 The ceiling height is more than 16 feet.
 Welding is not done in a confined space.
 Welding space does not contain partitions, balconies, or structural barriers that
obstruct cross-ventilation.

If a specific operation does not fall within these guidelines, mechanical ventilation is
required.

Mechanical Ventilation
Mechanical ventilation must be provided when welding or cutting is done on metals
under the following conditions:
 In a space of less than 10,000 cubic feet per welder
 In a room having a ceiling height of less than 16 feet
 In confined spaces or where the welding space contains partitions, balconies, or
other structural barriers that significantly obstruct cross-ventilation

Ventilation must be at the minimum rate of 200 cubic feet per minute per welder,
except where local exhaust hoods or airline respirators approved by the U.S. Bureau
of Mines, National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, or other government
approved testing agency, are used.

Welding booth equipped with mechanical ventilation sufficient for one welder.

Local Exhaust Ventilation

Mechanical local exhaust ventilation may be obtained by using hoods or fixed
enclosures:

Hoods: Freely movable hoods or ducts should be placed as near as practical to the
work being welded. These devices provide an airflow in the direction of the hood that
is sufficient to maintain a velocity of 100 linear feet/minute in the welding zone. This
table shows ventilation rates required to accomplish this control velocity using a
three-inch flanged suction opening.

Fixed enclosure:
  A fixed enclosure with a top and two or more sides surrounding the welding or
cutting operations must have a rate of airflow sufficient to maintain a velocity
away from the welder of not less than 100 linear feet/minute.
 Downdraft ventilation tables require 150 cubic feet per minute/square foot of
surface area. This rate of exhausted air must be uniform across the face of the
grille.
 A low-volume, high-density fume exhaust device attached to the welding gun
collects the fumes as close as possible to the point of origin or at the arc. This
method of fume exhaust has become quite popular for semiautomatic processes,
particularly the flux-cored arc welding process.
 Smoke exhaust systems incorporated in semiautomatic guns provide the most
economical exhaust system. Because they exhaust much less air, they eliminate
the need for massive air makeup units to provide heated or cooled air to replace
the air exhausted.
 Local ventilation should have a rate of airflow sufficient to maintain a velocity
away from the welder of not less than 100 feet per minute. Air velocity is
measured using a velometer or airflow meter. These two systems can be
extremely difficult to use when welding other than small weldments. Downdraft
welding worktables, popular in Europe, are used to a limited degree in North
America.

Required Exhaust Ventilation

Welding Zone Minimum airflow Duct Diameter
(Inches from arc to torch) (Cybic feet/minute) (In inches)
4-6 150 3
6-8 275 3 1/2
8-10 425 4 1/2
10-12 600 6 1/2

Ventilation in Confined Spaces

A confined space means a relatively small or restricted workspace such as a tank,
boiler, pressure vessel, or small compartment of a ship or tank. Ventilation is a
prerequisite to work in confined spaces. To prevent the accumulation of toxic materials
or possible oxygen deficiency in the welder, helpers, and other personnel in the
immediate vicinity, all welding and cutting operations require ventilation.
In circumstances where it is impossible to provide adequate ventilation in a confined
area, airline respirators or hose masks approved by the National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health should be used. The air should meet the OSHA
standards.
In areas immediately hazardous to life, hose masks with blowers or self-contained
breathing equipment should be used. All breathing equipment should be approved by
the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

Where welding operations are carried on in confined spaces and where welders and
helpers are provided with hose masks, hose masks with blowers, or self-contained
breathing equipment, a worker must be stationed outside such confined spaces to
ensure the safety of those working within.

NOTE: Oxygen must never be used for ventilation.

In addition to ventilation requirements, other welding safety requirements are involved in

confined space work. Click here to see the general requirements.

Confined Space Welding Safety Requirements

 When welding or cutting in any confined space, leave the gas cylinders and
welding machines on the outside.
 Before operations begin, securely block heavy portable equipment mounted on
wheels to prevent accidental movement.
 Where a welder must enter a confined space through a manhole or other
opening, provide a means for quickly removing him in case of an emergency.
 Station an attendant with a preplanned rescue procedure outside to observe the
welder at all times. The attendant should be capable of putting rescue operations
into effect.
 Safety harnesses and lifelines used for rescue operations must be attached to
the welder's body so that he cannot be jammed in a small exit opening.
 When arc welding is suspended for any substantial period of time, such as during
lunch or overnight, remove all electrodes from the holders and carefully locate
the holders so that accidental contact cannot occur.
 Disconnect welding machines from the power source.

To eliminate the possibility of gas escaping through leaks or improperly closed valves
when gas welding or cutting:
 Close gas and oxygen supply valves
 Release regulators
 Bleed gas and oxygen lines
 Shut off torch valves when equipment is not used for a substantial period of time
 Remove torch and hose from confined space, where practical
 After completing welding operations, welder must mark hot metal or provide
some other means of warning other workers

Protection From Various Elements

Fluorine Compounds
In confined spaces, welding or cutting involving fluxes, coverings, or other materials with
fluorine compounds must meet the requirements for confined space ventilation. A
fluorine compound is one that contains fluorine as an element in chemical combination,
not as a free gas.

Individual circumstances determine the need for local exhaust ventilation or airline
respirators for welding or cutting in other than confined spaces. However, experience
has shown that such protection is desirable for fixed-location production welding and for
all production welding on stainless steels. When air samples taken at the welding
location indicate that the fluorides liberated are below the maximum allowable
concentration, such protection is not necessary.

Zinc
In confined spaces, welding or cutting involving zinc-bearing filler metals or metals
coated with zinc-bearing materials must be done according to the requirements for
ventilation in confined spaces.
Indoors, welding or cutting involving zinc-bearing metals or filler metals coated with
zinc-bearing materials must be done according to the requirements for local exhaust
ventilation.

Lead
In confined spaces, welding involving lead-based metals (erroneously called lead
burning) must be according to the requirements for ventilation in confined spaces. In
confined spaces or indoors, welding or cutting involving metals containing lead or
metals coated with lead-bearing materials, including paint, must be done using local
exhaust ventilation or airline respirators.

Outdoors, such operations must be done using respirator protective equipment

approved by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. In all cases,
workers in the immediate vicinity of the cutting or welding operation must be protected
as necessary by local exhaust ventilation or airline respirators. Indoors, welding
involving lead-based metals must be done in accordance with the requirements for local
exhaust ventilation.

Beryllium
Welding or cutting indoors, outdoors, or in confined spaces involving beryllium bearing
material or filler metals should be done using local exhaust ventilation and airline
respirators. This must be performed without exception unless atmospheric tests under
the most adverse conditions have established that the workers' exposure is within the
acceptable concentrations of the latest Threshold Limit Values (TLV) of
the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists or the exposure limits
established by OSHA. In all cases, workers in the immediate vicinity of the welding or
cutting operations must be protected as necessary by local exhaust ventilation or airline
respirators.

Cadmium
Welding or cutting indoors or in confined spaces involving cadmium-bearing or
cadmium-coated base metals will be done using local exhaust ventilation or airline
respirators. Outdoors, such operations must be done using respiratory protective
equipment such as fume respirators, approved by the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health.

Welding (brazing) involving cadmium-bearing filler metals must be done using

ventilation as prescribed in the requirements for local exhaust ventilation, and ventilation
in confined spaces, if the work is to be done in a confined space.
NOTE: Cadmium-free rods are available and can be used in most instances with
satisfactory results.

Mercury
Welding or cutting indoors or in a confined space involving metals coated with mercury-
bearing materials, including paint, must be done using local exhaust ventilation or airline
respirators. Outdoors, such operations should be done using respiratory protective
equipment approved by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health.

Stainless Steels
Oxygen cutting, using either a chemical flux or iron powder, or gas-shielded arc cutting
of stainless steel should be done using mechanical ventilation adequate to remove the
fumes generated.

Topic 4: Safety Precautions in Oxyfuel Welding

General Precautions
In oxygen cutting, a gas flame heats the metal, and an oxygen jet does the cutting. In
addition to the safety information listed in previous topics of this lesson, when engaging
in oxyfuel welding these safety precautions must be observed:
 Do not experiment with torches or regulators in any way.
 Do not use oxygen regulators with acetylene cylinders.
 Do not use any lubricants on regulators or tanks.
 Always use the proper tip or nozzle, and always operate it at the proper pressure
for the particular work involved. The correct information is available on
worksheets or tables supplied with the equipment.
 When not in use, make sure the torch is not burning, release the regulators,
bleed the hoses, and tightly close the valves. Do not hang the torch with its hose
on the regulator or cylinder valves.
  Do not light a torch with a match or hot metal, or in a confined space. The
explosive mixture of acetylene and oxygen might cause personal injury or
property damage when ignited. Use friction lighters or stationary pilot flames.
 When working in confined spaces, provide adequate ventilation to dissipate
explosive gases that may be generated. For ventilation standards, refer to the
requirements listed in the topic "Ventilation in Confined Spaces."
 Keep a clear space between the cylinder and the work so the cylinder valves can
be reached easily and quickly.
 Use cylinders in the order received. Store full and empty cylinders separately and
mark the empty ones with "MT."
 Compressed gas cylinders owned by commercial companies should not be
painted regulation Army olive drab.
 Never use cylinders for rollers, supports, or any purpose other than that for which
they are intended.
 Always wear protective clothing suitable for welding or flame cutting.
 Keep work area clean and free from hazardous materials. When flame cutting,
sparks can travel 30-40 feet (9-12 meters). Do not allow flare-cut sparks to hit
hoses, regulators, or cylinders.
 Use oxygen and acetylene or other fuel gases with the appropriate torches only
for the purpose intended.
 Treat regulators with respect. Do not use force to turn the valve handle.

Where should oxygen not be used and why?

Oxygen should not be used as a substitute for compressed air. It should not be used in
pneumatic tools, in oil preheating burners, to start internal combustion engines, to blow
out pipelines, to dust clothing or work, or to create pressure for ventilation or similar
applications. Oxygen should not be used as described due to the possibility of a raging
oxygen-fed fire occurring. Oxygen is not flammable, but vigorously supports
combustion. Oxygen can be absorbed by clothing. A slight spark can result in severe
burns.

Lighting and Extinguishing Torches

To Light a Torch
Always use the following sequence and technique for lighting a torch:
1. Open acetylene cylinder valve.
2. Open acetylene torch valve one-quarter turn.
3. Screw in acetylene regulator, adjusting valve handle to working pressure
4. Turn off the acetylene torch valve. (This purges the acetylene line.)
5. Slowly open oxygen cylinder valve all the way.
6. Open oxygen torch valve one-quarter turn.
7. Screw in oxygen regulator screw to working pressure.
8. Turn off oxygen torch valve. (This purges the oxygen line.)
 9. Open acetylene torch valve one-quarter turn and light with lighter.
[Link] oxygen torch valve one-quarter turn.
[Link] to neutral flame.

To Shut off a Torch

Always use the following sequence and technique for shutting off a torch:
1. Close acetylene torch valve first, then oxygen valve.
2. Close acetylene cylinder valve, then oxygen cylinder valve.
3. Open torch acetylene and oxygen valves to release pressure in the regulator
and hose.
4. Back off regulator adjusting valve handle until no spring tension is left.
5. Close torch valves.
6. Use mechanical exhaust at the point of welding when welding or cutting lead,
cadmium, chromium, manganese, brass, bronze, zinc, or galvanized steel.
7. Do not weld or flame cut containers that have held combustibles without taking
special precautions.
8. Do not weld or flame cut into sealed container or compartment without
providing vents and taking special precautions.
9. Do not weld or cut in a confined space without taking special precautions.

Acetylene Cylinders
Acetylene is a compound of carbon and hydrogen, produced by the reaction of water
and calcium carbide. It is a highly combustible fuel gas and great care should be taken
to keep sparks, flames, and heat away from the cylinders. Acetylene is very different
from city or furnace gas. Always refer to acetylene by its full name and not by the word
gas alone. Acetylene is nontoxic; however, it is an anesthetic and if present in great
enough concentrations, is an asphyxiant and can produce suffocation.

CAUTION
If acetylene cylinders have been stored or transported horizontally (on their sides),
stand cylinders vertically (upright) for 45 minutes prior to (before) use.

Proper Maintenance and Storage

Acetylene cylinders must be handled with care to avoid damage to the valves or the
safety fuse plug. The cylinders must be stored upright in a well ventilated, well
protected, dry location at least 20 feet from highly combustible materials such as oil,
paint, or excelsior.
 Always keep valve protection caps be in place, hand tight, except when cylinders
are in use.
 Do not store the cylinders near radiators, furnaces, or in any area with above
normal temperatures. In tropical climates, take care not to store acetylene where
the temperature exceeds 137°F. Heat increases the pressure in the cylinder,
which may cause the safety fuse plug to blow out.
  Locate storage areas away from elevators, gangways, or other places where
there is danger of cylinders being knocked over or damaged by falling objects.
 Keep cylinders at a safe distance from the welding operation to reduce the
possibility of sparks, hot slag, or flames reaching them.
 Keep cylinders away from radiators, piping systems, layout tables, etc., which
may be used for grounding electrical circuits.
 Use non sparking tools when changing fittings on cylinders of flammable gases.
 Use a suitable truck, chain, or strap to prevent cylinders from falling or being
knocked over while in use.
 Store compressed gas cylinders in a safe place with good ventilation. Acetylene
cylinders and oxygen cylinders should be kept apart.
 Proper Use
 Never use acetylene without reducing the pressure with a suitable pressure
reducing regulator.
 Never use acetylene at pressures exceeding 15 psi. Higher pressure can cause
an explosion.
 Before attaching pressure regulators, open each acetylene cylinder valve for an
instant to blow dirt out of the nozzles.
 Wipe the connection seat with a clean cloth.
 Do not stand in front of valves when opening them.
 Be sure the regulator tension screw is released before opening the cylinder
valve.
 Always open the valve slowly to avoid strain on the regulator gauge that records
the cylinder pressure.
 Do not open the valve more than one and one-half turns. Usually, one-half turn is
sufficient.
 Always use the special T-wrench provided for the acetylene cylinder valve. Leave
this wrench on the stem of the valve while the cylinder is in use so the acetylene
can be quickly turned off in an emergency.
 Never open an acetylene cylinder valve near other welding or cutting work.
 Thaw outlet valves with warm water if they become clogged with ice. Do not use
scalding water or an open flame.

Proper Testing
 Never test for an acetylene leak with an open flame; test all joints with soapy
water. If a leak occurs around the valve stem of the cylinder, close the valve and
tighten the packing nut.
 Cylinders leaking around the safety fuse plug should be taken outdoors, away
from all fires and sparks. Once outside, open the valve slightly to permit the
contents to escape.
 If an acetylene cylinder catches fire, it usually can be extinguished with a wet
blanket. A burlap bag wet with calcium chloride solution is effective for such an
 emergency. If these options fail, spray a stream of water on the cylinder to keep it
cool.
 Equipment Handling
 Never interchange acetylene regulators, hoses, or other apparatus with similar
equipment intended for oxygen.
 Always turn the acetylene cylinder so the valve outlet points away from the
oxygen cylinder.
 When returning empty cylinders, make certain the valves are closed to prevent
residual acetylene or acetone solvent from escaping and screw on protecting
caps.
 Make sure that all gas apparatus is installed properly, is in good working
condition, and shows UL or FM approval.
 Handle all compressed gas with extreme care and keep cylinder caps on when
not in use.
 Make sure that all compressed gas cylinders are secured to the wall or other
structural supports. Keep acetylene cylinders in a vertical position.

Oxygen Cylinders
Always refer to oxygen by its full name and not by the word air alone. Oxygen should
never be used as air in any way.

WARNING
Do not substitute oxygen for compressed air in pneumatic tools. Do not use oxygen to
blow out pipelines, test radiators, purge tanks or containers, or to "dust" clothing or
work.

Proper Storage and Handling

1. Do not store oxygen cylinders near highly combustible material. This warning
applies especially to oil and grease, reserve stocks of carbide and acetylene or
other fuel gas cylinders, any other substance likely to cause or accelerate fire; or
in an acetylene generator compartment.
2. Use a noncombustible partition to separate oxygen cylinders stored in outside
generator houses from the generator or carbide storage rooms. The partition
must have a fire resistance rating of at least one hour, have no openings, and be
gastight.
3. Separate stored oxygen cylinders from fuel gas cylinders or combustible
materials (especially oil or grease) by a minimum distance of 20 feet or by a
noncombustible barrier at least 5 feet high with a fire-resistance rating of at least
one-half hour.
4. Where a liquid oxygen system supplies gaseous oxygen for welding or cutting
and is combined with a bulk storage system, it must comply with the provisions of
the Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites, NFPA No. 566-1965,
National Fire Protection Association.
 5. Do not handle oxygen cylinders roughly; take care when using or moving
oxygen cylinders to avoid dropping, knocking over, or striking the cylinders with
heavy objects.
6. Set aside all oxygen cylinders with leaky valves or safety fuse plugs and discs
and mark them for the supplier's attention. Do not tamper with or attempt to
repair oxygen cylinder valves. Do not use a hammer or wrench to open valves.

WARNING
Oil or grease in the presence of oxygen will ignite violently, especially in an
enclosed pressurized area.

Proper Use:
1. Before attaching the pressure regulators, open each oxygen cylinder valve for
an instant to blow out dirt and foreign matter from the nozzle. Wipe the
connection seat with a clean cloth. Do not stand in front of the valve when
opening it.
2. Open the oxygen cylinder valve slowly to prevent damage to regulator high
pressure gauge mechanism. Be sure that the regulator tension screw is released
the before opening the valve. When not in use, close the cylinder valve and
screw on the protecting caps to prevent damage to the valve.
3. When the oxygen cylinder is in use, open the valve to the full limit to prevent
leakage around the valve stem.
4. Always use regulators on oxygen cylinders to reduce the cylinder pressure to a
low working pressure. High cylinder pressure will burst the hose.
5. Never interchange oxygen regulators, hoses, or other apparatus with similar
equipment intended for other gases.

MAPP Gas Cylinders

MAPP gas is a mixture of stabilized methylacetylene and propidine. This product was
developed as a fuel for welding, brazing, cutting, flame hardening, and metallizing
operations. It has many of the physical properties of acetylene but lacks its shock
sensitivity and therefore can be stored and shipped in lighter containers. MAPP gas
vaporizes when the valve is opened and is difficult to detect visually. However, MAPP
gas has an obnoxious odor detectable at 100 parts per million, a concentration 1/340th
of its lower explosive limit in air.

Repair any leaks in MAPP gas cylinders immediately. If repaired when detected, leaks
pose little or no danger. Even though MAPP gas toxicity is rated very slight, high
concentrations (5000 part per million) may have an anesthetic affect if leaks are
ignored.
Store liquid MAPP gas around 70°F and under 94 psig pressure. Proper clothing must
be worn to prevent injury to personnel. Once released into the open air, liquid MAPP
gas boils at -36 to -4°F. This causes frost-like burns when the gas contacts the skin.

MAPP gas has some safety advantages that should be considered when choosing a
process fuel gas. These advantages include:
1. MAPP gas cylinders do not detonate when dented, dropped, or incinerated.
2. MAPP gas can be used safely at the full cylinder pressure of 94 psig.
3. Liquified fuel is insensitive to shock.
4. Explosive limits of MAPP gas are low compared to acetylene.
5. Leaks can be detected easily by the strong smell of MAPP gas.
6. MAPP cylinders are easy to handle because of their light weight.

Fuel Gas Cylinders

Although acetylene is the most familiar fuel gas used for cutting and welding, propane,
natural gas, and propylene also are used.

Proper Storage and Handling

The major hazard of compressed gas is the possibility of sudden release of the gas by
removing or breaking off the valve. Escaping gas under high pressure will cause the
cylinder to act as a rocket, smashing into people and property. Proper storage and
handling will help to eliminate some of the hazards that can cause serious incidents to
occur.

Some guidelines for storage and handling include the following:

 Handle cylinders with respect. Do not drop, strike, or use cylinders as rollers.
 An arc strike on a cylinder will damage the cylinder, possibly fracture it, and
require the cylinder to be condemned and discarded from service.
 Store fuel gas cylinders vertically in a specified, cool, well-ventilated area or
outdoors. The cylinder's temperature should never be allowed to exceed 130°F.
 Store fuel gas cylinders separate from oxygen cylinders and separate from
combustible materials.
 All cylinders must have their caps on, and cylinders, whether filled or empty,
should have the valve closed. Do not use hammers or wrenches to open cylinder
valves fitted with hand wheels.
 Take care to protect the valve from damage or deterioration.
 Mark cylinders empty (as "MT") and close the valves to prohibit contamination
from entering.
 Attach a regulator when gas cylinders are used and secure the cylinder by chains
or clamps to prevent falling.
 Securely mount cylinders for portable apparatuses in specially designed cylinder
trucks.
  Never use electromagnetic cranes to move cylinders. They should never be in an
electric circuit so that the welding current could pass through them.

Fire Safety Precautions

Escaping fuel gas also can be a fire or explosion hazard. In a fire, special precautions
should be taken for acetylene cylinders. All acetylene cylinders are equipped with one
or more safety relief devices filled with a low melting point metal. This fusible metal
melts at about the boiling point of water (212°F). If fire occurs on or near an acetylene
cylinder, the fuse plug will melt. The escaping acetylene may ignite and will burn with a
roaring sound.

In case of fire:
 Immediately evacuate all people from the area. It is difficult to put out such a fire.
 The best action is to put water on the cylinder to keep it cool and to keep all other
acetylene cylinders in the area cool.
 Attempt to remove the burning cylinder from close proximity to other acetylene
cylinders, from flammable or hazardous materials, or from combustible buildings.
 It is best to allow the gas to burn inside the cylinder rather than to allow acetylene
to escape, mix with air, and possibly explode.

Consider these guidelines for small flame fires:

 If the fire on a cylinder is a small flame around the hose connection, the valve
stem, or the fuse plug, try to put it out as quickly as possible.
 A wet glove, wet heavy cloth, or mud slapped on the flame will frequently
extinguish it.
 Thoroughly wetting the gloves and clothing will help protect the person
approaching the cylinder.
 Avoid getting in line with the fuse plug that might melt at any time.

Hoses
In the United States, the color green is used for oxygen hoses, red for acetylene or fuel
gas, and black for inert gas or compressed air. The international standard calls for blue
for oxygen and orange for fuel gas.
 Use only approved gas hoses for flame cutting or welding with oxyfuel gas
equipment. Single lines, double vulcanized, or double multiple stranded lines are
available.
 Do not use new or stored hose lengths without first blowing them out with
compressed air to eliminate talc or accumulated foreign matter which might enter
and clog the torch parts.
  Do not allow hoses to come in contact with oil or grease because these
chemicals penetrate and deteriorate rubber and constitute a hazard with oxygen.
 Always protect hoses from being walked on or run over. Avoid kinks and tangles.
Do not leave hoses where anyone can trip over them and result in personal
injury, damaged connections, or cylinders being knocked over. Do not work with
hoses placed over the shoulder, around the legs, or tied to the waist.
 Protect hoses from hot slag, flying sparks, and open flames. Never force hose
connections that do not fit. Do not use white lead, oil, grease, or other pipe fitting
compounds for connections on hose, torch, or other equipment.
 Never crimp hose to shut off gases.

Inspection and Repair

 Hoses should be periodically inspected for burns, worn places, or leaks at the
connections.
 Hoses must be kept in good repair and should be no longer than necessary.
 Examine all hoses periodically for leaks by immersing them in water while under
pressure. Do not use matches to check for leaks in acetylene hose. Repair leaks
by cutting the hose and inserting a brass splice. Do not use tape for mending.
Replace hoses, if necessary.
 Make sure that hoses are securely attached to torches and regulators before
using.
 The size of hose should match the connectors, regulators, and torches.
 Connections on hoses are right-handed for inert gases and oxygen, and left
handed for fuel gases.
 The nuts on fuel gas hoses are identified by a groove machined in the center of
the nuts.

Topic 6: Safety Precautions in Arc Welding and Gas Shielded Arc

Welding

Electric Circuits
A shock hazard is associated with all electrical equipment, including extension lights,
electric hand tools, and all types of electrically powered machinery. Ordinary household
voltage (115 V) is higher than the output voltage of a conventional arcwelding machine.

WARNING
Welding machine, Model 301, AC/DC, Heliarc with inert gas attachment, NSN 3431-00-
235-4728, may cause electrical shock if not properly grounded. If one is being used,
contact Castolin Institute, 4462 York St. Denver, Colorado 80216.

Although the AC and DC open circuit voltages are low compared to voltages used for
lighting circuits and motor-driven shop tools, these voltages can cause severe shock,
particularly in hot weather when the welder is sweating. Consequently, the following
precautions should always be observed:
 Check the welding equipment to make certain that electrode connections and
insulation on holders and cables are in good condition.
 Keep hands and body insulated from both the work and the metal electrode
holder.
 Avoid standing on wet floors or coming in contact with grounded surfaces.
 Perform all welding operations within the rated capacity of the welding cables.
Excessive heating will impair the insulation and damage the cable leads.
 Inspect the cables periodically for looseness at the joints, defects due to wear, or
other damage. Defective or loose cables are a fire hazard. Defective electrode
holders should be replaced and connections to the holder tightened.
 Locate or shield welding generators to prevent dust, water, or other foreign
matter from entering the electrical windings or bearings.
 Use disconnects switches with all power sources so they can be disconnected
from the main lines for maintenance.

Welding Machines
Metal cutting in welding is the severing or removing metal by a flame or arc. The most
common cutting processes are:
 Arc cutting in which intense heat of electric arc melts away the metal.
 Oxygen cutting in which metal is heated by gas flame and an oxygen jet does the
cutting.

Motor generator welding machines

Motor generator welding machines feature complete separation of the primary power
and the welding circuit since the generator is mechanically connected to the electric
rotor. A motor generator-type arc welding machine must have a power ground on the
machine. Metal frames and cases of motor generators must be grounded since the high
voltage from the main line does come into the case. Stray current may cause a severe
shock to the operator if he should contact the machine and a good ground.

When electric generators powered by internal combustion engines are used inside
buildings or in confined areas, the engine exhaust must be vented to the outside
atmosphere.

With the machine off or unplugged, check welding equipment to make sure the
electrode connections and the insulation on holders and cables are in good condition. A
trained electrician should investigate all serious trouble.
Transformer- and rectifier-type welding machines
In transformer- and rectifier-type welding machines, the metal frame and cases must be
grounded to the earth. The work terminal of the welding machine should not be
grounded to the earth.
When large weldments, like ships, buildings, or structural parts are involved, it is normal
to have the work terminal of many welding machines connected to it.

Phase and polarity

Machines should be connected to the proper phase and have the same polarity.
Corrections must be made before welding begins. Check by measuring the voltage
between the electrode holders of the different machines. Phases of a three-phase
power line must be accurately identified when paralleling transformer welding machines
to ensure that the machines are on the same phase and in phase with one another. To
check, connect the work leads together and measure the voltage between
the electrode holders of the two machines. This voltage should be practically zero. If it is
double the normal open circuit voltage, it means that either the primary or secondary
connections are reversed. If the voltage is approximately one and one-half times the
normal open circuit voltage, it means the machines are connected to different phases of
the three-phase power line.

The situation also can occur in direct current power sources when they are connected to
a common weldment. If one machine is connected for straight polarity and one for
reverse polarity, the voltage between the electrode holders will be double the normal
open circuit voltage. Precautions should be taken to see that all machines are of the
same polarity when connected to a common weldment.

Remember these important rules:

 Do not operate the polarity switch while the machine is operating under welding
current load. Consequent arcing at the switch will damage the contact surfaces,
and the flash may burn the person operating the switch.
 Do not operate the rotary switch for current settings while the machine is
operating under welding current load. Severe burning of the switch contact
surfaces will result. Operate the rotary switch while the machine is idling.
 Disconnect welding machines from the power supply when they are left
unattended.
 The work clamp must be securely attached to the work before the start of the
welding operation.
 Place welding machines where they have adequate ventilation and ventilation
ports are not obstructed.

Holders
The welding electrode holders must be connected to machines with flexible cables for
welding application. Use only insulated electrode holders and cables. There can be no
splices in the electrode cable within 10 feet of the electrode holder. Splices, if used in
work or electrode leads, must be insulated. Wear dry, protective covering on hands and
body.
Partially used electrodes should be removed from the holders when not in use. A place
should be provided to hang up or lay down the holder where it cannot come in contact
with people or conducting objects.
Protective Screens
When welding is done near other personnel, portable screens should be used to protect
their eyes from the arc or reflected glare. Additionally, screens should be used, when
necessary, to prevent drafts of air from interfering with the stability of the arc.

Arc welding operations give off an intense light. Use Snap-On light-proof screens to
cover the windows of the welding truck to provide protection when welding at night.

Radiation and Light

Ultraviolet radiation (UV) is generated by the electric arc in the welding process. Skin
exposure to UV can result in severe burns, in many cases without warning. UV radiation
also can damage the lens of the eye. Many arc welders are aware of the condition
known as "arc-eye," a sensation of sand in the eyes. This condition is caused by
excessive eye exposure to UV. Exposure to ultraviolet rays also may increase the skin
effects of some industrial exposure to infrared radiation (IR) produced by the electric arc
and other flame cutting equipment may heat the skin surface and the tissues
immediately below the surface. Except for this effect, which
can progress to thermal burns in some situations, infrared radiation is not dangerous to
welders. Most welders protect themselves from IR and UV radiation with a welder's
helmet (or glasses) and protective clothing

Exposure of the human eye to intense visible light can produce adaptation, pupillary
reflex, and shading of the eyes. Such actions are protective mechanisms to prevent
excessive light from being focused on the retina. In the arc welding process, the
welder's helmet prevents most exposure of the eyes to intense visible light. However,
some individuals have sustained retinal damage due to careless "viewing" of the arc.
The arc should never be observed without eye protection.

Plasma Arc Cutting and Welding

Plasma arc welding is a process in which coalescence (blending of materials) is
produced by heating with a constricted arc between an electrode and the work piece
(Transfer arc) or the electrode and the constricting nozzle (non-transfer arc). Shielding
comes from the hot ionized gas issuing from the orifice, which may be supplemented by
an auxiliary source of shielding gas. Shielding gas may be an inert gas or a
mixture of gases, pressure may or may not be used, and filler metal may or may not be
supplied. Because plasma welding is similar in many ways to the tungsten arc process,
the safety considerations for plasma arc welding are the same as for gas tungsten arc
welding.
The plasma arc welding process requires adequate ventilation because the brightness
of the plasma arc causes air to break down into ozone. The bright arc rays also cause
fumes from the hydro chlorinated cleaning materials or decreasing agents to break
down and form phosgene gas. For this reason, cleaning operations with these materials
should be shielded from the arc rays of the plasma arc.

Use these guidelines for PPE:

 Use normal precautions for protection against arc flash and heat burns when a
pilot arc is operated continuously.
 Wear suitable clothing to protect exposed skin from arc radiation.
 Use adequate eye protection when observing a high-frequency discharge to
center the electrode.

Power and Ventilation Guidelines

Follow these rules when using the equipment in arc welding and cutting:
 Ground accessory equipment, such as wire feeders, arc voltage heads, and
oscillators. If not grounded, insulation breakdown may cause these units to
become electrically "hot" with respect to ground.
 Turn off welding power before electrodes are adjusted or replaced.
 Use adequate ventilation, particularly when welding metals with high copper,
lead, zinc, or beryllium contents.

Air Carbon Arc Cutting and Welding

Air carbon arc cutting is an arc cutting process in which metals to be cut are melted by
the heat of a carbon arc and the molten metal removed by a blast of air. A high velocity
air jet traveling parallel to the carbon electrode strikes the molten metal puddle just
behind the arc and blows the molten metal out of the immediate area. The area of the
cut is small and, since the metal is melted and removed quickly, the surrounding area
does not reach high temperatures.

The air carbon arc cutting process is used for cutting metal, gouging out defective
metal, removing old or inferior welds, root gouging full penetration welds, preparing
joints, and preparing grooves for welding.

This process also is used when slightly ragged edges are not objectionable. It is not
recommended for weld preparation for stainless steel, titanium, zirconium, and other
similar metals without subsequent cleaning. This cleaning, usually by grinding, must
remove all surface carbonized material adjacent to the cut. The process can be used
to cut these materials for scrap for remelting.

What are the Power Requirements for Air carbon cutting and welding?
Conventional welding machines with constant current are normally used with this
process. When using a constant voltage (CV) power source, the machine should be
operated within its rated output of current and duty cycle. For special applications,
alternating current power sources with conventional drooping characteristics can also
be used, but AC type carbon electrodes must be used.
Special heavy-duty high current machines are made specifically for the air carbon arc
process because of extremely high currents used for the large size carbon electrodes.
Air pressure must range from 80 to 100 psi. The volume of compressed air required
ranges from as low as 5 cubic feet/minute up to 50 cubic feet/minute for the largestsize
carbon electrodes.

The air blast of air carbon arc welding will cause the molten metal to travel a very long
distance. Metal deflection plates should be placed in front of the gouging operation, and
all combustible materials should be moved away from the work area. At high-current
levels, the mass of molten metal removed is quite large and will become a fire hazard if
not properly contained.

A high noise level is associated with air carbon arc welding. At high currents with high
air pressure, a very loud noise occurs. Arc cutters must wear ear protection, earmuffs or
earplugs.

The process is widely used for back gouging, preparing joints, and removing defective
metal. This reduces the tendency toward distortion and cracking. The air carbon arc can
be used for cutting or gouging most common metals

Gas Shielded Arc Welding

Welding processes should be shielded from the air to obtain a high molten puddle of
metal for a quality weld deposit. In shielded metal arc welding, shielding is
accomplished by gases produced from the disintegration of the coating in the arc.
Shielding occurs by surrounding the arc area with a localized gaseous atmosphere
throughout the welding operation at the molten puddle area.

Gas shielded arc welding processes have certain dangers associated with them. These
hazards, which are either peculiar to or increased by gas shielded arc welding, include
arc gases, radiant energy, radioactivity from thoriated tungsten electrodes, and metal
fumes.

Ozone
Ozone concentration increases with the type of electrodes used, amperage, extension
of arc tine, and increased argon flow. If welding is carried out in confined spaces and
poorly ventilated areas, the ozone concentration may increase to harmful levels. The
exposure level to ozone is reduced through good welding practices and properly
designed ventilation systems.

Nitrogen Oxides
Natural ventilation may be sufficient to reduce the hazard of exposure to nitrogen oxides
during welding operations, provided all three ventilation criteria are satisfied. Nitrogen
oxide concentrations will be very high when performing gas tungsten-arc cutting of
stainless steel using a 90 percent nitrogen-10 percent argon mixture. Also, high
concentrations have been found during experimental use of nitrogen as a shield gas.
Good industrial hygiene practices dictate that mechanical ventilation be used during
welding or cutting of metals.

Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide

Carbon dioxide is disassociated by the heat of the arc to form carbon monoxide. The
hazard from inhalation of these gases will be minimal if ventilation requirements are
satisfied.

WARNING
The vapors from some chlorinated solvents (e.g., carbon tetrachloride,
trichloroethylene, and perchloroethylene) break down under the ultra-violet radiation of
an electric arc and forma toxic gas. Avoid welding where such vapors are present.
Furthermore, these solvents vaporize easily and prolonged inhalation of the vapor can
be hazardous. These organic vapors should be removed from the work area before
welding is begun. Ventilation must be provided for control of fumes and vapors in the
work area.

Vapors of Chlorinated Solvents

Ultraviolet radiation from the welding or cutting arc can decompose the vapors of
chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as perchloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride, and
trichloroethylene, to form highly toxic substances. Eye, nose, and throat irritation can
result when the welder is exposed to these substances. Sources of the vapors can be
wiping rags, vapor degreasers, or open containers of the solvent. Since this
decomposition can occur even at a considerable distance from the arc, the source of
the chlorinated solvents should be located so that no solvent vapor reaches the welding
or cutting area.

Radiant Energy
Electric arcs, as well as gas flames, produce ultraviolet and infrared rays that can
exposure. The usual effect of ultraviolet rays is to "sunburn" the surface of the eye,
which is painful and disabling but generally temporary. Ultraviolet radiation may also
produce the same effects on the skin as a severe sunburn. The production of ultraviolet
radiation doubles when gas shielded arc welding is performed. Infrared radiation has
the effect of heating the tissue with which it comes in contact. Therefore, if the heat is
not sufficient to cause an ordinary thermal burn, the exposure is minimal. Leather and
wool clothing is preferable to cotton clothing during gas shielded arc welding. Cotton
clothing disintegrates in one day to two weeks, presumably because of the high
ultraviolet radiation from arc welding and cutting.

Radioactivity From Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes

Gas tungsten arc welding using these electrodes may be employed with no significant
hazard to the welder or other room occupants. Generally, special ventilation or
protective equipment other than that previously specified is not needed for protection
from exposure hazards associated with welding with thoriated tungsten electrodes.

Metal Fumes
The physiological response from exposure to metal fumes varies depending upon the
metal being welded. Ventilation and personal protective equipment must be employed
to prevent hazardous exposure.

Hazards
Welding and cutting may produce metal fumes and gases that can make you very sick.
The degree of risk you face from these activities depends on:
 The welding method (such as MIG, TIG, or stick)
 What the welding rod (electrode) is made of
 Filler metals and base metals (such as mild steel and stainless steel)
 Paints and other coatings on the metals being welded
 Ventilation

Metals
 Stainless steel contains nickel and chromium. Nickel can cause asthma. Nickel
and chromium can cause cancer. Chromium can cause sinus problems and
"holes" between the nostrils.
 Mild steel (red iron) and carbon steel contain manganese. Manganese can cause
Parkinson's disease, which cripples the nerves and muscles.
 Zinc in galvanized metal or in paint (on welded surfaces) can cause metal fume
fever. It feels like the flu and goes away in a few hours or days after exposure
ends.

Coatings and Residues

 Lead (in some paints) can cause lead poisoning - headaches, sore muscles and
joints, nausea, stomach cramps, irritability, memory loss, anemia, and kidney and
nervous system damage. If lead dust goes home on work clothes/shoes, it can
make your family sick, most of all your children.
 Cadmium (in some paints and fillers) can cause kidney problems and cancer.
Solvents Welding through or near some solvents can produce phosgene, a
 poisonous gas. The gas can cause fluid in the lungs. You may not notice the
problem until hours after you quit welding. But fluid in your lungs can kill you.

Gases
 When carbon dioxide is used for shielding, carbon monoxide can form and kill
you.
 The welding arc can form ozone and nitrous oxides from the air. MIG and TIG
welding make the most ozone, most of all when aluminum is welded. These
fumes irritate the eyes, ears, nose, throat, and lungs and can damage the lungs.
 Nitrous oxides can cause fluid in the lungs.

Controls
Methods to evaluate hazards include air sampling for detecting metal fumes, flux
components, and evolved gases. Control methods for welding and cutting include
general and local ventilation, but OSHA specifies other requirements:
 You must have good ventilation.
 You must remove all paint and solvents before welding or torch cutting. Follow
written instructions. Make sure all residues are removed.
 Use the safest welding method for the job. Stick welding makes much less fume
than flux core welding.
 Use welding rods that produce a low fume, as 90 percent of the fume can come
from the rod. Welding guns that extract fumes can capture 95 percent of the
fume.
 In a confined space, follow all the OSHA confined-space rules like air monitoring,
not storing torches in the space, and ventilation.
 Use local-exhaust ventilation to remove fumes and gases at their source in still
air. Keep the exhaust hood four to six inches from the fume source.
 Use air blowers to blow fumes away from you when you are outdoors and it's
windy.
 Keep your face far from the welding plume.
 If the ventilation is not good, use a respirator. If respirators are used, your
employer must have a full respiratory protection program. This means proper
selection and fitting of respirators, medical screening to be sure a worker can
wear a respirator, and worker training. Correct respirator storage and cleaning
and an evaluation of the program are needed.

OSHA has limits for exposure to metals, gases, and total fumes during welding, but
these limits may not protect you enough because they are out of date. The National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) says welding fumes may cause
cancer, so keep the fume levels as low as possible.
 Electrical Part I
Introduction
Every day, four construction workers die on the job in this country. Think about
construction fatalities, and the first things that come to mind are probably trenching or
falls. However, one of the leading causes of worker deaths in construction is
electrocution.

Many workers are unaware of the potential electrical hazards in their work
environment, making them more vulnerable to the danger of electrocution.
Sometimes, it is just a matter of not knowing the environment or not being aware of all
energized power sources, from overhead and underground power lines to damaged
receptacles and connectors. People need to increase their awareness of electrical
hazards in construction.

Remember this: Treat electricity with the respect it demands, and it will serve you
efficiently and effectively.

Topic 1: General Information

What Is Electricity - The History of Exploration

Electricity has been around since the beginning of time in the forms of lightning and
static electricity. In 600 B.C. in Greece, it was observed that amber rubbed with wool
would attract light objects such as straw, feathers, and bits of wood. For centuries this
strange, inexplicable property was thought to be unique to amber. 16th Century

Two thousand years later, in the 16th century, William Gilbert proved that many other
substances are electric (from electron, the Greek word for amber) and that they have
two electrical effects. Amber, when rubbed with fur, acquires resinous electricity, while
glass, when rubbed with silk, acquires vitreous electricity. Electricity repels the same
kind of electricity and attracts the opposite kind. Scientists thought that the friction
actually created the electricity (their word for charge). They did not realize that an equal
amount of opposite electricity remained on the fur or silk. 18th Century

In 1747, Benjamin Franklin in America and William Watson (1715-87) in England

independently reached the same conclusion: all materials possess a single kind of
electrical "fluid" that can penetrate matter freely but that can be neither created nor
destroyed. The action of rubbing merely transfers the "fluid" from one body to another,
electrifying both. Franklin and Watson originated the principle of conservation of charge:
the total quantity of electricity in an insulated system is constant.

Franklin defined the fluid, which corresponded to vitreous electricity, as positive and the
lack of fluid as negative. Therefore, according to Franklin, the direction of flow was from
positive to negative -- the opposite of what is now known to be true. A subsequent two-
fluid theory was developed, according to which samples of the same type attract,
whereas those of opposite types repel.

Now we know that electricity is a form of energy, a phenomenon that is a result of the
existence of electrical charge. The theory of electricity and its inseparable effect,
magnetism, is probably the most accurate and complete of all scientific theories. The
understanding of electricity has led to the invention of motors, generators, telephones,
radio and television, X-ray devices, computers, and nuclear energy systems. Electricity
is a necessity to modern civilization.

How Electricity Works

Operating an electrical switch is like turning on a water faucet. Behind the faucet (or
switch) there is a source of water (or electricity), a way to transport it, and pressure to
make it flow. The faucet's water source is a reservoir or pumping station. A pump
provides enough pressure for the water to travel through the pipes. The switch's
electrical source is a power generating station. A generator provides the pressure for
the electrical current to travel through electrical conductors, or wires.

There are two basic rules of electrical action:

 Electricity isn't "live" until current flows.
 Electrical current won't flow until there is a complete loop out from and back to
the power source.

Conductors vs. Insulators

Three factors determine the resistance of a substance to the flow of electricity.
 What it is made of
 Its size
 Its temperature
Substances with very little resistance to the flow of electrical current are called
conductors. Examples are metals.

Substances with such a high resistance that they can be used to prevent the flow of
electrical current are called insulators. Examples are glass, porcelain, plastic, and dry
wood.

Is water a conductor or an insulator?

Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity, but small amounts of impurities, such as
salt and acid (perspiration contains both), make it a ready conductor. Therefore,
although dry wood is a poor conductor, when saturated with water it becomes a ready
conductor. The same is true of human skin. When skin is dry, it is a poor conductor of
electrical current. When it is moist, it readily conducts electricity. Use extreme caution
when working with electricity where there is water in the environment or on the skin.

Qualified Personnel vs. Unqualified Personnel

Two basic terms used in electrical safety are a qualified person and an unqualified
person.

A qualified person is a person who has been trained to avoid electrical hazards when
working on or near exposed energized parts. A qualified person must be trained to
possess the following abilities:
 Familiar with the safety related work practices required by OSHA
 Able to distinguish exposed live parts of electrical equipment
 Knowledgeable of the skills and techniques used to determine the nominal
voltages of exposed parts
 Knowledgeable of the approach distances to which a qualified person will be
exposed

An unqualified person is someone who has little or no training regarding electrical

hazards. Even though unqualified persons may not be exposed to energized parts,
training should still be given. At a minimum, the unqualified person must be familiar with
any electrical-related safety practice that is necessary for his or her safety. This could
be as simple as telling an unqualified person to shut off a machine if there's a problem
and call a supervisor for assistance.

Topic 2: Effects of Electricity

How Shocks Occur
Electricity travels in closed circuits, normally through a conductor. It seeks the easiest
path to the ground, trying to find a conductor, such as metal, wet wood, or water.
Humans are conductors since 70 percent of the body is water. So, if a person touches
an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded, electricity will pass through
the body instantly to the ground, causing a harmful, potentially fatal, shock.
Shock results when the body becomes part of the electrical circuit: current enters the
body at one point and leaves at another.

Metallic parts of electric tools and machines can become energized if there is a break in
the insulation of their wiring. A low-resistance wire between the metallic case of the
tool/machine and the ground - an equipment grounding conductor - provides a path for
the unwanted current to pass directly to the ground. This greatly reduces the amount of
current passing through the body of the person in contact with the tool or
machine. Properly installed, the grounding conductor provides protection from electric
shock.

Shock-Related Injuries
Shock-related injuries include burns, internal injuries, and injuries due to involuntary
muscle contractions.

Electrical Burns
Electrical burns cause tissue damage and are the result of heat generated by the flow of
electric current through the body. Electrical burns are one of the most serious injuries
you can receive and should be given immediate attention.

Flash Burns
High temperatures near the body produced by an electric arc or explosion cause arc or
flash Burns. They should also be attended to promptly.

Thermal Contact Burns

Thermal contact burns occur when skin comes in contact with overheated electric
equipment or when clothing is ignited in an electrical incident.

Internal Injuries
Excessive electricity flowing through the human body can cause serious damage to
internal organs. Resulting medical problems include hemorrhage (or internal bleeding),
tissue destruction, and nerve or muscle damage. These internal injuries may not be
immediately apparent to the victim or observers; however, left untreated, they can result
in death.

Involuntary Muscle Contraction

Normal muscle contraction is caused by very small amounts of electricity that are
created within our bodies. Muscles contract violently when stimulated by excessive
amounts of electricity. These involuntary contractions can damage muscles, tendons,
and ligaments, and may even cause broken bones. If the victim is holding an
electrocuting object, hand muscles may contract, making it impossible to drop the
object and prolonging contact with the current. Also, injury or death may result when
violent muscle contractions cause workers to fall from ladders and scaffolds or
inadvertently strike other objects.

Factors That Affect the Severity of Shocks

Three primary factors affect the severity of the shock a person receives when he or she
is a part of an electrical circuit:
 Amount of current flowing through the body (measured in amperes and
determined by voltage and resistance)
 Path of the current through the body
 Length of time the body is in the circuit

Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to severe burns and immediate
cardiac arrest.

What other factors may affect the severity of an electrical shock?

Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
 The voltage of the current
 The presence of moisture in the environment
 The phase of the heart cycle when the shock occurs
 The general health of the person prior to the shock

Degrees of Amperes
Although the exact injuries that result from any given amperage (a unit of electrical
current) are not known, the following table demonstrates this general relationship for a
60-cycle, hand-to-foot shock of one second's duration.
Current Level (in Milliampres) Probable Effect on human body

Perception level, Slight tingling sensation. Still

1 mA dangerous under certain Conditions. (wet
Conditions)
Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing.
Average individual can let go. Strong
5 mA
involuntary reactions to shocks in this range
may lead to injuries

Painful shock; muscular control is lost. This is

6-30 mA
called the freezing current or "let-go" range
Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severs
50-150 mA muscular contractions. Individual cannot let go.
Death is possible

Ventricular fibrillation. Muscular contraction

1000-4300 mA
and nerve damage occur. Death is most likely

Cardiac arrest, severe burns, and probable

10,000 mA
death
Other Factors
In addition to amperes, there are other factors that affect the severity of shocks as well.

Wet Conditions
Wet conditions are usually the cause of low-voltage electrocutions. Under dry
conditions, human skin is very resistant. Wet skin dramatically drops the body's
resistance.

Dry Conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 120/100,000 = 1mA

A barely perceptible level of current
Wet conditions: Current = Volts/Ohms = 120/1,000 = 120mA
Sufficient current to cause ventricular fibrillation
Length of Time the Body Is in the Circuit
When muscular contraction caused by stimulation does not allow the victim to free
himself from the circuit, even relatively low voltages can be extremely dangerous,
because the degree of injury increases with the length of time the body is in the circuit.
Low voltage does not imply low hazard!

100mA for 3 seconds = 900mA for .03 seconds in causing fibrillation

Note that a difference of less than 100 milliamperes exists between a current that is
barely perceptible and one that can kill.

Voltage of the Current

High-voltage electrical energy greatly reduces the body's resistance by quickly breaking
down human skin. Once the skin is punctured, the lowered resistance results in massive
current flow. Ohm's law is used to demonstrate the action.
At 1,000 volts, Current = Volts/Ohms = 1,000/500 = 2 Amps,
which can cause cardiac standstill and serious damage to internal organs.

Topic 3: Electrical Hazards

Electrical Safety
The major causes of electrocutions in the United States fall into one of these areas:
 Contact with power lines
 Path to ground missing or disconnected
 Equipment not used in manner prescribed
 Improper use of extension and flexible cords

Contact With Power Lines

Overhead and buried power lines at your site are especially hazardous because they
carry extremely high voltage. Fatal electrocution is the main risk but burns and falls from
elevation are also hazards. Using tools and equipment that can contact power lines
increases the risk.
Examples of Equipment That Can Contact Power Lines
 Aluminum paint rollers
 Backhoes
 Concrete pumper trucks
 Cranes
 Long-handled cement finishing floats
 Metal building materials
 Metal ladders
 Raised dump truck beds
 Scaffolds

Sample Incidents
Deaths Due to Contact with Power Lines
Seven employees of a masonry company were erecting a brick wall from a tubular,
welded-frame scaffold approximately 24 feet high. The scaffold had been constructed
only 21 horizontal inches across from a 7,620-volt power line. A laborer carried a piece
of wire reinforcement (10 feet long by 8 inches wide) along the top section of the
scaffold and touched the power line with it. The laborer, who was wearing leather
gloves, received an electric shock and dropped the wire reinforcement, which fell across
the power line and simultaneously contacted the metal rail of the scaffold, energizing
the entire scaffold. A 20-year-old bricklayer standing on the work platform in contact
with the main scaffold was electrocuted.

Crane Boom Too Close to Power Line

A 56-year-old construction laborer was removing forms from a concrete wall poured
several days earlier. As he removed the forms, he wrapped them with a length of cable
called a choker, which was to be attached to a crane. The victim signaled the operator
of the crane to extend the boom and lower the hoist cable. Both the operator and the
victim failed to notice that the boom had contacted a 2,400-volt overhead power line.
When the victim reached down to connect the choker to the hoist cable, he suddenly
collapsed. Co-workers provided CPR but were unable to revive the victim. Only after a
rescue squad arrived about four minutes later did anyone realize that the crane was in
contact with a power line -- all those present had assumed that the victim had suffered a
heart attack.

Crane Boom Swung into Power Line

A 29-year-old worker was electrocuted when he pushed a crane cable into a 7,200-volt
power line. The victim was part of a crew that was constructing a concrete wall. Before
work began, the company safety director made sure that insulated line hoses were
placed over sections of the power line near the job site and that a safety clearance zone
was marked off for arriving cement trucks. After the wall was poured, one driver cleaned
the loading chute of his cement truck with a water hose mounted on the truck. As he
began to pull away, the crew supervisor yelled to him, asking if the crew could use his
water hose to wash out their cement bucket suspended from the crane. The driver
stopped the truck under the power line, and the victim, not realizing that the truck had
moved, swung the boom to
position the bucket behind the truck. When he grasped the handle of the bucket to pull it
down, the crane cable came into contact with the overhead line. The victim provided a
path to ground and was electrocuted.

Path to Ground Missing or Disconnected

If the power supply to the electrical equipment at your site is not grounded or the path
has been broken, fault current may travel through a worker's body, causing electrical
burns or death. Even when the power system is properly grounded, electrical equipment
can change from safe to hazardous instantly because of extreme conditions and rough
treatment.

What is grounding?
The term ground refers to a conductive body, usually the earth. "Grounding" a tool or
electrical system means intentionally creating a low-resistance path to the earth. When
properly done, current from a short or from lightning follows this path, thus preventing
the buildup of voltages that would otherwise result in electrical shock, injury, or even
death.

Sample Incidents
Ground Wire Not Attached A fan connected to a 120-volt electrical system via an
extension cord provided ventilation for a worker performing a chipping operation
from an aluminum stepladder. The insulation on the extension cord was cut
through and exposed
bare, energized conductors that contacted the ladder. The ground wire was not
attached on the male end of the cord's plug. When the energized conductor
contacted the ladder, the path to ground included the worker's body, resulting in
death.

Adapter for Three-Prong Cord Not Grounded to Outlet

Two workers were using a 110-volt auger to install tie-down rods for a
manufactured home. The auger had a one-quarter horsepower motor encased in
a metal housing with two handles. One handle had a Deadman’s switch.
Electricity to the auger was supplied by a series of 50-foot extension cords
running to an adjacent property. Since the outlet at the adjacent property had no
socket for a ground prong, the extension cords were plugged into the outlet using
an adapter, but the ground wire of the adapter was not grounded. Two of the
extension cords had no ground prongs, and some of them were repaired with
electrical tape. The workers had removed their shirts and were sweating. One
worker, holding the Deadman’s switch, received a shock from a ground fault in
 the auger and was knocked back from the machine. The auger then fell across
the other worker, the 24-year-old victim. The first worker knocked the auger off
the victim but saw that the electric cord was wrapped around the victim's thigh.
He yelled for his co-workers to disconnect the power, which they did. The
workers administered CPR to the victim, but to no avail.

Short in Power Saw/Ungrounded Temporary Power Supply

A 22-year-old carpenter was working at the construction site of large
apartment complex, using a portable electric saw to construct the wooden
framework of a laundry building. Electricity to operate portable power tools was
supplied by a temporary service pole 50 feet away. The pole had not been
inspected by the city and was not in compliance with code requirements (it was
not grounded). The victim used two extension cords to supply power: a
homemade cord plugged into an ungrounded receptacle on the pole, and a UL
approved cord extending from the homemade cord to the saw. The accident site
was wet; also, humidity was high, and the victim was sweating. Reportedly, he
had been shocked throughout the morning and had replaced one of the
extension cords in an effort to eliminate the shocks. The source of the shocks --
the saw -- was not replaced. As the victim climbed down a makeshift ladder, he
shifted the saw from his right hand to his left and was shocked. This caused him
to fall from the ladder and land in a puddle of water, still holding the saw.
Apparently, his hand contracted, and he was "locked" to the saw. A co-worker
disconnected the power cord to the saw, too late to save the victim.

Equipment Not Used in Prescribed Manner

If electrical equipment is used in ways for which it was not designed, you can no longer
depend on safety features built in by the manufacturer. This may damage your
equipment and cause employee injuries.

Common Examples of Misused Equipment

 Using multi-receptacle boxes designed to be mounted by fitting them with a
power cord and placing them on the floor
 Fabricating extension cords with ROMEX(r) wire
 Using equipment outdoors that is labeled for use only in dry, indoor locations
 Attaching ungrounded, two-prong adapter plugs to three-prong cords and tools
 Using circuit breakers or fuses with the wrong rating for overcurrent protection,
e.g. using a 30-amp breaker in a system with 15- or 20-amp receptacles
(Protection is lost because it will not trip when the system's load has been
exceeded.)
 Using modified cords or tools, e.g., removing ground prongs, face plates,
insulation, etc.
 Using cords or tools with worn insulation or exposed wires
Sample Incidents

Damaged Extension Cord Leaves Arc Welder Ungrounded

A 29-year-old welder attempted to connect a portable arc welder to an electrical outlet
using an extension cord. The power switch on the welder was already in the "on"
position, and the female end of the extension cord, which was spring-loaded, had
apparently been dropped and broken. As a result, the ground prong of the welder plug
did not insert into the ground terminal of the cord, so that as soon as a connection was
made, the outside metal case of the welder became energized, electrocuting the victim.
An examination revealed that the spring, cover plate, and part of the melamine casing
were missing from the face of the female connector
(The spring and some melamine fragments were found at the accident site). The victim
was totally deaf in one ear and suffered diminished hearing in the other. He may have
dropped the extension cord at the site and not heard the connector break.

Handling Damaged Extension Cord When Energized

A 19-year-old construction laborer was working with his foreman and another laborer to
construct a waterfront bulkhead for a lakeside residence. Electricity for receptacle
located at the back of the residence. On the day of the incident, the victim plugged in a
damaged extension cord and laid it out toward the bulkhead. There were no
eyewitnesses to the accident, but evidence suggests that while the victim was handling
the damaged and energized extension cord, he provided a "path to ground" and was
electrocuted. The victim collapsed into the lake and sank 4-1/2
feet to the bottom.

Electrical Equipment in Poor Condition

An 18-year-old worker at a construction site was electrocuted when he touched a light
fixture while descending from a scaffold for his afternoon break. The source of the
electricity was apparently a short in a receptacle, but examination revealed that the
electrical equipment used by the contractor was in such poor condition that it was
impossible to make a certain determination of the source of the short. Extension cords
had poor splices, no grounds, and reversed polarity. One hand drill was not grounded,
and the other had no safety plate. Out of several possible
scenarios, the most likely was contact between the exposed wires of an extension cord
and a screw that protruded from the receptacle, which had its faceplate removed. The
light fixture, which served as a ground, was known to be faulty for at least five months
before the incident.

Improper Modification of Plugs

An employee was texturing a wall using an air compressor. The plug of the
compressor and an extension cord had been modified to fit a wall outlet for a common
household clothes dryer (220 V). While attempting to unplug the
compressor from the extension cord, the employee was fatally shocked. The
modification of the plug was not an intended use or prescribed by the
manufacturer.

Improper Use of Extension and Flexible Cords

The normal wear and tear on extension and flexible cords at your site can loosen or
expose wires, creating hazardous conditions. Cords that are not three-wire type, not
designed for hard usage, or that have been modified increase your risk of contracting
electrical current.
Sample Incidents

Flexible Cord Not Three-Wire, Hard Service Variety

A worker received a fatal shock when he was cutting drywall with a metal
casing router. The router's three-wire power cord was spliced to a two-wire
cord and plug set which was not rated for hard service. A fault occurred, and with no
grounding and no GFCI protection, the worker was electrocuted.

No Strain Relief
A worker was operating a 3/4" electric chisel when an electrical fault occurred in the
casing of the tool, causing him to be fatally electrocuted. An OSHA inspection revealed
that the tool's original power cord had been replaced with a flat cord, which was not
designated for hard service, and that strain relief was not provided at the point where
the cord entered the tool. Additionally, the ground prong was missing and there was no
GFCI protection.

Topic 4: OSHA Requirements

Fall protection, scaffold, steel erection, hazard communication, lockout/tagout and
confined spaces are normally thought of first when discussing occupational health and
safety issues, while electrical safety often goes overlooked. OSHA, however, has
dedicated a large section of the Code of Federal Regulations to electrical safety.
Electrical safety must be a critical part of your company's safety and health program.

NEC and OSHA Standards

With the ever-expanding use of electricity, the need was recognized for a national
standard to regulate electrical installations nationwide. The National Electrical Code
(NEC) came into being in 1897. It is the electrical standard for the United States and
other foreign countries, including Mexico.

Experts in electrical safety traditionally have looked toward this widely used NEC for
help in the practical safeguarding of persons from these hazards. The Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recognized the important role of the NEC in
defining basic requirements for safety in electrical installations by including the entire
1971 NEC by reference in the Construction Safety and Health Standards.

The NEC provisions directly related to employee safety are included in the body of the
standard itself, making it unnecessary to continue the adoption by reference of the NEC.

Installation Safety Requirements

This section contains installation safety requirements for electrical equipment and
installations used to provide electric power and light at the job site. The requirements
apply to installations, both temporary and permanent, used on the job site, but they do
not apply to existing permanent installations that were in place before the construction
activity commenced.

Key Point: The electrical conductors and equipment used by the employer must
be approved.

The structure of this topic is as follows:

 Installation Safety Requirements
o Examination and Installation Equipment
o Guarding
o Overcurrent Protection
o Grounding of Equipment Connected by Cord and Plug
 Safety-Related Work Practices
 Safety-Related Maintenance and Environmental Considerations
 Safety Requirements for Special Equipment
 Other Requirements
 OSHA Requirements on Wiring Methods and Equipment for General Use

Examination and Installation of Equipment

Examination of Equipment
The employer must ensure that electrical equipment is free from recognized hazards
that are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to employees. Safety of
equipment should be determined by the following:
 Suitability for installation and use in conformity with the provisions of the
standard. Suitability of equipment for an identified purpose may be evidenced by
a listing, by labeling, or by certification for that identified purpose.
 Mechanical strength and durability. For parts designed to enclose and protect
other equipment, this includes the adequacy of the protection thus provided.
 Electrical insulation
 Heating effects under conditions of use
 Arcing effects
 Classification by type, size, voltage, current capacity, and specific use
  Other factors that contribute to the practical safeguarding of employees who use
or are likely to come in contact with the equipment

Installation of Equipment
Listed or labeled equipment should be used or installed in accordance with any
instructions included in the listing or labeling.

Guarding
Live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more must be guarded against
accidental contact.
Guarding of live parts must be accomplished as follows:
 Location in a cabinet, room, vault, or similar enclosure accessible only to
qualified persons
 Use of permanent, substantial partitions or screens to exclude unqualified
persons
 Location on a suitable balcony, gallery, or platform elevated and arranged to
exclude unqualified persons
 Elevation of eight feet or more above the floor

Entrance to rooms and other guarded locations containing exposed live parts must be
marked with conspicuous warning signs forbidding unqualified persons to enter.

Electric installations that are over 600 volts and that are open to unqualified persons
must be made with metal-enclosed equipment or enclosed in a vault or area controlled
by a lock. In addition, equipment must be marked with appropriate caution signs.

Overcurrent Protection
Basically, overcurrent protections are circuit breakers, fuses, and so on. The following
requirements apply to overcurrent protection of circuits rated 600 volts, nominal, or less.
 Conductors and equipment must be protected from overcurrent in accordance
with their ability to safely conduct current, and the conductors must have
sufficient current-carrying capacity to carry the load.
 Overcurrent devices must not interrupt the continuity of the grounded conductor
unless all conductors of the circuit are opened simultaneously, except for motor-
running overload protection.
 Overcurrent devices must be readily accessible and not located where they could
create an employee safety hazard by being exposed to physical damage or
located in the vicinity of easily ignitable material.
 Fuses and circuit breakers must be so located or shielded that employees will not
be burned or otherwise injured by their operation (e.g., arcing).

Grounding of Equipment Connected by Cord and Plug

Exposed noncurrent-carrying metal parts of cord- and plug-connected equipment that
may become energized must be grounded in the following situations:
 When in a hazardous (classified) location
 When operated at over 150 volts to ground, except for guarded motors and metal
frames of electrically heated appliances if the appliance frames are permanently
and effectively insulated from ground
 When one of the types of equipment listed below (See Item 6 for exemption.)
1. Hand-held motor-operated tools.
2. Cord- and plug-connected equipment used in damp or wet locations or by
employees standing on the ground or on metal floors or working inside metal
tanks or boilers
3. Portable and mobile X-ray and associated equipment
4. Tools likely to be used in wet and/or conductive locations
5. Portable hand lamps
6. Exemption: Tools likely to be used in wet and/or conductive locations need
not be grounded if supplied through an isolating transformer with an
ungrounded secondary of not over 50 volts, or if they are protected by a
double insulation system

Safety-Related Work Practices

Safety-related work practices prevent electrical shock or similar injuries by keeping
workers away from energized equipment or circuits.

Passageways and Open Spaces

The employer must provide barriers or other means of guarding to ensure that
workspace for electrical equipment will not be used as a passageway during the time
when energized parts of electrical equipment are exposed. Walkways and similar
working spaces must be kept clear of electric cords.

Lockout and Tagging of Circuits

Tags must be placed on controls that are to be deactivated during the course of work on
energized or de-energized equipment or circuits. Equipment or circuits that are de-
energized must be rendered inoperative and have tags attached at all points where
such equipment or circuits can be energized.

What needs to be done before an unqualified person can work on or near

energized equipment?
Live parts must be de-energized before an unqualified person can work on or near
them. In order to de-energize, the electrical energy source(s) must be disconnected
from the equipment. Merely using the controls to shut down the equipment (i.e., push
buttons, switches, or interlocks) does not qualify as de-energizing equipment or circuits
- the entire unit must be properly disconnected.
After the equipment has the electrical power disconnected, a qualified person then
verifies that the equipment is de-energized, doing so first by operating the controls,
verifying that the equipment will not restart, and second, by using test equipment to
monitor the electrical parts to which employees will be exposed, verifying that they
too are de-energized.

As stated in the standard, if the circuit is over 600V the test equipment must be checked
for proper operation before and immediately after the verification test. (Test equipment
should be checked before and after whatever the voltage to ensure readings are
accurate.) If these procedures are not completed, the equipment must still be
considered "energized." After de-energizing takes place, you may then follow the
remaining procedures as required by your facility's lockout/tagout program.

If exposed live parts are not de-energized (due to increased hazard or infeasibility),
additional safety-related work practices must be used. Only qualified persons are
allowed to work on electrical equipment that has not been de-energized. In addition,
qualified personnel must be familiar with special precautionary techniques, personal
protective equipment, insulating materials, and insulated tools.

Work practices needed for protection against electrical hazards:

 Maintain a ten-foot-minimum clearance from overhead power lines.
 Use barriers or other forms of guarding when live parts of electric equipment and
circuits are exposed.
 Maintain electric equipment in good condition.
 Lock out and tag electric circuits that are to be de-energized.

Safety-Related Maintenance and Environmental Considerations

Maintenance of Equipment
The employer must ensure that all wiring components and utilization equipment in
hazardous locations is maintained in a dust-tight, dust-ignition-proof, or explosionproof
condition without loose or missing screws, gaskets, threaded connections, seals, or
other impairments to a tight condition.

Environmental Deterioration of Equipment

Unless identified for use in the operating environment, no conductors or equipment can
be located:
 In damp or wet locations
 Were exposed to gases, fumes, vapors, liquids, or other agents having a
deteriorating effect on the conductors or equipment
 Were exposed to excessive temperatures
 Control equipment, utilization equipment, and busways approved for use in dry
locations only must be protected against damage from the weather during
building construction.
For protection against corrosion, metal raceways, cable armor, boxes, cable sheathing,
cabinets, elbows, couplings, fittings, supports, and support hardware must be of
materials appropriate for the environment in which they are installed.

Safety Requirements for Special Equipment

Batteries
Batteries of the unsealed type must be located in enclosures with outside vents or in
well-ventilated rooms arranged to prevent the escape of fumes, gases, or electrolyte
spray into other areas. Other provisions include the following:
 Ventilation - to ensure diffusion of the gases from the battery and to prevent the
accumulation of an explosive mixture
 Racks and trays - treated to make them resistant to the electrolyte
 Floors - acid-resistant construction unless protected from acid accumulations
 Face shields, aprons, and rubber gloves - for workers handling acids or batteries
 Facilities for quick drenching of the eyes and body - within 25 feet of battery
handling areas
 Facilities - for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolytes and for fire protection

Battery Charging
Battery charging installations must be located in areas designated for that purpose.
When batteries are being charged, vent caps must be maintained in functioning
condition and kept in place to avoid electrolyte spray. Also, charging apparatus must be
protected from damage by trucks.

Other Requirements
PRE-PLANNING
Survey your job site to find overhead power lines, poles, and guy wires. Look for power
lines that may be hidden by trees or buildings. Conditions can change easily, so check
the site daily.

ONE CALL
Call your underground utility locator service before you move earth in any way. The
locator will arrange to mark the underground power lines and other utilities so you can
keep a safe distance from them.

CLEARANCE
Use tape, signs, or barricades to help keep yourself, others, and your equipment a safe
distance from overhead power lines.
Federal law requires at least ten feet of clearance from high-voltage power lines. Your
state or local laws may be even more restrictive.

SPOTTERS
As the equipment operator, it's difficult to judge the distance from your equipment to
overhead power lines. Plus, lines may become hard to see in certain lighting or weather
conditions. A spotter on the ground has a much better view. Work with a spotter whose
only responsibility is to keep you and your equipment a safe distance from overhead
power lines and other hazards.
TAG LINES
If a crane or other equipment hits an overhead power line, electricity can travel through
the tag line and through you.

Don't try to do double duty by guiding a load and spotting. Rely on a designated spotter
to help keep you clear of power lines.

Electrical Part II

Topic 1: Electrical Hazard Controls

Effective Controls to Common Electrical Hazards
What effective control measures can be used to control the violation of the
requirements listed below.
 Electric equipment must be approved by an OSHA-accepted laboratory or
agency.
Make sure that electric equipment is listed or labeled by an agency or testing
laboratory acceptable to OSHA.

 Electric equipment must be free from recognized hazards and used in

accordance with manufacturers and approval agency instructions.

Use electric equipment in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

Install electric equipment with exposed live parts inside approved enclosures or
install exposed live parts in such a manner that unqualified employees cannot
readily gain access to them (for example, by installation at a height of eight feet
or more above the floor).

 Live parts of electric equipment operating at more than 50 volts must be guarded
from contact by an approved enclosure or by other approved means.

Make sure that all non-double-insulated electric equipment is equipped with a

grounding conductor. Maintain the equipment grounding conductor in good,
operable condition.

 Employers must provide either ground-fault circuit interrupters or an assured

equipment grounding conductor program.
 Provide either ground-fault circuit interrupters or an assured equipment
grounding conductor program (which includes the regular testing of all
equipment grounding conductors) to protect employees from ground faults.

Effective Controls to Common Electrical Hazards Cont.

 Extension cord sets used with portable tools and appliances must be of the
three-wire, grounding type, and flexible cords must be designed for hard or extra-
hard usage.

Use only three-wire extension cords sets, which provide an equipment

grounding conductor. (This applies regardless of whether they are used "only"
with double-insulated tools and equipment.) Use flexible cords and cables that
are marked with one of the following types: S, SC, SCE, SCT, SE, SEO, SEOO,
SJ, SJE, SJEO, SJEOO, SJO, SJT, SJTO, SJTOO, SO, SOO, ST, STO, STOO,
G, PPE, or W

 Flexible cords must be provided with strain relief.

Provide strain relief where flexible cords are connected to devices and fittings to
prevent pull from being applied directly to joints or terminal screws.

 The employer must determine the location of electric circuits that might be
contacted during the course of work and must implement measures to protect
employees from accidental contact.

Determine, by direct observation, inquiry, or the use of instruments, whether

energized electric circuits are present in a work area where they might be
contacted by employees. De-energize and ground the circuits or guard them,
or use insulation to protect employees. Inform employees of the presence and
location of these circuits.

 Worn or frayed electric cords and cables may not be used.

Inspect flexible cords for damage and discard or repair any that are worn or
frayed or that have damaged insulation.

Controls for Contact with Power Lines

Overhead and buried power lines at your site are especially hazardous because they
carry extremely high voltage. Fatal electrocution is the main risk, but burns and falls
from elevation are also hazards. Using tools and equipment that can contact power
lines increase the risk.
How to avoid the hazard:
 Look for overhead power lines and buried power line indicators. Post warning
signs.
 Contact utilities for buried power line locations.
 Stay at least ten feet away from overhead power lines.
 Unless you know otherwise, assume that overhead lines are energized.
 De-energize and ground lines when working near them. Other protective
measures include guarding or insulating the lines.
 Use non-conductive wood or fiberglass ladders when working near power lines. If
you are operating heavy equipment that contacts a power line, take these steps:
 If you can do so safely, move the equipment away from the line.
 Stay on the equipment until rescue workers say it is safe to get out.
 Warn others to stay away. Anyone on the ground who touches the equipment
may be injured or killed.
 Have someone call 911 and the local electrical utility immediately.
 If fire or other danger forces you out or off of the equipment, jump clear without
touching the ground and the equipment at the same time.
 Take small shuffling steps, always keeping both feet on the ground, or hop away
on two feet, keeping your feet together.

Controls for Path to Ground Missing or Disconnected

If the power supply to the electrical equipment at your site is not grounded or the
path has been broken, electrical current may travel through a worker's body, causing
electrical burns or death. Even when the power system is properly grounded,
electrical equipment can change from safe to hazardous instantly because of extreme
conditions and rough treatment.

How to avoid the hazard:

 Ground all power supply systems, electrical circuits, and electrical equipment.
 Frequently inspect electrical systems to ensure that the path to ground is
continuous.
 Visually inspect all electrical equipment before use. Take any defective
equipment out of service.
 Do not remove ground prongs from cord- and plug-connected equipment or
extension cords.
 Use double-insulated tools.
 Ground all exposed metal parts of equipment.
 Ground metal parts of the following non-electrical equipment, as specified by the
OSHA standard:
o Frames and tracks of electrically operated cranes
o Frames of non-electrically driven elevator cars to which electric
conductors are attached
 o Hand-operated metal shifting ropes or cables of electric elevators
o Metal partitions, grill work, and similar metal enclosures around equipment
of over 1kV between conductors

Controls for Equipment Not Used in Prescribed Manner

If electrical equipment is used in ways for which it is not designed, you can no longer
depend on safety features built in by the manufacturer. This may damage your
equipment and cause employee injuries.

How to avoid the hazard:

 Use only equipment that is approved to meet OSHA standards.
 Use all equipment according to the manufacturer's instructions.
 Do not modify cords or use them incorrectly.
 Be sure equipment that has been shop-fabricated or altered complies.

Controls for Improper Use of Extension and Flexible Cords

The normal wear and tear on extension and flexible cords at your site can loosen or
expose wires, creating hazardous conditions. Cords that are not the three-wire type,
are not designed for hard usage, or that have been modified increase your risk of
contacting electrical current.

How to avoid the hazard:

 Use factory-assembled cord sets.
 Inspect cords before each use.
 Be sure plug and receptacle have proper mating configuration.
 Don't use nails, staples, screws, etc., to attach or fasten a cord or plug.
 Two-conductor cords are illegal.
 Use only extension cords that are the three-wire type.
 Use only extension cords that are marked with a designation code for hard or
extra-hard usage.
 Use only cords, connection devices, and fittings that are equipped with strain
relief.
 Ensure enough slack to prevent strain on plug or receptacle.
 A plug receptacle should have at least eight ounces of contact tension.
 Cords should be kept clean and free of kinks and insulation breaks.
 Cords crossing vehicular or personnel passageways should be protected,
posted, and used temporarily or in an emergency.
 Cords should be of continuous length and without splices.
 Remove cords from receptacles by pulling on the plugs, not the cords.
 Continually audit cords on site. Any cords found not to be marked for hard or
extra-hard use, or which have been modified, must be taken out of service
immediately.
Topic 2: Insulation and Grounding
Insulated Tools
Insulated tools must be used when a qualified person is working on or near exposed
energized live conductors. Only insulated tools that comply with the International
Electrotechnical Commission Standard 900 (IEC 900) and marked with the
international 1000V rating symbol should be used. Not all tools with a plastic coating
or plastic handles provide protection from electrical shock. That's why it's important
to inspect your tools before performing electrical work. Also, if insulated tools become
damaged or worn, the tool must be removed from service and destroyed.

In addition to wearing insulated rubber gloves, protector gloves, usually made of

leather, are to be worn over the rubber gloves. There are two exceptions to this rule.
Protector gloves are not required for either:
 Class 0 gloves where high finger dexterity is required
 In a case when a person uses a glove one class higher than required in a
situation where there's minimal chance of damage (The drawback of doing this is
that the insulated glove may not be used again at that higher voltage rate until it
has been retested and certified.)

Electrical Protective Equipment

Electrical protective equipment, also known as insulated equipment, includes items
such as insulated blankets, matting, covers, line hose, gloves, and sleeves. Blankets,
gloves, and sleeves are clearly marked with class and type.
 The class refers to the maximum use voltage. Insulating equipment must not
exceed maximum use voltages.
 The type marking refers to its ozone resistance. Type I is not ozone resistant;
Type II is ozone resistant.

Insulated equipment must be inspected before each day's use and immediately
following an incident that may have caused damage. When insulated equipment is
removed from service, it may not be used again until it has been retested and
certified. All electrically insulated equipment must also be retested and certified
periodically. The retesting period depends on each type of equipment

With what kind of defects should insulated equipment to be removed from service?
Insulated equipment must not be used if it is found to have any of the following
defects:
 Holes, tears, punctures, cuts
 Ozone cutting or checking
 Embedded foreign object(s)
 Swelling, softening, hardening, loss of elasticity, or stickiness
  Any other defect

Commonly Asked Questions

Q. Does insulated equipment need to be approved or certified?
A. Insulated equipment must be certified by the manufacturer to be suitable given
the proper usage-for the specified conditions to which they are exposed. The
certificate identifies the equipment and the date it was tested.

Q. Is there an expiration date for insulated equipment after which it must be

destroyed?
A. No. As long as the insulated equipment is in a safe, reliable condition and
retested periodically as required by 29 CFR 1910.137, it may continue to be
used.
What Is Grounding?
The term ground refers to a conductive body, usually the earth. "Grounding" a tool or
electrical system means intentionally creating a low-resistance path to the earth.
When properly done, current from a short or from lightning follows this path, thus
preventing the buildup of voltages that would otherwise result in electrical shock,
injury, or even death.

There are two kinds of grounds (both grounds are required by the OSHA construction
standard):
 System or service ground: In this type of ground, a wire called "the neutral
conductor" is grounded at the transformer, and again at the service entrance to
the building. This is primarily designed to protect machines, tools, and insulation
against damage.
 Equipment ground: This is intended to offer enhanced protection to the workers
themselves. If a malfunction causes the metal frame of a tool to become
energized, the equipment ground provides another path for the current to flow
through the tool to the ground.

Summary of Grounding Requirements

The following is a summary of OSHA's grounding requirements.
 Ground all electrical systems.
 The path to ground from circuits, equipment, and enclosures must be permanent
and continuous.
 Ground all supports and enclosures for conductors.
 Ground all metal enclosures for service equipment.
 Ground all exposed, non-current-carrying metal parts of fixed equipment.
 Ground exposed, non-current-carrying metal parts of tools and equipment
connected by cord and plug.
 Ground the metal parts of the following non-electrical equipment:
 o Frames and tracks of electrically operated cranes
o Frames of non-electrically driven elevator cars to which electric
conductors are attached
o Hand-operated metal shifting ropes or cables of electric elevators
o Metal partitions, grill work, and similar metal enclosures around equipment
of over 1kV between conductors

Assured Equipment Grounding Conductor Program

The assured equipment grounding conductor program covers all cord sets,
receptacles which are not a part of the permanent wiring of the building or structure,
and equipment connected by cord and plug which is used (or is available for use) by
employees.

OSHA requires that a written description of the employer's assured equipment

grounding conductor program, including the specific procedures adopted, be kept at
the job site. This program should outline the employer's specific procedures for the
required equipment inspections, tests, and test schedule.

The required tests must be recorded, and the record maintained until replaced by a
more-current record. The written program description and the recorded tests must be
made available, at the job site, to OSHA and to any affected employee upon request.
The employer is required to designate one or more competent persons to implement
the program.

Electrical equipment noted in the assured equipment grounding conductor program

must be inspected visually for damage or defects before each day's use. Any
damaged or defective equipment must not be used by the employee until repaired.

What tests does OSHA require?

Two tests are required by OSHA:

 One is a continuity test to ensure that the equipment grounding conductor is
electrically continuous. It must be performed on all cord sets, receptacles which
are not part of the permanent wiring of the building or structure, and on cordand
plug-connected equipment which is required to be grounded. This test may be
performed using a simple continuity tester, such as a lamp and battery, a bell and
battery, an ohmmeter, or a receptacle tester.
 The other test must be performed on receptacles and plugs to ensure that the
equipment grounding conductor is connected to its proper terminal. This test can
be performed with the same equipment used in the first test.

These tests are required before first use, after any repairs, after damage is
suspected to have occurred, and at three-month intervals. Cord sets and
receptacles that essentially are fixed and not exposed to damage must be tested
at regular intervals not to exceed six months. Any equipment that fails the
required tests shall not be made available to or be used by employees.

Other OSHA Requirements for Grounding

The following is a list of additional OSHA requirements for grounding.

Supports and enclosures for conductors

Metal cable trays, metal raceways, and metal enclosures for conductors must be
grounded, with these exceptions:
 Metal enclosures such as sleeves that are used to protect cable assemblies from
physical damage need not be grounded.
 Metal enclosures for conductors added to existing installations of open wire,
knob-and-tube wiring, and nonmetallic sheathed cable need not be grounded if
all of the following conditions are met:
o Runs are less than 25 feet
o Enclosures are free from probable contact with ground, grounded metal,
metal laths, or other conductive materials
o Enclosures are guarded against employee contact

Service equipment enclosures

Metal enclosures for service equipment must be grounded.
Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of fixed equipment which may become
energized must be grounded under any of the following conditions:
 If within eight feet vertically or five feet horizontally of ground or grounded metal
objects and subject to employee contact
 If located in a wet or damp location and subject to employee contact
 If in electrical contact with metal
 If in a hazardous (classified) location
 If supplied by a metal-clad, metal-sheathed, or grounded metal raceway wiring
method
 If equipment operates with any terminal at over 150 volts to ground; however, the
following need not be grounded:
o Enclosures for switches or circuit breakers used for other than service
equipment and accessible to qualified persons only
o Metal frames of electrically heated appliances which are permanently and
effectively insulated from ground
o The cases of distribution apparatus such as transformers and capacitors
mounted on wooden poles at a height exceeding eight feet above ground
or grade level

Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of cord- and plug-connected equipment

which may become energized must be grounded:
 If in a hazardous (classified) location
 If operated at over 150 volts to ground, except for guarded motors and metal
frames of electrically heated appliances if the appliance frames are permanently
and effectively insulated from ground
 If the equipment is one of the types listed below:
o Hand-held motor-operated tools
o Cord- and plug-connected equipment used in damp or wet locations or by
employees standing on the ground or on metal floors or working inside of
metal tanks or boilers
o Portable and mobile X-ray and associated equipment
o Tools likely to be used in wet and/or conductive locations
o Portable hand lamps
Tools likely to be used in wet and/or conductive locations need not be grounded if
supplied through an isolating transformer with an ungrounded secondary of not over
50 volts. Listed or labeled portable tools and appliances protected by a system of
double insulation or its equivalent need not be grounded. If such a system is
employed, the equipment must be marked distinctively to indicate that the tool or
appliance utilizes a system of double insulation.

Nonelectrical equipment
The metal parts of the following nonelectrical equipment must be grounded:
 Frames and tracks of electrically operated cranes
 Frames of non-electrically driven elevator cars to which electric conductors are
attached
 Hand-operated metal shifting ropes or cables of electric elevators, and metal
partitions, grill work, and similar metal enclosures around equipment of over 1kV
between conductors

Grounding of systems supplying portable or mobile equipment

Systems supplying portable or mobile high-voltage equipment, other than substations
installed on a temporary basis, must comply with the following:
 Portable and mobile high-voltage equipment must be supplied from a system
having its neutral grounded through an impedance. If a delta-connected high
voltage system is used to supply the equipment, a system neutral must be
derived.
 Exposed non-current-carrying metal parts of portable and mobile equipment must
be connected by an equipment grounding conductor to the point at which the
system neutral impedance is grounded.
 Ground-fault detection and relaying must be provided to automatically de-
energize any high-voltage system component that has developed a ground fault.
The continuity of the equipment grounding conductor must be monitored
 continuously so as to de-energize the high-voltage feeder to the portable
equipment automatically upon loss of continuity of the equipment grounding
conductor.
 The grounding electrode to which the portable or mobile equipment system
neutral impedance is connected must be isolated from and separated in the
ground by at least 20 feet from any other system or equipment grounding
electrode, and there must be no direct connection between the grounding
electrodes, such as buried pipe, fence, or like objects.

All non-current-carrying metal parts of portable equipment and fixed equipment,

including their associated fences, housings, enclosures, and supporting structures,
must be grounded. However, equipment which is guarded by location and isolated
from ground need not be grounded. Additionally, pole-mounted distribution apparatus
at a height exceeding eight feet above ground or grade level need not be grounded.

Topic 3: Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)

Need for GFCIs
Insulation and grounding are two recognized means of preventing injury during
electrical equipment operation. However, there are deficiencies associated with
insulation and grounding.
 For grounding, a break in the grounding system may occur without the user's
knowledge.
 For insulation, insulation may be damaged by hard usage on the job or simply by
aging. If this damage causes the conductors to become exposed, the hazards of
shocks, burns, and fire will exist.

The use of a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is one method used to overcome
grounding and insulation deficiencies.

What Is a GFCI?
The ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is a fast-acting circuit breaker that senses
small imbalances in the circuit caused by current leakage to ground and, in a fraction
of a second, shuts off the electricity. The GFCI continually matches the amount of
current going to an electrical device against the amount of current returning from the
device along the electrical path. Whenever the amount "going" differs from the
amount "returning" by approximately 5 milliamps, the GFCI interrupts the electric
power within as little as 1/40 of a second.

If the current flowing in the black (ungrounded) wire is within 5 ((1) milliamperes of
the current flowing in the white (grounded) wire at any given instant, the circuitry
considers the situation normal. All the current is flowing in the normal path. If,
however, the current flow in the two wires differs by more than 5 mA, the GFCI will
quickly open the circuit.

Note: GFCI will not protect the employee from line-to-line contact hazards (such
as a person holding two "hot" wires or a hot and a neutral wire in each hand). It
does provide protection against the most common form of electrical shock
hazard -- the ground fault. It also provides protection against fires, overheating,
and destruction of insulation on wiring.

Sample Incident
Death Due to Lack of Ground-Fault Protection - No GFCI
A journeyman HVAC worker was installing metal ductwork using a double-insulated
drill connected to a drop light cord. Power was supplied through two extension cords
from a nearby residence. The individual's perspiration-soaked clothing/body contacted
bare exposed conductors on one of the cords, causing an electrocution. No GFCIs
were used. Additionally, the ground prongs were missing from the two cords.

Testing GFCIs
We take for granted that our GFCIs are providing protection if we can operate a tool,
hair dryer, or another item through them. Yet this is not always the case. While the
device will allow current to flow through it, the monitoring of the current may not be
taking place.

Built into the device is a metal oxide varistor (MOV) used as a surge suppressor. The
MOV absorbs the voltage surge and converts it into heat. Repeated surges can
degrade the MOV, still allowing current to flow but not providing the protection
required. Voltage surges such as lightning strikes in the area can cause a surge, as
can utility company switching.

Some parts of the country are more susceptible to lightning strikes than others. This
is a primary cause of GFCI failures. According to an inspecting survey done by the
American Society of Home Inspectors, in parts of Florida, up to 58 percent of the
GFCI circuit breakers and 33 percent of the receptacles were defective.

The Bottom Line for Safety

If you follow just these two steps, whether at home or at work, you can help ensure
that your GFCIs function as life-protecting devices.
1. Test them monthly as required.
2. When a GFCI trips, reset and then trip it using either a GFCI tester or test button
on the device. Reset and use the circuit!

In the event a GFCI trips out, is reset, and power restored, you should go a step
further and test the GFCI. The test is a very simple procedure where you press the
test button on the device to ensure that it does trip open to break the circuit. This
test button creates a difference of 5 milliamperes between the hot and neutral
through a resistor built into the device. If the device will not trip open, or if it trips
and current continues to flow, the device is defective and must be replaced.

Employers' Responsibility
It is the employer's responsibility to provide either:
 Ground-fault circuit interrupters on construction sites for receptacle outlets in use
that are not part of the permanent wiring of the building or structure
 A scheduled and recorded assured equipment grounding conductor program on
construction sites, covering all cord sets, receptacles which are not part of the
permanent wiring of the building or structure, and equipment connected by cord
and plug which is available for use (or is used) by employees.

Scaffolds
Introduction
Identifying the hazards of working with scaffolds is an important responsibility of all
construction workers. OSHA confirms that employees using scaffolds are exposed to a
significant risk of harm. Specifically, scaffold-related fatalities account for approximately
9 percent of fatalities in the construction industry.

Topic 1: Scaffold Requirements

All employers and employees using scaffolds must become familiar with OSHA
specifications. Who uses scaffolds? Workers from every trade in the construction
industry may work on, below, or near a scaffold. Erectors and dismantlers, however, are
workers whose principal activity is assembling and disassembling scaffolding before,
during, and after work has been completed.

Although OSHA provides employers with flexibility in the design of scaffolds and the
selection of fall protection, a competent person is required to supervise these workers.
This person has the training, experience, and authority to take the corrective action
necessary to determine the scaffold's fall protection, integrity, and safety. OSHA
recognizes that an employer may have more than one competent person on the work
site to deal with different aspects of scaffolding.

Note: OSHA recognizes that an employer may have more than one competent person
on the work site to deal with different aspects of scaffolding.

What is a scaffold?
A scaffold is an elevated, temporary work platform. There are three basic types of
scaffolds: supported, suspended, and forms of manlifts. These types will be discussed
in a separate topic.
When do hazards exist?
Common hazardous scaffold areas are:
 Access
 Collapse
 Electrical
 Falls
 Instability
 Struck-by

Where do you find the safety standards for scaffolds?

The OSHA standards are covered in Subpart L of the OSHA Standards for
Construction. Some of the areas covered in the OSHA safety standards for scaffolds
include:
 Types of scaffolds
 Falling object protection
 Training
 Ladders
 Weather conditions
 Aerial lifts

Scaffold General Requirements

OSHA requires that all employees and employers who work on, under, or near
scaffolding and aerial lifts be protected from hazards. Therefore, workers using
scaffolds in the construction industry must become familiar with these and other safety
requirements for scaffolds. Click each topic to review its safety standards.

CAPACITY
Each scaffold and scaffold component must be able to support its own weight and at
least four times the maximum intended load that it will be expected to carry. The
scaffold's intended load is required to:
 Not exceed its maximum intended load or capacity rating
 Include all personnel, equipment, and supply loads
 Be less than the rated load but never exceed the rated load unless approved by
an engineer and the manufacturer
 Use a minimum of 1,500 lb.-f/in2 construction-grade lumbers when carried by
timber members

PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION
Each platform on a scaffold must be planked and decked as fully as possible, and the
work area should be free of clutter and debris. The platform construction requirements
involve distances and components.
 Distances
 The space between the platform and the uprights of the scaffold should not be
more than one inch wide
 The gap resulting from use of side brackets and an odd-shaped structure should
not exceed nine and half inches
 Each scaffold platform and walkway must be at least at 18 inches wide.

Components
 The intermixing or modification of scaffold components must be done under the
supervision of a competent person who will determine that the integrity of the
scaffolding is maintained.
 Scaffold components made of dissimilar metals must not be used together unless
a competent person has determined that galvanic action will not reduce the
strength of any component to below the requirements of OSHA.

SCAFFOLD PLANKING
To meet the safety requirements for planking:
 Scaffold planking must be able to support its own weight and at least four times
the intended load.
 Solid wood, fabricated planks, and fabricated platforms all can be used as
scaffold planking provided the recommendations of the manufacturer are
followed.

ACCESS
Access is required on all scaffolds based on these distances:
 The platform is more than two feet above or below the point of access.
 Direct access to scaffolds is permitted when the scaffold is not more than 14
inches horizontally and 24 inches vertically from the other surfaces.

Several types of access are permitted:

 Ladders (portable, hook-on, attachable, and stairway)
 Stair towers
 Ramps and walkways
 Integral prefabricated frames

Note: The use of cross bracing as a means of access is prohibited.

Training Prior to 1996, it was estimated that more than 70 percent of workers received
only on-the-job scaffold safety training, and 25 percent received no training at all. Today
OSHA requires all employees who work on scaffolds to receive training in the following
areas:
  The nature of any electrical hazards, fall hazards, and falling object hazards in
the work area
 The correct procedures for dealing with electrical hazards and for erecting,
maintaining, and disassembling the fall protection systems and falling object
protection systems
 The proper use of the scaffold and the proper handling of materials on the
scaffold
 The maximum intended load and the load-carrying capacities of the scaffolds
used Construction can be a safe occupation when workers are aware of the
hazards and an effective safety and health program is used.

Who Will Train?

All employees who work on scaffolds must be trained by a person who is qualified to
recognize the hazards associated with the type of scaffold being used and to
understand the procedures to control or minimize those hazards.
OSHA defines a qualified person as an individual who, by possession of a recognized
degree, certificate, or professional standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training,
and experience, has successfully demonstrated his or her ability to solve or resolve
problems relating to the subject matter, the work, or the project.

How will I be confident in my selection and use of proper fall arrest systems? Careless
or improper use of the equipment can result in serious injury or death. Thorough
employee training in the selection and use of personal fall arrest systems is imperative.

Employees must be trained in the safe use of the system. This should include the
following:
 Application limits
 Proper anchoring and tie-off techniques
 Estimation of free fall distance, including determination of deceleration distance
and total fall distance to prevent striking a lower level
 Methods of use
 Inspection and storage of the system
 Manufacturer's recommendation

Any employee involved in the erecting, disassembling, moving, operating, repairing,

maintaining, or inspecting of a scaffold must be trained by a competent person to
recognize any hazards associated with the work in question.

The training will include the following topics, as applicable:

 The nature of scaffold hazards
  The correct procedures for erecting, disassembling, moving, operating, repairing,
inspecting, and maintaining the type of scaffold in question
 The design criteria, maximum intended load-carrying capacity, and intended use
of the scaffold
 General overview of scaffolding
 Regulations and standards
 Erection/dismantling planning
 PPE and proper procedures
 Fall protection
 Materials handling
 Access
 Working platform
 Foundations
 Guys, ties, and braces

Scaffold erectors and dismantlers all should receive the general overview, and, in
addition, specific training for the type of scaffold being erected or dismantled.

Topic 2: Scaffold Types

While there are many safety requirements developed by the manufacturers of scaffolds,
all employees must be protected from hazards under OSHA standards. This topic will
explain the different types of scaffold systems and their components so that you can:
 Identify the types, components, and proper use of supported scaffolds
 Identify the types, components, and proper use of suspension scaffolds

Supported Scaffold Supported scaffolds are platforms that are supported by legs,
outrigger beams, brackets, poles, uprights, posts, frames, or some type of similar rigid
support. The structural members of supported scaffolds must be plumb and properly
braced to prevent swaying and displacement.

Types
There is a variety of support scaffold available to the industry. Here is a short list of
descriptions:
 Frame Scaffold or Fabricated Frame: platform(s) supported on fabricated end
frames with integral posts, horizontal bearers, and intermediate members
 Manually Propelled Mobile: unpowered, portable, caster or wheelmounted
supported scaffold
 Pump Jack: platform supported by vertical poles and movable support brackets
 Ladder Jack: platform resting on brackets attached to ladders
 Tube and Coupler: platform(s) supported by tubing, erected with coupling
devices connecting uprights, braces, bearers, and runners
  System: Posts with fixed connection points that accept runners, bearers, and
diagonals that can be interconnected at predetermined levels

Tipping
Supported scaffolds with a height-to-base width ratio of more than 4:1 must be
prevented from tipping by using restraint devices, such as guying, tying, or bracing.
When using any of these systems, it is best to follow the manufacturer's
recommendations.

In the absence of the manufacturer requirements, the following placements should be

used:
1. Install guys, ties, or braces at the closest horizontal member to the 4:1 height and
repeat vertically with the top restraint no further than the 4:1 height from the top.
2. Vertically - space restraint devices every 20 feet or less for scaffolds less than
three feet wide, and every 26 feet or less for scaffolds more than three feet wide.
3. Horizontally - space restraint devices at each end and at intervals not to exceed
30 feet from one end.

Foundations
To prevent collapse or tipping, place all supported scaffold poles, legs, posts, frames,
and uprights on base plates and mud sills or other adequate firm foundation. Unstable
objects cannot be used to support scaffolds or platform units. A concrete slab would be
considered a firm foundation; therefore, mud sills would not be necessary.

Other Equipment
1. Front-end loaders and similar pieces of equipment can be used to support
scaffold platforms only when the manufacturer specifically designs the equipment
for this purpose.
2. Forklifts may be used only if the entire platform is attached to the forks and the
forklift does not move horizontally when workers are on the platform. "Attached"
does not mean merely placing the platform on the forks. A positive means of
attachment, such as bolting, must be present.
3. When either forklifts or front-end loaders are used to support scaffolds, all other
requirements of the scaffolding standards (capacity, construction, access, use
and fall protection, etc.) must be met.

NOTE: These types of equipment are not considered aerial lifts unless they are
designed and used primarily to position personnel and meet all other requirements
for aerial lifts.

Erection/Dismantling
During scaffold and erection and dismantling operations employers must determine
where safe access and fall protection can be provided. The following requirements must
be met:
 The employer has the responsibility to evaluate whether providing access for
employees is feasible and safer (i.e., does not create a greater hazard).
 A competent person who has the knowledge and experience necessary must
make the appropriate determination.
 Hook-on or attachable ladders must be installed as soon as scaffold erection has
progressed to a point that permits safe installation and use.
 When erecting or dismantling frame scaffolds, the end frames can be used for
climbing if they are more than 22 inches apart and provide good hand hold and
foot space. Cross braces, however, cannot be used.

Suspension Scaffolds
A suspension scaffold contains one or more platforms supported by ropes or other non-
rigid means from an overhead structure. The following are examples of suspension
scaffolds:
 Single point
 Multi-point
 Multi-level
 Two-point Adjustable
 Boatswain's chair
 Catenary
 Chimney hoist
 Continuous run
 Elevator false car
 Go-devils
 Interior hung
 Mason's
 Stone setter's

Suspension Requirements
When used properly, suspension scaffolds are safe to use at a job site. A competent
person/employer is required to:

Train employees to recognize the hazards associated with the different types of
scaffolds

Secure support devices by resting them on surfaces capable of supporting at least four
times the load imposed on them by the scaffold when operating at the rated load of the
hoist (or at least one-and-a-half times the load imposed on them by the scaffold at the
stall capacity of the hoist, whichever is greater)

Evaluate all direct connections prior to use to confirm that the supporting surfaces are
able to support the imposed load

Tie or otherwise secure scaffolds to prevent them from swaying

Protect employees from falling when they are working more than 10 feet above a lower
level by using guardrails, a personal fall arrest system, or both

Inspect ropes for defects prior to each work shift and after every occurrence that could
affect a rope's integrity
Use access, ladders, ramps, walkways, or similar surfaces when scaffold platforms are
more than 24 inches above or below a point of. When using direct access, the surface
must not be more than 24 inches above or 14 inches horizontally from the surface

Require additional independent support lines (equal in number and strength to the
suspension lines and having automatic locking devices) when lanyards are connected
to horizontal lifelines or structural members on single-point or two-point adjustable
scaffolds
Ensure that no materials or devices can be used to increase the working height on a
suspension scaffold (This includes ladders, boxes, and barrels.)

Do not use emergency escape and rescue devices as working platforms unless
designed to function as suspension scaffolds and emergency systems

Suspension Components
Suspension scaffolds use several components to help make the system sturdy and
secure.

COUNTERWEIGHTS
Counterweights balance adjustable suspension in scaffolds. They must be secured by
mechanical means to the outrigger beams. The counterweight must resist at least four
times the tipping moment imposed by the scaffold operating at either the rated load of
the hoist, or one-and-a-half (minimum) times the tipping moment imposed by the
scaffold operating at the stall load of the hoist, whichever is greater.

Within scaffolds, use only those items specifically designed as counterweights; that is,
solid materials that cannot be dislocated. The chart below list examples of unacceptable
counterweights.

Unacceptable Counterweights:
  Masonry units
 Rolls of roofing felt
 Sandbags
 Water buckets

OUTRIGGER BEAMS
Outrigger beams (thrust outs) are the structural members of a suspension or outrigger
scaffold that provide support. With regards to scaffolds:
Place outrigger beams perpendicular to their bearing support.

Secure tiebacks for outrigger beams to a structurally sound anchorage on the building
or structure. (Sound anchorages do not include standpipes, vents, other piping systems,
or electrical conduit.)
Install a single tieback perpendicular to the face of the building or structure. Install two
tiebacks at opposing angles when a perpendicular tieback cannot be installed.

ROPES
The requirements for using suspension ropes include the following:

The suspension ropes must be long enough to allow the scaffold to be lowered to the
level below without the rope passing through the hoist, or the end of the rope must be
configured to prevent the end from passing through the hoist.

OSHA prohibits the use of repaired wire.

Drum hoists must contain no fewer than four wraps of the rope at the lowest point.

Suspension ropes supporting adjustable suspension scaffolds must be a diameter large

enough to provide sufficient surface area for the functioning of brake and hoist
mechanisms.

Suspension ropes also must be shielded from heat-producing processes.

Employers must replace wire rope when any of the following conditions exist:
 Kinks
 Six randomly broken wires in one rope lay or three broken wires in one strand in
one lay
 One-third of the original diameter of the outside wires is lost
 Heat damage
 Evidence that the secondary brake has engaged the rope
 Any other physical damage that impairs the function and strength of the rope
POWER-OPERATED HOISTS
When using suspension scaffolds with power-operated hoists, workers are required to
observe the following rules:

Power-operated hoists used to raise or lower a suspended scaffold must be tested and
listed by a qualified testing laboratory.

The stall load is the load at which the prime mover (motor or engine) of a power-
operated hoist stalls or the power to the prime mover is automatically disconnected. It
must not exceed three times its rated load on any suspended scaffold.

Gasoline power-operated hoists or equipment are not permitted, and drum hoists must
contain no fewer than four wraps of suspension rope at the lowest point of scaffold
travel.
Gears and brakes must be enclosed, and an automatic braking and locking device, in
addition to the operating brake, must engage when a hoist makes an instantaneous
change in momentum or an accelerated overspeed.

Suspension Welding

Welding can be done from suspended scaffolds when all of the following requirements
are met:

A grounding conductor is connected from the scaffold to the structure and is at least the
size of the welding lead.

The grounding conductor is not attached in series with the welding process or the work
piece.

An insulating material covers the suspension wire rope and extends at least four feet
above the hoist.

Insulated protective covers cover the hoist.

The tail line is guided, retained, or both so that it does not become grounded. Each
suspension rope is attached to an insulated thimble.

Each suspension rope and any other independent lines are insulated from grounding.

Topic 3: Proper Use of Scaffolds

Fall Protection
OSHA has established that fall protection must be provided for employees any time they
are working on scaffolding 10 feet or more above a lower level.
A guardrail system is one of the most common forms of fall protection in the
construction industry. It is comprised mostly of top rails, mid rails, and toe boards, which
are constructed from wood, pipe, structural steel, or wire rope.

Guardrail systems must meet the following general criteria:

 The systems must be surfaced to protect employees from punctures or
lacerations and prevent clothing from being snagged
 Terminal posts should not overhang, creating a projection hazard

Toprails
As part of a guardrail system, there are several structural and material specifications for
secure toprails.
Structural
 42 inches plus or minus 3 inches above a walking/working surface
 When employees are using stilts, the top edge height of the toprail must increase
an amount equal to the height of the stilts.
 Capable of withstanding a force of at least 200 pounds applied within two inches
in any downward or outward direction (When the test is applied in a downward
direction, the toprail must not deflect to a distance less than 39 inches above the
walking/working surface.)

Materials
 Flag at not more than six-foot intervals with high-visibility material
 At least 1/4-inch nominal diameter or thickness to prevent cuts and lacerations
 Inspected as frequently as necessary to ensure strength and stability (These may
be a least desirable because they have to be inspected often and may
deteriorate rapidly.)
 Steel and plastic banding cannot be used as toprails

Hoisting
 When a guardrail system is used at a hoisting area, a chain, gate, or removable
guardrail section must be placed across the hoist access opening when hoisting
operations are not taking place.

Midrails
As part of a guardrail system, there are structural, material, and installation stipulations
for midrails.

Structural
 Midrails must be at least 1/4-inch nominal diameter or thickness to prevent cuts
and lacerations.
  Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent
intermediate structural components must be capable of withstanding a force of a
least 150 pounds in any downward or outward direction at any point along the
midrail or other member.

Materials
 Inspect manila, plastic, or synthetic rope as frequently as necessary to ensure
strength and stability. (These may be a least desirable because they have to be
inspected often and may deteriorate rapidly.)
 Screens and mesh must extend from the toprail to the walking/working surface
and along the entire opening between the toprail vertical supports.
 Steel and plastic banding cannot be used as midrails.
 Intermediate members such as balusters, when used between posts, must not
be more than 19 inches apart.
Installation
 Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent
intermediate structural members must be installed between the toprail and the
walking/working surface when there are no walls or parapet walls at least 21
inches high.
 Midrails must be installed midway between the toprail and the walking/working
surface.

Toeboards
As part of a guardrail system, the primary function of the toeboard is to provide falling
object protection.

Toeboards must be:

 Capable of withstanding a force of a least 50 pounds in any downward or
outward direction at any point along the toeboard.
 At least 3 1/2 inches in height from their top edge to the walking/working surface.

Toeboards cannot:
 Be more than 1/4 inch above the walking/working surface.
 Have openings that are greater than 1 inch.

Where tools, equipment, or materials are piled higher than the top edge of the toeboard,
paneling or screening must be erected from the walking/working surface to the toprail or
midrail, whichever is sufficient to protect workers below. Holes Here are safety
measures for using guardrail holes to pass material and to access points.

To pass material
  When holes are used to pass material, the hole cannot have more than two sides
that are removable. It must be covered or provided with guardrails on all sides
when it is not in use.

To access
 When holes are used for access points for ladders or stairways, gates must be
used, or the point of access must be offset to prevent employees from walking
into the hole.
 If guardrails are used on unprotected sides or edges of ramps, runways or other
walkways, holes must be erected on each side or edge.

Other Considerations You now understand how to use guardrails responsibly. Others
were not so fortunate.
OSHA Case
The following case reports are of falls investigated by OSHA:
 A contract employee was taking measurements from an unguarded scaffold
inside a reactor vessel when he either lost his balance or stepped backwards, fell
14 1/2 feet, and died.
 An employee was installing overhead boards from a scaffold platform consisting
of two 2" x 10" boards with no guardrails. He lost his balance, fell 7 1/2 feet to the
floor, and died.

Supporting Scaffolds
The prior OSHA standard did not require that employers provide safe access and fall
protection during erection or dismantling operations. Here is a list of current standards:
 OSHA recognizes that compliance may not be feasible during certain scaffold
erection and dismantling operations. However, employers will be required to
determine at each stage of erection and dismantling if safe access and fall
protection can be provided and, if so, to comply with the pertinent requirements.
 The employer is responsible for evaluating whether providing access and fall
protection for employees is feasible and safer (i.e., does not create a greater
hazard.)
 A competent person who has the knowledge and experience necessary must
make the appropriate determination.
 This evaluation shall include a determination whether, alternatively, partial
compliance may be feasible and safer under the circumstances.

Personal Fall Arrest Systems

Personal fall arrest systems can be used on scaffolding when there are no guardrail
systems in place. A personal fall arrest system consists of a body harness, components
of the harness such as Dee-rings and snaphooks, lanyards, lifelines, and anchorage
points.
Personal fall arrest systems should be used on the following types of scaffolds:
 Boatswain's Chair
 Catenary
 Float
 Needle Beam
 Ladder
 Pump Jack

Either vertical or horizontal lifelines can be used. Lifelines must be independent of

support lines and suspension ropes, and they cannot be attached to the same
anchorage point.
When using a personal fall arrest system on an aerial lift, attach the system to the boom
or basket.

Personal fall arrest systems must be used in conjunction with guardrails when
employees are working on single-point and two-point adjustable suspension scaffolds
and self-contained adjustable scaffolds that are supported by ropes.

Falling Object Protection

Employers must protect employees from falling hand tools, debris, and other small
objects. Here is a list of special precautions:
 A hard hat must be worn.
 A guardrail system including a toeboard can be used as falling object protection.
 No material or equipment excluding mortar and masonry can be stored within
four feet of working edges.
 Excess mortar, broken or scattered masonry units, and all other materials and
debris must be removed from the working area at regular intervals. • You can
also use canopies strong enough to prevent collapse or penetration by any object
that may fall onto them.
 Barricade the area on which objects could fall and prohibit employees from
entering the barricaded area.
 When objects are too large, heavy, or massive to be contained or deflected by
any of the above-listed measures, the employer must place such potential falling
objects away from the edge of the surface from which they could fall and secure
the materials to prevent their falling.

Topic 4: Proper Use of Scaffolds

In addition to fall protection, other important safety challenges and issues affect
employees working with scaffolds. Click each issue for a briefing on its safety
measures.
The following is a list of basic requirements for the use of scaffolds on construction
sites.
Dos
 Have a competent person inspect for visible defects before each work shift and
after any occurrence that could affect a scaffold's structural integrity.
 Repair, replace, brace, or remove from service immediately any part of a scaffold
that has been damaged or unacceptably weakened.
 Implement a job site housekeeping program to avoid tripping hazards

Don'ts
 Don't load scaffolds in excess of their maximum intended loads or rated
capacities, whichever is less.
 Don't use shore or lean-to scaffolds.
 Don't move scaffolds horizontally while employees are working on them.
 Don't allow debris to accumulate.
WEATHER
The following is a list of several weather requirements when using scaffolds:
 Working on scaffolds is prohibited during lightning storms, high winds, or
inclement weather unless (1) a competent person has determined that it is safe
for employees to be on the scaffold and (2) the employees are protected by a
personal fall arrest system or wind screens.
 Windscreens cannot be used unless the scaffold is secured against the
anticipated wind forces that are to be imposed on the scaffold system
 Employees are not allowed to work on scaffolds covered with snow, ice, or other
slippery material except to remove such materials.

ENERGIZED POWER LINES

Scaffolds near energized power lines cannot be erected, used, dismantled, altered, or
moved closer than the distances stated below.

However, scaffolds can be moved closer if it is necessary for the performance of work,
providing the power lines are either de-energized or protective coverings are installed to
prevent contact.

MANUFACTURERS, SUPPLIERS, AND VENDORS

Before purchasing or putting into use a scaffold system, an employer should obtain
information about the system from the supplier.

Not all systems may need to be individually tested. The performance of some systems
may be based on data and calculations derived from testing of similar systems,
provided that enough information is available to demonstrate similarity of function and
design.
Employers should obtain comprehensive instructions from the supplier on the proper
use of the scaffold system, including:
 The force measured during the sample force test
 Caution statements on critical-use limitations
 Application limits
 Methods of inspection, use, cleaning, and storage

LADDERS
Ladders are not to be used on scaffolds to increase the working height of employees
except on large area scaffolds where employers have satisfied the following criteria:
 The ladder is placed against a structure (not part of the scaffold) and the scaffold
is secured against the sideways thrust exerted by the ladder.
 The platform units are secured to the scaffold to prevent their movement.
 The ladder legs are on the same platform and are secured to prevent them from
slipping or being pushed off the platform.
Topic 5: Specific Types of Scaffolds
There are many types of scaffolds that can be grouped into three major categories.
Click each category to see a short description.
*Supported scaffolds: A supported scaffold is a platform that is supported by legs,
outrigger beams, brackets, poles, uprights, posts, frames, or some type of similar rigid
support.
* Suspended scaffolds: A suspension scaffold contains one or more platforms
supported by ropes or other non-rigid means from an overhead structure.
* Special use scaffolds: A special use scaffold is an assembly designed for a specific
purpose where other scaffold systems might be more difficult to use.

Types of Lifts
There are two types of lifts: aerial lifts and scissor lifts, both called aerial work platforms.
These aerial work platforms, if used correctly, provide quick and safe access to work
areas that at one time could be reached only from scaffolding or a crane's man basket.
As with any tool, however, there are right and wrong ways to use them.

Aerial lifts: Aerial lifts can move in more than a single direction, increasing the risk of
mishaps.

Scissor lifts: Scissor lifts are efficient one-direction lifts. They provide a solid surface
from which to work.

Topic 6: Supported Scaffolds

Here you will learn about the specific safety requirements for various types of supported
scaffolds. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
  Describe safety requirements of fabricated frame scaffolds
 Describe safety requirements of tube and coupler scaffolds
 Describe safety requirements of mobile scaffolds
 Describe safety requirements of pole scaffolds

Fabricated Frame Scaffolds

Take a moment to look at the following specific requirements that you need to be
cautious about when working with fabricated frame scaffolds.
 In order to prevent creating unnecessary fall hazards when moving platforms to
the next level on fabricated frame scaffolds, the existing platform must be left in
place until the new end frames have been set in place and braced.
 All frames and panels have to be braced by cross, horizontal, or diagonal braces,
or a combination of these that secures the vertical members together laterally.
The cross braces must be long enough to automatically square and align the
vertical members so that the erected scaffold is always plumb, level, and square.
All of the bracing connections must be secured.
 Key Point: A registered professional engineer must design scaffolds that are
higher than 125 feet above their base plates. These scaffolds must be
constructed and loaded in accordance with such design.

What are the other safety requirements for fabricated frame scaffolds?
 Frames and panels are to be joined together vertically by using coupling or
stacking pins. In addition, at any time where uplift can occur that would displace
the scaffold's end frames or panels, they must be locked together.
 Brackets that are used to support cantilevered loads on supported scaffolds must
meet the following requirements:
 They must be placed so that the side brackets are parallel to the frames and the
end brackets are at a 90-degree angle to the frame
 They cannot be bent or twisted from their normal positions
 They can be used only to support workers, unless a qualified engineer has
designed the scaffold for other loads and built it to withstand the tipping forces
caused by those other loads being placed on the bracketsupported section of the
scaffold.

Tube and Coupler Scaffolds

Do you know about the specific safety requirements for working with tube and coupler
scaffolds?
 Whenever scaffold platforms are being moved to the next level, the existing
platform has to be left in place until the new bearers have been set and braced.
 You must install transverse bracing (forming an "X" across the width of the
scaffold) at the scaffold ends, at least at every third set of posts horizontally
(measured from only one end), and every fourth runner vertically. This bracing
 must extend diagonally from the inner or outer posts or runners upward to the
next outer or inner posts or runners, and ties need to be installed at the bearer
levels between the bracing.
 On straight-run scaffolds, longitudinal bracing across the inner and outer rows of
posts has to be installed diagonally in both directions. It must extend from the
base of the end posts upward to the top of the scaffold at approximately a 45-
degree angle. Bracing must be installed as close as possible to the intersection
of the bearer and post or runner and post.
 On scaffolds whose length is greater than their height, the bracing needs to be
repeated beginning at least at every fifth post.
 On scaffolds whose length is less than their height, this bracing must be installed
from the base of the end posts upward to the opposite end posts, and then in
alternating directions until reaching the top of the scaffold.

What are the other safety requirements when working with tube and coupler scaffolds?
 Where conditions do not allow the bracing to be attached to the posts, it should
be attached to the runners as close to the post as possible
 Bearers are to be installed transversely between posts and, when coupled to the
posts, must have the inboard coupler bear directly on the runner coupler. When
the bearers are coupled to the runners, the couplers must be as close to the
posts as possible.
 Bearers must extend beyond the posts and runners and provide full contact with
the coupler.
 Runners have to be installed along the length of the scaffold, located on both the
inside and outside posts at level heights. (When tube and coupler guardrails and
midrails are used on outside posts, they may be used in lieu of outside runners.)
 Runners have to be interlocked on straight runs to form continuous lengths and
be coupled to each post. The bottom runners and bearers should be located as
close to the base as possible.
 Couplers must be made of structural metal, such as dropforged steel, malleable
iron, or structural-grade aluminum. The use of gray cast iron is prohibited
 Tube and coupler scaffolds over 125 feet high must be designed by a registered
professional engineer and be constructed and loaded in accordance with such
design.

Mobile Scaffolds
You can ride on a mobile scaffold only when all of the following conditions exist
1. The surface on which the mobile scaffold is being moved is within three degrees
of level and free of pits, holes, and obstructions
2. The height-to-base width ratio of the scaffold during movement is twoto-one or
less
3. Outrigger frames, when used, are installed on both sides of the scaffold
 4. When power systems are used, the propelling force is applied directly to the
wheels and does not produce a speed in excess of one foot per second
5. No employee is on any part of the mobile scaffold that extends outward beyond
the wheels, casters, or other supports

Key Point: Scaffold casters and wheels must be locked to prevent movement of the
scaffold while the scaffold is used in a stationary manner. This can be accomplished
with positive wheel and/or wheel and swivel locks.

What other safety requirements do you need to know when working with mobile
scaffolds?
 Mobile scaffolds must be braced by cross, horizontal, or diagonal braces, or any
combination of these, in order to prevent racking or collapse of the scaffold. In
addition, the bracing will secure vertical members together laterally so that they
are automatically squared and aligned.
 Manual force used to move the mobile scaffold must be applied as close to the
base as practicable, but not more than five feet above the supporting surface.
 Power systems used to propel mobile scaffolds have to be designed for such
use. Forklifts, trucks, similar motor vehicles or add-on motors are not to be used
to propel scaffolds unless the mobile scaffold is designed for such systems.
 Mobile scaffolds must be stabilized to prevent tipping during movement.
 Platforms must not extend outward beyond the base supports of the scaffold
unless outrigger frames or equivalent devices are used to ensure stability.
 Where leveling of the scaffold is necessary, screw jacks should be used.
 Caster stems and wheel stems must be secured in scaffold legs or adjustment
screws.
 Before a scaffold is moved, each employee on the scaffold must be made aware
of the move.

Pole Scaffolds
The fourth type of supported scaffold is a pole scaffold. Read the following requirements
you must consider when working with pole scaffolds.
 Whenever scaffold platforms are being moved to the next level, the existing
platform has to be left in place until the new bearers have been set and braced.
 Cross bracing must be installed between the inner and outer sets of poles on
double-pole scaffolds.
 Diagonal bracing in both directions has to be installed across the entire inside
face of double-pole scaffolds.
 Diagonal bracing in both directions must be installed across the entire outside
face of all double- and single-pole scaffolds.
 Runners and bearers must be installed on edge and bearers will extend a
minimum of three inches over the outside edges of runners.
  Runners must extend over a minimum of two poles and be supported by bearing
blocks securely attached to the poles.
 Braces, bearers, and runners are not to be spliced between poles.
 When wooden poles are spliced, the ends have to be squared and the upper
section must rest squarely on the lower section. Wood splice plates must be
provided on at least two adjacent sides and extend at least two feet on either
side of the splice, overlap the abutted ends equally, and have at least the same
cross-sectional areas as the pole.
 Pole scaffolds over 60 feet high must be designed by a registered professional
engineer and be constructed and loaded in accordance with that design.

Topic 7: Suspended Scaffolds

Single-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds
Take a moment to look at the following specific requirements for working with single-
point adjustable suspension scaffolds.
 The supporting rope between the scaffold and the suspension device must be
kept vertical unless all of the following conditions are met:
o A qualified person has designed the rigging.
o The scaffold is accessible to rescuers.
o The supporting rope is protected to ensure that it will not chafe at any
point where a change in direction occurs.
o The scaffold is positioned so that swinging cannot bring the scaffold into
contact with another surface.
 Boatswain's chair tackle must consist of the correct size ball bearings or bushed
blocks containing safety hooks and properly "eye-spliced" minimum 5/8-inch
diameter first-grade manila rope, or other rope that will satisfy the criteria (e.g.,
strength and durability) of manila rope.
 Boatswain's chair seat slings must be reeved through four corner holes in the
seat. They must cross each other on the underside of the seat and be rigged to
prevent slippage that could cause an out-of-level condition.
 Boatswain's chair seat slings must be made from a minimum of 5/8-inch diameter
fiber, synthetic, or other rope that will satisfy the criteria (e.g., strength, slip
resistance, durability, etc.) of first-grade manila rope.
 When a heat-producing process such as gas or arc welding is being conducted,
boatswain's chair seat slings must use a minimum of 3/8- inch wire rope.
 Non-cross-laminated wood boatswain's chairs must be reinforced on their
undersides by cleats securely fastened to prevent the boards from splitting.

Two-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds

When working with two-point adjustable suspension scaffolds, the following additional
requirements must apply.
  Platforms must be 20-36 inches wide unless designed by a qualified person to
prevent unstable conditions. Platforms must be the laddertype, plank-type, beam-
type, or light-metal type.
 The platform must be securely fastened to hangers (stirrups), most commonly by
U-bolts.
 The blocks for fiber or synthetic ropes must consist of at least one double and
one single block, and the sheaves of all blocks must fit the size of the rope used.
 Two-point scaffolds cannot be bridged or otherwise connected to one another
during raising and lowering operations unless the bridge connections are
articulated (attached), and the hoists are the proper capacity.
 Passage can be made from one platform to another only when the platforms are
at the same height, are abutting, and walk-through stirrups specifically designed
for this purpose are used.

Multi-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds

What criteria must be met when working with multi-point adjustable suspension
scaffolds?
 When two or more scaffolds are used, they must be bridged to one another if
they are designed to be bridged. The bridge connections must be articulated and
the hoists properly sized.
 If bridges are not used, then passage may be made from one platform to another
only when the platforms are at the same height and abutting.
 Scaffolds must be suspended from metal outriggers, brackets, wire rope slings,
hooks, or means that are equivalent in strength and durability.

Multi-Level Suspended Scaffolds When working with multi-level adjustable suspension

scaffolds, the following requirements apply:
 Scaffolds must be equipped with additional independent support lines, equal in
number to the number of points supported, of equivalent strength to the
suspension ropes, and rigged to support the scaffold in the event the suspension
rope(s) fail.
 Independent support lines and suspension ropes must not be attached to the
same points of anchorage.
 Supports for platforms must be attached directly to the support stirrup and not to
any other platform.

Catenary Scaffolds Take a moment to look at the following requirements for working
with catenary scaffolds:
 No more than one platform can be placed between consecutive vertical pickups,
and no more than two platforms can be used on a catenary scaffold.
  Platforms supported by wire ropes must have hook-shaped stops on each end of
the platforms to prevent them from slipping off the wire ropes. These hooks have
to be placed so that they will prevent the platform from falling if one of the
horizontal wire ropes breaks.
 Wire ropes must not be tightened to the extent that the application of a scaffold
load will overstress them.
 Wire ropes must be continuous and without any splices between the anchors.
Float (Ship) Scaffolds When working with float (ship) scaffolds, the following
additional requirements apply:
 The platform must be supported by a minimum of two bearers, each of which
must project a minimum of six inches beyond the platform on both sides. Each
bearer must be securely fastened to the platform.
 Rope connections must be made so that the platform cannot shift or slip.
 When only two ropes are used with each float:
 They must be arranged to provide four ends that are securely fastened to
overhead supports.
 Each supporting rope must be hitched around one end of the bearer and pass
under the platform to the other end of the bearer where it is hitched again,
leaving sufficient rope at each end for the supporting ties.

Interior Hung Scaffolds

What about interior hung scaffolds? What would be the proper place(s) to suspend the
interior hung scaffolds?
 Scaffolds must be suspended only from the roof structure or other structural
member such as ceiling beams.
 Overhead supporting members (roof structure, ceiling beams, or other structural
members) must be inspected and checked for strength before the scaffold is
erected.
 Suspension ropes and cables must be connected to the overhead supporting
members by shackles, clips, thimbles, or other means with the appropriate
strength and durability.

Needle Beam Scaffolds

Take a look at other requirements for working with needle beam scaffolds.
 Scaffold support beams must be installed on edge.
 Ropes or hangers must be used for supports, except that one end of a needle
beam scaffold may be supported by a permanent structural member.
 The ropes must be securely attached to the needle beams.
 The support connection must be arranged to prevent the needle beam from
rolling or becoming displaced.
 Platform units must be securely attached to the needle beams by bolts or
equivalent means. Cleats and overhang are not adequate means of attachment.
Topic 8: Special Use Scaffolds
Form Scaffolds and Carpenter's Bracket Scaffolds
When working with form scaffolds and carpenter's bracket scaffolds, this requirement
applies.
 Each bracket, except those for wooden bracket-form scaffolds, must be attached
to the supporting formwork or structure by means of one or more of the following:
o Nails
o A metal stud attachment device
o Welding
o Hooking over a secured structural supporting member, with the form wales
either bolted to the form or secured by snap ties or tie bolts extending
through the form and securely anchored
o For carpenter's bracket scaffolds only, by a bolt extending through to the
opposite side of the structure's wall
 Wooden bracket-form scaffolds must be an integral part of the form panel.
 Folding type metal brackets, when extended for use, must be either bolted or
secured with a locking-type pin.

Roof Bracket Scaffolds

What do you need to be cautious about when you are working with roof bracket
scaffolds?
 First, scaffold brackets must be constructed to fit the pitch of the roof and must
provide a level support for the platform.
 Second, brackets (including those provided with pointed metal projections) must
be anchored in place by nails unless it is impractical to use nails. When nails are
not used, brackets must be secured in place with first-grade manila rope of at
least 3/4-inch diameter or the equivalent.

Outrigger Scaffolds
The inboard end of outrigger beams, measured from the fulcrum point to the extreme
point of anchorage, must be not less than one and one-half times the outboard end in
length.

The following requirements should also be met when working with outrigger scaffolds:
 Outrigger beams fabricated in the shape of an I-beam or channel must be placed
so that the web section is vertical.
 The fulcrum point of outrigger beams must rest on secure bearings at least six
inches in each horizontal dimension.
 Outrigger beams must be secured in place against movement and securely
braced at the fulcrum point against tipping.
  The inboard ends of outrigger beams must be securely anchored either by
means of braced struts bearing against sills in contact with the overhead beams
or ceiling, or by means of tension members secured to the floor joists underfoot,
or by both.
 The entire supporting structure must be securely braced to prevent any
horizontal movement.
 To prevent displacement, platform units must be secured to outriggers.
 Scaffolds and scaffold components must be designed by a registered
professional engineer and constructed and loaded in accordance with such
design.
Pump Jack Scaffolds
Take a look at the following requirements for pump jack scaffolds.
 Each pump jack bracket must have two positive gripping mechanisms to prevent
any failure or slippage.
 Pump jack brackets, braces, and accessories must be fabricated from metal
plates and angles.
 Poles must be secured to the structure by rigid triangular bracing or equivalent at
the bottom, top, and other points as necessary. When the pump jack has to pass
bracing already installed, an additional brace must be installed approximately
four feet above the brace to be passed and left in place until the pump jack has
been moved and the original brace reinstalled. Click here to see what this
means.
 When guardrails are used for fall protection, a workbench may be used as the
top rail only if it meets all the requirements of a guardrail. Click here to see what
this means.
 Workbenches must not be used as scaffold platforms.
 When poles are made of wood, the pole lumber must be straight-grained and
free of shakes, large loose or dead knots, and other defects that might impair
strength.
 When wood poles are constructed of two continuous lengths, they must be joined
together with the seam parallel to the bracket. Click here to see what this means.
 When two-by-fours are spliced to make a pole, mending plates must be installed
at all splices to develop the full strength of the member. Click here to see a
violation to this requirement.

Key Point: Each pump jack bracket must have two positive gripping mechanisms to
prevent any failure or slippage.

Ladder Jack Scaffolds

When working with ladder jack scaffolds, the following requirements apply:
 Platforms must not exceed a height of 20 feet.
  All ladders used to support ladder jack scaffolds must meet the requirements of
OSHA standards for ladders.
 Job-made ladders must not be used to support ladder jack scaffolds. Click here
to see an example.
 The ladder jack must be designed and constructed so that it will bear on the side
rails and ladder rungs or on the ladder rungs alone. If bearing on rungs only, the
bearing area must include a length of at least 10 inches on each rung.
 Ladders used to support ladder jacks must be placed, fastened, or equipped with
devices to prevent slipping.
 Scaffold platforms must not be bridged one to another. Click here to see an
example.
Window Jack Scaffolds
Window jack scaffolds must be used only for the purpose of working at the window
opening through which the jack is placed. Other requirements are:
 Scaffolds must be securely attached to the window opening.
 Window jacks must not be used to support planks placed between one window
jack and another, or for other elements of scaffolding.
Horse Scaffolds
When working with horse scaffolds, the following requirements must be met:
 Scaffolds must not be constructed or arranged more than two tiers or, 10 feet
high, whichever is less.
 When horses are arranged in tiers:
 Each horse must be placed directly over the horse in the tier below.
 The legs of each horse must be nailed down or otherwise secured to prevent
displacement.
 Each tier must be cross braced

Crawling Boards (Chicken Ladders)

There are two requirements you should remember when working with crawling boards:
 Crawling boards must extend from the roof peak to the eaves when used in
connection with roof construction, repair, or maintenance.
 Crawling boards must be secured to the roof by ridge hooks or by means that
meet equivalent criteria (e.g., strength and durability).

Step, Platform, and Trestle Ladder Scaffolds

Here are the safety requirements:
 Scaffold platforms must not be placed any higher than the second highest rung
or step of the ladder supporting the platform.
 Job-made ladders must not be used to support such scaffolds.
 Ladders used to support step, platform, and trestle ladder scaffolds must be
placed, fastened, or equipped with devices to prevent slipping.
 Scaffolds must not be bridged one to another.
Topic 9: Aerial Work Platforms
Aerial Lifts
Aerial lifts can move in more than a single direction. Different types of aerial lifts used to
elevate personnel to job sites above ground. They are:
 Extensible boom platforms
 Aerial ladders
 Articulating boom platforms
 Vertical towers

Key Point: Remember before operating any aerial work platform to always read and
follow the manufacturer's safety and operation manual! This information must be
kept on the rig and can usually be found in a container tied to the machine's frame
or rails.

Aerial lifts can move in more than a single direction, increasing the risk of mishaps, so
it's important to remember the following:
 Whenever working out of an aerial lift, a full-body harness must be worn and
properly attached to the basket. A sudden jolt has thrown people from aerial lifts
before they could react.
 Never drive the aerial lift when it is elevated above the limit the manufacturer
considers safe. Each piece of equipment will state what the maximum extension
can be while being driven.
 Always maintain a safe distance from debris piles, drop-offs, floor openings, etc.

Scissor Lifts
Scissor lifts are efficient one-direction lifts. They provide a solid surface to work from,
but always remember:

Key Point: A worker in a scissor lift need be protected from falling by a properly
designed and maintained guardrail system. However, if the guardrail system is
less than adequate, or the worker leaves the safety of the work platform, an
additional fall protection device would be required, such as a body harness and
lanyard.

Other requirements for scissor lifts include the following:

 Guardrail, midrails, and toe boards must be in place. The toe board can be
omitted at the door.
 The platform must be equipped with a mechanical parking brake that will hold the
unit securely on any slope it is capable of climbing. The brake should be tested
periodically.
  Never use the lift's rails, planks across the rails, or a ladder, to gain additional
height.

Safe Operating Procedures

Take a moment to see the safe operating procedures required for aerial and scissor
lifts.

Key Point: Only trained and authorized people should operate the lift. A qualified
instructor must make sure that every operator reads and\or understands the
equipment's safety and operating instructions. This includes all of the warning
decals and labels mounted on the machine.

Other requirements for scissor lifts include the following:

 Always check for overhead obstructions before driving or elevating the platform.
 Refuel tanks only when the unit is turned off. If battery powered, the batteries
should be charged only in a well-ventilated area, away from any open flame.
 Prior to each shift the operator should perform a safety inspection; this includes
both a visual inspection and a function test. If a problem is found, get the lift
repaired.
 Elevate the platform only when it is on a firm, level surface. Although many lifts
look like rough terrain pieces of equipment, they are not. Their large tires do
allow the equipment to access somewhat difficult areas, but once in position they
are designed to be out of level only five degrees while in operation. This amounts
to 10 inches in a 10-foot wheel span. In addition, the lift must have a tilt alarm
that activates when the machine is more than five degrees out of level.
 Fall Protection
Introduction
The importance of fall protection can be summed up in one word: gravity. It is
a scientific fact that if you fall from an elevation you will continue to fall until
something breaks your fall, often with catastrophic results. Yet on the
construction site when fall protection is mentioned, you often hear that "It
can't be done!" However, everyone knows that "It should be done." The
questions that should be asked are "How can we provide fall protection?" and
"When are we supposed to provide it?" The current loss data associated with
falls is staggering, as hundreds die every year, and hundreds of thousands are
injured.

An OSHA study involving 99 fall-related fatalities suggests that virtually all of

those deaths could have been prevented by the use of guardrails, body belts,
body harnesses, safety nets, covers, or other means, which would have
reduced employee exposure to the fall hazard.

Many employees believe that there will be time to regain their balance before
they fall; this is not always true.

Topic 1: OSHA's Fall Protection Standards

The Rule
OSHA's fall protection standards are covered by a rule. The rule requires that
whenever construction workers are exposed to a fall hazard of six feet or
more, employers must take action to protect their workers from falling. This
rule applies to all construction activities unless another construction standard
specifically addresses fall protection, such as steel erection of buildings,
scaffolding, and stairways/ladders.

OSHA recognizes that accidents involving falls generally are complex events
often involving a variety of factors. Consequently, the standard for fall
protection deals with both the human and equipment-related issues in
protecting workers from fall hazards.

Among those issues are the following:

 The need-to-know situations in which protection is required
 Selection of fall protection systems appropriate for given situations
 Construction and installation of safety systems
 Supervision of employees
 Implementation of safe work procedures
 Training in the selection, use, and maintenance of fall protection systems
Employers’ Requirements
The OSHA rule clarifies what an employer must do to provide fall protection for
employees, such as identifying and evaluating fall hazards and providing
specific training.

Requirements to provide fall protection for workers on scaffolds and ladders

and for workers engaged in steel erection of buildings are covered in other
OSHA regulations.

Employers are given many options on protecting employees from fall hazards,
including:
 Safety monitoring systems
 Controlled access zones
 Safety nets
 Guardrails
 Personal fall arrest systems
 Warning lines
 Positioning device systems
 Fall protection plans

Employers' Steps
OSHA outlines three basic steps for employers to effectively assess their fall
protection plan.
 1. The first thing an employer must do when addressing fall protection is to assess
the workplace and determine if the walking or working surfaces on which
employees are to work have the strength and structural integrity to safely
support them.
2. The employer needs to select a specific fall protection method. Employees are
not permitted to work there until it is determined that the work surface will
support the workers. Once employers have determined that the surface is safe
for employees to work on, the employer then has to select one of the methods of
fall protection if a fall hazard is present. For example, if an employee is exposed
to falling six feet or more from an unprotected side or edge, the employer must
select a guardrail system, safety net system, or a personal fall arrest system to
protect the worker.
3. Employers must consider special occupations. Fall protection is applicable to all
workplaces, but employers must take into account special considerations for
different occupations. Work on electric utility lines, for instance, differs from work
on communication towers that are sometimes as high as 1,000 feet, which again
is quite different from working on a residential roof. The use of the correct
equipment for the specific condition is extremely important.

Training
OSHA states that employers must provide a training program for employees
who are exposed to a fall hazard. The program must enable employees to
recognize the hazards of falling and must train them in the procedures for
minimizing hazards.

The employer must be sure that each employee has been trained by a
competent person in the following areas:
 Knowledge of Fall:
o Hazards
o Protection
o Physics
 Employee Roles in:
o Safety monitoring systems
o Fall protection plan
o Employee supervision
 Performance to:
o Select fall protection systems that are appropriate for the specific job
o Implement and enforce safe work procedures/practices, enabling a trainee
to understand the different types of equipment available and how to
properly inspect the equipment on a daily basis
 Procedure to:
 o Erect, maintain, disassemble, and inspect fall protection systems
o Identify limitations on the use of mechanical equipment during the
performance of roofing work
o Handle and store equipment and materials
o Erect overhead protection

Retraining
OSHA also requires the retraining of employees if they do not have the proper
understanding and skills after initial training.

Other circumstances requiring retraining include:

Changes in the Workplace
If your job changes to:
 Working at an elevation as opposed to ground level
 Working around electrical hazards (power lines)
 Working with other trades both above and below you

Changes in the Use of Systems and Equipment

If your job changes to:
 Now using a positioning device instead of PFAS
 Now using guardrails as opposed to covers or PFAS
 Now using a fall protection plan or CAZ
 Now using a safety monitor instead of fall protection systems
 Popups

Topic 2: Fall Protection Coverage

Falls from elevation hazards are present at most every jobsite. Many workers
are exposed to these hazards daily. Any walking/working surface could be a
potential fall hazard. An unprotected side or edge, which is six feet or more
above a lower level should be protected from falling by the use of. These
hazardous exposures exist in many forms, and can be as seemingly innocuous
as a changing a light bulb form a step ladder to something as high-risk as
connecting bolt on high steel at 200 feet in the air.

Remember: Fall Protection strategies are required when workers are exposed
to a fall hazard of six feet or more above lower levels.

Risk Survey
You are aware that falls from elevations occur in all industries, in all
occupations, and in a myriad of work environments. From the ironworker
connecting steel columns 200 ft in the air, to the laborer washing windows
from a suspended scaffold 60 feet from the ground to the stock clerk
retrieving goods from a shelf using a 4-ft stepladder, all workers performing
duties at an elevation are at risk to falls.

What else can contribute to fall risks?

There are many contributing factors for employees being at risk to falls.
It is important to recognizing that there are many risks, which are
contingent to the specific characteristics of each individual jobsite.
Here are some other contributing factors:
 Lack of coordination of work tasks between contractors
 Rapid physical changes in the work environment
 Worker inexperience
 Deviation from standard operating procedures
 Lack of adherence to safety standards
 Employers lack of written task-specific work procedures

Hierarchy of Control
Reducing the risks associated with construction work is very important. To
meet this goal, there is a hierarchy or preferred order of control. These
controls are not mutually exclusive. There may be occasions when more than
one control must be used to reduce a risk. However, prevention would be best
served by implementing your hierarchy or control methodology before you
start any construction operation. The preferred order is presented in the
graphic.

Engineering Controls
Engineering controls, which attempt to eliminate hazards, do not necessarily
require an engineer to design them. Engineering controls can be very simple
To the extent feasible, the work environment and the job itself should be
designed to eliminate or reduce exposure to hazards based on the following
principles:
 If feasible, design the job site, equipment, or process to remove the
hazard or substitute something that is not hazardous or is less
hazardous.
 If removal is not feasible, enclose the hazard to prevent exposure in
normal operations.
 Where complete enclosure is not feasible, establish barriers to reduce
exposure to the hazard in normal operations.

Administrative Controls
Administrative controls are normally used in conjunction with other controls
that more directly prevent or control exposure to hazards. They include
lengthened rest breaks, additional relief workers, exercise breaks to vary body
motions, and rotating workers through different jobs to reduce stress or
repetitive motions on one part of the body. Administrative controls also include
introducing work practices that reduce the risk, by means including the
following:
 Limiting the amount of time a person is exposed to a particular hazard
 Implementing and documenting safe working procedures for all hazardous tasks
 Training and instructing all personnel
 Identifying hazards prior to commencing work

Personal Protective Equipment

The last method of control is the use of PPE and should be considered only
when other control measures are not practicable or to increase a person's
protection as an additional measure. PPE includes:
 Hardhats
 Eye protection
 Fall-arrest harnesses and lanyards
 Foot protection
 Hand protection
 Respirators
 Hearing protection

Administrative and engineering controls can be used to eliminate fall hazards

before beginning operations. Personal protective equipment (PPE) as a
protection device is your last line of defense and protects you from fall
hazards.

Types of Fall Protection Systems

The selection of a fall protection system should match the particular work
situation. The types of fall protection options available for protecting
employees from fall hazards include:
 Personal fall arrest systems
 Guardrails
 Positioning device systems
 Warning lines
 Covers
 Safety monitoring systems
 Controlled access zones
 Safety nets

The kind of fall protection system selected should match the particular work
situation, and any possible free-fall distance should be kept to a minimum.
The employer should evaluate the work conditions and environment, including
the weather, before selecting the appropriate fall protection system.

You should also consider the particular work environment. If lanyards,

connectors, lifelines, or any fall protection system components are subject to
damage by work operations such as welding, chemical cleaning, and
sandblasting, the components should be protected.

Once in use, any type of fall protection system that you select to protect
employees from fall hazards needs to be monitored on a regular basis.
How do you protect falls to the same level? Housekeeping will do it.

Falls to the same level still cause a great number of incidents each year in the
construction industry. Such falls are caused primarily by the presence of
tripping hazards on the walking and working surfaces where employers are
performing their jobs.

While it is not commonly listed as a method of fall protection, the best way to
avoid, reduce, or eliminate tripping hazards is by implementing a job site
housekeeping program.

Topic 4: Personal Fall Arrest Systems

Components of a Personal Fall Arrest System
The PFAS is designed to limit a free fall distance to six feet. The PFAS consists
of an anchorage point, a connector, lanyards, and a body harness.

Anchorage Points
Anchorage points must meet all the following criteria:
Independent of anchorages being used to support or suspend platforms
 Capable of supporting at least 5,000 pounds per employee
 Designed, installed, and used under the supervision of a qualified person as part
of a complete personal fall arrest system which maintains a safety factor of at
least two.

Note. Safety Factor: The ratio of the ultimate breaking strength of a

member or piece of material or equipment to the actual working stress or
safe load when in use

Body Harness
A body harness is a series of straps, which may be secured around an
employee in a manner that will distribute fall arrest forces over the thighs,
pelvis, waist, chest, and shoulders. Ropes and straps used in a body harness
must be made from synthetic fibers. The attachment point for a body harness
must be located in the center of the wearer's back near shoulder level.

A body harness and components used for employee protection are not to be
used to hoist materials. A PFAS should not be attached to hoists unless
specifically designed for that application.

Connector
The connector must meet the following criteria:
 Must be drop-forged, pressed, or formed steel, or made of equivalent materials
 Must have a corrosion-resistant finish, and all surfaces and edges must be
smooth to prevent damage to interfacing parts of the PFAS

Lanyards
 Lanyards must have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds.
 They must automatically limit a free fall to two feet or less.
 They must be capable of sustaining a minimum tensile load of 3,000 pounds
applied to the device with the lanyard in the fully extended position.
 Lanyards that do not limit a free fall distance to 2 feet or less must be capable of
sustaining a minimum tensile load of 5,000 pounds applied to the device with the
lifeline in the fully extended position.
 Ropes and straps used in lanyards must be made of synthetic fibers.

What are the criteria for a PFAS used for fall protection?
The following is the criteria for a PFAS used for fall protection:
 Limit the maximum arresting force on an employee to 1,800 pounds when used
with a body harness
 Be rigged so that an employee can neither free fall more than six feet nor contact
any lower level
 Bring an employee to a complete stop and limit maximum deceleration distance
an employee travels to 3.5 feet
 Have sufficient strength to withstand twice the potential impact energy of an
employee free-falling a distance of six feet or the free-fall distance permitted by
the system, whichever is less

Other Components of a PFAS

A PFAS also may consist of a deceleration device, lifeline, or suitable
combination. A PFAS is not just one type of system. It can be composed of
different combinations depending on where it is being used and under what
circumstances.

Lifeline
A lifeline is a component consisting of a flexible line for connection to an
anchorage at one end to hang vertically (vertical lifeline), or for connection to
anchorages at both ends to stretch horizontally (horizontal lifeline). It serves
as a means for connecting other components of a personal fall arrest system
to the anchorage point.

The following are requirements for lifelines:

 Must have a minimum breaking strength of 5,000 pounds
 Must be protected against being cut or abraded
 Wire rope should not be used where an electrical hazard is anticipated.
 Horizontal lifelines to be designed, installed, and used under supervision of a
qualified person
 Horizontal lifelines as part of a complete personal fall arrest system maintaining a
safety factor of two
 Each employee attached to a separate lifeline except when vertical lifelines are
used
 On suspended scaffolds or similar work platforms with horizontal lifelines, which
may become vertical lifelines, devices used to connect a horizontal lifeline must
be capable of locking in both directions of the lifeline
 Ropes and straps used in lifelines must be made of synthetic fibers

Self-Retracting Lifelines
A self-retracting lifeline is a specific lifeline that:
 Automatically limits a free fall to two feet or less
 Must be capable of sustaining a minimum tensile load of 3,000 pounds applied to
the device with the lifeline in the fully extended position
 Self-retracting lifelines which DO NOT limit a free fall distance to 2 feet or less
must be capable of sustaining a minimum tensile load of 5,000pounds applied to
the device with the lifeline in the fully extended position

Snaphooks
Locking snaphooks incorporate a positive locking mechanism in addition to the
spring-loaded keeper, which will not allow the keeper to open under moderate
pressure without someone first releasing the mechanism. Such a feature,
properly designed, effectively prevents roll-out.

The following connections must be avoided (unless properly designed locking

snaphooks are used) because they are conditions that can result in roll-out
when a nonlocking snaphook is used:
 Direct connection of a snaphook to a horizontal lifeline
 Two (or more) snaphooks connected to one D-ring
 Two snaphooks connected to each other
 A snaphook connected back on its integral lanyard
  A snaphook connected to a webbing loop or webbing lanyard
 Improper dimensions of the D-ring, rebar, or other connection point in relation to
the snaphook dimensions which would allow the snaphook keeper to be
depressed by a turning motion of the snaphook

Note: When sized to be compatible with the member to which they are
connected, to prevent unintentional disengagement or rollout, connections
is to be safe. Only locking type snaphooks are permitted.

Body Belts
Body belts had been used like a body harness until January 1998 when the
use of a body belt as part of personal fall arrest system became prohibited.
However, body belts still can be used as part of a position device system if
allowed by OSHA.

Functional Categories of PFASs

The components of a PFAS have many functions to be used for fall arrest
system, positioning, and fall restraint system.

Fall Arrest
A fall arrest system is required if any risk exists that a worker may fall from an
elevated position. As a general rule, the fall arrest system should be used any
time a working height of six feet or more is reached. Working height is the
distance from the walking/working surface to a grade or lower level. A fall
arrest system will come into service only should a fall occur. A full body
harness with a shock-absorbing lanyard or a retractable lifeline is the only
product recommended. A full-body harness distributes the forces throughout
the body, and the shock-absorbing lanyard decreases the total fall-arresting
forces.

Positioning
This system holds you in place while leaving your hands free to work.
Whenever the worker leans back, the system is activated. However, the
personal positioning system is not specifically designed for fall arrest
purposes.

Fall Restraint
A fall restraint system physically restricts or stops the employee before he or
she falls. A fall restraint system must meet the same requirements of both the
positioning and personal fall arrest systems.

PFAS Compliance
If an employee having a combined person and tool weight of less than 310
pounds is using the PFAS, the system will be considered to be in compliance.

If an employee having a combined person and tool weight of 310 pounds or

more is using the PFAS, the employer must modify the PFAS to meet the
criteria set by OSHA for protection for the heavier weight, or the PFAS will not
be deemed in compliance. In this case the competent person will provide for
or ask the PFAS manufacturer or supplier to provide a PFAS with
higher/greater weighted strength.

PFAS User Training

Careless or improper use of the equipment can result in serious injury or
death. Thorough employee training in the selection and use of personal fall
arrest systems are imperative.

Employees must be trained in the safe use of the system. This should include
the following:
 Application limits
 Proper anchoring and tie-off techniques
Inspection and storage of the system

It is important for the employer and employee to know and understand the
reduction in strength caused by certain tie-offs (such as using knots, tying
around sharp edges, etc.). In addition to a determination of deceleration
distance and total fall distance to prevent striking a lower level, the employer
must know:
 Methods of use
 Estimation of free-fall distance

Employers and employees should become familiar with the manufacturer's

recommendations before using any system.

Inspection PFAS Equipment

A personal fall arrest system must be inspected prior to each use for wear
damage and other deterioration. For example, the presence of acids, dirt,
moisture, oil, grease, etc., and their effect on the system should be evaluated.
Hot or cold environments also may have an adverse effect on the system. Wire
rope should not be used where an electrical hazard is anticipated.

Key Point: A PFAS that has been subject to an impact load must be
immediately removed from service and not used for employee protection
until inspected and determined by a competent person to be undamaged
and suitable to reuse.
Body Harness Inspection
1. Begin at one end
2. Hold the body side of the belt toward you
3. Grasp the belt with your hands six to eight inches apart.
4. Bend the belt in an inverted "U."
5. Watch for frayed edges, broken fibers, pulled stitches, cuts, or chemical damage.
6. Check D-rings and D-ring metal wear pads for distortion, cracks, breaks, and
rough or sharp edges.
7. Check that the D-ring bar should be at a 90-degree angle with the long axis of
the belt and should pivot freely.
8. Note any unusual wear, frayed or cut fibers, or distortion of the buckles.
9. Inspect frayed or broken strands. Broken webbing strands generally appear as
tufts on the webbing surface. Any broken, cut, or burnt stitches will be readily
seen.
Lanyard Inspection
When inspecting lanyards, begin at one end and work to the opposite end.
Slowly rotate the lanyard so that the entire circumference is visible. Spliced
ends require particular attention. Hardware should be examined under
procedures detailed below.
 Steel Lanyards: While rotating a steel lanyard, watch for cuts, frayed areas, or
unusual wear patterns on the wire. The use of steel lanyards for fall protection
without a shock-absorbing device is not recommended. Wire rope should not be
used where an electrical hazard is anticipated.
 Web Lanyard: While bending webbing over a piece of pipe, observe each side of
the webbed lanyard. This will reveal any cuts or breaks. Due to the limited
elasticity of the web lanyard, fall protection without the use of a shock absorber is
not recommended.
 Rope Lanyard: Rotation of the rope lanyard while inspecting from end to end will
bring to light any fuzzy, worn, broken, or cut fibers. Weakened areas from
extreme loads will appear as a noticeable change in original diameter. The rope
diameter should be uniform throughout, following a short break-in period. When a
rope lanyard is used for fall protection, a shock-absorbing system should be
included.
 Shock-Absorbing Packs: The outer portion of the shock-absorbing pack should
be examined for burn holes and tears. Stitching on areas where the pack is sewn
to the D-ring, belt, or lanyard should be examined for loose strands, rips, and
deterioration.

Damage to Lanyards
 Chemical: Change in color usually appears as a brownish smear or smudge.
Transverse cracks appear when belt is bent over tightly. Such cracks cause a
loss of elasticity in the belt.
  Heat: In excessive heat, nylon becomes brittle and has a shriveled, brownish
appearance. Fibers will break when flexed and should not be used above 180
degrees Fahrenheit.
 Molten Metal or Flame: Webbing and rope strands may be fused together by
molten metal or flame. Watch for hard, shiny spots or a hard and brittle feel.
Webbing will not support combustion while nylon will.
 Paint and Solvents: Paint will penetrate and dry, restricting movement of fibers.
Drying agents and solvents in some paints will appear as chemical damage.
 Ultraviolet Rays: Do not store webbing and rope lanyards in direct sunlight,
because ultraviolet rays can reduce the strength of some material.

Care of PFASs
Basic care for fall protection safety equipment will prolong the life of the
equipment and contribute to the performance of its vital safety function.
Proper storage and maintenance after use is as important as cleaning the
equipment of dirt, corrosives, or contaminants. The storage area should be
clean, dry, and free of exposure to fumes or corrosive elements.

PFAS Components Made of Nylon and Polyester

 Wipe off all surface dirt with a sponge dampened in plain water
 Squeeze the sponge dry
 Dip the sponge in a mild solution of water and commercial soap or detergent
 Work up a thick lather with a vigorous back and forth motion
 Wipe the belt dry with a clean cloth
 Hang freely to dry but away from excessive heat.

Drying
Harness, belts, and other equipment’s should be dried thoroughly without
exposure to heat, steam, or long periods of sunlight.

How To Wear a PFAS

One of the most important aspects of a complete fall protection program is
properly donning a body harness and its components.
1. Hold harness by back D-ring. Shake harness to allow all straps to fall into place.
2. In chest, leg and/or waist straps are buckled, release straps and unbuckle at this
time.
3. Slip straps over shoulders so D-ring is located in middle of back between
shoulder blades.
4. Pull leg strap between legs and connect to the opposite end. Repeat with second
leg strap. If belted harness, connect waist strap after leg straps. Waist strap
should be tight, but not binding.
 5. Connect chest strap and position in mid-chest area. Tighten to keep shoulder
straps taut.
6. After all straps have been buckled, tighten all buckles so that the harness fits
snug but allows full excess strap through loop keepers.

Planning the System

One of the most important aspects of personal fall protection systems is fully
planning the system before it is put into use. A PFAS is not fool proof there are
a number of potential hazards, such as the following:

Proper clearance/Swing
The location of the anchorage point also should consider the hazard of
obstructions in the potential fall path of the employee. Anchorage points,
which minimize the possibilities of exaggerated swinging, also should be
considered.

Obstructions that might interfere with the free fall should be avoided or a
severe injury could occur. A swing fall can be as harmful as falling to the
ground.

PFAS not Properly Worn

If you don't wear PFAS properly it can be as bad as not wearing PFAS at all. All
PFAS are designed to protect the wearer if they fall. If you wear the PFAS too
loose there is the potential for additional stress and strain on the PFAS and the
wearer if the system is to be used. In addition, there is the potential to get
caught on something be torn or damaged which may create an additional fall
hazard. If you wear the PFAS too tight it can create circulation problems,
which can lead to premature muscle fatigue and the potential for slips or falls.

Mixing Components/Roll-Out
A PFAS is designed, tested, and supplied as a complete system. However it is
common practice for lanyards, connectors, lifelines, deceleration devices, and
body harnesses to be interchanged because some components wear out
sooner than others.

Components from different manufacturers can create a numbers of hazards

including roll-out wear a single action snap hook is improperly mated to an
attachment point or another component, allowing an opportunity for the snap
hook to be opened by the attachment or component, thus allowing the PFAS to
be disengaged and exposing the wearer to an unprotected fall.
No component of a PFAS should be substituted or changes unless fully
evaluated and tested by a competent person or equipment manufacturer.

Prolonged Suspension
As part of a comprehensive fall protection program the employer must develop
a system of rescue or retrieval even if it is self-rescue or retrieval. An
individual that has falling while wearing a PFAS must be removed from the
system immediately to prevent any further bodily damage. The PFAS is
designed to reduce the force on the body as the fall is arrested but the system
is not designed for a prolonged stay after the fall.

The body harness as part of a PFAS helps to eliminate some of the issues
associated being suspended by spreading the force of a fall across the body.
Previously, the body harness was used extensively in the construction
industry. The problem with the body harness was if the wearer did fall the
body harness would create a great deal of force on the wearers' mid-section
thus, creating secondary injuries to the back and internal organs from the fall.

Tripping/Entanglement
Some individuals get used to wearing a PFAS immediately while others
struggle with getting used to it. A PFAS is a system that has numerous
components, which may change from day to day, or job to job and depending
upon the situation or circumstances, it is being used for. Regardless how you
feel about wearing a PFAS, there is always a potential for tripping or
entanglement. Being too worried about the PFAS tends to take the wearer's
mind off the job at hand always watching or minding his/her PFAS while an
individual who is too comfortable with the PFAS may tend to complacent and
forgets the environment the PFAS components are being exposed to such as,
sharp edges and other individuals PFAS or equipment.

Planning for suitable anchorage points

Probably the most overlooked component is planning for suitable anchorage
points. Such planning ideally should be done before the structure or building is
constructed so that anchorage points can be incorporated during construction
for use later in window cleaning or other building maintenance. If properly
planned, these anchorage points may be used during construction, as well as
afterwards.

Topic 5: Guardrail Systems

In this topic you will learn about guardrail systems. A guardrail system is one
of the most common forms of fall protection in the construction industry. Upon
completing this topic, you will be able to:
  Describe specifications of a guardrail system including toprail, midrail, and
toeboard
 Recall criteria required for guardrail systems
 Explain special guardrail provisions
 List different types of guardrails and describe their requirements

Components of Guardrail Systems

A guardrail system is one of the most common forms of fall protection in the
construction industry.

A guardrail system is comprised of a toprail and a midrail. Where there is

potential for falling objects, a toeboard also is required as part of the guardrail
system.

Toprail
 The top edge height of toprails must be 42 inches 3 inches above a
walking/working surface.
 When employees are using stilts, the top edge height of the toprail must increase
an equal amount to the height of the stilts
 The toprail must be capable of withstanding a force of at least 200 pounds
applied within 2 inches in any downward or outward direction.
 When the test is applied in a downward direction, the toprail must not deflect to a
distance less than 39 inches above the walking/working surface.

Midrails
 Midrails should be halfway between the top edge of the guardrail and the
walking/working surface. The only exception to using a midrail is when a wall or
parapet comes up at least 21 inches next to the guardrail; then the wall provides
the necessary protection.
 Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent
intermediate structural members must be installed between the toprail and the
walking/working surface when there are no walls or parapet walls at least 21
inches high.
 When screens and mesh are used, they must extend from the toprail to the
walking/working surface and along the entire opening between the toprail vertical
supports.
 Intermediate members such as balusters, when used between posts, must not be
more than 19 inches apart.
 Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical members, or equivalent
intermediate structures must be capable of withstanding a force of a least 150
pounds in any downward or outward direction at any point along the midrail or
other member.
Toeboards
 As part of a guardrail system, the primary function of toeboard is to provide
protection from falling objects.
 Toeboards must be capable of withstanding a force of a least 50 pounds in any
downward or outward direction at any point along the toeboard.
 Toeboards must be at least 31/2 inches high from their top edge to the
walking/working surface. Toeboards cannot be more than 1/4 inch above the
walking/working surface. Toeboards cannot have openings greater than 1 inch at
their largest dimension.
 Where tools, equipment, or materials are piled higher than the top edge of the
toeboard, paneling or screening must be erected from the walking/working
surface to the toprail or midrail, whichever is sufficient to protect employees
below.

What are the criteria that guardrail systems must meet?

1. Use materials with a smooth surface that won't cause cuts or snag clothing and
possibly cause a fall.
2. Guardrails should be strong enough to withstand a force of up to 200 pounds
applied in any outward or downward direction.
3. Steel and plastic banding cannot be used as toprails or midrails.
4. Manila, plastic, or synthetic rope used for toprails or midrails must be inspected
as frequently as necessary to ensure strength and stability. These may be the
least desirable because they have to be inspected often and may deteriorate
rapidly.
5. Guardrail systems must not overhang their terminal posts and create a projection
hazard.
6. Wood, pipe, structural steel, and cable (wire rope) are all good materials for
constructing guardrails.

Note: Where possible, you should first consider installing guardrails or

barriers. They provide a high degree of protection once installed properly. In
the construction industry, however, installing guardrails or barriers is not
always practical; in that instance you will need personal fall protection
equipment.

Special Guardrail Provisions

When a guardrail system is used at a hoisting area, a chain, gate, or
removable guardrail section must be placed across the hoist access opening
when hoisting operations are not taking place.

When a guardrail system is used around holes, the system must be set up on
all unprotected sides. When holes are used to pass material, the hole cannot
have more than two sides that are removable. When the hole is not in use it
must be covered or provided with guardrails on all sides. When holes are used
for access points for ladders or stairways, gates must be used or the point of
access must be offset to prevent employees from walking into the hole.
If guardrails are used on unprotected sides or edges of ramps, runways, or
other walkways, they must be erected on each side or edge.

Types of Guardrails
There are different types of guardrails based on the material used. Click each
image to see its requirements.

Wood Guardrails
When using wood, choose stress-grade construction lumber. The following
requirements must apply:
1. Posts are at least 2-inch by 4-inch lumber, spaced not more than 8 feet apart on
centers.
2. Toprails are at least 2-inch by 4-inch lumber.
3. Intermediate rails are at least 1-inch by 6-inch lumber.
Pipe Guardrails
Pipe components are required to meet the following criteria:
1. Posts are at least 11/2 inches in nominal diameter (schedule 40 pipe), spaced
not more than 8 feet apart on centers.
2. Toprails are at least 11/2 inches nominal diameter (schedule 40 pipe).
3. Intermediate railings are at least 11/2 inches nominal diameter (schedule 40
pipe).

Structural Steel Guardrails

Structural steel components are required to meet the following criteria:
1. Posts are at least 2-inch by 2-inch by 3/8-inch angles, with posts spaced not
more than 8 feet apart on center.
2. Toprails are at least 2-inch by 2-inch by 3/8-inch angles.
3. Intermediate rails are at least 2-inch by 2-inch by 3/8-inch angles.

Wire Rope Guardrails

1. Wire rope guardrails have no requirement that terminal supports be maintained
at 8 feet on center, but when tested in the center with the 200-pound force the
toprails must not deflect below 39 inches from the walking/working surface.
2. Toprails and midrails of a guardrail system must be at least 1/4-inch nominal
diameter or thickness to prevent cuts and lacerations.
3. If wire rope is used for toprails, it must be flagged with high-visibility material at
intervals not more than 6 feet.

Topic 6: Positioning Device Systems, Warning Lines Systems, and

Covers
Positioning Device Systems
A positioning device system is a body belt or body harness system rigged to
allow an employee to be supported on an elevated vertical surface, such as a
wall, and to work with both hands free while leaning.

Body Belts
Since January 1998, the use of a body belt as part of PFAS has been
prohibited. However, body belts still can be used as part of a position device
system if allowed by OSHA. Body belts are prohibited because the body
harness was shown in studies to limit the trauma on the body during a fall. A
body belt focuses all of the force on the center of the body, while a body
harness disperses the energy throughout the torso area. For this reason,
OSHA concluded that body harnesses provided a higher level of protection.
Ropes and straps used in body belts must be made of synthetic fibers. Body
belts must be at least 1 5/8 inches wide. The attachment point for a body belt
must be in the center of the wearer's back.

A body harness or body belt as part of a positioning device system is to be

installed so an employee can free fall no farther than two feet (two feet for a
positioning device vs. six feet for a PFAS, due to the fact that it is only a
positioning device not made for any other function within construction
operations).

The positioning device system's anchorage point must be capable of

supporting at least twice the potential impact load of an employee's fall or
3,000 pounds, whichever is greater. A positioning device is to stop your fall
within two feet, so this allows the anchorage point to be reduced to 3,000
pounds as opposed to 5,000 pounds for a PFAS.

Note. The components of a PFAS are also some of the same components
of restraint systems and positioning systems. Some components are
being used for a different function.

Requirements for Positioning Device Systems

All positioning device system components including snaphooks and d-rings
must meet the same criteria as personal fall arrest systems. Among those
criteria:
 Connecting assemblies have a tensile strength of 5,000 pounds
 Positioning device systems must be drop-forged, pressed, or formed steel, or
made of equivalent materials
 Systems must have a corrosion-resistant finish, and all surfaces and edges must
be smooth to prevent damage to interfacing parts of the PFAS
  D-rings and snaphooks must be proof-tested to a minimum tensile load
 3,600 without cracking, breaking, or taking permanent deformation
 Snaphooks must be sized to be compatible with the member to which they are
connected to prevent roll-out, or a locking type snaphook must be designed and
used to prevent disengagement of the snaphook.
 Body harnesses, body belts, and components must not be used to hoist
materials

Key Point: Positioning device systems must be inspected prior to each use for
wear, damage, and other deterioration, and defective components must be
removed from service.

Warning Lines Systems

A warning line system is a barrier that is erected to warn employees that they
are approaching an unprotected roof side or edge. It designates an area in
which roofing work may take place without the use of guardrail, body belt, or
safety net systems to protect employees in the area.

Warning lines systems must meet the following criteria:

1. A warning line will be erected around all sides of the roof work area.
2. When mechanical equipment is not being used, warning lines will be not less
than six feet from the roof edge.
3. When mechanical equipment is being used, warning lines will not be less than 6
feet from the roof edge parallel to the direction of mechanical equipment
operations, and not less than 10 feet from the roof edge perpendicular to
direction of mechanical operations.
4. Points of access, materials handling areas, storage areas, and hoisting areas will
be connected to the work area by an access path formed by two warning lines.
5. When the path to a point of access is not in use, a rope, wire, chain, or other
barricade equivalent in strength and height to the warning line is placed across
path at the point where the path intersects the warning line erected around work
area, or the path is offset so a person cannot walk directly into the work area.

What are the criteria for the warning line?

1. Rope, wire, or chain flagged at not more than 6-foot intervals with highvisibility
material
2. Rigged and supported so the lowest point is not less than 34 inches and the
highest point not more than 39 inches from the walking/working surface
3. With lines attached, stanchions must be capable of resisting, without tipping over,
a force of at least 16 pounds applied horizontally against the stanchion, 30
inches above walking/working surface, perpendicular to warning line, and in the
direction of floor, roof, or platform edge
4. Rope, wire, or chain must have a minimum tensile strength of 500 pounds
 5. Lines attached at each stanchion in such a way that pulling on one section of line
between stanchions will not result in the slack being taken up in adjacent
sections before the stanchion tips over
6. Wire rope not used where an electrical hazard is anticipated

Covers
Employees must be protected from falling into or through holes, including
skylights that are six feet or more above lower levels. One way to guard
against this hazard is the placement of hole covers.

Covers for holes in floors, roofs, and other walking/working surfaces should
meet the following criteria:
 Covers located in roadways and vehicular aisles must be able to support at least
twice the maximum axle load of the largest vehicle to which the cover might be
subjected.
 All other covers must be able to support at least twice the weight of the
employee, equipment, and materials that may be imposed on the cover at any
time.
 To prevent incidental displacement resulting from wind, equipment, or employee
activity, all covers must be secured.
 All covers should be color-coded or bear the marking "HOLE" or "COVER" to
provide warning of the hazard.
 If plywood is used to cover holes, it should be at least 3/4 of an inch thick.
 Install the covers so as to eliminate any tripping hazards.

Topic 7: Safety Monitoring Systems, CAZ, and Safety Nets

Controlled Access Zone
A controlled access zone (CAZ) is an area in which certain work may take
place without the use of guardrail systems, personal fall arrest systems, or
safety net systems. Access to the zone is controlled.

Controlled access zones are often used in conjunction with a safety monitoring
system.

When a controlled access zone is in use, the following requirements have to be

met:
 When used to control access to areas where leading edge and other operations
are taking place, the controlled access zone must be defined by a control line or
other means that restrict access.
 Control lines must be between 6 feet and 25 feet from the unprotected or leading
edge, except when erecting precast concrete members.
  When erecting precast concrete members, control lines can be erected not less
than 6 feet nor more than 60 feet or half the length of the member being erected,
whichever is less, from the leading edge.
 Control lines are to be extended along the entire length of the unprotected or
leading edge, approximately parallel to the unprotected or leading edge.
 Control lines are connected on each side to a guardrail system or a wall.

What are the criteria for the control line?

The control lines used to designate controlled access zones can consist of
ropes, wires, tapes, or equivalent materials and supporting stanchions that
meet the following requirements:
 Lines are flagged or clearly marked at six-foot intervals with highvisibility
material.
 Each line is rigged and supported so that it is not less than 39 inches and not
more than 45 inches from the walking/working surface.
 Each line is rigged and supported so that it is not less than 39 inches and not
more than 50 inches from the walking /working surface when overhand
bricklaying operations are being performed.
 Each line must have a minimum breaking strength of 200 pounds.

CAZ With Overhand Bricklaying Operations

When a CAZ is used to control access to areas where overhand bricklaying and
related works are taking place, the following requirements must apply:
 The controlled access zone is defined by a control line erected not less than 10
feet nor more than 15 feet from the working edge.
 Control lines must extend to enclose all employees performing overhand
bricklaying and related work at the working edge and should be parallel to the
working edge.
 Additional control lines are to be erected at each end to enclose the controlled
access zone.
 Only employees engaged in overhand bricklaying or related work are permitted in
the controlled access zone.

On floors and roofs where guardrail systems are not in place prior to beginning
of overhand bricklaying operations, the controlled access zones must be
enlarged to enclose all points of access, material handling areas, and storage
areas.

On floors and roofs where guardrail systems are in place but need to be
removed to allow for overhand bricklaying work or leading-edge work, only the
portion of the guardrail necessary to accomplish that day's work may be
removed.

Safety Nets
A safety net system is another conventional fall protection system employers
may use to protect employees from falls.

The following requirements apply to the use of safety nets:

 Safety nets must be installed as close as possible under the walking/working
surface on which employees are working and never more than 30 feet below this
level.
 Safety net systems must extend outward from their outermost projection.
 Safety net systems must be installed with sufficient clearance to prevent contact
with surface or structures below when subjected to an impact force.
 The maximum size of each safety net mesh opening cannot exceed 36 square
inches; nor can it be longer than 6 inches on any side.
 All mesh crossings must be secured to prevent enlargement of the openings.
 Each safety net system must have a broader rope for webbing with a minimum
breaking strength of 5,000 pounds.
 Connections between safety net panels must be as strong as the integral net
components and cannot be spaced more than six inches apart.

In addition to these requirements, the employer must be sure that materials, scrap
pieces, equipment, and tools that have fallen into a safety net are removed as soon as
possible and at least before the next work shift.

Safety nets and their installation must be drop-tested:

 After initial installation
 Before initial use as fall protection
 Whenever relocated
 After a major repair
 At six-month intervals if left in one place

Safety nets must be tested with a 400-pound bag of sand (30 2 inches in
diameter) dropped into the net from the highest walking/working surface from
which an employee can fall.

The drop test must never be performed from less than 42 inches.
When it is unreasonable to perform the drop test, the employer or designated
competent person must certify the net is capable of providing worker
protection.

The most recent certification record for each safety net system must be
available at the job site.

Other requirements include:

 Safety nets systems must be inspected at least once a week for wear, damage,
and other deterioration.
 Defective nets must not be used.
 Defective components must be removed from service.
 Safety net systems also will be inspected after any occurrence that could affect
their integrity.

Topic 8: Fall Protection Plans

Remember the following criteria for situations in which a fall protection plan is
implemented:
1. Fall protection plans are prepared and developed by a qualified person
specifically for the site where leading edge work, precast concrete work, and
residential construction are being performed.
2. The fall protection plan must be kept up to date.
3. A qualified person approves changes to the fall protection plan.
4. A copy of the fall protection plan with approved changes is maintained at the job
site.
5. Implementation of the fall protection plan is under the supervision of a competent
person.
6. Fall protection plans must document the reasons why use of conventional fall
protection systems (guardrails systems, personal fall arrest systems, or safety
net systems) are infeasible or why their use would create a greater hazard.
7. The plan must include a written discussion of other measures to be taken to
reduce or eliminate fall hazards for employees who cannot be provided with
protection from conventional fall protection systems.
8. The plan must identify each location where convention fall protection methods
cannot be used. These locations are classified as controlled access zones
(CAZ).
9. The plan must include a statement that provides the name or other method of
identification for each employee designated to work in controlled access zones.
No other employee may enter controlled access zones.
10. Where no other alternative measure has been implemented, the employer must
implement a safety monitoring system.
11. In the event an employee falls or some other related, serious incident occurs
(near-miss), the employer will investigate the circumstances of the fall or other
incident to determine if the fall protection plan needs to be changed (new
practices, procedures, or training) and must implement those changes to prevent
similar types of falls or incidents.

Falling Object Protection Plans

Remember the following criteria for situations in which fall protection must be
considered to protect workers from overhead hazards:
 A hardhat must be worn.
 A guardrail system including a toeboard can be used as falling object protection.
 No material or equipment, excluding mortar and masonry, can be stored within
four feet of working edges.
 Excess mortar, broken or scattered masonry units, and all other materials and
debris must be kept clear of the working area by removal at regular intervals.
 During roofing operations, materials and equipment cannot be stored within six
feet of a roof edge unless guardrails are erected at the roof edge.
 Roofing materials piled, grouped, or stacked near a roof edge must be stable and
self-supporting.
 You also can use canopies strong enough to resist collapse and resist
penetration by any object that may fall onto them.
 Barricade the area to which objects could fall and prohibit employees from
entering the barricaded area.

Topic 9: Fall Protection Training Program

This topic covers training program specifications required for fall protection.

Upon completing this topic, the student will be able to:

 Describe training requirements and training topics
 State what should be included in a certification of training
 Identify when to take a fall protection training

Training Requirements, Topics, Certification, and Frequency

There are things you need to know about fall protection training.

Training Requirements
Training requirements for fall protection training programs are:
 The employer has to provide a training program for each employee who might be
exposed to fall hazards.
 The training program must enable each employee to recognize the hazards of
falling.
 The training program must train each employee on procedures that will help
minimize fall hazards.
 The training program has to be conducted by a competent person.
 The training program must consider the bilingual workforce.
Training Topics
The following list includes topics covered in the fall protection training
program:
 Nature of fall hazards
 Correct procedures to select, erect, maintain, disassemble, and inspect fall
protection systems
 Proper use of fall protection systems
 The use and operation of guardrail systems, personal fall arrest systems, safety
net systems, warning line systems, safety monitoring systems, controlled access
zones, and other protection
 Limitations of fall protection systems
 Procedures for proper handling and storage of fall protection systems
 Job site-specific issues like anchorage points, clearance, and identification of the
competent person

Certification of Training
Fall protection training requires a certification, which includes the following:
 Employees name
 Date of training
 Signature of trainer

Training Frequency
A fall protection training program requires training in any of the following
situations:
 Initial employment
 Changes in the workplace
 Changes in the type of fall protection system used
 Inadequate previous training
 Cranes
Introduction
Today's skylines are constantly changing, and the masts of cranes are always part of
the picture.

There are approximately 125,000 cranes in operation today in the construction

industry, as well as an additional 80,000-100,000 in general and maritime industries.

More than 250,000 crane operators and a very large but undetermined number of
other workers and the general public are at risk of serious and often fatal injury due
to accidents involving cranes, derricks, hoists, and hoisting accessories.

OSHA reports that cranes are involved in 25 to 33 percent of fatal injuries, an

average of 71 fatalities each year.

Topic 1: General Information

This topic introduces general information and requirements for working with cranes.
You will review OSHA standards, the hierarchy of control principles, and the
Preplanning Checklist.

Standards
Crane and lifting incidents are costly not only financially but also emotionally. An
obvious first step in preventing fatalities and serious injuries is to ensure that all such
operations be done only in at least minimal compliance with existing OSHA standards.
The primary areas of concern for which OSHA is reviewing include:

 Criteria for operator qualifications

 Standard update
 Clarification of use
 Inspection and maintenance of cranes
 Certification or qualifications of riggers and signal persons

In addition to OSHA standards, many employers adopt standards from these agencies
to reduce safety risks:
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 Specialized Carriers and Riggers Association (SC&RA)
 Crane and Hoist Safety

Crane and Hoist Safety

Crane and Hoist Safety sets criteria for designation as an OSHA priority. The very
serious nature of the hazard, the magnitude of the risk (high rate of fatalities and
serious injuries relative to the number of workers exposed), the potential for
catastrophic accidents, and the considerable knowledge about effective protective
measures clearly demonstrate the need for action to address crane and hoist safety

Preplanning
Each crane's operating procedures must be reviewed, discussed, and communicated
well in advance of the actual lift.

Preplanning Checklist
 Timing of equipment delivery
 Staging and setup
 Rubber or outriggers
 Retracted or extended
 Rubber of stabilizers
 Ground stability
 Previously disturbed
 Trenches and excavations
 Backfilled
 Soil conditions
 Outriggers
 Pads
  Pinning
 Blocking
 Materials
 Size
 Direction
 Ground pressure
 Leveling
 Setting up
 Side loading
 Rigging
 Inspections
 Equipment
 Wire rope
 Nylon slings
 Chokers
 Clamps
 Spreaders
 Reeving
 2-Part
 4-Part
 Anti-Two Block Device

Topic 2: Types of Cranes

Overview
This topic describes the different types of cranes, derricks, and helicopters and lists

OSHA's requirements for their safe use. Upon completing this topic, you will be able
to:
 List the six different types of cranes and give examples of each
 State the safety requirements for floating cranes and derricks
 Explain the regulations applying to operating helicopter cranes
 Comply with the five general requirements for working with cranes and derricks

Cranes
Moving large, heavy loads is crucial to today's construction industry. Much technology
has been developed for these operations, as well as careful training and extensive
workplace precautions. There are significant safety issues to be considered, both for
operators of the diverse lifting devices and for workers in proximity to them. First you
will identify the different types of cranes and derricks, and then you will read about
OSHA's requirements for crane safety.
There are six standard types of machines for hoisting heavy objects.
 Hoisting Machines
 Boom Trucks (Threscopine Boom and Articulating Boom)
 Truck Cranes (Lattice Boom and Telescopic)
 Crawlers Cranes (Lattice Boom and Telescopic)
 Rough Terrain Cranes (Fixed Lab and Rotting Cab)
 Mobile Tower Cranes (Crawler Mounted and Carrier Mounted, Heavy Lift Cranes
and Rolling Ring and Crawler)

The six types of cranes described are categorized by three functions: mobile, fixed,
and overhead cranes.

Crawler, Locomotive, and Truck Cranes

 All jibs must have positive stops to prevent their movement of more than 5°
above the straight line of the jib and boom on conventional crane booms.
 The use of cable type belly slings is not permitted.
 There must be a certification record, which includes the date the crane items
were inspected; the signature of the person who inspected the crane items; and
a serial number, or other identifier, for the crane inspected.
 The most recent certification record must be maintained on file until a new one is
prepared.

Tower Cranes
 Adequate clearance must be maintained between moving and rotating structures
of the crane and fixed objects to allow the passage of employees without harm.
 Each employee required to perform duties on the horizontal boom of
hammerhead tower cranes must be protected against falling by guardrails or by a
personal fall arrest system that meets the requirements of the OSHA Fall
Protection Standard.
 Buffers must be provided at both ends of travel of the trolley.
 Cranes mounted on rail tracks must be equipped with limit switches limiting the
travel of the crane on the track and stops or buffers at each end of the tracks.
 All tower cranes in use must meet the applicable requirements for design,
construction, installation, testing, maintenance, inspection, and operation as
prescribed by the manufacturer.

Overhead and Gantry Cranes

 The rated load of the crane must be plainly marked on each side of the crane. If
the crane has more than one hoisting unit, each hoist must have its rated load
marked on it or its load block, and this marking must be clearly legible from the
ground or floor.
  Bridge trucks must be equipped with sweeps which extend below the top of the
rail and project in front of the truck wheels.
 Except for floor-operated cranes, a gong or other effective audible warning signal
must be provided for each crane equipped with a power traveling mechanism.
 All overhead and gantry cranes in use must meet the applicable requirements for
design, construction, installation, testing, maintenance, inspection, and operation
as prescribed by ANSI.

Derricks
Derricks also are used to move heavy loads. A derrick is a device consisting of a mast
held at the head by guys or braces. The equipment may or may not have a boom and
is used with a hoisting mechanism and operating ropes. Most derricks have a tall
framework over a drilled hole, especially when used on a barge as part of an oil well
There are A-frame derricks and basket derricks. An A-frame derrick has a boom
hinged from a cross member that is highly secured. On the other hand, a basket
derrick works without a boom with its base supported by attached ropes that raise
and lower the loads.
All derricks in use must meet the applicable requirements for design, construction,
installation, inspection, testing, maintenance, and operation as prescribed in
American National Standards Institute B30.6, Safety Code for Derricks.

Mobile Cranes Mounted on Barges

 When a mobile crane is mounted on a barge, the rated load of the crane must
not exceed the original capacity specified by the manufacturer.
 A load rating chart, with clearly legible letters and figures, must be provided with
each crane and securely fixed at a location easily visible to the operator.
 When load ratings are reduced to stay within the limits for list of the barge with a
crane mounted on it, a new load rating chart must be provided.
 Mobile cranes on barges must be positively secured.

Permanently Mounted Floating Cranes and Derricks

 When cranes and derricks are permanently installed on a barge, the capacity and
limitations of use must be based on competent design criteria.
 A load rating chart with clearly legible letters and figures must be provided and
securely fixed at a location easily visible to the operator.
 Floating cranes and floating derricks in use must meet the applicable
requirements for design, construction, installation, testing, maintenance, and
operation as prescribed by the manufacturer.

Protection of Employees Working on Barges

 The employer must comply with the applicable requirements for protection of
employees working onboard marine vessels as specified by OSHA.
Helicopter Cranes
Helicopter cranes provide a cost-effective alternative to more traditional construction
methods. Helicopter cranes can pour concrete and erect steel structures in areas
where ground-based cranes are not suitable. Such locations as soft or swampy
ground, steep mountain terrain, environmentally protected areas, and offshore
islands are easily accessed by helicopter cranes for delivery and placement of
construction materials and equipment.

Helicopter cranes must be inspected to comply with any applicable regulations of the
Federal Aviation Administration.

Helicopter Equipment
Operator Responsibility
The helicopter operator must be responsible for the size, weight, and manner in which
loads are connected to the helicopter. If, for any reason, the helicopter operator
believes the lift cannot be made safely, the lift must not be made.

Slings and Tag Lines

The load must be properly slung. Tag lines must be of a length that will not allow
them to be drawn up into rotors.

Pressed sleeves, wedged eyes, or equivalent means must be used for all freely
suspended loads to prevent hand splices from spinning open or cable clamps from
loosening.

Static Charge
Static charge on the suspended load must be dissipated with a grounding device
before ground personnel touch the suspended load, or protective rubber gloves must
be worn by all ground personnel touching the suspended load.

Weight Limitation
The weight of an external load must not exceed the manufacturer's rating.

Ground Lines
Hoist wires or other gear, except for pulling lines or conductors that are allowed to
"pay out" from a container or roll off a reel, must not be attached to any fixed ground
structure or allowed to foul on any fixed structure.

Operating Helicopters
Hooking and Unhooking Loads
When employees are required to perform work under hovering craft, a safe means of
access must be provided for employees to reach the hoist line hook and engage or
disengage cargo slings.

Employees must not perform work under hovering craft except when necessary to
hook or unhook loads.

Visibility
When visibility is reduced by dust or other conditions, ground personnel must
exercise special caution to keep clear of main and stabilizing rotors. Precautions also
must be taken by the employer to eliminate reduced visibility as far as practical.

Signal Systems
Signal systems between air crew and ground personnel must be understood and
checked in advance of hoisting the load. This applies to either radio or hand signal
systems.

Approach Distance
No unauthorized person must be allowed to approach within 50 feet of the helicopter
when the rotor blades are turning.
Approaching Helicopter
Whenever approaching or leaving a helicopter with blades rotating, all employees
must remain in full view of the pilot and keep in a crouched position. Employees must
avoid the area from the cockpit or cabin rearward unless authorized by the helicopter
operator to work there.

Working with Competent and Qualified Personnel

When using cranes and other lifting equipment always work with a manufacturer or
vender that has experience with your type of lift and jobsite situation. Working with
the appropriate competent and qualified professionals when lifting is as critical as the
lift itself.
 Competent person - means one who is capable of identifying existing and
predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are
unsanitary, hazardous, or dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to
take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them.
 Qualified person - means one who, by possession of a recognized degree,
certificate, or professional standing, or who by extensive knowledge, training, and
experience, has successfully demonstrated his ability to solve or resolve
problems relating to the subject matter, the work, or the project.

Helicopter General Safety

Briefing
A briefing must be conducted prior to each day's operation. This briefing must set
forth the plan of operation for the pilot and ground personnel.
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment for employees receiving the load must consist of
complete eye protection and hard hats secured by chin straps.
Loose clothing likely to flap in the downwash, and thus be snagged on hoist line, must
not be worn.

Loose Gear and Objects

Every practical precaution must be taken to provide to protect employees from flying
objects in the rotor downwash. All loose gear within 100 feet of the place of lifting the
load, depositing the load, and all other areas susceptible to rotor downwash must be
secured or removed.

Housekeeping
Good housekeeping must be maintained in all helicopters loading and unloading areas.

Personnel
Sufficient ground personnel must be provided when required for safe helicopter
loading and unloading operations.

Communications
There must be constant reliable communication between the pilot and a designated
employee of the ground crew who acts as a signalman during the period of loading
and unloading. This signalman must be distinctly recognizable from other ground
personnel.

Fires
Open fires must not be permitted in an area where such fires could be spread by the
rotor downwash.

General Requirements
There are several general requirements for working with cranes. These safety
standards involve crane operations, equipment inspection, and fire and electrical
safety.

The employer must comply with the manufacturer's specifications and limitations
applicable to the operation of any and all cranes and derricks. Where manufacturer's
specifications are not available, the limitations assigned to the equipment must be
based on the determinations of a qualified engineer competent in this field and be
appropriately documented and recorded. Attachments used with cranes must not
exceed the capacity, rating, or scope recommended by the manufacturer.

Basic Operation
Rated load capacities, recommended operating speeds, and special hazard warnings
or instruction must be conspicuously posted on all equipment. Instructions or
warnings must be visible to operators while they are at their control stations.
Hand signals to crane and derrick operators must be those prescribed by the
applicable ANSI standard for the type of crane in use. An illustration of the signals
must be posted at the job site. The employer must designate a competent person
who must inspect all machinery and equipment prior to each use, and during use, to
make sure it is in safe operating condition. Any deficiencies must be repaired, or
defective parts replaced, before continued use.

Basic Inspection Requirements For Equipment

A thorough, annual inspection of the hoisting machinery must be made by a
competent person, or by a government or private agency recognized by the U.S.
Department of Labor. The employer must maintain a record of the dates and results
of inspections for each hoisting machine and piece of equipment.

Wire rope must be taken out of service when any of the following conditions exist:
 In running ropes, six randomly distributed broken wires in one lay or three broken
wires in one strand in one lay
 Wear of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires
 Kinking, crushing, bird caging, or any other damage resulting in distortion of the
rope structure
 Evidence of any heat damage from any cause
 Reductions from nominal diameter of more than 1/64 inch for diameters up to
and including 5/16-inch, 1/32 inch for diameters 3/8 inch to and including 1/2
inch, 3/64 inch for diameters 9/16 inch to and including 3/4 inch, 1/16 inch for
diameters 7/8 inch to 1 inch inclusive, 3/32 inch for diameters 1 1/4 to 1 1/2
inches inclusive
 In standing ropes, more than two broken wires in one lay in sections beyond end
connections or more than one broken wire at an end connection
 Wire rope safety factors must be in accordance with American National
Standards Institute B30.5 or SAE J959.

Basic OSHA Requirements

 Belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, fly wheels, chains, or
other reciprocating, rotating, or other moving parts or equipment must be
guarded if such parts are exposed to contact by employees or otherwise create a
hazard.
 Accessible areas within the swing radius of the rear of the rotating superstructure
of the crane, either permanently or temporarily mounted, must be barricaded to
prevent an employee from being struck or crushed by the crane.
 All exhaust pipes must be guarded or insulated in areas where contact by
employees is possible in the performance of normal duties.
  Whenever equipment powered by an internal combustion engine exhaust in
enclosed spaces, tests must be made and recorded to see that employees are
not exposed to unsafe concentrations of toxic gases or oxygen-deficient
atmospheres.
 All windows in cabs must be made of safety glass or equivalent material that
does not visibly distort the view and interfere with the safe operation of the
machine.
 Where necessary for rigging or service requirements, a ladder or steps must be
provided to give access to a cab roof. Guardrails, handholds, and steps must be
provided on cranes for easy access to the car and cab, conforming to American
National Standards Institute B30.5.
 Platforms and walkways must have anti-skid surfaces.
 No modifications or additions that affect the capacity or safe operation of the
equipment must be made by the employer without the manufacturer's written
approval. If such modifications or changes are made, the capacity, operation,
and maintenance instruction plates, tags, or decals, must be changed
accordingly. In no case must the original safety factor of the equipment be
reduced.
 All employees must be kept clear of loads about to be lifted and of suspended
loads.

Basic Fire Protection on Cranes

 Fuel tank filler pipe must be located in such a position or protected in such a
manner that will not allow a spill or overflow to run onto the engine, exhaust, or
electrical equipment of any machine being fueled.
 An accessible fire extinguisher of 5BC rating or higher must be available at all
operator stations or in cabs of equipment.
 All fuels must be transported, stored, and handled to meet the OSHA
requirements. When fuel is transported by vehicles on public highways,
Department of Transportation rules contained in 49 CFR Parts 177 and 393
concerning such vehicular transportation are considered applicable.

Basic Electrical Safety on Cranes

Except where electrical distribution and transmission lines have been de-energized
and visibly grounded at point of work or where insulating barriers have been erected
to prevent physical contact with the lines, equipment, or machines near power lines
must be operated only in accordance with the following:
 For lines rated 50kV or below, minimum clearance between the lines and any
part of the crane or load must be 10 feet.
  For lines rated over 50kV, minimum clearance between the lines and any part of
the crane or load must be 10 feet plus 0.4 inch for each 1kV over 50kV or twice
the length of the line insulator, but never less than 10 feet.
 In transit with no load and boom lowered, the equipment clearance must be a
minimum of 4 feet for voltages less than 50kV and 10 feet for voltages over
50kV, up to and including 345kV, and 16 feet for voltages up to and including
750kV.
 A person must be designated to observe clearance of the equipment and give
timely warning for all operations where it is difficult for the operator to maintain
the desired clearance by visual means.
 Cage-type boom guards, insulating links, or proximity warning devices may be
used on cranes, but the use of such devices must not alter the requirements of
any other regulation of this part even if such device is required by law or
regulation.
 Any overhead wire must be considered to be an energized line unless and until
the person owning such line or the electric utility authorities indicate that it is not
an energized line, and it has been visibly grounded. Prior to work near transmitter
towers where an electrical charge can be induced in the equipment or materials
being handled, the transmitter must be de-energized, or tests must be made to
determine if electrical charge is induced on the crane. All of the following
precautions must be taken when necessary to dissipate induced voltages:
 The equipment must be provided with an electrical ground directly to the upper
rotating structure supporting the boom.
 Ground jumper cables must be attached to materials being handled by boom
equipment when an electrical charge is induced while working near energized
transmitters. Crews must be provided with nonconductive poles having large
alligator clips or other similar protection to attach the ground cable to the load.
 Combustible and flammable materials must be removed from the immediate area
prior to operations.

Topic 3: Crane Principles and Operations

Overview
This topic will review the basic lifting principles and operational practices for lifting or
moving heavy loads. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 Identify the three main reasons why working with cranes can be hazardous
 Discuss the four basic lifting principles that govern a crane's mobility and safety
during operation
 Identify crane capabilities, limitations, and job site restrictions for safe operations
 Describe special operational considerations for cranes powered by internal
combustion engines or electric motors

Crane Failures
Cranes may fail because of poor structure, stability, rigging, and other reasons.
Please note these areas of crane use likely to be dangerous.
1. Structural
 Outrigger failure
 Two-blocking
 Boom buckling
2. Stability
 Side pull
 Upset/overturn
 Oversteer/crabbing
3. Rigging
 Killer hooks (without a throat latch) rigging
4. Combination Stability/Structure
 Overloading
 Unintentional turntable turning
5. Electrical
 Power-line contact

Lifting Principles
There are four basic lifting principles that govern a crane's mobility and safety during
lifting operations.

1. Center of Gravity
The center of gravity of any object is the point in the object where its weight
can be assumed to be concentrated; stated another way, it is the point in the
object around which its weight is evenly distributed. The location of the center
of gravity of a mobile crane depends primarily on the weight and location of its
heaviest components (boom, carrier, upperworks, and counterweight).

2. Leverage
Cranes use the principle of leverage to lift loads. Rotation of the upperworks
(Cab, boom, counterweight, load) changes the location of the crane's center of
gravity, its leverage point, or fulcrum.

As the upperworks rotates, the leverage of a mobile crane fluctuates. This

rotation causes the crane's center of gravity to change and causes the distance
between the crane's center of gravity and its tipping axis also to change.
Stability can be affected by the fluctuating leverage the crane exerts on the
load as it swings. Therefore, the crane's rated capacity is altered in the load
chart to compensate for those changes in leverage.
Provided the ground is capable of supporting the load, a crane can be
Made more stable by moving the tipping axis farther away from its center of
gravity.

The extra stability gained by moving the tipping axis can then be used to carry
larger/heavier loads.

3. Stability
Stability is the relationship of the load weight, angle of the boom, and its radius
(Distance from the crane's center of rotation to the center of the load) to the
center of gravity of the load. The stability of a crane could also be affected by
the support on which the crane is resting. A crane's load rating generally is
developed for operation under ideal conditions, i.e., a level, firm surface.
Therefore, unlevel surfaces or soft ground must be avoided. In areas were
soft ground poses a support problem for stability, mats and/or blocking should
be used to distribute a crane's load and maintain a level, stable condition.
In addition to overturning (stability failure), cranes can fail structurally if
overloaded enough. Structural failure may occur before there is any sign of
tipping. In other words, a mobile crane's structure may fail long before it tips.
Structural failure is not limited to total fracture; it includes all permanent
damage such as overstressing, bending, and twisting of any of the
components. When a crane is overstressed, the damage may not be apparent.
Nevertheless, a structural failure has occurred, and overstressed components
are then subject to catastrophic failure at some future time.
4. Structural Integrity
The crane's mainframe, crawler track, and/or outrigger supports, boom
sections, and attachments are all considered part of the structural integrity of
lifting. In addition, all wire ropes, including stationary supports or attachment
points, help determine lifting capacity and are part of the overall structural
integrity of a crane's lifting capacity. The following elements also may affect
structural integrity:
The load chart capacity in relationship to stability
 The boom angle limitations which affect stability and capacity
 The knowledge of the length of boom and radius in determining capacity

Stability failures are foreseeable, but in structural failure it is almost impossible

to predict which component will fail at any given time. No matter what the
cause, if the crane is overloaded, structural failure can occur.

Operating Considerations

Cranes are carefully designed, tested, and manufactured for safe operation. When
used properly they can provide safe, reliable service to lift or move loads. Crane
operators and personnel working with cranes need to be knowledgeable about basic
crane capacities, limitations, and specific job site restrictions, such as location of
overhead electric power lines, unstable soil, or high winds.

Crane and Derrick Operations

The OSHA rule prohibits hoisting personnel by crane or derrick except when no
safe alternative is possible.

OSHA stresses that employee safety - not practicality or convenience - must be

the basis for the employer's choice of method.

Cranes and derricks used to hoist personnel must be placed on a firm

foundation, and the crane operator must always be at the controls when the
crane engine is running, and the personnel platform occupied.

Wire rope used for personnel lifting must have a minimum safety factor of
seven. (This means it must be capable of supporting seven times the maximum
intended load.) Rotation-resistant rope must have a minimum safety factor of 10.

When the occupied personnel platform is in a stationary position, all brakes and
locking devices on the crane or derrick must be set.

Instruments and Components

Cranes and derricks with variable angle booms must have a boom angle
indicator that is visible to the operator.

Cranes with telescoping booms must be equipped with a device to clearly

indicate the boom's extended length, or an accurate determination of the load
radius to be used during the lift must be made prior to hoisting personnel.

Cranes and derricks also must be equipped with (1) an anti-two-blocking

device that prevents contact between the load block and overhaul ball and the
boom tip or (2) a two-block damage-prevention feature that deactivates the
hoisting action before damage occurs.

Personnel Platforms
Platforms used for lifting personnel must be designed by a qualified person with
a minimum safety factor of five. The suspension system must be designed to
minimize tipping due to personnel movement on the platform.

Each personnel platform must be provided with a standard guardrail system

 that is enclosed from the toe board to the midrail to keep tools, materials, and
equipment from falling on employees below. The platform also must have an
inside grab rail, adequate headroom for employees, and a plate or other
permanent marking that clearly indicates the platform's weight and rated load
capacity or maximum intended load.

Loading
The personnel platform must not be loaded in excess of its rated load capacity
or its minimum intended load.

Only personnel instructed in the requirements of the standard and the task to
be performed - along with their tools, equipment, and materials needed for the
job - are allowed on the platform. Materials and tools must be secured and
evenly distributed to balance the load while the platform is in motion.

Rigging
When a wire rope bridle is used to connect the platform to the load line, the
bridle legs must be connected to a master link or shackle, so the load is evenly
positioned among the bridle legs. Bridles and associated rigging for attaching
the personnel platform to the hoist line must not be used for any other
purpose.

Attachment assemblies such as hooks must be closed and locked to eliminate

the hook throat opening; an alloy anchor-type shackle with a bolt, nut, and
retaining pin may be used as an alternative. "Mousing" (wrapping wire around
a hook to cover the hook opening) is not permitted.

Prelift Meeting
The employer must hold a meeting with all employees involved in personnel
hoisting operations (crane or derrick operator, signal person(s), employees to
be lifted, and the person responsible for the hoisting operation) to review the
OSHA requirements and the procedures to be followed before any lift
operations are performed.

This meeting must be held before the trial lift at each new work site and must
be repeated for any employees newly assigned to the operation.

Inspecting And Testing

A trial lift of the unoccupied personnel platform must be made before any
employees can be hoisted. The trial lift must be performed immediately prior to
placing personnel on the platform. If a crane or derrick is moved to a new
location or returned to a previously used one, the trial lift must be repeated
before hoisting personnel.
The crane or derrick operator must check all systems, controls, and safety
devices to ensure the following:
 They are functioning properly.
 There are no interferences.

After the trial lift, the personnel platform must be hoisted a few inches and
inspected to ensure that it remains secured and is properly balanced. Before
employees are hoisted, a check must be made to ensure the following:
 Hoist ropes are free of kinks.
 Multiple part lines are not twisted around each other.
 The primary attachment is centered over the platform.
 There is no slack in the wire rope.
 All ropes are properly seated on drums and in sheaves.

Any defects found during inspections must be corrected before hoisting

personnel. The platform and rigging must be proof tested to 125 percent of the
platform's rated capacity, and then a competent person must inspect the
platform and rigging for defects. If any problems are detected, they must be
corrected and another proof test must be conducted. Personnel hoisting must
not be conducted until the proof-testing requirements are satisfied.

Safe Work Practices

Employees, too, can contribute to safe personnel hoisting operations and help
reduce the number of accidents and injuries associated with personnel hoisting
operations.

Employees must follow these safe work practices:

 Use tag lines unless their use creates an unsafe condition.
 Keep all body parts inside the platform during raising, lowering, and positioning.
 Make sure a platform is secured to the structure where work is to be performed
before entering or exiting it, unless such securing would create an unsafe
condition.
 Wear a body belt or body harness system with a lanyard.
 The lanyard must be attached to the lower load block or overhaul ball or to a
structural member within the personnel platform. If the hoisting operation is
performed over water, OSHA requirements must apply.
 Stay in view of, or in direct communication with, the operator or signal person.

Crane and derrick operators must follow these safe work practices:
 Never leave crane or derrick controls when the engine is running or when the
platform is occupied.
  Stop all hoisting operations if there are indications of any dangerous weather
conditions or other impending danger.
 Do not make any lifts on another load line of a crane or derrick that is being used
to hoist personnel.

Movement of Cranes
Personnel hoisting is prohibited while the crane is traveling except when the
employer demonstrates that this is the least hazardous way to accomplish the
task or when portal, tower, or locomotive cranes are used.

When cranes are moving while hoisting personnel, the following rules apply:
 Travel must be restricted to a fixed track or runway.
 Travel also must be limited to the radius of the boom during the lift.
 The boom must be parallel to the direction of travel.
 There must be a complete trial run before employees occupy the platform.
 If the crane has rubber tires, the condition and air pressure of the tires must be
checked and the chart capacity for lifts applied to remain under the 50-percent
limit of the hoist's rated capacity. Outriggers may be partially retracted as
necessary for travel.

Compliance with the common-sense requirements of the OSHA standard and

the determination that no other safe method is available should greatly reduce
or eliminate the injuries and accidents that occur too frequently during
personnel hoisting operations.
Load Chart Considerations
Factors to be considered when calculating a crane's load capacity include the
following:
 Load Radius: the horizontal distance between the center of the crane rotation to
center of the load
 Boom length: including the jib, swing away extension, or any other attachments
that may increase length of the boom
 Parts of line:
 Quadrant of operation: the area of operation in which the lift is being made (Note
that different quadrants usually have lower lifting capacities.)
 Boom angle: the angle formed between the horizontal plane of rotation and
centerline of the boom
 Weight of any attachments: jib, lattice extension, or auxiliary boom point
 Weight of handling devices: ball, block, and/or any necessary rigging

Critical Lifts
Any pick that meets any of the following criteria is considered a critical lift and
requires additional safety measures prior to commencing the lift.
  Tandem picks
 Net weight of load exceeding 25 tons
 Value of load exceeding $50,000
 Replacement time for damaged load exceeding two months
 Gross load weight exceeding 85 percent of crane's rated capacity

Special Operating Considerations

This section applies to crawler cranes, locomotive cranes, wheel-mounted cranes of
both truck and self-propelled wheel type, and any other moving crane types. These
are cranes powered by internal combustion engines or electric motors that use drums
and ropes. Cranes designed for railway and automobile wreck clearances are
excepted. These requirements apply only to machines when used as lifting cranes.

Nine standard hand signals provide safety for working around moving cranes.
1. Hoist: With forearm vertical, forefinger pointing up, move hand in small circles
2. Lower: With arm extended downward, forefinger pointing down, move the hand in
small horizontal circles.
3. Bridge Travel: Arm extended forward, hand open and slightly raised, make a
pushing motion in the direction of travel.
4. Trolley Travel: Palm up, fingers closed, thumb pointing in direction of motion, jerk
the hand horizontally.
5. Stop: Arm extended, palm down, move the arm back and forth horizontally.
6. Emergency Stop: Both arms extended, palms down, move arms back and forth
horizontally.
7. Multiple Trolleys: Hold up one finger for the block marked "1" and two fingers for
the block marked "2." Regular signals follow.
8. Move Slowly: Use one hand to give any motion signal and place other hand
motionless in front of the hand giving the motion signal.
9. Magnet Is Disconnected: Crane operator spreads both hands apart with the
palms up.

CASE STUDY
A 33-year-old well driller was electrocuted when a metal pipe lifted by a truck mounted
crane contacted a 12,000-volt overhead power line. The victim and a
coworker was repairing a submersible pump for a water well at a private residence.
The well was located in a pasture with three parallel power lines overhead. One of the
power lines passed directly over the well (32 feet above the ground). On the day of
the incident, the victim positioned the truck-mounted crane beneath the power line.
Using a handheld remote-control pendant, the victim fully extended the end of the
boom 36 feet above the ground. The crane cable was attached to a one-inch-diameter
galvanized pipe that ran to the pump inside the well. As the victim raised the pipe, it
contacted the power line directly above the well, energizing the crane and the
handheld remote-control pendant. The victim provided a path to ground and was
electrocuted.

CASE STUDY
A 37-year-old construction laborer was electrocuted while pulling a wire rope attached
to a crane cable toward a load. The choker was to be connected to a steel roof joist
that was to be lifted 150 feet across the roof of a one-story school and set in place.
The cab of the crane was positioned 11 feet 6 inches from a 7200-volt power line.
After a previous roof joist had been set in place, the crane operator swung the crane
boom and cable back toward the victim, who grabbed the choker in his left hand.
With his right hand, he held onto a steel rod that had been driven into the ground
nearby. At this point, the momentum of the swinging crane apparently caused the
crane cable to contact the power line. The electrical current passed across the victim's
chest and through the steel rod to ground, causing his electrocution.

Topic 4: Associated Lifting Equipment

General Requirements
The employer must comply with the manufacturer's specifications and limitations
applicable to the operation of all hoists and elevators. Were manufacturer's
specifications are not available, the limitations assigned to the equipment must be
based on the determinations of a professional engineer competent in the field.

The specifications relate to the use of ropes, booms, and belt-type manlifts. Please
examine the following general requirements for hoists.

Rated load capacities, recommended operating speeds, and special hazard warnings
or instructions must be posted on cars and platforms.

Wire rope must be removed from service when any of the following conditions exist:
 In hoisting ropes, six randomly distributed broken wires in one rope lay or three
broken wires in one strand in one rope lay
 Abrasion, scrubbing, flattening, or peeling, causing loss of more than one-third of
the original diameter of the outside
 Evidence of any heat damage resulting from a torch, or any damage caused by
contact with electrical wires
 Reduction from nominal diameter of more than 3/64 inch for diameters up to and
including 3/4-inch, 1/16 inch for diameters 7/8 to 1 inch, and 3/32 inch for
diameters 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches

Hoisting ropes must be installed in accordance with the wire rope manufacturers'
recommendations.

The installation of live booms on hoists is prohibited.

The use of endless belt-type manlifts on construction is prohibited.

Material Hoists
All material hoists must conform to the requirements of ANSI A10.5, Safety
Requirements for Material Hoists. Click each specification to learn more about it.

Operating
Operating rules must be established and posted at the operator's station of the hoist.
Such rules must include signal system and allowable line speed for various loads.
Rules and notices must be posted on the car frame or crosshead in a conspicuous
location, including the statement "No Riders Allowed." In addition, no person must be
allowed to ride on material hoists except for the purposes of inspection and
maintenance.

Hoistways
Protect entrances with gates or bars (not less than 2- by 4-inch wooden bars or the
equivalent) with latching devices that guard the full width of the landing entrance.
Position the bars 2 feet from the hoistway line not less than 36 inches nor more than
42 inches above the floor. The bars and gates should be painted with diagonal
contrasting colors, such as black and yellow strips.

Overhead Protection
Overhead protective covering of 2-inch planking, 3/4-inch plywood, or other solid
material of equivalent strength must be provided on the top of every material hoist
cage or platform.

The operator's station of a hoisting machine must be provided with overhead

protection equivalent to tight planking not less than two inches thick. The support for
the overhead protection must be of equal strength.

Hoist Towers
A licensed professional engineer must design the hoist tower. Hoist towers may be
used with or without an enclosure on all sides. However, whichever alternative is
chosen, the following applicable conditions must be met:

Enclosed
It must be enclosed on all sides for its entire height with a screen enclosure of
1/2-inch mesh of No. 18 U.S. gauge wire or equivalent, except for landing
access.

Not Enclosed
The hoist platform or car must be totally enclosed (caged) on all sides for the
full height between the floor and the overhead protective covering with 1/2-
 inch mesh of No. 14 U.S. gauge wire or equivalent. The hoist platform
enclosure must include the required gates for loading and unloading. Six-foot
high enclosure must be provided on the unused sides of the hoist tower at
ground level. Car-arresting devices must be installed to function in case of rope
failure.

Personnel Hoists
All personnel hoists used by employees must be constructed of materials and
components that meet the specifications for materials, construction, safety devices,
assembly, and structural integrity as stated in the American National Standard
Institute A10.4, Safety Requirements for Workmen's Hoists. The requirements of this
lesson do not apply to cantilever-type personnel hoists.

Towers
Outside Structure
Hoist towers outside the structure must be enclosed for the full height on the
side or sides used for entrance and exit to the structure. At the lowest landing,
the enclosure on the sides not used for exit or entrance to the structure must
be enclosed to a height of at least 10 feet. Other sides of the tower adjacent to
floors or scaffold platforms must be enclosed to a height of 10 feet above the
level of such floors or scaffolds.

Inside Structure
Towers inside structures must be enclosed on all four sides throughout the full
height.

Towers must be anchored to the structure at intervals not exceeding 25 feet. In

addition to tie-ins, a series of guys must be installed. Where tie-ins are not practical,
the tower must be anchored by means of guys made of wire rope at least 1/2 inch in
diameter, securely fastened to anchorage to ensure stability.

Hoistway
Hoistway doors or gates must be not less than six feet six inches high and must be
provided with mechanical locks that cannot be operated from the landing side,
accessible only to persons on the car.

Cars must be permanently enclosed on all sides and the top, except sides used for
entrance and exit that have car gates or doors. A door or gate must be provided at
each entrance to the car, which must protect the full width and height of the car
entrance opening. Doors or gates must be provided with electric contacts that do not
allow movement of the hoist when door or gate is open.

Overhead protective covering of 2-inch planking, 3/4-inch plywood, or other solid

material of equivalent strength must be provided on the top of every personnel hoist.
Safeties must be capable of stopping and holding the car and rated load when
traveling at governor-tripping speed.

Cars must be provided with a capacity and data plate secured in a conspicuous place
on the car or crosshead. Internal combustion engines must not be permitted for direct
drive. Normal and final terminal stopping devices must be provided. An emergency
stop switch must be provided in the car and be marked "Stop."

The minimum number of hoisting ropes used must be three for traction hoists and
two for drum-type hoists. The minimum diameter of hoisting and counterweight wire
ropes must be 1/2 inch. OSHA provides minimum safety factors for suspension wire
ropes.

Inspection
Following assembly and erection of hoists, and before being put into service, an
inspection and test of all functions and safety devices must be made under the
supervision of a competent person. A similar inspection and test are required following
major alteration of an existing installation.

All hoists must be inspected and tested at not more than three-month intervals. The
employer must prepare a certification record that includes the date the inspection and
test of all functions and safety devices was performed, the signature of the person
who performed the inspection and test, and a serial number, or other identifier, for
the hoist that was inspected and tested. The most recent certification record must be
maintained on file.

Other Equipment
These other hoisting methods must meet applicable requirements for their design.
Click each image to learn more about its particular safety precautions.

Base-Mounted Drum Hoists

Exposed moving parts such as gears, projecting screws, setscrews, chain, cables,
chain sprockets, and reciprocating or rotating parts must be guarded to avoid
hazards. Plus, all controls used during the normal operation cycle must be located
within easy reach of the operator's station.

Electric motor-operated hoists must be provided with:

 A device to disconnect all motors from the line upon power failure and not permit
any motor to be restarted until the controller handle is brought to the "off" position
 Where applicable, an overspeed preventive device
 A means whereby remotely operated hoists stop when any control is ineffective
All base-mounted drum hoists in use must meet the applicable requirements for
design, construction, installation, testing, inspection, maintenance, and operations, as
prescribed by the manufacturer.

Overhead Hoists
For an overhead hoist to work safely, care should be given to its structure and
support and its installation only in locations that will permit the operator to stand
clear of the load at all times.

The supporting structure of the hoist must have a safe working load equal to that of
the hoist. The support must be arranged to provide for free movement of the hoist
and must not restrict the hoist from lining itself up with the load. The safe working
load of the overhead hoist, as determined by the manufacturer, must be indicated on
the hoist.

Air hoists must be connected to an air supply of sufficient capacity and pressure to
safely operate the hoist. All air hoses supplying air must be positively connected to
prevent their becoming disconnected during use.
All overhead hoists in use must meet the applicable requirements for construction,
design, installation, testing, inspection, maintenance, and operation, as prescribed by
the manufacturer.

Conveyors
Conveyors are a common device used with cranes for transporting and carrying
materials. This list provides several safety requirements for working with conveyors:
 A means for stopping the motor or engine must be provided at the operator's
station. Conveyor systems must be equipped with an audible warning signal to
be sounded immediately before starting up the conveyor.
 If the operator's station is at a remote point, similar provisions for stopping the
motor or engine must be provided at the motor or engine location.
 Emergency stop switches must be arranged so the conveyor cannot be started
again until the actuating stop switch has been reset to the running or "on"
position.
 Screw conveyors must be guarded to prevent employee contact with turning
flights.
 Where a conveyor passes over work areas, aisles, or thoroughfares, suitable
guards must be provided to protect employees required to work below the
conveyors.
 All crossovers, aisles, and passageways must be conspicuously marked by
suitable signs, as required by OSHA.
 Conveyors must be locked out or otherwise rendered inoperable and tagged out
with a "Do Not Operate" tag during repairs and when operation is hazardous to
employees performing maintenance work.
  All conveyors in use must meet the applicable requirements for design,
construction, inspection, testing, maintenance, and operation, as prescribed in
ANSI B20.1.

Motor Vehicles
Introduction
Recently, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation began a campaign
called "My Mommy Works Here" to try to slow traffic in road construction
areas. This campaign addresses the more than 2,000 deaths from occupational
motor vehicle incidents. These deaths annually account for more than 30
percent of all fatalities from occupational injuries and include:

 Driver and passenger deaths in highway crashes

 Farm equipment incidents
 Industrial vehicle incidents
 Pedestrian fatalities

The National Safety Council (NSC) estimates 200,000 disabling injuries and
more than $4 billion in economic costs result from workplace motor vehicle
incidents.

The underlying causes of these fatalities and injuries vary widely from
mechanical failure, to poor highway and vehicle design, to driver error.

Topic 1: OSHA's General Provisions

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established
numerous requirements for safe use of equipment and motor vehicles on a
construction site. This topic reviews OSHA's general requirements for all motor
vehicle construction equipment.

General Requirements for All Equipment

No specific OSHA standards concern workplace motor vehicle safety; however,
most occupational fatalities occur on public highways where there are seat belt
requirements and traffic laws. OSHA and NIOSH are currently working with the
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to extract better data
from existing databases on the underlying causes of vehicle-related
occupational injuries.

Each piece of equipment used on the worksite can have specific requirements
for maintaining safe operation and special precautions to avoid injury, but
there are general statements that apply to all motor vehicles used in the
construction industry.

General Requirements
 Equipment left unattended at night must have appropriate lights or reflectors, or
barricades with appropriate lights or reflectors must be erected to identify the
location of the equipment.
 Parked equipment must have the parking brake set. When equipment is parked
on inclines, the wheels must be chocked.
 A safety tire rack or cage must be provided and used when inflating, mounting, or
dismounting tires installed on split rims or rims equipped with locking rings or
similar devices.
 Equipment must be substantially blocked or cribbed to prevent falling or shifting
before employees are permitted to work under or between any heavy machinery
or equipment suspended or held aloft by slings, hoists, or jacks.
 When bulldozer and scraper blades, end-loader buckets, dump bodies, and
similar equipment are being repaired or are not in use, they must be fully lowered
or blocked. Additionally, all controls must be in a neutral position, with motors
stopped and brakes set, unless the work being performed requires otherwise.
 Safety glass with no visible distortion that would affect the safe operation of the
machine must be used for all cab glass.

Motor Vehicles
Motor vehicle requirements apply to vehicles that operate within an off-highway job site
that is not open to public traffic. These requirements do not
apply to equipment used for material handling, which will be covered in the
next topic.

Vehicles must be equipped with:

1. An operable service brake system, emergency brake system, and parking brake
system
2. At least two headlights, two taillights, and brake lights
3. A working audible warning device
4. Powered wipers and windshields that are not cracked
5. Seat belts
6. Defogging or defrosting devices when operating in areas or under conditions that
cause windshield fogging or frosting

Shift Requirements
At the beginning of each shift, all vehicles in use must be checked to assure
that the following parts, equipment, and accessories are in safe operating
condition and free of apparent damage that could cause failure while in use:

 Service brakes, including trailer brake connections

 Parking system (hand brake)
 Emergency stopping system (brakes)
 Tires
 Horn
 Steering mechanism
 Coupling devices
 Seat belts
 Operating controls
 Safety devices

Special purpose vehicles have other requirements:

All haulage vehicles, whose payload is loaded by cranes, power shovels,
loaders, or similar equipment, must have a cab shield and/or a canopy that is
adequate to protect the operator. Operating levers that control the hoisting or
dumping devices on haulage bodies must be equipped with a latch or other
device to prevent accidental starting or tripping of the mechanism.

Employee transport vehicles must have enough firmly secured seats for the
number of employees to be carried. Tools and materials must be secured to
prevent movement when being transported in the same compartment with
employees.
Trucks with dump bodies must be equipped with a positive, permanently
attached means of support. This support should be locked in position to
prevent the accidental lowering of the body while performing any maintenance
or inspection work. Trip handles for dump truck tailgates must be located so
that the operator is in the clear during dumping.

Motor vehicle equipment should not be used when there is an obstructed rear
view unless either:
 The vehicle has a reverse signal alarm audible above the surrounding noise level
 The vehicle is backed up only when an observer signals that it is safe to do so

Earthmoving Equipment
Earthmoving equipment includes vehicles such as:
 Scrapers
 Loaders
 Crawlers or wheel tractors
 Bulldozers
 Off-highway trucks
 Graders
 Agricultural and industrial tractors
 Similar equipment

The specifications for this equipment state that:

1. Every emergency access ramp and berm that is used must be constructed to
restrain and control runaway vehicles.
2. All earthmoving equipment must have a service braking system that is capable of
stopping and holding fully loaded equipment.
3. All bi-directional machines, such as rollers, compacters, front-end loaders,
bulldozers, and similar equipment must be equipped with a horn in good working
order that is distinguishable from the surrounding noise level.
4. Earthmoving or compacting equipment that has an obstructed rear view cannot
be used in reverse gear unless it has a reverse signal alarm in operation that is
distinguishable from the surrounding noise level or if an employee signals that it
is safe to back up. --Dup
5. Scissor points on all front-end loaders must be guarded because they constitute
a hazard to the operator during normal operation.
6. Seat belts must be provided on all equipment listed in this topic.

Exceptions: Seat belts are not required on equipment designed only for
standup operation and equipment that does not have a rollover protective
structure (ROPS) or adequate canopy protection.
Construction equipment or vehicles cannot be moved onto any access roadway
or grade unless it is constructed and maintained to safely accommodate the
movement of the equipment and vehicles involved.

Powered Industrial Trucks

Powered industrial trucks must meet the following general requirements:
 Lift trucks, stackers, etc., must have the rated capacity clearly posted on the
vehicle, and these ratings must not be exceeded.
 Modifications or additions affecting the capacity or safe operation of the
equipment cannot be made without the manufacturer's written approval.
 If two or more trucks lift a load by working in unison, the proportion of the total
load carried by any one truck must not exceed its capacity.
Steering or spinner knobs must not be attached to the steering wheel. An
exception would be in a case where the steering mechanism prevents road
reactions from causing the steering handwheel to spin. When used, the steering
knob must be mounted within the periphery of the wheel.
Unauthorized personnel must not be permitted to ride on powered industrial
trucks. Where riding of trucks is authorized, a safe place to ride must be
provided.

Pile Driving Equipment

Piles consist of natural materials or pre-manufactured structural shapes built
to precise tolerances utilizing high-strength materials and reliable quality
control. Piles are selected to meet the specific needs of the structure and site
conditions and can be steel, concrete, or timber.

Driven piles are usually installed in a manner that produces no spoils for
removal and therefore no exposure to or disposal problems with potentially
hazardous or contaminated materials.

Equipment Guidelines:
 Overhead protection, equivalent to two-inch planking or other solid material of
equivalent strength, which will not obscure the vision of the operator while pile
driving equipment is in operation
 Stop blocks for the leads to prevent the hammer from being raised against the
head block
 A blocking device capable of safely supporting the weight of the hammer (This
device is placed in the leads under the hammer at all times while employees are
working under the hammer.)
  Guards across the top of the head block to prevent the cable from jumping out of
the sheaves
 Stabilizing the leads when they must be inclined in the driving of batter piles
 Attaching a steam hose leading to a steam hammer or jet pipe securely to the
hammer with an adequate length of at least 1/4-inch diameter chain or cable
(This will prevent whipping if the joint at the hammer is broken. Air hammer
hoses must be provided with this same protection.)
 Steam line controls consisting of two shutoff valves, one of which must be a
quick-acting lever type within easy reach of the hammer operator
 Requiring guys, outriggers, thrust outs, or counterbalances as necessary to
maintain stability of pile driver rigs
 Suspending pile-driving operations when it is necessary to cut off the tops of
driven piles (An exception exists where cutting operations are located at least
twice the length of the longest pile from the driver.)

Employee Guidelines:
 Maintaining employees well beyond the range of falling materials when steel tube
piles are being "blown out"
 Having engineers and winchmen accept signals only from the designated
signalmen
 Keeping all employees clear when piling is being hoisted into the leads

Site Clearing
Employees engaged in site clearing must be protected from irritant and toxic
plant hazards and suitably instructed in the first aid treatment available.

All equipment used in site-clearing operations must be equipped with rollover

guards. In addition, rider-operated equipment must be equipped with an
overhead and rear canopy guard meeting the following requirements:
 The overhead covering on the canopy structure must be of not less than 1/8-inch
steel plate or 1/4-inch woven wire mesh with no openings greater than 1 inch, or
equivalent.
 The opening in the rear of the canopy structure must be covered with not less
than 1/4-inch woven wire mesh with openings no greater than 1 inch.

Topic 2: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices

Vehicles and equipment operating in and around the work zone are involved in
over half of the worker fatalities in this industry.

This lesson addresses the OSHA safety requirements for operating vehicles
and equipment within an off-highway job site not open to public traffic.
However, since OSHA does not cover machinery types or safety equipment
exhaustively (nor does it address work practices, traffic control plans, or shift
work), another source must be consulted.

The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) more clearly defines
applicable standards in these OSHA-omitted areas. By following these
combined specifications, the industry believes it can minimize the confusion of
motorists passing through the work zone and limit collisions involving
motorists and workplace vehicles.

Defining the Hazards

Each year, more than 100 workers are killed and over 20,000 are injured in
the highway and street construction industry.

Highway and street construction workers risk fatal and serious nonfatal injury
when working in the vicinity of passing motorists, construction vehicles, and

Historically, efforts to reduce vehicle-related worker injuries have focused on

improving traffic control devices and work zone configurations to minimize
confusion of motorists passing through the work zone and to limit collisions
involving motorists. The premise was that, by minimizing traffic collisions in
work zones, worker injuries would be minimized. However, fatality data
indicate that workers struck by motorists passing through work zones account
for only half the vehicle-related fatalities among highway workers.
Workers in highway work zones are exposed to risk of injury from the
movement of construction vehicles and equipment within the work zones, as
well as from passing motor vehicle traffic. Recent data from the Census of
Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) indicate that of the 841 work-related
fatalities in the U.S. highway construction industry, 465 (55 percent) were
vehicle- or equipment-related incidents that occurred inside a work zone.

How Are Workers Exposed?

Highway workers routinely work near construction vehicles and motor vehicles
traffic. Flaggers and other workers on foot are exposed to the risk of being
struck by traffic vehicles or construction equipment if they are not visible to
motorists or equipment operators. Workers who operate construction vehicles
or equipment risk injury due to overturn, collision, or being caught in running
equipment. Highway workers, regardless of their assigned task, work in
conditions of low lighting, low visibility, and inclement weather and may work
in congested areas with exposure to high traffic volume and speeds.

What Is Being Done?

The Federal Highway Administration has developed and maintained the Manual
on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), which provides standards for
uniform design and setup of highway work zones. The primary focus of Part 6
of the MUTCD is the interaction between the road user and the work zone. The
MUTCD contains exhaustive specifications for signage, pavement, and curb
markings, traffic signals, and marking of school zones, bicycle facilities, and
highway-rail crossings. It also prescribes temporary traffic control measures
for numerous scenarios involving lane closures, lane shifts, detours, shoulder
work, median crossovers, mobile operations, and blasting. The MUTCD
addresses topics such as training, personal protective equipment, speed
reduction, barriers, and lighting as they apply to highway construction.

Flagging and signaling practices are discussed in general terms in Subpart G,

which covers signs, signals, and barricades. Subpart G defers to the MUTCD on
matters relating to hand signals, barricades, and traffic control devices.

Construction contractors, contracting agencies, and others responsible for

work zone safety, face the challenge of providing a safe workplace while
ensuring the safe movement of the public through the work zone. Highway
and street construction presents a complex work situation in which workers
face multiple injury risks under conditions that may change without warning.

Incidents
Hazards that face highway workers rise as bad weather, night work, and speed
combine.

Highway workers risk injury from passing traffic vehicles.

An 18-year-old flagger, outfitted in full reflective vest, pants, and hard hat,
was directing traffic at one end of a bridge approach during a night milling
operation. The work zone was correctly marked with cones and signs, and the
entire bridge was illuminated with streetlights. The flagger was standing under
portable floodlights in the opposing traffic lane close to the centerline, facing
oncoming traffic. A pickup truck traveling in the wrong lane at an estimated 55
to 60 miles per hour struck the flagger head on and carried him approximately
200 feet. He died at the scene of multiple traumatic injuries.]

Injury from construction equipment operating inside the work zone.

A 33-year-old construction laborer was working at a gravel-unloading
operation at a highway construction site. Usually, he operated the generator for
the conveyor system that moved gravel unloaded from belly dump trailers. A
dump truck driver on the site was having difficulty opening the gates of his
belly dump trailer. Attempting to assist the driver, the laborer went under the
trailer to open the gates manually. The driver, not realizing the laborer was
under the trailer, pulled away from the unloading platform and ran over him
with the rear dual tires of the trailer. The laborer was pronounced dead at the
scene.

Injury from construction vehicles entering and leaving the work zone.
An 11-person construction crew was paving the northbound side of a six-lane
interstate highway. The far left and middle lanes of the highway were closed to
traffic, with two pavers operating simultaneously in staggered positions. Hot
asphalt was delivered to the site in tractor-trailers that queued on the left
shoulder while waiting to back up to the pavers. A 34-year-old construction
laborer was positioned adjacent to the far left lane, approximately 12 feet
behind the paver's work area, shoveling old asphalt from around a catch basin.
A tractor-trailer pulled away from the paver in the middle lane and began
backing. The driver stopped when he heard other workers yelling. Exiting the
vehicle, he found the laborer run over by the four left rear wheels. The laborer
was pronounced dead at the scene.

Regulations for Worker Protection

To combat the hazards just described, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices (MUTCD) provides for uniform design and setup of highway work
zones nationwide and includes guidance for developing temporary traffic
control plans (TCPs) that determine the flow of traffic through work zones.
Compliance with the MUTCD and OSHA regulations is a necessary first step in
providing a safe work environment. However, these sources, taken together,
do not provide comprehensive guidance to ensure worker safety in highway
work zones.

The following list shows items that are not covered by either set of
regulations:
 Safety of all workers on foot around traffic vehicles
 Safe operation of construction vehicles and equipment in highway work zones
 Planning for safe operations within work zones
 Special safety issues associated with night work in highway construction
 Safety on highway work sites is a concern for all involved. Click the forward
arrow to see what steps can be taken by the various groups on site.

Work Zone Layout

The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices specifies the responsibilities of
those involved in assuring the safety of the work zone layout.

Road builders and maintainers can:

  Assign a traffic control supervisor who is knowledgeable in traffic control
principles overall and is responsible for the safety of the work zone setup
 Include employees in the walk- or drive-through as a training tool and to
emphasize that safety is a continuous priority
 Authorize the traffic control supervisor to temporarily halt work until unsafe
conditions related to temporary traffic control have been eliminated
 Document work zone setup and changes throughout the course of the project
and retain these records in a "job file" as a reference for future jobs
 To the extent practical, keep the length of the work zone appropriate to the work
in progress so that motorists do not increase speed after passing through a long
stretch with no sign of work activity

Contracting agencies can:

 Establish a streamlined process for reviewing and approving changes in the work
zone setup that are necessitated by safety concerns
 Close the road completely and reroute traffic where feasible
 Provide alternative transportation modes and alternative routes for road users
 Minimize worker exposure to traffic hazards on interstate and similar roadway
systems by forcing traffic moving in both directions onto one side of the road and
completely closing off the workspace
 Specify the use of temporary pavement markings to move the traffic lane laterally
away from the workspace on projects lasting less than two weeks
 For night work, specify:
o Increased taper length
o Low-level transitional lighting installation in advance warning areas and
termination areas to ease motorists' adjustment to changing lighting
conditions.

Road builders, maintainers and contracting agencies can:

Cooperate to design and implement traffic control plans according to safety
management principles that call for a hierarchical approach to preventing
worker injuries:
 Reduce worker exposure to injury to the extent possible.
 Where worker exposure to traffic cannot be completely eliminated, use positive
protective barriers to shield workers from intrusion by traffic.
 Where installing temporary traffic barriers is impractical or creates a greater
hazard, install channelizing devices such as traffic cones and barrels to delineate
the work zone.
 Consider additional measures such as sensors, handheld radios, and intrusion
alarms, but do not rely on them as a primary protection against injury.

Temporary Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices are important because they optimize traffic
performance, promote uniformity throughout the country, and help improve
safety by reducing the number and severity of traffic crashes.

Road builders and maintainers can:

 Use temporary traffic control devices, such as signage, warning devices,
paddles, and concrete barriers, in a consistent manner throughout the work zone
 Set up temporary traffic control within a reasonable time prior to construction so
that motorists do not become complacent and ignore warning signs and devices
when work begins
 Provide flaggers with devices that increase their visibility to passing motorists
and construction vehicles (One effective field-tested example is the flashing
slow/stop paddle, a standard paddle with a strobe light mounted on its face.)
 Keep channelizing devices clean and properly maintained to preserve their
reflective intensity and visibility
 Ensure that all traffic control devices are operating properly and in place at all
times (Missing traffic control devices create the potential for motorists to
inadvertently enter the workspace or exit the highway in the wrong place.)
 For night work:
o Reduce spacing between channelizing devices to compensate for reduced
driver visibility
o Ensure arrow panels are set at nighttime levels; daytime settings used at
night produce blinding light
o Increase the size of traffic control devices, reflective material, and lettering
to improve driver recognition

Contracting agencies can:

 To better delineate highway exits in work zones, consider specifying a different
color for channelizing devices and signs intended to guide motorists off the exit
ramp
 Create positive separation between the traveling public and workers by
specifying:
o Use of temporary traffic barriers whenever possible -- paint barriers a color
that contrasts with the background and install reflectors, lights, or light
tubes on barriers to further enhance delineation
o Use of truck-mounted attenuators (TMAs) for a wider range of work zone
safety applications -- TMAs can be placed on the upstream, lateral, or
downstream sides of traffic flow to physically isolate the workspace and
may be particularly useful in moving work zones, where they can move
forward as work progresses to protect workers from being struck from
behind by traffic vehicles
Motorist Education and Speed Enforcement
Motorists may be more cautious of speed and hazards ahead if they are
informed of up-to-date worksite locations and are offered alternative travel
advice.

Road builders, maintainers, and contracting agencies can:

 Give motorists plenty of advance warning of upcoming work zones
 Ensure that motorists have real-time information in signage and in traveler's
advisory radio broadcasts
 Install warning signs that provide estimated time of delay and other road closure
information so that drivers have sufficient opportunity to exit and take a different
route
 Use a combination of traffic queue detection equipment and dynamic message
signs to vary messages as traffic conditions change
 Keep warning sign messages simple and brief
 Cover or take down warning signs when workers are not present
 Remove channelizing devices when they are no longer needed

Additionally contracting agencies can:

 Follow the MUTCD recommendation that zoning for reduced speed should be
avoided as much as practical
 In highly vulnerable situations that threaten worker safety, consider reducing
speed by requesting that appropriate municipal authorities authorize the area for
reduced speed in the construction zone. Use police, funneling, lane reduction,
flashing lights, or flaggers. (Speed reductions should be applied incrementally to
maintain uniform traffic flow. Normal speed limits should be restored when work
is no longer in progress, when workers are no longer at the job site, or when
hazards have been removed or protected.)
 Use an advance media campaign to advise the public of upcoming road work

Flaggers
The job of a flagger is very hazardous, so flaggers should not be the primary
solution to traffic management problems on the worksite. To manage these
hazards, it is very important that all involved follow these guidelines.

Road builders and maintainers can:

 Use alternative traffic management systems such as lane shifts, portable traffic
signals, or remote signaling devices operated by workers away from the flow of
traffic
 Use alternatives to flaggers when traffic control is required under hazardous
conditions such as high traffic speeds, inclement weather, night work, and other
conditions that limit visibility
  When flaggers are used, train them all according to their level of responsibility
and work zone conditions; flaggers should know the traffic flow, the work zone
setup, and proper placement of channelizing devices
 Assign each flagger the responsibility for monitoring operations in his or her
immediate work area
 Authorize flaggers to recommend temporarily halting worksite operations to the
traffic control supervisor when they see a hazard threatening the safe movement
of traffic through the work zone and authorize them to notify the supervisor when
the hazard is corrected
 Authorize flaggers to halt operations in the event a hazard arises, and the traffic
control supervisor is not in the immediate area
 Train flaggers to maintain sufficient distance from another highway
workers, so that passing motorists can identify workers
When multiple flaggers are required, ensure they have the appropriate sight
distance or two-way radios to communicate effectively
Avoid using flaggers whenever possible.

High-Visibility Apparel
Retroreflective material reflects vehicle headlights so that signs, safety
clothing, and other safety devices appear more visible to drivers at night.
Fluorescent materials and colors that do not blend into the background are
standard for anyone working on road and highway areas.

Road builders and maintainers can:

 Require all workers on foot to wear high-visibility safety apparel
 Inspect high-visibility clothing regularly to ensure that color has not faded and
that retroreflective properties have not been lost
 Consider seasonal variations in landscape and foliage when choosing colors for
worker apparel, preventing workers from blending into the background and
decreasing the threat from motorists, other workers, and worksite vehicles
 Consider using fluorescent garments with retroreflective material when working
under poor lighting conditions
 Consider increasing visibility by using high-visibility armbands and hats and vests
with strobes

Contracting agencies can:

Require fluorescent and retroreflective materials on headgear and on flaggers'
gloves.

Topic 3: Special Equipment

This topic covers the requirements for the safe operation and training for
operators of skid steer loaders and powered industrial trucks.

Skidsteer Loaders
Skidsteer loaders put workers at risk of rollover and runover incidents.
Additionally, workers are exposed to other risks of injury from some of the
features of this equipment. The compact nature of the machine places the
operators close to the zone of movement for the liftarms.

For example, the operator's seat and controls are between the liftarms and in
front of the liftarm pivot points. This design requires operators of skidsteer
loaders to enter and exit the loader through the front of the machine and over
the bucket. A worker who does not enter or exit properly can activate a foot or
hand control and may cause movement of the liftarms, bucket, or other
attachment. Such an incident can cause death or serious injury.

Loaders
The SAE, however, has developed a manufacturers' standard for the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) addressing skidsteer loaders. The SAE
standard SAE J1388 contains design guidelines that address machine rollovers
and the hazards of pinning between the liftarms and frame and between the
bucket and frame.

To conform with this recommended practice, manufacturers must:

 Provide warnings, operator instructions, and service procedures
 Equip the machine with seat belts
 Provide a means to prevent the liftarms from lowering when the operator is
entering or exiting the machine
 Provide handholds and steps to facilitate entry to and exit from the loader
 Provide ROPS with side screens
 Provide two openings for emergency exit
 Provide safety signs and instructions to warn of hazards during normal
operations and servicing

Construction workers and their employers can reference these standards to

verify that equipment used on the worksite is maintained according to ANSI
requirements.

To keep workers from unintentionally activating controls, manufacturers of

skidsteer loaders began to equip them with interlocked control systems in the
early 1980s. These interlocked controls require that a nonoperational control
or fixture (such as a seat belt or restraint bar) be secured or activated before
operational controls can function. Some machines connect the liftarm control
to the seat belt to prevent movement of the liftarms unless the seat belt is
fastened. Other machines connect the liftarm control to a bar that must be
lowered in front of the operator or to a pressure switch in the seat. Recently
manufacturers have introduced electronic systems to perform the interlocking
function.

Skidsteer loaders now come equipped with rollover protective structures

(ROPS), side screens, and seat belts to protect the operator if the machine
turns over. The side screens prevent the operator from coming into contact
with moving liftarms.

Entering And Exiting Safely

Rules for entering:
 Enter only when the bucket or other attachment is flat on the ground or when the
lift-arm supports are in place. Use supports supplied or recommended by the
manufacturer.
 When entering the loader, face the seat and keep a three-point contact with
handholds and steps.
 Never use foot or hand controls for steps or handholds.
 Keep all walking and working surfaces clean and clear of debris.

Rules for exiting the operator's seat:

 Lower the bucket or other attachment flat to the ground.
 Set the parking brake.
 Turn off the engine.

If exiting through the front of the machine is not possible, use the emergency
exit through the roof or across the back.

Manufacturers' Safety Devices

All safety devices provided by manufacturers should be regularly inspected
and maintained. Here are tips for use and maintenance:

Liftarm supports: Use the liftarm supports provided by or recommended by

the manufacturer when working or moving around the machine with the
bucket in a raised position while the controls are unattended.
Currently manufactured machines now have either the pintype supports
(Which can be operated from inside the operator's cab) or the strut-type
supports (which may also be operated from inside the cab or may require the
help of a co-worker).
If the machine is not equipped with liftarm supports, contact the equipment
dealer or manufacturer's representative for help in selecting proper support
procedures. Never use concrete blocks as supports. They can collapse under
even light loads. Hoists and jacks used for support must be free of defects
such as bent, cracked, or twisted parts or pinched, frayed, or twisted cable.
They must also be capable of supporting the load.

Interlocked controls: Regularly inspect and maintain interlocked controls in

proper operating condition.

These systems require the operator to be properly positioned and restrained

before the loader can be used. Make sure that the seat belt is always securely
fastened around the operator when the loader is in operation. Always use
restraint bars if they are provided.

Never bypass or defeat interlocked controls.

Although workers and employers may perceive safety features such as

interlocked controls and seat belts as obstacles to efficient machine operation,
bypassing these devices increases the risk of death or serious injury.

Seat belts: Make sure that the seat belt is secured around the operator
whenever the seat is occupied. The seat belt protects the operator in several
ways:
 If seat belts are part of the interlocked control system, they protect workers from
being caught and crushed between the liftarms and frame.
 During rollovers, the seat belt keeps the operator within the protective envelope
of the ROPS.
 The seat belt can also protect the operator from leaning or being jostled into the
operating zone of the liftarms and bucket.

Retrofit packages: If side screens, interlocks, ROPS, and seat belts are not
present, contact the equipment dealer or manufacturer's representative about
the availability of retrofit packages or replacement parts.]

Maintaining Safe Operating Conditions

Follow the manufacturer's instructions for maintaining the loader. Keep the
foot controls and the operator's compartment free of mud, ice, snow, and
debris.
Before servicing the loader:
 Set the parking brake.
 Lower the bucket or other attachment flat to the ground.
 Turn off the engine.
 Remove the key from the switch.

If the machine cannot be serviced with the bucket on the ground, use the
liftarm supports recommended or provided by the manufacturer. If the
machine is not equipped with liftarm supports, contact the equipment dealer
or manufacturer's representative for help in selecting proper supports.

Never work on the machine with the engine running unless directed to do so
by the operator's manual. Follow the manufacturer's safety recommendations
to complete the task. If the adjustments require that the engine be in
operation, use two persons to perform the task.

Loader Training
Operators and workers who service the loaders must be trained to read and
follow the manufacturer's operating and service procedures given in the
operator's manuals and on the loader's warning signs. For help with such
training, contact the equipment manufacturer. Obtain manuals, instructional
videos, and operator training courses from the equipment dealer or
manufacturer.

If you are an employer, make sure that your workers understand all
manufacturers' warnings and instructions before they operate skidsteer
loaders. Train workers to use the following safe operating procedures:
 Operate the loader from the operator's compartment, never from the outside.
 Stay seated when operating the loader controls.
 Work with the seat belt fastened and the restraint bar in place.
 Keep your arms, legs, and head inside the cab while operating the loader.
 When possible, plan to load, unload, and turn on level ground.
 For maximum stability, travel and turn with the bucket in the lowest position
possible.
 Never exceed the manufacturer's recommended load capacity for the machine.
 Operate on stable surfaces only.
 Avoid traveling across slopes; travel straight up or down with the heavy end of
the machine pointed uphill.
 Always face the direction of travel.
 Keep bystanders away from the work area.
 NEVER modify or bypass safety devices.
Forklifts
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) defines a powered
industrial truck as a mobile, power-propelled truck used to carry, push, pull,
lift, stack, or tier materials. Powered industrial trucks, more commonly known
as pallet trucks, rider trucks, forktrucks, or lifttrucks, can be ridden or
controlled by a walking operator. They can be powered through electric or
combustion engines and are designed for a variety of applications.
American industry currently has more than 998,000 powered industrial trucks.
OSHA estimates that industrial truck incidents cause roughly 101 fatalities and
94,570 injuries annually.

Training Program Implementation

Individuals who have the knowledge, training, and experience to train and
evaluate potential operators must conduct all operator training and evaluation.
Training will include a combination of formal instruction, demonstrations, and
practical exercises performed by the trainee, and an evaluation of the
operator's performance. Practical exercises must be performed under the
direct supervision of trainers in a location where the practical training does not
endanger the trainee or other employees.

A training program for forklift operators must give initial instruction in these
truck-related and workplace-related topics:

Truck-Related
 Operating instructions, warnings, and precautions for the type of truck
 Similarities to and differences from automobiles
 Control and instrumentation location and use
 Engine or motor operation
 Steering and maneuvering
 Visibility
 Fork and attachment limitations and use
 Vehicle capacity
 Vehicle stability
 Vehicle inspection and maintenance
 Refueling or charging batteries
 Operating limitations
 Other operating instructions, warnings, or precautions listed in the operator's
manual

Workplace-Related
 Surface conditions where the truck is used
  Load composition and stability
 Load stacking, unstacking, and transport
 Pedestrian traffic
 Narrow aisle and restricted area operation
 Operation in hazardous locations
 Ramp and sloped surface operation
 Unique or potentially hazardous conditions
 Operating the vehicle in closed environments

Training must be specific to the operating characteristics of the specific

powered industrial truck (same manufacturer and model) the employee will be
using.

Expectations of Training
The employer must ensure that every powered industrial truck operator is
competent in the operation of that truck prior to operating it. Proof of
competence is the successful completion of the required training.

Each powered industrial truck operator must have his performance evaluated
every three years. Refresher training should be conducted so employees retain
the ability to safely operate an industrial truck. Retraining should also be used
if it is believed that unsafe acts have been committed, an accident or near
miss occurs, an evaluation reveals a deficiency, the operator is assigned to a
different type of truck, or a workplace condition changes that would affect
truck operation.

Certification: The employer must certify that every operator has received
appropriate training, has been evaluated, and has demonstrated competency
in performing the operator's duties. Certification includes the name of the
trainee, date of training, and signature of the designated evaluator

When Training Is Unnecessary: If a current or new truck operator has been

trained in any of the required training elements and is authorized to operate a
specific truck in a specific environment, the operator does not need to be
retrained in these elements if the employer certifies the operator is competent.

What is the stability triangle?

The majority of counterbalanced industrial trucks have their weight supported
on three points. Even on a four-wheeled truck, the front two drive wheels are
two points on the stability triangle, while the back two steering wheels (which
are connected on a central pivot) support the weight at the rear and make the
third point. When these three points are connected with imaginary lines, the
stability triangle is formed.
The stability triangle is useful in explaining the stability of a powered industrial
truck. An unloaded truck on a level surface will have a center of gravity in the
middle of the stability triangle. As a load is added to the truck, or when the
truck is on an inclined surface, the center of gravity will move within the
stability triangle. If the center of gravity moves outside of the stability
triangle, the truck will tip over.

Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)

Some material handling equipment by its design is susceptible to rollover
incidents. Special structures are provided on such equipment to protect the
occupant from injuries in these incidents. The following devices generally have
these structures:

 All rubber-tired, self-propelled scrapers

 Rubber-tired front-end loaders
 Rubber-tired dozers
 Wheel-type agricultural and industrial tractors
 Crawler tractors
 Crawler-type loaders
 Motor graders, with and without attachments

OSHA standards provide that material handling machinery equipment

manufactured on or after September 1, 1972, must be equipped with rollover
protective structures (ROPS) that meet the minimum performance standards
prescribed by OSHA, as applicable. All material handling equipment
manufactured or placed in service (which means owned or operated by the
employer) prior to September 1, 1972, must be fitted with ROPS.
If a rollover protection structure is removed for any reason, it must be
remounted with equal or better-quality bolts or welding as required for the
original mounting.

Each ROPS must have the following information permanently affixed to the
structure:
 Manufacturer or fabricator's name and address
 ROPS model number if any
 Machine make, model, or series number that the structure is designed to fit

Topic 4: Commercial Driver's License

This topic introduces areas of training for the operation of motor vehicles
needed in the construction industry. Upon completing this lesson, you will be
able to:
  Describe areas of testing and licensing commercial motor vehicle drivers require
 Explain the five types of training each hazmat employee must receive

CDL Policies
The Federal Highway Administration develops, issues, and evaluates national
standards for testing and licensing commercial motor vehicle drivers. These
standards require states to issue a commercial driver's license only after
drivers pass knowledge and skill tests that pertain to the type of vehicle
operated. States are audited every three years to monitor compliance with
federal standards: noncompliance could result in loss of federal funding.
An important element for commercial drivers in the construction industry is
the regulations involved in working with and transporting hazardous materials.

Hazardous Materials Transport

Congress gives the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) the authority to
"...issue regulations for the safe transportation of hazardous materials in
intrastate, interstate and foreign commerce." This authority was granted in the
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (HMTA), first adopted in 1974 and
amended in November 1990, as the Hazardous Materials Transportation
Uniform Safety Act of 1990 (HMTUSA).

In response to this mandate, the DOT now has compiled a body of rules called
the Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR), maintained by the Research and
Special Projects Administration (RSPA).

To better understand the provisions of these regulations, it is important to

understand the meaning of the definitions specified in the act.

What is training?
Training, as defined in the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
(HMTA), is a systematic program that ensures a hazmat employee:
 Is familiar with the general provisions of the Hazardous Materials Regulations
(HMR)
 Is able to recognize and identify hazardous materials
 Has knowledge of specific requirements of these hazardous materials regulations
applicable to the functions performed by the employee
 Has knowledge of emergency response information, self-protection measures,
and incident prevention methods and procedures

Who is a hazmat employer?

A hazmat employer is a person (including a business or organization) that
uses one or more of its employees in connection with:
 Transporting hazardous materials in commerce
  Causing hazardous materials to be transported or shipped in commerce
 Representing, reconditioning, marking, testing, certifying, repairing, selling,
modifying, or offering containers, drums, or packaging to qualify them for use in
the transportation of hazardous materials

Who is a hazmat employee?

A hazmat employee is a person employed by a hazmat employer and who, in
the course of employment, directly affects hazardous materials' transportation
safety.

General Training Requirements

General awareness/familiarization training
General awareness/familiarization training is designed to provide familiarity
with DOT regulations for shippers, transporters, and manufacturers and to
enable the employee to recognize and identify hazardous materials consistent
with the hazard communication standards of the DOT regulations.

Function-specific training
Function-specific training relates to the requirements of DOT regulations for
shippers, transporters, and manufacturers that are specifically applicable to
the functions the employee performs.

Safety training
Safety training must cover:
 Emergency response information required by 49 CFR Part 172, Subpart G-
Emergency Response Information
 Measures to protect the individual employee from the hazardous materials to
which he or she may be exposed in the workplace
 Specific measures the hazmat employer has implemented to protect employees
from exposure
 Methods and procedures for avoiding incidents, such as the proper procedures
for handling packages containing hazardous materials
 Testing of each of the employer's hazmat employees by appropriate means

Initial and Recurrent Training

A new hazmat employee or a hazmat employee who changes job functions
must complete training for the new job function(s) within 90 days. However,
the employee may perform new hazardous materials job functions prior to the
completion of training if the employee performs those functions under the
supervision of a properly trained and knowledgeable hazmat employee.
Hazmat employees must receive the required training at least once every
three years.

Driver Training and Record Keeping

In addition to the generalized training, drivers of hazardous materials are
required by 49CFR 177.816 regulations that ..."no carrier may transport, or
cause to be transported, a hazardous material unless each hazmat employee
who will operate a motor vehicle has been trained in the applicable
requirements of 49CFR Parts 383, 387, 390-399 and the procedures necessary
for the safe operation of that motor vehicle."

Training Records
Each hazmat employer must create and retain a record of current training for
each hazmat employee. The record must include information for at least the
last three years. This record must be retained for as long as that employee
works as a hazmat employee and for 90 days thereafter.

The training records must include the following information:

 Hazmat employee's name
 Most recent training completion date
 Description, copy of, or location of training materials used
 Name and address of the person providing the training
 Certification that the hazmat employee has been trained and tested as required

Hazard communication training required by the OSHA may be used to satisfy

the DOT safety training requirements if the training addresses the DOT safety
training elements. The hazmat employer or certain other public or private
sources can provide the required training.

Which employees require hazmat training?

Employees who:
 Determine if a material is a hazardous material
 Design, produce, and/or sell packaging for hazardous materials
 Determine proper packaging for hazardous materials
 Put hazardous materials into packaging
 Mark and/or label hazardous materials packages
 Fill out shipping papers for hazardous materials
 Load or unload hazardous materials
 Operate vehicles that transport hazardous materials
 Excavation
Introduction
Excavation and trenching procedures are performed thousands of times a day across
the United States. This illustration contains hazardous situations.
OSHA estimates that about 60 people are killed in trenching accidents each year, and
6,400 workers are seriously injured in trench cave-ins.

Before you take the first step in digging, be sure to review the crucial safety
guidelines covered in this lesson. That's why you need to understand trench hazards
and know how to prevent cave-ins.

Topic 1: Hazards
Excavation and trenching are extremely hazardous operations that expose workers to
the possibility of serious injury or death. This topic covers common excavation
hazards and will help employers and workers prevent incidents on the job
Cave-Ins
The greatest hazard associated with trenching is the cave-in of the surrounding soil
on workers in the trench, the result often being fatal. Other hazards involved in
trenching includes falls, confined spaces, and exposure to underground utilities such as
gas, steam, and electricity. Employees involved in excavation operations should know
how to minimize these hazards.

Most workers caught in cave-ins are seriously hurt. A cubic yard of hard, compact soil
is extremely heavy and can weigh as much as 4,200 pounds. Many victims are
suffocated after being buried in a cave-in. Survivors often receive severe crushing
injuries. Once a trench or excavation begins to cave in, workers may have only
seconds to escape. This is why careful planning and worker training is so important.
Soil mechanics and physics tell you that, eventually, every excavation and trench will
collapse. Unfortunately, no one can predict when. The factors relating to cave-ins as
shown in the graphic above, vary from site to site, but include:
 Soil type
 Moisture content
 Depth of the excavation or trench and length of time left open
 Vibration
 Adjacent buildings and structures
 Adjacent weight (surcharge)
 Previous disturbances of the soil
 Weather

Soil Type
The first factor is soil type. The type of soil helps determine how stable the walls of
the excavation or trench will be. The occupational health and safety regulations divide
soil into four types, from Type A (very dense and hard) to Type C (very soft and
loose) and stable rock.

Never count on the soil type alone to protect you unless it is sound and stable rock.
Soil types may be mixed. Seams of gravel or debris may lie behind seemingly solid
trench walls. The employer and supervisors must therefore assess the soil conditions
carefully before beginning work and take appropriate precautions. If soils are mixed,
always base precautions on the most unstable soil type that could be present --
assume the worst.

 Type A - clay, silty clay, and hardpan (resists penetration). No soil is Type A if it
is fissured, is subject to vibration of any type, has previously been disturbed, or
has seeping water.
  Type B - medium stability; silt, sandy loam, medium clay, and unstable dry rock;
previously disturbed soils unless otherwise classified as Type C; soils that meet
the requirements of Type A soil but are fissured or subject to vibration.
 Type C - least stable: gravel, loamy sand, soft clay, submerged soil or dense,
heavy unstable rock, and soil from which water is freely seeping.
 Stable Rock - most stable: natural solid mineral material that can be excavated
with vertical sides and will remain intact while exposed. Unstable rock is
considered to be stable when the rock material on the side or sides of the
excavation is secured against caving in or movement by rock bolts or by another
protective system that has been designed by a registered professional engineer.
 Layered geological strata - where soils are configured in layers. The soil must be
classified on the basis of the weakest soil layer. Each layer may be classified
individually if a more stable layer lies below a less stable layer; i.e., where a Type
C soil rests on top of stable rock.

Soil Factors
Several other factors contribute to trench cave-ins. In the spring, unshored trench
walls, heavy from rain, can become unstable. Also, when damp soil is exposed to air
during excavation, it can dry out and lose the ability to stand on its own, increasing
the risk that it will slide into the trench. Other factors, such as proximity to highways,
large machinery, backfilled areas, or existing structures can affect soil stability as
well.

Moisture Content
Moisture reduces soil strength. Once a trench or excavation is opened, the walls are
exposed to the elements. Moisture content and soil stability can change rapidly.

Adjacent Weight (Surcharge)

Surcharge is a large weight or load that affects the strength of the trench walls. For
example, spoil piles (excavated earth), mobile equipment, and supplies placed near
the trench put pressure on the walls. Keep surcharges as far away from the
excavation or trench as reasonably practicable.

Vibration and Pressure Reduce Soil Stability

Vibration from compaction activities, equipment operations, nearby traffic, trains, and
so forth often weakens soil stability. The effects increase if the soil is wet or loose.

Previous Disturbances of the Soil

Weather
Rain, melting snow, freezing, flooding, and heat from the sun reduce soil cohesion
quickly.

Other Risks
In addition to soil stability factors presented, there are four more risk issues to
examine.

No Protective Systems
All excavations are hazardous because they are inherently unstable. If they are
restricted spaces, they present the additional risks of oxygen depletion, toxic fumes,
and water accumulation. If you are not using protective systems or equipment while
working in trenches or excavations at your site, you are in danger of suffocating,
inhaling toxic materials, fire, drowning, or being crushed by a cave-in.

Failure to Inspect Trench and Protective System

If trenches and excavations at your site are not inspected daily for evidence of
possible cave-ins, hazardous atmospheres, failure of protective systems, or other
unsafe conditions, you are in danger.

Unsafe Spoil-Pile Placement

Excavated material (spoils) at your site is hazardous if it is set too close to the edge
of a trench/excavation. The weight of the spoils can cause a cave-in, or spoils and
equipment can roll back on top of workers, causing serious injuries or death.

Unsafe Access/Egress
To avoid fall injuries during normal entry and exit of a trench or excavation at your
job site, ladders, stairways, or ramps are required. In some circumstances, when
conditions in a trench or excavation become hazardous, survival may depend on how
quickly you can climb out.

Soil Mechanics
Now that you know soil conditions are a severe cave-in threat when working with
excavation, you will learn the mechanics of soil stability. Let's answer a few basic
questions first.

What is soil?
In excavation and trenching practices, "soil" is defined as any material removed from
the ground to form a hole, trench, or cavity for the purpose of working below the
earth's surface. This material is most often weathered rock and humus known as
clays, silts, and loams, but also can be gravel, sand, and rock. It is necessary to know
the characteristics of the soil at the particular job site.

Who Identifies soil?

Contractors and engineers, who are trained to identify the proper safety protective
devices or procedures needed for each situation, use soils information. OSHA stresses
the need for a "competent person" to be in charge of all excavation and trenching
activities at a job site. Soil scientists and geotechnical specialists can be helpful in
identifying and characterizing soil materials.

What kind of material is soil?

Soil is an extremely heavy material and may weigh more than 100 pounds per cubic
foot. A cubic yard of soil (27 cubic feet of material) may weigh more than 2,700
pounds. That is nearly one and a half tons (the equivalent weight of a car) in a space
less than the size of the average office desk. Furthermore, wet soil, rocky soil, or rock
is usually heavier. The human body cannot support such heavy loads without being
injured.

What are the mechanics of soil?

From a soil mechanics point of view, one can visualize the soil as a series of multiple
columns of soil blocks, with the blocks piled one on top of the other.

In the soil column shown in the picture, each soil block measures one foot square,
weighs approximately 100 lbs. and supports the weight of all of the blocks above.

This means that a block sitting at a five-foot depth supports its own weight and the
combined weight of the four blocks resting on it. The combined weight of this column
is 500 lbs. spread over a one-square-foot area. This five-block column constitutes a
500-pound force exerted vertically on whatever lies below.

Forces exerted by a column of soil.

A column of soil exerts not only a vertical force, but also a horizontal force in all
outward directions. The outward force is equal to one-half the vertical force.
For example, the five-block column illustrated in the picture has a downward vertical
force of 500 lbs. at the base of soil block number five. The horizontal force pushing out
from the base of that same block is half of 500 lbs., or 250 lbs., in outward directions.

As the weight of the column increases, the soil blocks at the bottom of the column
theoretically tend to compress and spread outward.

In undisturbed soil conditions, this process is stopped by the presence of the

surrounding columns pushing back with equal pressure. These hypothetical columns
press against each other, maintaining equilibrium. Therefore, the horizontal pressures
of all the columns are balanced, producing a stable relationship.

Cave-In Mechanics
An open excavation is an unnatural situation. The average landscape shows no
vertical or near-vertical slopes.
Undisturbed soil may be visualized as an infinite number of columns of soil adjoining
and supporting one another. The system is in equilibrium and is perfectly stable.

When an excavation is cut, the system is disturbed. Lateral stresses that existed on
the excavation wall are removed as the excavation is done. The soil in the excavation
wall immediately begins to move, however slowly, into the excavation.

At the same time the surface of the ground next to the excavation subsides, creating
an unnatural situation. The surface of the ground is in tension, and some of the
weight of the soil in the excavation wall is transferred to the soil back away from the
wall face by a phenomenon called shear.

The combination of tension in the ground surface and shear stress causes cracks to
form from the edge of the excavation. Cracks occur to near the depth of the
excavation back from its edge.

If an excavation 10 feet deep is dug, the cracks may be found somewhere between
three to seven feet back from the excavation edge. There may be several cracks.
They are usually vertical and may be half the depth of the excavation.

When cracks develop, the weight of the soil in the excavation wall is no longer partly
carried by the soil back from the excavation's face.

Then the lower part of the excavation wall fails under the great stress from the
weight of the soil above it. There is no lateral stress to prevent the failure.

When the bottom of the excavation fails, or "kicks," into the excavation, the support
for the upper part of the excavation wall is now essentially hanging only by shear and
tension forces. Failure occurs.

A third cave-in quickly follows. Soil, like concrete, is normally strong in compression,
but not at all strong in tension. Reinforced concrete makes use of the compressive
strength of concrete and the tensile strength of steel. There is no steel in the soil.

Cave-ins generally come in multiples. If the first one doesn't get you, the second one
may, and the third is always a possibility.

This example of the mechanics of a cave-in has offered a discussion of some of the
forces involved in such accidents. It has by no means considered all of the forces that
may be involved in such an occurrence. Weathering, water, vibration, and
superimposed loads may add to the hazardous conditions leading to cave-ins.
Hazards
Some employers and contractors believe that proper safety procedures waste
valuable time and money, and that faster work creates larger profit margins.
However, incidents that occur because safety precautions are not taken can be costly.
In addition to the loss of human life, the possible financial costs of a trenching
accident include:
 Work stoppage to rescue the victim
 Additional time and labor to re-excavate the collapsed trench
 Workers' compensation costs and increased insurance premiums
 Additional paperwork resulting from the investigation of the incident

Topic 2: OSHA's Requirements

OSHA requires that workers in trenches and excavations be protected and that safety
and health programs address the variety of hazards they face. Upon completing this
topic, learners will be able to:

 Identifying safety precautions for excavations and trenches and requirements for
the competent person
 Describe visual and manual testing methods
 Explain these three protective systems: slope slides to angle, tabulated data use,
and the trench box
 Define OSHA's requirements for temporary and permanent spoils
 Discuss OSHA's requirements for benching, sloping, shoring, and shielding
support systems
 Explain the employer's responsibility when installing support systems, using
protective equipment, and providing access
Identifying Excavations and Trenches
Cave-ins are perhaps the most feared excavation hazard. But other potentially fatal
hazards exist, including asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen in a confined space,
inhalation of toxic fumes, drowning, etc. Electrocution or explosions can occur when
workers contact underground utilities.

OSHA requires that workers in trenches and excavations be protected and that safety
and health programs address the variety of hazards they face.

Trenches
Exposed trench faces more than five feet high must be stabilized by either shoring,
sloping the face of the wall back to a stable slope, or by some equivalent method to
prevent cave-ins. If the trench is excavated in hard, compact soil materials more than
five feet in depth, the wall must be supported. If the walls of a trench are less than
five feet deep and in soft or unstable soil materials, then trench boxes, shoring,
sheeting, bracing, sloping, or other equivalent methods are required to prevent the
trench wall from collapsing. Trench walls above five feet in height may be sloped
instead of shored.

Materials used for trench boxes, sheeting, sheet piling, bracing, shoring, and
underpinning should be in good condition and should be installed so that they provide
support that is effective to the bottom of the trench. Timber must be sound and free
from large or loose knots. Vertical planks in the bracing system should be extended to
an elevation no less than one foot above the top of the trench face.

When employees are required to be in trenches that are four feet or more in depth,
an adequate means of exit, such as a ladder or steps, must be provided and located
so that no more than 25 feet of lateral travel is required for a person to reach the exit
structure. The trench should be braced and shored during excavation and before
personnel are allowed entry. Cross braces and trench jacks should be secured in true
horizontal positions and spaced vertically in order to prevent trench wall material
from sliding, falling, or otherwise moving into the trench. Portable trench boxes (also
called sliding trench shields) or safety cages may be used instead of shoring or
bracing to protect employees. When in use, these devices must be designed,
constructed, and maintained in a manner that will provide at least as much protection
as shoring or bracing and extended to a height of no less than six inches above the
vertical face of the trench.

During the backfill operation, backfill and remove trench supports together, beginning
at the bottom of the trench. Release jacks or braces slowly and, in unstable soil
materials, use ropes to pull them from above after employees have left the trench.

Excavations
Excavation safety requirements are quite similar to trenching requirements. For
excavations in which employees may be exposed to unstable ground, qualified
personnel using practices that are compatible with standards required by a registered
architect, a registered professional engineer, or other duly licensed or recognized
authority will design support systems such as piling, cribbing, bracing, and shoring
that meet accepted engineering requirements to contain the walls. Excavations with
conditions such as water, silty materials, loose boulders, erosion, deep frost action, or
earth fracture planes require that the slope of the earth adjacent to the excavation be
lessened. Scaling, benching, barricading, rock bolting, wire meshing or other equally
effective means of excavation support must meet accepted engineering requirements
for all sides, slopes, and faces of excavations. Materials used to support excavations
should be maintained in good condition.

Never excavate below the level of the base of the footing or retaining wall, except in
hard rock, unless the wall is underpinned, and appropriate precautions are taken to
ensure the stability of adjacent walls. If it is necessary to place or operate power
shovels, derricks, trucks, materials, or other heavy objects on a level above and
adjacent to an excavation, the side of the excavation must be sheet-piled, shored,
braced, or sloped as necessary to resist the additional pressure resulting from such
loads. Install substantial stop logs or barricades when using mobile equipment on or
near an excavation, grade away from the excavation, and provide walkways or
bridges with standard guardrails for employees or equipment to cross over
excavations.

Competent Person
A competent person is one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards in the surroundings or working conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them. A competent person should have and be able to
demonstrate the following:
1. Training, experience, and knowledge of:
a. Soil analysis
b. Use of protective systems
c. Requirements of 29 CFR 1926 Subpart P
2. Ability to detect:
a. Conditions that could result in cave-ins
b. Failures in protective systems
c. Hazardous atmospheres
d. Other hazards, including those associated with confined spaces
3. Authority to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate existing and
predictable hazards and to stop work when required

Certain activities or safety procedures at a construction site require design,

inspection, or supervision by a competent person. The OSHA Construction Standard
defines a competent person as someone who is:
 Capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings
 Capable of identifying working conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees
 Authorized to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate hazards

Excavation and trenching work are dependent on these specialized employees because
its highly technical nature, as well as its inherent hazards, require a greater level of
training and experience than a normal worker would possess.

Testing Methods
The competent person in charge of the excavation must be responsible for
determining the soil type and its stability. If the competent person wants to classify
the soil as Type C, he or she does not need to do any tests. However, tests must be
conducted to determine if the soil can be classified as Type A, B, or solid rock. To do
this, the competent person must use a visual test coupled with one or more manual
tests.

Visual test
In addition to checking the items on the trench inspection form, the competent
person should perform a visual test to evaluate the conditions around the site. In a
visual test, the entire excavation site is observed, including the soil adjacent to the
site and the soil being excavated. The competent person also checks for any signs of
vibration.

During the visual test, the competent person should check for crack-line openings
along the failure zone that would indicate tension cracks; look for existing utilities
that indicate that the soil has been previously disturbed, and, if so, what sort of
backfill was used; and observe the open side of the excavation for indications of
layered geologic structuring.

This person should also look for signs of bulging, boiling, or sloughing, as well as for
signs of surface water seeping from the sides of the excavation or from the water
table.

In addition, the area adjacent to the excavation should be checked for signs of
foundations or other intrusions into the failure zone, and the evaluator should check
for surcharging and the spoil distance from the edge of the excavation.

Manual Tests
Thumb Penetration Test
Attempt to press the thumb firmly into the soil in question. If the thumb penetrates
no further than the length of the nail, it is probably Type B soil. If the thumb
penetrates the full length of the thumb, it is Type C. It should be noted that the
thumb penetration test is the least accurate testing method.

Dry Strength Test

Take a sample of dry soil. If it crumbles freely or with moderate pressure into
individual grains it is considered granular (Type C). Dry soil that falls into clumps that
subsequently break into smaller clumps (and the smaller clumps can be broken only
with difficulty), it is probably clay in combination with gravel, sand, or silt (Type B).

Plasticity or Wet Thread Test

Take a moist sample of the soil. Mold it into a ball and then attempt to roll it into a
thin thread approximately 1/8 inch in diameter by two inches in length. If the soil
sample does not break when held by one end, it may be considered Type B.

Instrumentation Test
A pocket penetrometer, shearvane, or torvane also may be used to determine the
unconfined compression strength of soils.

Protective Systems
Excavation workers are exposed to many hazards, but the chief hazard is cave-ins.
OSHA requires that in all excavations, employees exposed to potential cave-ins be
protected by sloping or benching the sides of the excavation, supporting the sides of
the excavation, or placing a shield between the side of the excavation and the work
area.

Designing a protective system can be complex because of the number of factors

involved: soil classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to
weather and climate, or other operations in the vicinity. The standard, however,
provides several different methods and approaches (four for sloping and four for
shoring, including the use of shields) for designing protective systems that can be
used to provide the required level of protection against cave-ins.

The employer is free to choose the most practical design approach for any particular
circumstance. Once an approach has been selected, however, the required
performance criteria must be met by that system.

The standard does not require the installation and use of a protective system when an
excavation is either:
1. Made entirely in stable rock
2. Less than five feet deep, and a competent person has examined the ground and
found no indication of a potential cave-in

One method of ensuring the safety and health of workers in an excavation is to slope
the sides to an angle not steeper than one and one-half horizontal to one vertical (34
degrees measured from the horizontal). These slopes must be excavated to form
configurations that are in accordance with those for Type C soil found in Appendix B
of the standard. A slope of this gradation or less is considered safe for any type of
soil.

A second design method, which can be applied for both sloping and shoring, involves
using tabulated data, such as tables and charts, approved by a registered
professional engineer. These data must be in writing and must include sufficient
explanatory information to enable the user to select, including the criteria
for determining the selection and the limits on the use of the data.

At least one copy of the information, including the identity of the registered
professional engineer who approved the data, must be kept at the worksite during
construction of the protective system. Upon completion of the system, the data may
be stored away from the job site, but a copy must be made available, upon request,
to the Assistant Secretary of Labor for OSHA.

Contractors also may use a trench box or shield that is either designed or approved
by a registered professional engineer or is based on tabulated data prepared or
approved by a registered professional engineer. Timber, aluminum, or other suitable
materials may also be used. OSHA standards permit the use of a trench shield (also
known as a welder's hut) as long as the protection it provides is equal to or greater
than the protection that would be provided by the appropriate shoring system.

Spoil Piles
As explained earlier, surcharge is a large weight that affects the strength of the
trench walls. Spoil piles affect cave-ins. OSHA requires the following of placement of
materials and spoil piles.

Temporary spoil must be placed no closer than two feet from the surface edge of the
excavation, measured from the nearest base of the spoil to the cut. This distance
should not be measured from the crown of the spoil deposit. This distance
requirement ensures that loose rock or soil from the temporary spoil will not fall on
employees in the trench. Other soil considerations include:
 Spoil should be placed so that it channels rainwater and other run-off water away
from the excavation.
 Spoil should be placed so that it cannot accidentally run, slide, or fall back into
the excavation.

Permanent spoil should be placed some distance from the excavation.

Protective System Options

OSHA also requires the employer to provide support systems such as shoring,
bracing, or underpinning to ensure the stability of adjacent structures such as
buildings, walls, sidewalks, or pavements. Here are some basic guidelines:
 All excavations or trenches four feet or greater in depth must be appropriately
benched, shored, or sloped according to the procedures and requirements set
forth in OSHA's Excavation standard.
 Excavations or trenches 20 feet deep or greater must have a protective system
designed by a registered professional engineer.
  Excavations under the base of footing of a foundation or wall require a support
system designed by a registered professional engineer.
 Sidewalks and pavement must not be undermined unless a support system or
other method of protection is provided to protect employees from their possible
collapse.

Sloping
Maximum allowable slopes for excavations less than 20 feet based on soil type and
angle to the horizontal are as follows:

Soil Type Height/Depth Ratio Slope Angle

Stable Rock Vertical 90 Degrees
Type A ¾:1 53 Degrees
Type B 1:1 45 Degrees
Type C 1 ½:1 34 Degrees

A 10-foot-deep trench in Type B soil would have to be sloped to a 45-degree angle, or

sloped 10 feet back in both directions. Total distance across a 10-foot-deep trench
would be 20 feet, plus the width of the bottom of the trench itself. In Type C soil, the
trench would be sloped at a 34-degree angle, or 15 feet back in both directions for at
least 30 feet across, plus the width of the bottom of the trench itself.

Benching
There are two basic types of benching, single and multiple, which can be used in
conjunction with sloping.

In Type B soil, the vertical height of the benches must not exceed 4 feet. Benches
must be below the maximum allowable slope for that soil type. In other words, a 10-
foot deep trench in Type B soil must be benched back 10 feet in each direction, with
the maximum of a 45-degree angle. Benching is not allowed in Type C soil.

Shoring
Shoring or shielding is used when the location or depth of the cut makes sloping back
to the maximum allowable slope impractical. There are two basic types of shoring:
timber and aluminum hydraulic.

Hydraulic shoring provides a critical safety advantage over timber shoring because
workers do not have to enter the trench to install them. They are also light enough to
be installed by one worker; they are gauge-regulated to ensure even distribution of
pressure along the trench line; and they can be adapted easily to various trench
depths and widths.

All shoring must be installed from the top down and removed from the bottom up.
Hydraulic shoring must be checked at least once per shift for leaking hoses and/or
cylinders, broken connections, cracked nipples, bent bases, and any other damaged
or defective parts.

The top cylinder of hydraulic shoring must be no more than 18 inches below the top
of the excavation.

The bottom of the cylinder must be no higher than four feet from the bottom of the
excavation. (Two feet of trench wall may be exposed beneath the bottom of the rail
or plywood sheeting, if used.)
Three vertical shores, evenly spaced, must be used to form a system.

Wales are installed no more than two feet from the top, no more than four feet from
the bottom, and no more than four feet apart, vertically.

Hydraulic shores must be installed in accordance with Table D - 1.2 and Table D - 1.3
in Type B soil.

Hydraulic shores must be installed with sheeting in accordance with Table D - 1.4 in
Type C soil.

Here are some typical installations of aluminum hydraulic shoring:

 The standard prohibits excavation below the level of the base or footing of any
foundation or retaining wall unless (1) a support system such as underpinning is
provided, (2) the excavation is in stable rock, or (3) a registered professional
engineer determines that the structure is sufficiently removed from the
excavation and that excavation will not pose a hazard to employees.
 Excavations under sidewalks and pavements are also prohibited unless an
appropriately designed support system is provided, or another effective method
is used.

Shielding
Trench boxes are different from shoring because, instead of shoring up or otherwise
supporting the trench face, they are intended primarily to protect workers from caveins
and similar incidents.

The excavated area between the outside of the trench box and the face of the trench
should be as small as possible. The space between the trench box and the excavation
side must be backfilled to prevent lateral movement of the box. Shields may not be
subjected to loads exceeding those the system was designed to withstand.

Trench boxes generally are used in open areas, but they also may be used in
combination with sloping and benching.
The box must extend at least 18 inches above the surrounding area if there is sloping
toward the excavation. This can be accomplished by providing a benched area
adjacent to the box.

Any modifications to the shields must be approved by the manufacturer.

Shields may ride two feet above the bottom of an excavation, provided they are
calculated to support the full depth of the excavation and there is no caving under or
behind the shield.

Workers must enter and leave the shield in a protected manner, such as by a ladder
or ramp.

Workers may not remain in the shield while it is being moved.

Other Requirements
OSHA also requires the employer to provide safety management for protective
systems, materials and equipment, and access.

Installation and Removal of Protective Systems

The standard requires the following procedures for the protection of employees when
installing support systems:
 Securely connect members of support systems
 Safely install support systems
 Never overload members of support systems
 Install other structural members to carry loads imposed on the support system
when temporary removal of individual members is necessary

In addition, the standard permits excavation of two feet or less below the bottom of
the members of a support or shield system of a trench if (1) the system is designed
to resist the forces calculated for the full depth of the trench, and (2) there are no
indications, while the trench is open, of a possible cave-in below the bottom of the
support system.

Also, the installation of support systems must be closely coordinated with the
excavation of trenches.

As soon as work is completed, the excavation should be backfilled as the protective

system is dismantled. After the excavation has been cleared, workers should slowly
remove the protective system from the bottom up, taking care to release members
slowly.
Materials and Equipment
The employer is responsible for the safe condition of materials and equipment used
for protective systems. Defective and damaged materials and equipment can result in
the failure of a protective system and cause excavation hazards.

To avoid possible failure of a protective system, the employer must ensure that (1)
materials and equipment are free from damage or defects, (2) manufactured
materials and equipment are used and maintained in a manner consistent with the
recommendations of the manufacturer and in a way that will prevent employee
exposure to hazards, and (3) while in operation, damaged materials and equipment
are examined by a competent person to determine if they are suitable for continued
use. If materials and equipment are not safe for use, they must be removed from
service. These materials cannot be returned to service without the evaluation and
approval of a registered professional engineer.

Access and Egress

Under the standard, the employer must provide safe access to and egress from all
excavations. According to OSHA regulations, when employees are required to be in
trench excavations 4-feet deep or more, adequate means of exit, such as ladders,
steps, ramps, or other safe means of egress must be provided and be within 25 feet
of lateral travel. If structural ramps are used as a means of access or egress, they
must be designed by a competent person (if used for employee access or egress) or
by a competent person qualified in structural design (if used by vehicles). Also,
structural members used for ramps or runways must be uniform in thickness and
joined in a manner to prevent tripping or displacement.

Excavation and trenching work presents serious risks to all workers involved. The
greatest risk, and one of primary concern, is that of a cave-in. Furthermore, when
cave-in accidents occur, they are much more likely to result in worker fatalities than
other excavation-related accidents. Strict compliance, however, with all sections of
the standard will prevent or greatly reduce the risk of cave-ins as well as other
excavation-related accidents.

Topic 3: Controls
OSHA requires employers to take extensive precautions to protect workers. This topic
covers a number of procedures and protective systems designed to protect workers in
or around an excavation. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 Determine the hierarchy of control measures and preplanning strategy
 Identify precautions for surface crossing and exposure to vehicles and falling
loads
 Explain safety precautions for water accumulation, hazardous atmospheres, and
confined spaces
 Manage a safe excavation by following the preplanning specifications
  Identify the requirements for a comprehensive excavation training program and
emergency action plan

Reducing the risks associated with construction work is very important. To meet this
goal, there is a hierarchy, or preferred order, of control. These controls are not
mutually exclusive, and there may be occasions when more than one control must be
used to reduce a risk. However, prevention is best served by implementing your
hierarchy or control methodology before you start any construction operation. The
preferred order is presented in the graphic.

By using controls, including protective equipment and proper work practices, you can
operate hand and power tools safely and with confidence.

Administrative and engineering controls can be used to eliminate fall hazards prior to
the beginning of operations. Personal protective equipment (PPE) as a protection
device is your last line of defense and protects you from fall hazards.

Preplanning
Many on-the-job accidents are a direct result of inadequate initial planning. Correcting
mistakes in shoring and/or sloping after work has begun slows down the operation,
adds to the cost and increases the possibility of an excavation failure. The contractor
should build safety into the pre-bid planning in the same way all other pre-bid factors
are considered.

It is a good idea for contractors to develop safety checklists before preparing a bid to
make certain there is adequate information about the job site and all needed items
are on hand.

These checklists should incorporate elements of the relevant OSHA standards as well
as other information necessary for safe operations.
Before preparing a bid, what specific site conditions should be
considered?
 Traffic
 Proximity of structures and their conditions
 Soil
 Surface and ground water
 The water tables
 Overhead and underground utilities
 Weather

These and other conditions can be determined by job site studies,

observations, test borings for soil type or conditions, and consultations
with local officials and utility companies.
Before any excavation actually begins, the standard requires the employer to
determine the estimated location of utility installations -- sewer, telephone, fuel,
electric, water lines, or any other underground installations -- that may be
encountered during digging. Also, before starting the excavation, the contractor must
contact the utility companies or owners involved and inform them, within established
or customary local response times, of the proposed work. The contractor must also
ask the utility companies or owners to find the exact location of the underground
installations. If they cannot respond within 24 hours (unless the period required by
state or local law is longer), or if they cannot find the exact location of the utility
installations, the contractor may proceed with caution. To find the exact location of
underground installations, workers must use safe and acceptable means. If
underground installations are exposed, OSHA regulations also require that they be
removed, protected, or properly supported.

Preplanning Outline
There are a number of procedures and protective systems designed for preplanning to
protect workers in or around an excavation before the job, on-the job, and during
inspections. Click each plan to learn more about it.

Before Beginning the Job

It is important, before beginning the job, for the contractor to establish and maintain
a safety and health program for the work site that provides adequate policies,
procedures, and practices to protect employees from, and allow them to recognize,
job-related safety and health hazards.

An effective program includes provisions for the systematic identification, evaluation,

and prevention or control of general workplace hazards, specific job hazards, and
potential hazards that may arise from foreseeable conditions.

To be sure safety policies are implemented effectively, there must be cooperation

among supervisors, employee groups (including unions), and individual employees.

Each supervisor must understand the degree of responsibility and authority he or she
holds in a particular area.

It is also important, before beginning work, for employers to provide employees who
are exposed to public vehicular traffic with warning vests or other suitable garments
marked with or made of reflective or high-visibility material and ensure that they
wear them. Workers must also be instructed to remove or neutralize surface
encumbrances that may create a hazard.

In addition, no employee should operate a piece of equipment without first being

trained to handle it properly and fully alerted to its potential hazards.

In the training and in the site safety and health program, it also is important to
incorporate procedures for fast reporting and investigation of incidents.

On-the-Job Evaluation
The standard requires that a competent person inspect, on a daily basis, excavations
and the adjacent areas for possible cave-ins, failures of protective systems and
equipment, hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions. If these
conditions are encountered, exposed employees must be removed from the
hazardous area until the necessary safety precautions have been taken. Inspections
are also required after natural (e.g., heavy rains) or man-made events (such as
blasting) that may increase the potential for hazards.

Larger and more complex operations should have a full-time safety official who makes
recommendations to improve the implementation of the safety plan. In a smaller
operation, the safety official may be part-time and usually will be a supervisor.

Supervisors are the contractor's representatives on the job. Supervisors should

conduct inspections, investigate accidents, and anticipate hazards. They should
ensure that employees receive on-the-job safety and health training. They should
also review and strengthen overall safety and health precautions to guard against
potential hazards, get the necessary worker cooperation in safety matters, and make
frequent reports to the contractor.

It is important that managers and supervisors set the example for safety at the job
site. It is essential that when visiting the job site, all managers, regardless of status,
wear the prescribed personal protective equipment such as safety shoes, safety
glasses, hard hats, and other necessary gear. Employees must also take an active
role in job safety. The contractor and supervisor should make certain that workers
have been properly trained in the use and fit of the prescribed protective gear and
equipment, that they are wearing and using the equipment correctly, and that they
are using safe work practices.

Inspections
The competent person must conduct inspections at these times:
 Daily and before the start of each shift
 As dictated by the work being done in the trench throughout the work shift
 After every rainstorm
 After other events that could increase hazards, such as snowstorms, windstorms,
thaws, earthquakes, dramatic changes in weather, etc.
  When fissures, tension cracks, sloughing, undercutting, water seepage, bulging
at the bottom, or other similar conditions occur
 When there is a change in the size, location, or placement of the spoil pile
 When there is any indication of change, movement, or vibration in adjacent
structures

Inspections must include, at a minimum, review of:

 Surface encumbrances
 Underground installations
 Access and egress
 Exposure to vehicular traffic
 Falling loads
 Mobile equipment warning systems
 Water accumulation
 Adjacent structure
 Stability
 Loose rock or soil
 Fall protection
 Hazardous atmospheres

Preplanning
To prevent cave-ins and additional worker fatalities, OSHA requires that one or more
of the following precautions be taken when working with trenches:
 Utilize a shield or trench box system designed to protect workers in excavations.
 Shore sides of excavations with timber or other materials to ensure that the earth
does not collapse on workers who must enter them.
 Slope the sides of excavations to reduce the "overburden" (weight and pressure
exerted by large amounts of soil on the sides).
 Secure sides by equivalent means, such as engineer-designed sheeting or
bracing.

Identify the soil characteristics at the work site, and use this information to provide a
safe workplace for construction laborers.

Use prescribed methods of wall retention, piling, cribbing, sloping, shoring, trench
boxing, and sheeting to maintain trench and excavation walls. For each trenching or
excavation situation, you should employ the proper sloping, shoring and bracing
structures and measures designed specifically for the particular situation.
Trench failures often occur in multiples, starting with a movement of soil material
near the bottom of the trench wall. After the failure of the base, the support of the
wall will quickly erode, and the wall will collapse. The collapsing soil is extremely
heavy and can weigh one and a half tons per cubic yard, producing a tremendous
crushing force.

Proper design, construction and placement of support structures will allow employees
to work in a safe environment.

Prior to excavation, the location of underground installations (e.g., sewer, telephone,

electrical, fuel, natural gas, water and other lines, and underground tanks) must be
identified and marked.

Excavations more than twenty feet deep must be designed by a registered

professional engineer.

A daily inspection of the excavation, adjacent areas, and protective systems by a

competent person is required. A competent person is one who is capable of
identifying existing and predictable hazards in the surroundings or working conditions
that are hazardous to employees and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Workers must be protected from cave-ins by an adequate protective system, except

when excavations are made entirely in stable rock or when the excavations are less
than five feet in depth and examination of the ground by a competent person
provides no indication of a potential cave-in.

When used, sloping must be adequate for the type of soil, as determined by a
competent person.

Trench boxes or shields must be used in accordance with the manufacturer's

recommendations or as designed and approved by a registered professional engineer.

Ramps, runways, ladders, or stairs used as access must be within 25 feet of a work
area if the trench is greater than four feet deep.

A warning system for pedestrian and vehicular traffic must be in place around all
excavations. The warning system must consist of barricades, hand or mechanical
signals, or stop logs and flashing lights at night.

All surface encumbrances that may create a hazard to workers must be removed or
supported.

Adequate protection from hazards associated with water accumulation must be in

place before working in excavations.
Employees exposed to public vehicular traffic must be provided with and wear
reflective warning vests.

Any material or equipment that could fall or roll into an excavation must be placed at
least two feet from the edge of the excavation.

Where workers or equipment are expected to cross over an excavation, walkways

with standard guardrails must be provided.
All employers who work in or around excavations must provide employees with
training in the recognition and avoidance of unsafe conditions and designate a
competent person who must conduct excavation safety inspections and who has the
authority to take corrective action.

Every excavation five feet or greater in depth must be protected from cave-in.

Excavations of less than five feet must also have a protective system or design if
inspection reveals a cave-in hazard.

Exposure Controls
Surface Crossing of Trenches
Surface crossing of trenches should not be made unless absolutely necessary.
However, if necessary, they are only permitted under the following conditions:

Vehicle crossings must be designed by and installed under the supervision of a

registered professional engineer.
Walkways or bridges must:
 Have a minimum clear width of 20 inches
 Be fitted with standard rails
 Extend a minimum of 24 inches past the surface edge of the trench

Exposure to Vehicles
Employees exposed to vehicular traffic must be provided with and required to wear
reflective vests or other suitable garments marked with or made of reflective or high
visibility materials.

Trained flag persons, signs, signals, and barricades must be used when necessary.

Exposure to Falling Loads

 All employees on an excavation site must wear hard hats.
 Employees are not allowed to work under raised loads.
 Employees are not allowed to work under loads being lifted or moved by heavy
equipment used for digging or lifting.
  Employees are required to stand away from equipment that is being loaded or
unloaded to avoid being struck by falling materials or spillage.
 Equipment operators or truck drivers may remain in their equipment during
loading and unloading if the equipment is properly equipped with a cab shield or
adequate canopy.

Environmental Controls
Water Accumulation
Methods for controlling standing water and water accumulation must be provided and
should consist of the following if employees must work in the excavation:
 Use of special support or shield systems approved by a registered professional
engineer
 Water removal equipment, such as pumps, used and monitored by a competent
person
 Employees removed from the trench during rainstorms
 Trenches carefully inspected by a competent person after each rain and before
employees are permitted to re-enter the trench

The standard prohibits employees from working in excavations where water has
accumulated or is accumulating unless adequate protection has been taken. If water
removal equipment is used to control or prevent water from accumulating, a
competent person must monitor the equipment and operations of the equipment to
ensure proper use.

OSHA standards also require that diversion ditches, dikes, or other suitable means be
used to prevent surface water from entering an excavation and to provide adequate
drainage of the area adjacent to the excavation. Also, a competent person must
inspect excavations subject to runoffs from heavy rains.

Hazardous Atmospheres and Confined Spaces

Under this provision, a competent person must test, before an employee enters,
excavations greater than four feet in depth as well as ones were oxygen deficiency
or a hazardous atmosphere exists or could reasonably be expected to exist. If
hazardous conditions exist, controls such as proper respiratory protection or
ventilation must be provided. Also, controls used to reduce atmospheric contaminants
to acceptable levels must be tested regularly.

Where adverse atmospheric conditions may exist or develop in an excavation, the

employer also must provide and ensure that emergency rescue equipment, (e.g.,
breathing apparatus, a safety harness and line, basket stretcher, etc.) is readily
available. This equipment must be attended when used.

When an employee enters bell-bottom pier holes and similar deep and confined
footing excavations, the employee must wear a harness with a lifeline. The lifeline
must be securely attached to the harness and must be separate from any line used to
handle materials. Also, while the employee wearing the lifeline is in the excavation,
an observer must be present to ensure that the lifeline is working properly and to
maintain communication with the employee.

Training Requirements
Another way to help ensure safe excavation operations is to train the work force
properly in the recognition, identification, evaluation, and control of excavation
hazards.

All employees working on, in, or around an excavation should receive excavation
safety training and must be familiar with the company's safety and health program as
well as those issued by OSHA.

As with all training, the training should be documented, signed by the workers and
the trainer only after comprehension has been verified.

Retraining should occur after an incident and if there are signs of reduced
effectiveness of previous training.

Topic 4: Other Issues

This section describes how the employer can prevent other types of common
accidents in the industry.
 Manage an excavation site for fallbacks, equipment mishaps, and slips, trip, and
falls
 Identify protection for both underground and above-ground utilities
 Maintain good housekeeping to prevent incidents
 Demonstrate awareness of reducing public liability when working in or around
excavation

Incidents
There is more to running a safe trenching operation than simply getting in and out of
the excavation alive. For example, falls account for many serious injuries around
excavations. The employer can go a long way to maintain a safe worksite by
controlling what happens on the surface as well as in the trench.

Falling Objects and Material

If excavated material must be placed near the excavation or trench, ensure effective
barricades are in place to prevent fallback. Heavy tarpaulins, sheeted barricades and
built-up board barricades can help keep excavated material out of work areas.
Barriers can help keep tools and workers from falling onto other workers in the
excavation or trench. If the trench or excavation must stay open for a long time,
barricades, fences, and so forth are necessary. Guard the site at night with flashing
lights or security fences. Keep workers out of the operating radius of backhoes and
other equipment.

Equipment Mishaps
To prevent heavy mobile equipment accidents:
 Maintain the safety features, such as rollover protective structures
 Provide systematic inspection, maintenance, and repair programs
 Make sure operators and repair personnel are competent
 Require workers to use three-point contacts and avoid jumping when getting on
or off equipment
 Do not allow passengers to ride outside of equipment cabs

Equipment operations should be planned and managed carefully. Workers can easily
be struck by mobile equipment in construction areas, particularly when machines are
backing up. Backing alarms are required on all mobile equipment in areas were
workers are at risk of being struck.

In crowded work areas, have a signaler direct traffic and warn workers of moving
equipment. Each signaler should wear a high-visibility vest when directing traffic.

A standard set of signals should always be used, and the signaler should stay in the
view of drivers at all times.

Workers should be warned to keep away from excavators, backhoes, and similar
equipment. When appropriate, danger zones around this equipment should be
barricaded or roped off to keep workers out. Operators should be informed before any
worker enters. Operators should keep workers in the danger zone in sight at all
times. Equipment should not be operated while workers are present.

Slips, Trips, and Falls

Make sure that ladders extend at least three feet above the trench wall. When using a
ladder, workers should be instructed to hold both side rails and have one foot on a
rung at all times (three-point contact). Use ropes to lower materials and tools into the
trench. Do not carry them up and down ladders or throw them into or out of the
trench.

Where ladders rest on the edges of cut pavement, make sure the pavement's
undersurface does not crumble and cause workers on the ladders to fall or be struck
by debris.

Make sure fences and barriers at the trench surface are secure and will protect
workers when needed. Remember to keep fences and barriers far enough away from
the edge of the trench to prevent workers or bystanders from slipping or falling into
the opening.

Provide fall protection to workers working on the edge of the trench.

Warning Systems for Mobile Equipment

The following steps should be taken to prevent vehicles from accidentally falling into
the trench:
 Barricades must be installed where necessary.
 Hand or mechanical signals must be used as required.
 Trenches left open overnight must be fenced and barricaded.

In addition to cave-in hazards and secondary hazards related to cave-ins, there are
other hazards from which workers must be protected during excavation-related work.
These hazards include exposure to falls, falling loads, and mobile equipment. To
protect employees from these hazards, OSHA requires the employer to take the
following precautions:
 Keep materials or equipment that might fall or roll into an excavation at least two
feet from the edge of excavations, or have retaining devices, or both.
 Provide warning systems such as mobile equipment, barricades, hand or
mechanical signals, or stop logs to alert operators of the edge of an excavation. If
possible, keep the grade away from the excavation.
 Provide scaling to remove loose rock or soil or install protective barricades and
other equivalent protection to protect employees against falling rock, soil, or
materials.
 Prohibit employees from working on faces of sloped or benched excavations at
levels above other employees unless employees at lower levels are adequately
protected from the hazard of falling, rolling, or sliding material or equipment.
 Prohibit employees under loads that are handled by lifting or digging equipment.
To avoid being struck by any spillage or falling materials, require employees to
stand away from vehicles being loaded or unloaded. If cabs of vehicles provide
adequate protection from falling loads during loading and unloading operations,
the operators may remain in them.

Utilities
Take steps to protect both underground and above-ground utilities, which include but
are not limited to water, sewer, gas, and/or overhead power lines by themselves or in
multiple configurations.
 Contact the utility owner's one call.
 Aggressively research the area to be excavated.
 Develop a site map.
 Utilize a recognized marking system.
  Require hand digging.
 Keep and maintain proper distance.
 Require an excavation permit.

Check for overhead services, such as power and phone lines. If overhead lines could
be hazardous, consult the owner of the service.

Color Code for Marking Underground Utility Lines

Public Liability
The public has always been intrigued with construction projects, and an excavation or
trench is no exception; in fact, it may create greater interest among the public. With
greater interest also comes greater risk. Contractors and contractor employees must
always be aware to protect excavations and trenches for each other but also to
reduce or eliminate the risk to the public. Here is a list of precautions:
 Notify the affected public
 Plan excavation and backfill timing
 Utilize sufficient barricading, fencing, or other protection devices
 Establish clear traffic routes for both vehicles and pedestrians

Kids of all ages love excavations. It is hard for them to resist playing around
construction sites and exploring trenches and excavations. Adventurous youngsters
also enjoy digging holes and tunnels for hideouts and clubhouses.
Unfortunately, these are dangerous games. Construction areas present a number of
hazards, including the possibility of an excavation collapsing and burying a child. As
for the pits and tunnels youngsters like to dig, these are also dangerous.

Parents must be alert to these activities and put a stop to them. Before the
neighborhood clubhouse starts turning into an underground village, it is time to step
in.

Without engineering preparation and proper shoring, excavations, pits, or tunnels dug
by children can become death traps. Children and all passersby must stay well away
from excavations in the neighborhood, along the roads and in the workplace. Know
where your kids are and don't let them play in these danger zones.

The hazards are not confined to children. Not long ago an adult was killed at a beach
when the large pit he had dug collapsed on him.

Housekeeping
Housekeeping is a very important part of your job. It improves the overall appearance
of your work area. Here are some reasons to keep your work area clean:
1. To reduce trip and fall hazards
 2. To increase production (You won't have to waste time looking for a misplaced
tool. You will always know where your tools are when you put them where they
belong after you use them.)
3. To reduce a potential fire hazard by removing unneeded combustibles from the
work area

OSHA has the requirements for housekeeping:

 Form and scrap lumber with protruding nails, and all other debris, must be kept
cleared from work areas, passageways, and stairs in and around buildings or
other structures.
 Combustible scrap and debris must be removed at regular intervals during the
course of construction.
 Containers must be provided for the collection and separation of waste, trash,
oily and used rags, and other refuse.
 Containers used for garbage and other oily, flammable, or hazardous wastes,
such as caustics, acids, harmful dusts, etc., must be equipped with covers.
 Garbage and other waste must be disposed of at frequent and regular intervals.

Tips to Maintain a Clean Work Area

 Plan the job. Make a list of the needed tools/materials. This will help to minimize
unnecessary clutter around your work area.
 Develop a routine for cleaning up at the end of the shift or periodically during the
shift.
 Do not allow employees to eat, drink, or smoke in the work area, not only
because of litter problems but also because of hygiene concerns.
If your housekeeping habits are poor, the result may be employee injuries or even
death, citations by OSHA (or another regulatory agency), and even difficulty in
securing future work. How can such a "minor" issue have such serious consequences?

Here are some results of poor housekeeping practices:

 Injuries when employees trip, fall, strike, or are struck by out-of-place objects
 Injuries from using improper tools because the correct tool can't be found
 Lowered production because of the time spent maneuvering over and around
someone else's mess and time spent looking for proper tools and materials
 Time spent investigating and reporting incidents
 Concrete and Masonry
Introduction
Concrete and masonry construction is part of everyday life worldwide, from small
projects to large ones, from general building to residential and highway construction,
and from bricks to blocks.

Unfortunately, OSHA recorded many injuries and fatalities that occurred during
concrete and masonry work.

Case Report:
An employee was struck by a collapsed concrete wall when he was checking
the bracing on the 20 feet high by 8 inch wide by 45 feet long concrete block
masonry wall. The top 8 feet section of the wall was blown over during a
windstorm. He died of a head injury.

To prevent the injuries, you must be fully aware of the types of hazards as well as the
safety precautions when doing concrete and masonry work.

OSHA has established requirements to help protect workers from the hazards
associated with concrete and masonry work at construction, demolition, alteration, or
repair worksites.

Topic 1: General Information

This topic reviews the general safety provisions for concrete and masonry. Upon
completing this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe OSHA general safety requirements for concrete and masonry in these
areas: construction loads, reinforcing steel, post-tensioning operations, concrete
buckets, working under loads, personal protective equipment, and equipment
and tools

OSHA General Provisions

OSHA has established some general requirements for concrete and masonry in the
following areas.

Construction loads
Construction loads must not be placed on a concrete structure or portion of a
concrete structure unless it has been determined by a qualified person (in structural
design) that the structure or portion of the structure is capable of supporting the
intended loads.

Reinforcing steel
If there is any protruding reinforcing steel that workers could either fall onto or into,
it must be guarded to eliminate the hazard of impalement.

Post-tensioning operations
Employees (except those essential to the post-tensioning operations) are not
permitted to be behind the jack during tensioning operations.
Signs and barriers must be erected to limit employee access to the post-tensioning
area during tensioning operations.

Concrete buckets
Employees must not be permitted to ride concrete buckets during work operations.

What's an employer's responsibility?

Employers must comply with OSHA requirements to protect construction
workers from incidents and injuries resulting from:
o The premature removal of formwork
 The failure to brace masonry walls
o The failure to support precast panels
 o The inadvertent operation of equipment
o The failure to guard reinforcing steel

Working under loads

Employees are not permitted to work under concrete buckets while the buckets are
being elevated or lowered into position.
As much as is practical on the site, elevated concrete buckets must be routed so that
no employee or the fewest employees possible are exposed to the hazards associated
with falling concrete buckets.

Personal protective equipment

Employees are not permitted to apply a cement, sand, and water mixture through a
pneumatic hose unless they are wearing protective head and face equipment.
Employees are not permitted to place or tie reinforcing steel more than six feet above
any adjacent working surfaces unless they are protected by the use of fall protection
meeting OSHA standards.

Equipment and tools

The standards also include requirements for the following equipment and operations:
 Bulk cement storage
 Concrete mixers
 Power concrete trowels
 Concrete buggies
 Concrete pumping systems
 Concrete buckets
 Tremies
 Bull floats
 Masonry saws
 Lockout/tag out procedures

Topic 2: Safety Requirements for Cast-In-Place Concrete

This topic addresses the safety requirements for cast-in-place concrete. Upon
completing this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe safety requirements for shoring and reshoring
 Describe safety requirements for vertical slip forms
 Describe safety requirements for removal of formwork
 Describe safety requirements for precast concrete
 Describe safety requirements for lift-slab operations
 Describe safety requirements for masonry construction

General Requirements
General Requirements for Formwork
Formwork must be designed, fabricated, erected, supported, braced, and maintained
so that it will be capable of supporting without failure all vertical and lateral loads that
might be applied to the formwork.

Drawings or Plans
Drawings and plans, including all revisions for the jack layout, formwork (including
shoring equipment), and working decks and scaffolds must be available at the job
site.

Shoring and Reshoring

All shoring equipment (including equipment used in reshoring operations) must be
inspected prior to erection to determine that the equipment meets the requirements
specified in the formwork drawings.
Damaged shoring equipment must not be used for shoring. Erected shoring
equipment must be inspected immediately prior to, during, and immediately after
concrete placement. Shoring equipment that is found to be damaged or weakened
after erection must be reinforced immediately.

If single-post shores are used one on top of another (tiered), then additional shoring
requirements must be met.

Adjustment of single-post shores to raise formwork must not be made after the
placement of concrete.

Reshoring must be erected, as the original forms and shores are removed, whenever
the concrete is required to support loads in excess of its capacity.
What are the additional requirements for single-post shores that are used
on top of another shore?
If single-post shores are used one on top of another (tiered), then additional
shoring requirements must be met. The shores must be as follows:
 Designed by a qualified designer and the erected shoring inspected by an
engineer qualified in structural design
 Vertically aligned
 Spliced to prevent misalignment
 Adequately braced in two mutually perpendicular directions at the splice level
(Each tier also must be diagonally braced in the same two directions.)

Vertical Slip Forms

 The steel rods or pipes on which jacks climb or by which the forms are lifted must
be designed specifically for that purpose and adequately braced where not
encased in concrete.
 Forms must be designed to prevent excessive distortion of the structure during
the jacking operation.
  Jacks and vertical supports must be positioned in such a manner that the loads
do not exceed the rated capacity of the jacks.
 The jacks or other lifting devices must be provided with mechanical dogs or other
automatic holding devices to support the slip forms whenever failure of the power
supply or lifting mechanisms occurs.
 The form structure must be maintained within all design tolerances specified for
plumpness during the jacking operation.
 The predetermined safe rate of a lift must not be exceeded.
 All vertical slip forms must be provided with scaffolds or work platforms where
employees are required to work or pass.

Removal of Formwork
Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on grade and slip forms) must not be
removed until the employer determines that the concrete has gained sufficient
strength to support its weight and superimposed loads. Such determination must be
based on compliance with one of the following two requirements:
 The plans and specifications stipulate conditions for removal of forms and
shores, and such conditions have been followed.
 The concrete has been properly tested with an appropriate ASTM standard test
method indicating that the concrete has gained sufficient strength to support its
weight and superimposed loads.

Reshoring must not be removed until the concrete being supported has attained
adequate strength to support its weight and all loads in place upon it.
Precast Concrete
Precast concrete wall units, structural framing, and tilt-up wall panels must be
adequately supported to prevent overturning and collapse until permanent
connections are completed.

Lifting inserts that are embedded or otherwise attached to tilt-up wall panels must be
capable of supporting at least two times the maximum intended load applied or
transmitted to them; lifting inserts for other precast members must be capable of
supporting four times the load.

Only essential employees are permitted near precast concrete that is being lifted or
tilted into position.

Lift-Slab Operations
Lift-slab operations must be designed and planned by a registered professional
engineer who has experience in lift-slab construction. Such plans and designs must be
implemented by the employer and must include detailed instructions and sketches
indicating the prescribed method of erection. The plans and designs also must include
provisions for ensuring lateral stability of the building/structure during construction.

Jacking equipment must be capable of supporting at least two and a half times the
load. For the purpose of this provision, jacking equipment includes any load bearing
component that is used to carry out the lifting operation(s). Such equipment includes,
but is not limited to, the following: threaded rods, lifting attachments, lifting nuts,
hook-up collars, T-caps, shearheads, columns, and footings.

No employee, except those essential to the jacking operation, should be permitted in

the building/structure while any jacking operation is taking place unless the
building/structure has been reinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrity during
erection. The phrase "reinforced sufficiently to ensure its integrity" used in this
paragraph means that a registered professional engineer, independent of the
engineer who designed and planned the lifting operation, has determined from the
plans that if there is a loss of support at any jack location, that loss will be confined to
that location and the structure as a whole will remain stable.

Under no circumstances must any employee who is not essential to the jacking
operation be permitted beneath a slab while it is being lifted.

Masonry Construction
Whenever a masonry wall is being constructed, employers must establish a limited
access zone prior to the start of construction. The limited access zone must be:
 Equal to the height of the wall to be constructed plus four feet, and must run the
entire length of the wall
 On the side of the wall that will be without scaffolding
 Restricted to entry only by employees actively engaged in constructing the wall
 Kept in place until the wall is adequately supported to prevent overturning and
collapse unless the height of wall is more than eight feet and unsupported. In that
case, it must be braced. The bracing must remain in place until permanent
supporting elements of the structure are in place.

Constructing concrete and masonry walls is especially dangerous because of the

tremendous loads that need to be supported. There are risks of major accidents, and
even death, when jacks or lifting equipment are used to position slabs and walls, or
when shoring is required until structures can support themselves.

Topic 3: Hazards and Controls

This topic examines the health hazards associated with concrete and masonry and the
controls that should be implemented to protect workers. Upon completing this topic,
you should be able to:
 List the hazards associated with concrete and masonry
 Describe the engineer controls for concrete and masonry hazards
  Describe the administrative controls for concrete and masonry hazards
 Describe the PPE controls for concrete and masonry hazards

Hazards
Common hazards associated with concrete and masonry include:
 Chemicals
 Falls
 Noise
 Lifting
 Slips
 Crushing
 Struck-by
 Electrical

The following case reports of accidents investigated by OSHA illustrate how seemingly
innocent workplace activities can have deadly consequences.

Case Reports
 In inclement weather, a 34-year-old worker was positioning vertical and
horizontal rebar for a cap tie beam to be poured the next day. Strong, gusting
winds caused a free-standing masonry block wall to collapse, fatally injuring the
employee. Bracing and shoring could have prevented the collapse or lessened
the impact.

 Three concrete finishers were working in the basement of a home under

construction, placing cement for the basement floor. A cement truck was parked
two feet away from the west wall, unloading six yards of cement into the
basement. The two-foot area around the foundation had been backfilled about an
hour and a half before the cement finishers began their work. One of the
employees directed the cement chute, starting at the northwest corner of the
building. By the time he got to the southwest corner, the truck was empty.
Suddenly, the west wall collapsed, crushing him to death. The other two
employees were able to escape with only minor injuries.

 An employee and two co-workers were erecting 8'x35' pre-stressed concrete wall
panels. They would set the panel, then anchor the bottom, and then unhook the
panels from the crane. Three panels had already been set, and the victim was
atop the panels waiting for the welder to finish anchoring the bottom of the third
panel. The panels began to tip outward and slowly fall, and the victim fell or
jumped, landing in the path of the falling panels. He died from the head injuries
he sustained.
  The victim was a member of a crew that was erecting tilt-up wall panels around
the perimeter of the slab floor of a one-story warehouse. The last three wall slabs
were being hoisted into place with two 12-foot nylon web slings in a basket hitch.
While the second panel was suspended in preparation for being set, it tilted in the
sling and slid slightly, cutting through one sling and partially through the other.
The erection crew scattered as it dropped, but the victim stopped momentarily to
look back as he fled the building. Just then, the upper edge of a previously set
panel, which had been dislodged by the falling panel, fell on him. He was
crushed and killed.

Work Practices
The following are good work practices for the use of concrete and masonry:
 Do not place construction loads on a concrete structure until a qualified person
indicates that it can support the load.
 Adequately shore or brace structures until permanent supporting elements are in
place or concrete has been tested to assure sufficient strength.
 Allow only those who are essential to and actively engaged in construction or
lifting operations to enter the work area.
 Take measures to prevent unrolled wire mesh from recoiling, such as securing
each end or turning the roll over.
 Do not load lifting devices beyond their capacities.
 Use automatic holding devices to support forms in case a lifting mechanism fails.

PPE
Personal protective equipment must be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary
and reliable condition. PPE refers to many different protective devices, but OSHA PPE
standard specifically talks about eye, face, head, and extremity protection.

Even though it is not required by this standard, a hazard assessment of all work areas
should be conducted so that proper protective equipment can be selected. When
choosing PPE, you should consider such hazards as heat, impact, chemicals,
compression, electrical, light/radiation, punctures, and dust.

Rebar Protection
Exposure to impalement is always a consideration when employees are working
above rebar or other sharp protrusions. The critical element when evaluating any job
activity is the recognition or identification of impalement hazards and the exposure to
employees. As you know, construction activities constantly change and contractors
must remain aware of and provide protection from or alternate work practices to
eliminate impalement hazards.
When employees are working at any height above exposed rebar, fall
protection/prevention is the first line of defense against impalement.

Fall protection/prevention also is applicable when the rebar is below grade, e.g.,
footings or other excavations, where a fall into a trench would present an impalement
hazard.

When work is at grade, impalement exposure is dependent upon numerous situations

and conditions such as proximity of rebar to the worker, height of rebar, and so on.
Rebar caps/covers are appropriate to prevent cuts, abrasions, or other minor injuries
when working at grade and there is no impalement hazard.

Topic 4: Silica
This topic reviews the common situations where construction workers are likely to be
exposed to silica hazards, the deadly results of silicosis, and how to prevent it.

Exposure to Silica
In construction, workers can easily be exposed to silica when using rock containing
silica or concrete and masonry products that contain silica sand. Exposure to
crystalline silica can occur in the following construction activities:
 Chipping, hammering, and drilling in rock or concrete or brick
 Crushing, loading, hauling, and dumping of rock and concrete
 Abrasive blasting using silica sand or from the materials being blasted (concrete)
 Sawing, hammering, drilling, grinding, and/or chipping on masonry or concrete
 Demolition of brick, concrete, or masonry
 Dry-sweeping concrete, sand, or rock dust
 Trenching and excavation
 Tile and grout work

Remember that even materials containing small amounts of crystalline silica may be
hazardous if they are used in ways that produce high dust concentrations.

Silicosis
Exposure to respirable crystalline silica dust during construction activities can cause
silicosis - a scarring and hardening of lung tissue. The disease can be progressively
debilitating and fatal.

According to OSHA Enforcement Information for Construction, 11 percent of the

workplace deaths due to silicosis, where silicosis was identified on the death
certificates, were in the construction industry.

Of all OSHA samples collected in construction for crystalline silica, 26 percent exceed
the OSHA PEL (Permissible Exposure Level).

Recent case examples in construction:

 A 39-year-old sandblaster diagnosed with silicosis and tuberculosis after 22
years of abrasive blasting. He began noticing gradual shortness of breath,
wheezing, and chest discomfort. Lung tissue samples showed extensive
fibrosis (silicosis).
 A 49-year-old man diagnosed with silicosis, emphysema, and asthma after 21
years of work as a tile installer where he was exposed to dust from cutting,
drilling, and working with grout. He was a nonsmoker.
 A brick mason diagnosed with silicosis, emphysema, and lung cancer at age
70 after working 41 years laying brick. He was a nonsmoker.
 A 47-year-old man diagnosed with severe silicosis after working 22 years as a
rock driller
 A 69-year-old male died of silicosis after working two years as a tunnel
construction worker. Previous to that he had been a nurse. He did not wear a
respirator, nor did he know of the need to wear one.
 A 55-year-old man was diagnosed with simple silicosis after working 30 years
as a building renovation mason. A lung biopsy revealed silica nodules, but he
was still working. He periodically was involved with sandblasting and using a
masonry saw.
 A Texas physician reported on three individuals with silicosis who
sandblasted pipes in the oil fields. One of the workers, a 34-year-old male
later died from silicosis. A later investigation found 10 workers with silicosis
who did construction sandblasting. Nine of the workers worked for the same
company. Seven were under the age of 30.
 At a New England site where the employer was using Black Beauty to blast
concrete, overexposure to crystalline silica was 1.4 times the PEL.
Employees chipping on concrete had levels greater than 6 times the PEL.
(The silica in the samples was 19-21 percent.) It also was found that
employer was aware of the hazards of silica, had not provided information
and training, and that workers with beards wore unapproved respirators. A
consultant also found that workers wearing abrasive blasting hoods were
overexposed inside the blast helmets.
 On another construction site, workers doing abrasive blasting were exposed
to up to 90 percent silica and were found at 80 times the PEL.
 Inspection of an employer in Cleveland was initiated from an employee
complaint. The worker has silicosis and only recently stopped working. OSHA
issued a citation of willful violations for silica used in abrasive blasting to that
employer.

Prevent Silicosis
Employers and workers can take practical steps to reduce exposures and lower risks.
NIOSH recommends the following measures to reduce exposures to respirable
crystalline silica in the workplace and to prevent silicosis and deaths among
construction workers:
 Recognize when silica dust may be generated and plan ahead to eliminate or
control the dust at the source. Awareness and planning are the keys to
preventing silicosis.
 Do not use silica sand or other substances containing more than one percent
crystalline silica as abrasive blasting materials. Substitute less hazardous
materials.
 Use engineering controls and containment methods such as blast-cleaning
machines and cabinets, wet drilling, or wet sawing of silica-containing materials
to control the hazard and protect adjacent workers from exposure.
 Routinely maintain dust control systems to keep them in good working order.
 Wear disposable or washable protective clothes at the worksite.
 Shower (if possible) and change into clean clothes before leaving the worksite to
prevent contamination of cars, homes, and other work areas.
 Conduct air monitoring to measure worker exposures and ensure that controls
are providing adequate protection for workers.
 Use adequate respiratory protection when source controls cannot keep silica
exposures below the NIOSH PEL.
 Provide periodic medical examinations for all workers who may be exposed to
respirable crystalline silica.
 Post warning signs to mark the boundaries of work areas contaminated with
respirable crystalline silica.
 Provide workers with training that includes information about health effects, work
practices, and protective equipment for respirable crystalline silica.

Key point: The key to silicosis prevention is keeping silica dust out of the air. OSHA
requires dust to be controlled whenever possible.
 Steel Erection
Introduction
Incidents during steel erection continue to cause injuries and fatalities at
construction sites. Fatalities associated with steel erection generally have been
caused by the following hazards:
 Collapses while landing or placing a load as a result of placing loads on
unsecured or unbridged joists
 Collapses while connecting joists or trusses as a result of prematurely
disconnecting the crane before the piece was secure
 Workers struck by objects during miscellaneous activities as a result of walking
or working under a load
 Improper use or failure of fall protection as a result of workers' failure to use
available fall protection systems
 Unsecured or unstable decking, such as stepping onto or working on unsecured
decking that slipped out of place when fall protection was not provided or used
  Other falls during decking activities, such as stepping off the metal decking onto
insulation (and then falling to the ground) during roofing operations where fall
protection was not provided or used
 Walking/standing on the beam/joist (i.e., moving point-to-point), such as slips or
falls where fall protection was not provided or used

Topic 1: Steel Erection and Preplanning

This topic reviews where steel erection may occur, common steel erection
activity, and the importance of preplanning in steel erection

Where Steel Erection May Occur

Some examples of structures where steel erection may occur include:
 Single and multi-story buildings
 Systems-engineered metal buildings
 Lift slab/tilt-up structures
 Energy exploration structures
 Energy production, transfer and storage structures and facilities
 Auditoriums
 Malls
 Amphitheaters
 Stadiums
 Power plants
 Mills
 Chemical process structures
 Bridges
 Trestles
 Overpasses
 Monorails
 Metal roofs
 Industrial structures
 Water process and water containment structures
 Amusement Park structures and rides
 Artistic and monumental structures

This list is just a sample of the many types of projects were steel erection
operations are in place.

Steel Erection Activities

We just looked at the types of job sites where steel erection occurs, but what
activities on these sites does OSHA cover with its safety requirements.
These are the steel erection activities that OSHA covers:
 Hoisting, laying out, placing, connecting, welding, burning, guying, bracing,
bolting, plumbing, and rigging structural steel, steel joists, and metal buildings
 Installing metal decking, curtain walls, window walls, siding systems,
miscellaneous metals, ornamental iron, and similar materials
 Moving point-to-point while performing these activities

Preplanning
OSHA has recognized that under current practices in the industry, erection
decisions are often made in the field when the steel arrives. OSHA believes
that preplanning and coordination are not occurring to the extent they should
be and has, therefore, established certain criteria.

Site Layout Preplanning

Prior to engaging in any steel erection activities there are certain requirements
that the controlling contractor must meet in regard to the layout of the site.

These requirements include making sure the following are provided and
maintained:
 Adequate access roads into and through the site for the safe delivery and
movement of derricks, cranes, trucks, other necessary equipment, and the
material to be erected and means and methods for pedestrian and vehicular
control. Exception: This requirement does not apply to roads outside the
construction site.
 A firm, properly graded, drained area, readily accessible to the work and with
adequate space for the safe storage of materials and the safe operation of the
erector's equipment

Preplanning of Overhead Hoisting Operations

All hoisting operations that are to take place during steel erection operations
must be planned in advance and follow the OSHA requirements
for hoisting.

Training Requirements
Employers must provide adequate training on steel erection to address the
hazards presented in this lesson.

Fall hazard training

The employer must provide a training program for all employees exposed to
fall hazards. The program must include training and instruction in the following
areas:
 The recognition and identification of fall hazards in the work area
  The use and operation of guardrail systems (including perimeter safety cable
systems), personal fall arrest systems, positioning device systems, fall restraint
systems, safety net systems, and other protection to be used
 The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining, disassembling, and inspecting
the fall protection systems to be used
 The procedures to be followed to prevent falls to lower levels and through or into
holes and openings in walking/working surfaces and walls
 The fall protection requirements of this subpart

Special training programs

In addition, the employer must provide special training to employees engaged
in the following activities:
 Multiple lift rigging procedure: The employer must ensure that each employee
who performs multiple lift rigging has been provided training in the following two
areas:
o The nature of the hazards associated with multiple lifts
o The proper procedures and equipment to perform multiple lifts
 Connector procedures: The employer must ensure that each connector has been
provided training in the following two areas:
o The nature of the hazards associated with connecting
o The establishment, access, and proper connecting techniques and work
practices
 Controlled Decking Zone (CDZ) Procedures: Where CDZs are being used, the
employer must ensure that each employee has been provided training in the
following two areas:
o The nature of the hazards associated with work within a controlled decking
zone
o The establishment, access, and proper installation techniques and work
practices

Topic 2: OSHA Requirements

Rigging and Hoisting - General Requirements

Rigging and hoisting of steel members and materials are essential activities in
the steel erection process. Defects in hoisting equipment can harm steel
erection workers in many ways. This section sets safety requirements to
address the hazards associated with these activities.

A competent person must visually inspect cranes that are being used in steel
erection activities prior to each shift, and the inspection must include
observation for deficiencies during operation. This person might be the
operator or oiler of the hoisting equipment being used or, on a large project,
the master mechanic who checks each crane.

If any deficiency is identified, an immediate determination must be made by

the competent person as to whether the deficiency constitutes a hazard. If the
deficiency is determined to constitute a hazard, then the hoisting equipment
will be removed from service until the deficiency has been corrected.

During steel erection operations the crane operator is responsible for those
operations that are under the operator's direct control. Whenever there is any
doubt as to safety, the operator has the authority to stop and refuse to handle
loads until safety has been assured. A qualified rigger (a rigger who also is a
qualified person) must inspect the rigging prior to each shift.

Safety latches on hooks are not to be deactivated or made inoperable except:

 When a qualified rigger has determined that the hoisting and placing of purlins
and single joists can be performed more safely by doing so, or
 When equivalent protection is provided in a site-specific erection plan.

What is a Qualified Rigger?

A qualified rigger is defined as a "qualified person" who is performing the
inspection of the rigging equipment. Based on the definition of a "qualified
person," a qualified rigger must have demonstrated the ability to solve or
resolve rigging problems. Since there are no degree or certification programs
for "riggers," they must have extensive experience to support this
demonstration.

Competent Person
A competent person must visually inspect cranes that are being used in steel
erection activities prior to each shift, and the inspection must include
observation for deficiencies during operation. At a minimum this inspection will
include the following:
 All control mechanisms for maladjustments
 Control and drive mechanism for excessive wear of components and
contamination by lubricants, water, or other foreign matter
 Safety devices, including but not limited to boom angle indicators, boom stops,
boom kick-out devices, anti-two block devices, and load moment indicators
where required
 Air, hydraulic, and other pressurized lines for deterioration or leakage, particularly
those that flex in normal operation
 Hooks and latches for deformation, chemical damage, cracks, or wear
 Wire rope reeving for compliance with hoisting equipment manufacturer's
specifications
  Electrical apparatus for malfunctioning, signs of excessive deterioration, dirt, or
moisture accumulation
 Hydraulic system for proper fluid level
 Tires for proper inflation and condition
 Ground conditions around the hoisting equipment for proper support, including
ground settling under and around outriggers, ground water accumulation, or
similar conditions
 The hoisting equipment for level position
 The hoisting equipment for level position after each move and setup

Rigging and Hoisting - Working Under Loads

During steel erection activities, the routes for suspended loads must be
preplanned to ensure that no employee is required to work directly below a
suspended load except for employees who are engaged in the initial
connection of the steel or who are involved in hooking or unhooking the load.

When working under suspended loads, the following criteria must be met:
 Materials being hoisted must be rigged to prevent unintentional displacement.
 Hooks with self-closing safety latches must be used to prevent components from
slipping out of the hook.
 All loads must be rigged by a qualified rigger.

Rigging and Hoisting - Multiple Lift Rigging Procedure

The multiple lift rigging procedure (also known as Christmas treeing, multiple
lifting, or tandem loading) can present significant hazards to workers.

A multiple lift can be performed only if the following criteria are met:
 A multiple lift rigging assembly is used.
 No more than five members are hoisted per lift.
 Only beams and similar structural members are lifted.
 All employees engaged in the multiple lift have been trained in these procedures.

Key Point: No crane may be used for a multiple lift if its use would go
against the manufacturer's specifications and limitations.

Components of the multiple lift rigging assembly must be specifically designed

and assembled with a maximum capacity for total assembly and for each
individual attachment point. This capacity, certified by the manufacturer or a
qualified rigger, must be based on the manufacturer's specifications with a 5
to 1 safety factor for all components. The total load must not exceed:
 The rated capacity of the hoisting equipment specified in the hoisting equipment
load charts
  The rigging capacity specified in the rigging rating chart

What is the correct use of a multiple lift rigging assembly?

The multiple lift rigging assembly must be rigged with members:
 Attached at their centers of gravity and maintained reasonably level
 Rigged from top down
 Rigged at least 7 feet apart

The members on the multiple lift rigging assembly must be set from the
bottom up, and controlled load lowering must be used whenever the load is
over the connectors.

Structural Steel Assembly - General Requirements

It is vital that structural stability be maintained at all times during the erection
process. This section describes the requirements for the assembly of structural
steel around three areas:
 Walking/Working Surfaces
 Plumbing-Up
 Metal Decking

What additional requirements apply to multi-story structures?

The following requirements apply to multi-story structures:
 The permanent floors must be installed as the erection of structural members
progresses, and there must be no more than eight stories between the erection
floor and the uppermost permanent floor, except where the structural integrity is
maintained as a result of the design
 At no time can there be more than 4 floors or 48 feet, whichever is less, of
unfinished bolting or welding above the foundation or uppermost permanently
secured floor, except where the structural integrity is maintained as a result of the
design.
 A fully planked or decked floor or nets must be maintained within two stories or
30 feet, whichever is less, directly under any erection work being performed.

Structural Steel Assembly - Walking/Working Surfaces

In order to prevent tripping hazards, shear connectors must not be attached to
the top flanges of beams, joists, or beam attachments so that they project
vertically from or horizontally across the top flange until after the metal
decking or other surface has been installed.

Shear connectors include headed steel studs, steel bars or steel lugs,
reinforcing bars, deformed anchors, and threaded studs.
When shear connectors are used in the construction of composite floors, roofs,
and bridge decks, the proper procedure is for the employees to lay out and
install the shear connectors after the metal decking has been installed, using
the metal decking as a working platform.

Shear connectors must not be installed from within a controlled decking zone
(CDZ).

Structural Steel Assembly - Plumbing-Up

The competent person may determine that plumbing-up equipment has to be
installed in conjunction with the steel erection process to ensure the stability
of the structure.

When it is to be used, the plumbing-up equipment must be in place and

properly installed before the structure is loaded with construction material
such as loads of joists, bundles of decking, or bundles of bridging. Only the
competent person can approve the removal of any plumbing-up equipment
that has been installed.

Structural Steel Assembly - Metal Decking

During steel erection operations involving metal decking, bundle packaging
and strapping must not be used for hoisting unless it has been designed
specifically for this purpose.

Sometimes, to expedite unloading and hoisting, items such as dunnage or

flashing will be sent up with the bundle to help support it on the structure and
to protect the decking that has already been installed. Hoisting loose items (or
piggybacking) is not permitted unless the items are secured to prevent them
from falling off the bundle in the event that it catches on the structure and
tilts.

When hoisting the metal decking bundles, they must be landed on framing
members so that enough support is provided to allow the bundles to be
unbanded without dislodging the bundles from the supports. At the end of
each shift or at any time when environmental or job site conditions might
require it, the metal decking must be secured against displacement.

Roof and floor holes and openings

During steel erection operations, any metal decking around roof and floor
holes and openings must be installed using the following work practices:
Framed metal deck openings must have structural members turned down to
allow for continuous deck installation except in instances where this would not
be possible due to structural design constraints or constructability.
Roof and floor holes and openings must be decked over. Where the large size,
configuration, or other structural design does not allow openings to be decked
over (such as elevator shafts, stairwells, etc.), employees must be protected
from fall hazards by guardrail systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest
systems, positioning device systems, or fall restraint systems.

Metal decking holes and openings must not be cut until immediately prior to
being permanently filled with the equipment or structure needed or intended
to fulfill its specific use.

Covering roof and floor openings

When covers are going to be use for roof and floor openings, they must be
capable of supporting, without failure, twice the weight of the employees,
equipment, and materials that will be placed on them at any one time.

All covers must be secured in place after they have been installed in order to
prevent accidental displacement by wind, equipment, or employees. In
addition, covers must be painted with high-visibility paint or marked with the
word HOLE or COVER to provide employees with a visual warning of the
hazard.

Smoke dome or skylight fixtures that have been installed typically do not meet
the necessary strength requirements are not considered covers unless they
can meet the strength requirements.

Decking gaps around columns, Installation of metal decking, and Derrick floors
Decking gaps around columns
In order to eliminate fall hazards, wire mesh or exterior plywood must be
installed around columns where planks or metal decking do not fit tightly. The
materials used must be of sufficient strength to provide fall protection for
personnel and to prevent objects from falling through.

Installation of metal decking

Metal decking must be laid tightly and secured immediately upon placement to
prevent accidental movement or displacement, and the metal decking panels
must be placed to ensure full support by structural members.

Derrick floors
A derrick floor must be fully decked and/or planked and the steel member
connections completed to support the intended floor loading. Any temporary
load that is placed on a derrick floor must be distributed over the underlying
support members to prevent the local overloading of the deck material.
Column Anchorage - General Requirements
This section addresses the hazards associated with column stability and,
specifically, the proper use of anchor rods (anchor bolts) to ensure column
stability.

Inadequate anchor rod (anchor bolt) installation has been identified as a

contributing factor in structural collapses. Collapses due to poor footings and
anchor bolts are currently the primary cause of connector incidents. It is
important to ensure that columns are adequately stabilized during them
erection to withstand construction loads.

The general requirements for erection stability are:

 All columns must be anchored by a minimum of four anchor rods (anchor bolts).
In addition, the columns must be set on level finished floors, pregrouted leveling
plates, leveling nuts, or shim packs that are adequate to transfer the construction
loads.
 All columns must be evaluated by a competent person to determine if guying or
bracing is needed. Where it is determined by the competent person that guying
or bracing is needed, it must be installed to ensure stability.

Column Stability - Anchor Rods Maintenance

OSHA has specified the following requirements for the repair, replacement, or
field modification of anchor rods (anchor bolts):
 Anchor rods (anchor bolts) may not be repaired, replaced, or fieldmodified
without the prior approval of the project structural engineer.
 Prior to the erection of a column, the controlling contractor must provide written
notification to the steel erector if there has been any repair, replacement, or
modification of the anchor rods (anchor bolts) of that column.

Connecting Beams and Columns - General Requirements

This section describes the requirements for connections of beams and columns
to minimize the hazard of structural collapse during the early stages of the
steel erection process.

Recognizing that inappropriate or inadequate connections of beams and

columns is hazardous and can lead to collapses and worker fatalities, OSHA
has established requirements to address these hazards. The general
requirements are:
 During the final placing of solid web structural members, the load must not be
released from the hoisting line until the members are secured with at least two
bolts per connection that are the same size and strength as shown in the erection
drawings. The bolts must be drawn up wrench tight.
  A competent person must determine if more than two bolts are necessary to
ensure the stability of cantilevered members. If so, additional bolts must be
installed prior to release from the hoisting line.

Beams and Columns - Double Connections

The following requirements apply to double connections at columns and/or at
beam webs over a column:
 When two structural members are connected and share common connection
holes, at least one bolt must remain connected to the first member unless a seat
or equivalent connection device is supplied to secure the first member and
prevent the column from being displaced.
 If a seat or equivalent device is used, the seat (or device) must be designed to
support the load during the double connection process. It must be adequately
bolted or welded to both a supporting member and the first member before the
nuts on the shared bolts are removed to make the double connection.

Key Point: Solid web structural members that are used as diagonal bracing
have to be secured by at least one bolt per connection.

Beams and Columns - Perimeter Columns

During steel erection activities, perimeter columns must not be erected unless:
 The perimeter columns extend a minimum of 48 inches above the finished floor
to permit installation of perimeter safety cables prior to erection of the next tier.
 The perimeter columns have holes or other devices in or attached to perimeter
columns at 42-45 inches above the finished floor and the midpoint between the
finished floor and the top cable to permit installation of perimeter safety.
Topic 3: Open Web Steel Joists
Some of the most serious risks facing employees engaged in steel erection are
encountered during the erection of open web steel joists, particularly landing
loads on unbridged joists and improperly placing loads on joists. Based on an
analysis of fatalities from January 1984 to December 1990, OSHA determined
that of the approximately 40 fatalities caused by collapse, more than half were
related to the erection of steel joists.

OSHA has developed the combination of specification and performance

requirements to provide more comprehensive protection to workers engaged
in these activities. This topic presents these requirements. Upon completing
this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe OSHA requirements for working with/around open web steel joists

General Requirement
During construction operations where steel joists are used, and columns are
not framed in at least two directions with solid web structural steel members,
a steel joist must be field bolted at the column to provide lateral stability to
the column during erection. For the installation of this joist, the following
requirements must be met:
 A vertical stabilizer plate must be provided on each column for steel joists. The
plate must be a minimum of 6 inches by 6 inches and must extend at least 3
inches below the bottom chord of the joist, with a 13/16-inch hole to provide an
attachment point for guying or plumbing cables.
 The bottom chords of steel joists at columns must be stabilized to prevent
rotation during erection.
 Hoisting cables must not be released until the seat at each end of the steel joist
is field-bolted and each end of the bottom chord restrained by the column
stabilizer plate.

In some instances, constructability does not allow a steel joist to be installed at

the column. When this situation occurs, the following requirements must be
followed:
 An alternate means of stabilizing joists must be installed on both sides near the
column and must:
o Provide stability
o Be designed by a qualified person
o Be shop-installed
o Be included in the erection drawings
 Hoisting cables must not be released until the seat at each end of the steel joist
is field-bolted and the joist is stabilized.

In situations where the steel joists that are located at or near columns
spanning 60 feet or less, the joist must be designed to be strong enough to
allow one employee to release the hoisting cable without the need for erection
bridging. If the span is more than 60 feet, the joists must be set in tandem
with all bridging installed unless there is an alternative method of erection that
provides equivalent stability to the steel joist and a qualified person has
designed it. Such an alternative method must be included in the site-specific
erection plan.

In open web operations, a steel joist or steel joist girder must not be placed
on any support structure unless the structure has been stabilized. When steel
joists are landed on a structure, they must be secured to prevent any
unintentional displacement prior to installation.

Key Point: Under no circumstances can a modification that affects the

strength of a steel joist or steel joist girder be made without the
 approval of the project structural engineer.

Attachment of Steel Joists and Steel Joist Girders

During steel erection operations, each end of "K" series steel joists must be
attached to the support structure with a minimum of two one-eighth-inch fillet
welds one inch long or with two one-half-inch bolts.

Each end of "LH" and "DLH" series steel joists and steel joist girders must be
attached to the support structure with a minimum of two one-quarter inch
fillet welds two inches long, or with two three-quarter-inch bolts.

Each steel joist must be attached to the support structure, at least at one end
on both sides of the seat, immediately upon placement in the final erection
position and before additional joists are placed. In addition, panels that have
been pre-assembled from steel joists with bridging must be attached to the
structure at each corner before the hoisting cables are released.

Steel Joists Erection

During the erection of steel joists, both sides of the seat of one end of each
steel joist that requires bridging must be attached to the support structure
before hoisting cables are released.

For joists that are over 60 feet, both ends of the joist must be attached before
the hoisting cables are released.

On steel joists that do not require erection bridging, only one employee is
allowed on the joist until all bridging is installed and anchored. Employees
must not be allowed on steel joists where the span of the steel joist is equal to
or greater than the span shown in Tables A and B.

When permanent bridging terminus points cannot be used during erection,

additional temporary bridging terminus points are required to provide stability.

Steel Erection Bridging

When the span of the steel joists is in different ranges, different requirements
for bridging apply.

Where the span of the steel joist is equal to or greater than the span shown in
Tables A and B, the following must apply:
 A row of bolted diagonal erection bridging must be installed near the midspan of
the steel joist.
 Hoisting cables must not be released until this bolted diagonal erection bridging
is installed and anchored.
  No more than one employee is allowed on these spans until all other bridging is
installed and anchored.

Where the span of the steel joist is between 60-100 feet, the following must
apply:
 All rows of bridging must be bolted diagonal bridging.
 Two rows of bolted diagonal erection bridging must be installed near the third
points of the steel joist.
 Hoisting cables must not be released until this bolted diagonal erection bridging
is installed and anchored.
 No more than two employees are allowed on these spans until all other bridging
is installed and anchored.

Where the span of the steel joist is between 100-144 feet, the following must
apply:
 All rows of bridging must be bolted diagonal bridging.
 Hoisting cables must not be released until all bridging is installed and anchored.
 No more than two employees are allowed on these spans until all bridging is
installed and anchored.

For steel members spanning more than 144 feet, the erection methods used
must be the same as those for beams and columns.

Where any steel joist specified in is a bottom chord-bearing joist, a row of

bolted diagonal bridging must be provided near the supports. This bridging
must be installed and anchored before the hoisting cable is released.

When bolted diagonal erection bridging is required, the following requirements

apply:
 The bridging must be indicated on the erection drawing.
 The erection drawing must be the exclusive indicator of the proper placement of
this bridging.
 Shop-installed bridging clips, or functional equivalents, must be used where the
bridging bolts to the steel joists.
 When two pieces of bridging are attached to the steel joist by a common bolt, the
nut that secures the first piece of bridging must not be removed from the bolt for
the attachment of the second.
 Bridging attachments must not protrude above the top chord of the steel joist.

Landing and Placing Loads

The following requirements apply to landing and placing loads:
When placing a load on steel joists during construction, you must ensure that
the load is distributed so that it will not exceed the carrying capacity of any
steel joist.

No construction loads are allowed on the steel joists until all bridging is
installed and anchored and all joist-bearing ends are attached.

The weight of a bundle of joist bridging must not exceed a total of 1,000
pounds and the bundle must be placed on a minimum of three steel joists that
are secured at one end with the edge of the bridging bundle positioned within
one foot of the secured end.

The edge of the construction load must be placed within one foot of the
bearing surface of the joist end.

No construction loads are allowed on the steel joists until all bridging is
installed and anchored and all joist-bearing ends attached. However, there is
an exception when all of the following conditions are met:
 The employer has first determined from a qualified person and documented in a
site-specific erection plan that the structure or portion of the structure is capable
of supporting the load.
 The bundle of decking is placed on a minimum of three steel joists.
 The joists supporting the bundle of decking are attached at both ends.
 At least one row of bridging is installed and anchored.
 The total weight of the bundle of decking does not exceed 4,000 pounds.
 Placement of the bundle of decking must be in accordance with OSHA

Topic 4: Systems-Engineered Metal Buildings

If you look at steel erection activities, those associated with systemsengineered metal
buildings are different from those associated with
conventional steel erection. Now, over 50 percent of industrial buildings in
steel erection is systems-engineered.

This topic reviews safety requirements to erect systems-engineered metal

buildings safely. Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe OSHA requirements for systems-engineered metal buildings

Systems-Engineered Metal Buildings

Systems-engineered metal buildings include structures ranging from small
sheds to larger structures such as warehouses, gymnasiums, churches,
airplane hangars, and arenas. They frequently have lighter, cold-formed
members such as girts, eave struts, and purlins. Larger members in this type
of construction are called rigid frames, a term not used in conventional steel
erection.

The erection of systems-engineered metal structures presents certain unique

hazards. Although some of the hazards are similar to general steel erection,
other hazards, such as those associated with anchor bolts, construction loads,
and double connections, are different.

There are a large number of small, specialized steel erectors who perform
systems-engineered metal building erection exclusively.

Erection of Systems-Engineered Metal Buildings

The following requirements apply to the erection of systems-engineered metal
buildings:
 Each structural column must be anchored by a minimum of four anchor rods
(anchor bolts).
 Rigid frames must have 50 percent of their bolts, or the number of bolts specified
by the manufacturer (whichever is greater) installed and tightened on both sides
of the web adjacent to each flange before the hoisting equipment is released.
 Construction loads must not be placed on any structural steel framework unless
such framework is safely bolted, welded, or otherwise adequately secured.
 In girt and eave strut-to-frame connections that share common connection holes,
at least one bolt must remain connected to the first member unless a
manufacturer-supplied, field-attached seat or similar connection device is present
so that the girt or eave strut is always secured against displacement.
 Both ends of all steel joists or cold-formed joists must be fully bolted and/or
welded to the support structure before releasing the hoisting cables, allowing an
employee on the joists, or allowing any construction loads on the joists.
 Purlins and girts must not be used as an anchorage point for a fall arrest system
unless written approval is obtained from a qualified person. Purlins may be used
as a walking/working surface only when installing safety systems, after all
permanent bridging has been installed and fall protection provided.
 Construction loads may be placed only within a zone that is within eight feet of
the centerline of the primary support member.

Topic 5: Fall Protection in Steel Erection

General Requirements
Except for connectors, each employee engaged in a steel erection activity who
is on a walking/working surface with an unprotected side or edge more than
15 feet above a lower level must be protected from fall hazards by guardrail
systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning device
systems, or fall restraint systems.
On multi-story structures, perimeter safety cables must be installed at the
final interior and exterior perimeters of the floors as soon as the metal decking
has been installed.

Steel joists and steel joist girders must not be used as anchorage points for a
fall arrest system unless written approval to do so is obtained from a qualified
person.

Fall Protection Requirements for Connectors

There are specific fall protection requirements for employees who are
connectors:
 A connector must be protected from fall hazards of more than 2 stories or 30 feet
above a lower level, whichever is less. The methods of fall protection include
guardrail systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning
device systems, or fall restraint systems.
 A connector must have completed connector training.
 When a controlled decking zone is not in use, at heights over 15 and up to 30
feet above a lower level, a connector must be provided with a personal fall arrest
system, positioning device system, or fall restraint system and wear the
equipment necessary to be tied off.

Controlled Decking Zone (CDZ)

A controlled decking zone may be established for the area of the structure that
is over 15 feet and up to 30 feet above a lower level where metal decking is
initially being installed and forms the leading edge of a work area.
In each CDZ, the following must apply:
 Each employee working at the leading edge in a CDZ must be protected from fall
hazards of more than 2 stories or 30 feet, whichever is less.
 Access to a CDZ must be limited to only those employees engaged in leading
edge work.
 The boundaries of a CDZ must be designated and clearly marked. The CDZ
must not be more than 90 feet wide and 90 feet deep from any leading edge.
 The CDZ must be marked by the use of control lines or the equivalent.
 Each employee working in a CDZ must have completed CDZ training.
 Unsecured decking in a CDZ must not exceed 3,000 square feet.
 Safety deck attachments must be performed in the CDZ from the leading edge
back to the control line and must have at least two attachments for each metal
decking panel.
 Final deck attachments and installation of shear connectors must not be
performed in the CDZ.
Criteria for Fall Protection Equipment
Guardrail systems, safety net systems, personal fall arrest systems,
positioning device systems, and their components must conform to the criteria
established in OSHA Fall Protection standard (Subpart M).

Fall arrest system components must be used in fall restraint systems and must
conform to OSHA requirements. Either body belts or body harnesses must be
used in fall restraint systems.

Perimeter safety cables must meet the criteria for guardrail systems.

Falling Object Protection

The following falling object protection needs to be in place in steel erection:
 Securing loose items aloft: All materials, equipment, and tools not in use while
aloft must be secured against accidental displacement.
 Protection from falling objects other than materials being hoisted: Construction
processes below steel erection are prohibited unless overhead protection is
provided for the employees below.

Demolition
Introduction
Ductwork Crushes Construction Worker
An employee was demolishing a suspended plaster ceiling, above which was a
massive section of HVAC ductwork. He was directly below the ductwork,
removing the support pipe for an air-handling unit that was obstructing his
demolition activities. The ductwork collapsed, killing him. The employee had
not performed or reviewed an engineering survey to determine the structural
integrity of the ductwork before beginning work.

Distance Fails to Protect Worker

A demolition worker was watering down a building during its demolition from
approximately 50 feet back. He failed to see a pipe coming at him. The 3-inch
diameter, 17-foot pipe, weighing approximately 100 pounds, struck him in the
chest and killed him.

Demolition doesn't just mean destroying a structure; it implies planning for

predictable, controllable results that protect people and uninvolved property.

Topic 1: Preparing for Demolition

Beginning any type of demolition project without everyone involved knowing every
aspect of the plan is an invitation for something to go wrong. Planning for a
demolition job is more important than actually doing the demolition. Why? Because a
good, thorough plan is necessary to achieve a safe, successful demolition project. For
this reason, a competent person experienced in all phases of the demolition work to
be performed should complete all planning work.

OSHA mandates that a competent person conduct an engineering survey prior to

beginning a demolition project. This survey should determine the condition of the
overall structure and the possibility of unplanned collapse of any portion of the
structure. Safe floor loads should be determined to prevent overloading as demolition
work progresses.

Before beginning every demolition job, the demolition contractor should take a
number of steps to safeguard the health and safety of workers at the job site.
In this topic, you will learn what these preparatory operations require including the:
 Overall planning of the demolition job, such as the methods to be used to bring
down the structure
 Equipment necessary to do the job
 Measures to perform the work safely

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI), in its ANSI A10.6-1983 - Safety
Requirements for Demolition Operations, states:

"No employee shall be permitted in any area that can be adversely affected
when demolition operations are being performed. Only those employees
necessary for the performance of the operations shall be permitted in these
areas."

Engineering Survey
Prior to beginning all demolition operations, OSHA requires that a competent person
conduct an engineering survey of the structure.

The purpose of this survey is to determine the condition of the framing, floors, and
walls so that necessary measures can be taken to prevent the premature collapse of
any portion of the structure.
It is also advisable to similarly check any adjacent structure or improvements.
Photographing existing damage in neighboring structures is advisable.

The demolition contractor must maintain a written copy of this survey.

Planning the Job

The engineering survey provides the demolition contractor with the opportunity to
evaluate the entire job. The contractor should plan for:
 Wrecking the structure
 Equipment to do the work
 Manpower requirements
 Safety of all workers on the job site
 Safety equipment needs
 Potential hazards such as fires, cave-ins, and injuries
 Locating the nearest hospital, infirmary, clinic, or physician
 Protection of the public

If the structure to be demolished has been damaged by fire, flood, explosion, or some
other cause, appropriate measures, including bracing and shoring of walls and floors,
should be taken to protect workers and any adjacent structures. The history of any
type of hazardous chemicals, gases, explosives, flammable material, or similar
dangerous substances used or stored on-site should be determined. If the nature of a
substance cannot easily be defined, samples should be taken and analyzed by a
qualified person prior to demolition.

During the planning stage of the job, all safety equipment needs should be
determined. The required number and type of respirators, lifelines, warning signs,
safety nets, special face and eye protection, hearing protection, and another worker
protection devices should be established as the engineering survey is prepared.
A comprehensive plan is necessary for any confined space entry.

Utility Location
One of the most important elements of pre-job planning is locating all utility services.
All electric, gas, water, steam, sewer, and other services lines should be shut off,
capped, or otherwise controlled at or outside the building before demolition work
starts.

In each case, any utility company involved should be notified in advance, and any
approval or services needed should be obtained.

If it is necessary to maintain any power, water, or other utilities during demolition,

such lines should be temporarily relocated as necessary and/or protected.
The location of all overhead power sources should also be determined, as they can be
especially hazardous during any machine demolition. All workers should be informed
of the location of any existing or relocated utility service.

Medical Services and First Aid

Think, plan, and provide for prompt medical attention in case of serious injury prior to
the start of demolition by:
 Locating the nearest hospital, infirmary, clinic, or physician as part of the
engineering survey
 Providing the job supervisor with the most direct route to medical facilities
 Providing proper equipment for prompt transportation of an injured worker
 Providing an available communication system to contact any necessary
ambulance service at the job site -- conspicuously post the telephone numbers of
hospitals, physicians, or ambulances

If there is no infirmary, clinic, hospital, or physician reasonably accessible to the

worksite, a person with a valid certificate in first aid training from the U.S. Bureau of
Mines, the American Red Cross, or equivalent training should be available at the
worksite to give first aid.

A properly stocked first aid kit, as determined by an occupational physician, must be

available at the job site. The first aid kit should contain:
 Approved supplies in a weatherproof container
 Individual sealed packages for each type of item
 Rubber gloves to prevent the transfer of infectious diseases
 Provisions to provide for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes if anyone is
working around corrosive materials
 Water containing no additives for eye flushing
The contents of the kit should be checked before being sent out on each job and re-
checked at least weekly to ensure the expended items are replaced.

Police And Fire Contact

The telephone numbers of the local police, ambulance, and fire departments should
be available at each job site. This information can prove useful to the job supervisor
in the event of any traffic problems, such as the movement of equipment to the job,
uncontrolled fires, or other police/fire matters. The police number may also be used
to report any vandalism, unlawful entry to the job site, or incidents requiring police
assistance.

Fire Prevention and Protection

A fire plan should be established prior to beginning a demolition job. This plan should
outline the assignments of key personnel in the event of a fire and provide an
evacuation plan for workers on the site.
Common sense should be the general rule in all fire prevention planning and should
include:

Preparation, Evaluation, and Correction

 Evaluating and taking necessary corrective measures for all potential sources of
ignition
 Installing and regular inspection by a competent person of electrical wiring and
equipment for providing light, heat, or power
 Locating sufficient firefighting equipment near any flammable or combustible
liquid storage area
 Using only approved containers and portable tanks to store and handle
flammable and combustible liquids
 Shutting down all internal combustion equipment prior to refueling and storing
fuel for this equipment in a safe location
 Evaluating and taking necessary corrective measures for all potential sources of
ignition
 Prohibiting smoking at or in the vicinity of hazardous operations or materials and,
where smoking is permitted, providing safe receptacles for smoking materials

Physical Proximity to Hazards

 Maintaining clearance of at least six inches between piping and combustible
material when the exhausts are piped outside the building
 Locating equipment powered by an internal combustion engine so that the
exhausts discharge well away from combustible materials and from workers
 Situating heating devices so they are not likely to overturn, installing them
according to their listing, and including clearance to combustible material or
equipment -- competent personnel should maintain any temporary heating
equipment used

Access
 Maintaining roadways free from accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or other
materials. Roadways between and around combustible storage piles should be at
least 15 feet wide. When storing debris or combustible material inside a
structure, such storage should not obstruct or adversely affect the means of exit.
 Establishing a suitable job site location provided with plans, emergency
information, and equipment needed. Ensure access for heavy fire-fighting
equipment on the immediate jobsite at the start of the job and maintain it until the
job is completed.
 Providing and maintaining free access from the street to fire hydrants and to
outside connections for standpipes, sprinklers, or other fire extinguishing
equipment, whether permanent or temporary, at all times. This means:
 o Pedestrian walkways should not impede access to hydrants.
o No material or construction should interfere with access to hydrants,
Siamese connections, or fire-extinguishing equipment.

Firefighting resources
 Making available a temporary or permanent water supply of volume, duration,
and pressure sufficient to operate the fire-fighting equipment properly
 Providing standpipes with outlets on large multi-story buildings to provide for fire
protection on upper levels and, if the water pressure is insufficient, providing a
pump
 Providing an ample number of fully charged portable fire extinguishers
throughout the operation. All motor-driven mobile equipment should be equipped
with an approved fire extinguisher.
 Establishing an alarm system (telephone system, siren, two-way radio, etc.) so
that employees on the site and the local fire department can be alerted in case of
an emergency. Conspicuously post the alarm code and reporting instructions.
The alarm system should be serviceable at the job site during the demolition.
Retain fire cutoffs in the buildings undergoing alterations or demolition until
operations necessitate their removal.

Topic 2: Specific OSHA Requirements

OSHA has specific requirements for the various members within a structure. This
topic covers the requirements for stairwells and chutes when demolition work is
planned in a structure. It also covers regulations that govern specialized removal of
walls, chimneys, and masonry sections; the manual and mechanical removal of
construction members in demolition work; as well as removal of materials through
floor openings.
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe important safety precautions for stairs and ladders in demolition work
 Define guidelines for removing materials through floor openings
 Describe hazards incurred in removing special structures
 Define hazards to avoid in mechanical demolition

Access
During demolition operations, only the stairways, passageways, and ladders that have
been designated as a means of access to the building can be used. Other access ways
must be entirely closed at all times.

In a multi-story building, when a stairwell is being used, it must be properly

illuminated by either natural or artificial means. The stairwell also must be completely
covered over to prevent access at a point not less than two floors below the floor
where work is being performed.
Access to the floor where the work is in progress must be through a properly lighted,
protected, and separate passageway.

Chutes
No material can be dropped to any point outside the exterior walls of the structure
unless the area is effectively protected.

Chutes must be designed and constructed so that they are strong enough to eliminate
the hazard of failure from the impact of materials or debris loaded into them.

All materials chutes or their sections set at an angle of more than 45 degrees must be
entirely enclosed, except for openings equipped with closures at the floor level for the
insertion of materials. These openings cannot exceed 48 inches and must be kept
closed when not in use.
 A substantial gate must be installed in each chute near the discharge end, and a
competent person must be assigned to control the operation of the gate and the
backing and loading of trucks.
 When operations are not in progress, the area surrounding the discharge end of
a chute must be securely closed off.
 A standard guardrail must be installed to protect any chute opening into which
workmen may dump debris. Any space between the chute and the edge of floor
openings through which it passes must be solidly covered.
 Where the material is dumped from mechanical equipment or wheelbarrows, a
toeboard or bumper must be provided at each chute opening.

Removing Materials Through Floor Openings

Any openings cut in a floor to be used for material disposal cannot be larger than 25
percent of the total floor area, unless the lateral supports of the removed flooring
remain in place.

Floors weakened or made unsafe by demolition operations must be shored so they

can carry the intended imposed load from demolition operations safely.

Removing Walls, Masonry Sections, and Chimneys

These practices are required by OSHA when removing specified structure members:
 When removing masonry walls or other sections of masonry, do not permit them
to fall on the building floors in masses that would exceed the safe carrying
capacities of the floors.
 No wall section more than one story in height can stand alone without lateral
bracing unless the wall was designed to stand without lateral support and is safe
enough to be self-supporting.
 Leave all walls in a stable condition at the end of each shift.
  Employees are not permitted to work on the top of a wall when weather
conditions constitute a hazard.
 Do not cut or remove structural or load-supporting members on any floor until all
stories above that floor are demolished and removed.
 Floor openings within ten feet of any wall being demolished must be planked
solid except when employees are kept out of the area below.
 In buildings of "skeleton-steel" construction, the steel framing may be left in place
during the demolition of masonry. When this is done, all steel beams, girders,
and similar structural supports must be cleared of all loose material as the
masonry demolition progresses downward.
 Provide walkways or ladders to enable employees to have safe access to any
scaffold or wall.
 Do not demolish walls serving as retaining walls to support earth or adjoining
structures until the earth is properly braced or adjoining structures are properly
underpinned.
 Do not use walls as retaining walls to pile debris against unless they are capable
of supporting the imposed load.

Manual and Mechanical Floor Removal

Openings cut in a floor must extend the full span of the arch between the supports.

Do not begin demolition of floor arches until they, and the surrounding floor area for a
distance of 20 feet, have been cleared of debris and any other unnecessary materials.

Do not allow employees in the area directly underneath a floor arch when arches are
being removed and barricade the area to prevent access to it.

Employees must stand on 2 x 10 full-size undressed planks while breaking down floor
arches between beams. These planks must be located in a way that provides safe
support for the workmen if the arch between the beams were to collapse. The open
space between planks cannot exceed 16 inches.

Provide safe walkways of at least 18 inches width for use by workmen when they
must reach any point without walking upon exposed beams.

Install stringers of ample strength to support the flooring planks, and support the
ends of the stringers by floor beams or girders, and not by floor arches alone.

Do not use mechanical equipment on floors or working surfaces unless the floors or
surfaces are of sufficient strength to support the imposed load.

Floor openings must have curbs or stop-logs to prevent equipment from running over
the edge.
Removing Steel Construction
Steel construction must be dismantled column length by column length and tier by
tier. Columns may be in two-story lengths.

When floor arches have been removed, planking must be provided for the workers
engaged in razing the steel framing.

Any structural member being dismembered cannot be overstressed.

Cranes, derricks, and other hoisting equipment used must meet OSHA requirements.

Mechanical Demolition
When mechanical devices are used in demolition work, the following OSHA standards
should be followed:
 Do not permit any workers in any area that can be adversely affected by
demolition operations when balling or clamming is being performed. Only
workers necessary to perform the operations should be allowed in the area at
any other time. [add to definition list]
 The weight of the demolition ball must not exceed 50 percent of the crane's rated
load or must not exceed 25 percent of the nominal breaking strength of the line
by which it is suspended, whichever results in a lesser value.
 The crane boom and loadline must be as short as possible. The ball must be
attached to the loadline with a swivel-type connection to prevent twisting of the
loadline and must be attached by positive means in such a manner that the
weight cannot become accidentally disconnected.
 Cut free all steel affected members before pulling over walls. Remove all roof
cornices or other such ornamental stonework prior to pulling over walls.
 A competent person must continue inspections as the work progresses to detect
hazards from weakened or deteriorated floors, walls, or loosened material.
 Do not permit any employee to work where such hazards exist until they are
corrected by shoring, bracing, or other effective means.

Topic 3: Demolition Equipment

Often buildings being demolished are very old, making it hard to predict precise
reactions. Recently, demolition equipment such as shears, hammers, and crane
attachments have become safer to use, but the fear of falling and flying debris still
exists, thereby demanding workers to wear head and eye protection at all times.
This topic describes the equipment used in demolition work, applicable chemical
agents, and proper clothing and dress tips to ensure safety. Safety requirements and
control of hazards involved in the use of this equipment are also covered.

Booms, Breakers and Buckets

Booms
A demolition boom pushes and pulls down parts of structures. A claw attachment that
is telescopically extendable is attached to the end portion of the boom, and the whole
assembly can be mounted on a hydraulic excavator. The boom is particularly suitable
for the demolition of comparatively light structures, such as houses. However, not
every hydraulic excavator can be equipped with a demolition boom.

Controlling Hazards
Noise emission from this demolition technique is low and determined
substantially by the machine employed. Considerable dust formation may
occur, especially when demolition work on a structure is carried out at
relatively great height. Spraying water during the operations can reduce dust,
but completely wetting the member before its demolition is more effective.

Proper knowledge of the construction and behavior of the structures to be

demolished can avoid undesirable collapses and control the direction of falling.
There should be a clear understanding of just where to apply the pulling or
pushing force and in what sequence to bring down various parts of a structure.
The person in charge should be able to judge whether additional arrangements,
such as removal and installation of certain features, are needed before
demolition proceeds.

Breakers
Breaking up is generally done with straight or curved teeth moving in a straight line
or an arc. The teeth are mounted on a concrete breaker or excavator bucket or
individually mounted on an excavator. Teeth should be made of a material with
maximum resistance to wear and must be capable of transmitting forces without
breaking. In this activity, the exerting of a sufficiently large pressure or bending force
on one or both sides of the material cause disintegration or breakup. Normally,
pressure is exerted at right angles to the longitudinal direction of the component.
Most breakers can break reinforced concrete easily. The reinforcement may be cut
with the knives inside the teeth or otherwise. In most cases, rotating the breaker by
the bucket cylinder raises the material to be broken. It receives its required hydraulic
oil and pressure from the hydraulic system of the excavator or another auxiliary
machine. The breaker has movable teeth, and these teeth are sometimes combined
with fixed teeth. The breaker can work toward the excavator and away from it.
The design of most breakers supports suspension from the bucket arm and cylinder of
a hydraulic excavator, in the so-called bucket position. However, parallelogram
suspension is often used for optimal breaking force. In this configuration, the bucket
cylinder is mounted parallel to the bucket arm but on the inside of the arm.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

Several types of breakers have been developed to meet the noise and dust
restrictions in many demolition jobs. Breaking up is not a noisy operation, and
 the machines used determine the noise volume. Dust formation is also very
slight, resulting partly from the relatively slow rate of work. Dust can be
formed by falling material if collapses occur.
General construction site safety requirements and those associated with
hydraulic machines apply here too. Breaking and breaking up do not impose
any additional safety requirements, but if there is any possibility of material
falling, the cab of the machine must be protected against it.

Buckets
A rock bucket is a specially constructed bucket mounted on a hydraulic excavator. It
can be used for heavy breakup work and for shifting materials. The bucket may be
fitted with a cast steel or steel plate element at its leading edge, usually made of
high-grade, wear-resistant material, and may be fitted with fixed or interchangeable
knife and teeth. For breaking up, the bucket can be moved in a straight line or an arc.
The teeth exert the maximum breaking force when the bucket is supported on the
ground and moved in an arc.

Rubble shovel buckets are used for lighter breakup work and can also be used both
for breaking and shifting materials, as they can move horizontally and in an arc.
While various designs of rubble buckets are available, rubble shovel buckets are rake
shaped and made of bent pipe or bent rectangular steel profile. Each part is fitted
with a fixed tooth. The bucket can also be equipped with a knife at the front. This
blade is usually fitted with interchangeable teeth.

Controlling Hazards
Working with a bucket as narrow as possible is generally desirable to minimize
the torsion forces in the arm of the hydraulic crane.
Cranes
Cranes are available in many versions, types, and makes for use in conjunction with
demolition techniques. One type is fully mobile, mounted on a truck (road vehicle)
framework for independent travel. These mobile cranes are set up on site and are
usually equipped with hydraulic outriggers for extra stability. Moving the crane while
carrying a load suspended from the jib is possible only with light hoist loads. Larger,
crawler-mounted mobile cranes must be dismantled for road transport. These cranes
are better suited for on-site travel movement while carrying a hoist load suspended
from the jib.

In general, cranes do not require modification or adaptation for demolition duties, but
special lifting or fixing attachments may be required. A dragline can be used as a
crane if it has the appropriate winching equipment. In particular, a crawler-mounted
dragline can fulfill crane duties when applying certain demolition techniques.
Floating cranes are used in certain demolition techniques on or in water. Two
categories of floating cranes can be distinguished:
 1. Cranes designed with limited dimensions often work on relatively narrow and
inaccessible waterways because their widths suit the width of bridges. Some of
these cranes are designed so that their jibs can be completely lowered for
passing under bridges. They may be fitted on the worksite with detachable side
buoyancy chambers to increase lifting capacity.
2. Large floating cranes can operate only on major waterways with easier access.
The jibs of these big cranes, too, can usually be lowered.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

 The noise levels that demolition plants and equipment may produce are
regulated by statutory standards. Cranes in particular have to comply with
numerous regulations. To comply, the machines are noise-suppressed and fitted
with silencers. There are compressors so fully silenced that they emit no noise at
all. A floating plant is environmentally innocuous, emitting little or no
objectionable noise to the surroundings.
 For safety reasons, positioning cranes is of major importance. No one is allowed
to be present inside the slewing circle of a hydraulic crane, a dragline, or in a
demolition plant that can travel forward as well as in reverse, so that reversing
can occur in a safe, unimpeded manner.
 When demolition equipment powered by internal combustion engines is operated
in enclosed spaces, measures such as afterburners, which deal with exhaust
gases, must be used.
 A plant engaged in demolition operations involving a risk of falling material
requires a driver's cab protected against this hazard. Crawler-mounted cranes
require that appropriate arrangements be made to travel and stand on level
surfaces. If necessary, use mats to provide support for machines on soft ground.
When employing cranes with outriggers, take care to ensure that the outriggers
cannot sink into the ground during load handling.
 Ear protectors are required when working with a crane in concrete-walled spaces
or in other such situations.
 Crane operators and crew members may be electrocuted when they work near
overhead power lines.
 To protect yourself from electrocution when operating or working around cranes
near overhead power lines, take the following precautions:
1. Operate cranes only if you have been trained in safe operating
procedures and the OSHA safety requirements.
2. Participate in all crane safety programs offered by your employer or
labor organization.
3. Know the location and voltage of all overhead power lines at the job
site before operating or working with any crane.
4. Assume that all power lines are energized and maintain the
minimum clearance required by OSHA at all times. These OSHA
standards require:
 a. At least ten feet for lines rated 50 kilovolts or below
b. At least ten feet plus 0.4 inch for each kilovolt above 50
kilovolts (or maintain twice the length of the line insulator, but
never less than ten feet)

Crushers
Pile crushers are hydraulic breakers composed of a square steel frame with
chamfered (beveled or fluted) corners and a square central opening. These crushers
were developed to snap off the heads of concrete piles. A hydraulic power unit driven
by an internal combustion engine or an electric or pneumatic motor supplies the oil
under pressure for operating the machine. The appliance is equipped with eight
hydraulic cylinders that operate chisel blades, designed to thrust the concrete
upwards and away. With different blade settings, the reinforcing bars can be left
protruding undamaged from the beheaded piles.

Mobile crushing installations are used to reduce the size of concrete, masonry, natural
stone and other stone-like materials. The main crusher is nearly always a jaw
crusher. Secondary crushers are usually different types, such as gyratory crushers or
hammer mills.

In the simpler version, the installation generally includes a feed hopper, a vibratory
screen before the crusher, and a screen for separation into two size ranges, with belt
conveyors depositing the crushed product on a stockpile or loading it into road
vehicles, etc. In most cases, the installation consists of a single unit powered by an
internal combustion engine or an electric motor. Other installations have several units
with several crushers and more elaborate screening and washing systems. These
crushing installations are often electrically powered from their own diesel-driven
generating set, independent of external supplies of electricity. This more sophisticated
installation can attain higher product output rate and yield a better-quality product
graded into several size fractions.

Chemical Agents
Quicklime seems to be the main ingredient used to cause expansion by a static
expansive agent. The chemicals harden when mixed with water and increase
considerably in volume as they harden. Several types of agents are used under
different conditions, based on the maximum temperature of the material to be
demolished. This pressure buildup is much lower than that obtained with explosives
and Cardox. However, even light reinforced concrete structures can be broken by any
of these agents.

For each variety, a certain maximum water temperature is necessary. Preparing the
mixture should follow the instructions entirely. General requirements specify to:
 Place the agents in completely dry surroundings
  Verify the holes are dry
 Achieve the desired pressure buildup, in general, by placing the mixture in
predrilled holes of not less than 38 mm, nor more than 80 mm diameter, with a
distance between the holes of eight times the hole diameter

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

Static expansive agents cause no sound, material ejection, dust formation, or
vibration and are an entirely environmentally acceptable technique.

The hardened chemical is, so far as is known, no longer aggressive and can be
removed from the site along with the demolished material, or it can be removed
separately.

When using static expansive agents, the aggressive character of this chemical
must be considered. It is necessary for all workers concerned to protect their faces
and hands and wear special clothing. Unauthorized access to the job should be
prevented during the chemical's active period. After the chemical has been placed,
the filled holes should not be visually inspected for the first six hours.

Hammers
Pneumatic Hammers
Pneumatic hammers allow compressed air to expand in the cylinder of the hammer,
driving the piston rapidly against the anvil and transmitting the released impact
energy to the chisel. This arrangement uses the ability of a gas (air) to be
compressed to produce movement upon expansion. The hammer works in association
with a compressor that supplies compressed air at the appropriate working pressure.
All pneumatic hammers can be used underwater. However, they must be pressurized
before they are submerged and must be kept under pressure until they have been
raised from the water. When working at greater depths, a loss of efficiency (power
loss) occurs from the counter pressure. Most types of hammers can be provided with
a mantle to suppress noise.

Hydraulic Hammers
In hydraulic hammers, the impact energy results from hydraulic oil supplied at a fairly
high pressure. Since hydraulic oil is an incompressible fluid, the pressure cannot be
converted into motion without an auxiliary medium. To make such motion possible,
hydraulic hammers are equipped with a nitrogen bulb or nitrogen chamber. The
compressible nitrogen is separated from the oil by a diaphragm and provides the
required conversion of pressure into motion. In this way the piston of the hammer
can be thrust rapidly against the anvil. The anvil transmits the released impact
energy to the chisel. The used oil is returned at low pressure to the oil reservoir. The
hydraulic hammer operates with a completely enclosed hydraulic system. Even so,
unlike the pneumatic hammer, the hydraulic hammer is not suitable for working
underwater unless its supply has been adapted for that purpose. However, the
hydraulic hammer can be switched on and off underwater, which is not possible with
the pneumatic hammer. Because this is a closed system, there is no pressure loss.
Long supply and return hoses do introduce a pressure loss, but this can be
compensated.

Electric Hammers
Although electric hammers are used for demolition work only occasionally, they can
be used to demolish both vertical and horizontal objects. In these hammers, the
stroke energy is obtained from an electric motor via an eccentric cam that produces a
reciprocating motion with a lower stroke energy than comparable pneumatic or
hydraulic hammers.

Gasoline-Powered Hammers
In gasoline-powered hammers, the stroke energy comes from the rotation of a
gasoline motor, which is converted to a reciprocating motion by an eccentric cam.
These hammers also give lower stroke energy than corresponding pneumatic or
hydraulic hammers and weigh from 10 to 40 kg. If the hammer is fitted with a
floatless carburetor it is also suitable for vertical demolition work.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

 Hand tools require gloves in demolition work, with goggles to protect the eyes
from flying materials.
 Fitting pneumatic hand hammers with suppressors can reduce the noise. In this
way the noise at a distance of 7 meters can be reduced to 80-90 db. Noise
louder than 80 dB requires ear protection.
 Because of their large return stroke, hydraulic hand hammers are less suitable
for continuous work than pneumatic hammers or heavy mechanical hand
hammers. All mechanical hammers can give rise to some degree of vibration.
Whether vibration occurs depends on the size of the hammer, the material to be
demolished, and its mass. Vibrations from hand hammers can cause white finger
disease if air-filled grips are not used.
 Hand tools form very little dust, and pneumatic hammers disperse more dust
than hydraulic hammers because of the escaping air.

Saws
Handsaws for dealing with wood, wood-like materials, and metals are available in
many types and sizes, but those used in demolition work always have coarse teeth.
The chain saw, consisting of interconnected, movable parts with a handle at each
end, also belongs to the handsaw category. Power chain saws are manipulated by
hand, but the sawing action is mechanized with power provided by an internal
combustion engine or an electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic motor. All chain saws are
suitable only for wood or wood-like materials.
Bow saws are coarse-toothed instruments with a blade gripped in a bow-shaped
frame and are generally larger than handsaws. The crosscut saw has two handles,
one at each end.

There are sawing machines for horizontal or vertical demolition work. Both are
portable machines powered by an internal combustion engine or an electric,
pneumatic, or hydraulic motor. These devices generally are designed with most
operations such as feed, rotational speed, flushing, etc., automatically controlled.
These machines generally are equipped with a diamond saw, a metal saw blade
mounted with diamonds. The difference between the two is that the vertical saw uses
guides to aid in the vertical movement.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

 Sawing produces virtually no vibrations, but noise emissions range from low to
high levels, depending on the equipment used. Equipment powered by internal
combustion engines produces the most noise, and with diamond sawing, noise
may arise from the sawing operation itself.
 Dust formation varies by the tool used. Using grinding discs to form slots in a
relatively soft material produces substantial amounts of dust unless the machine
is equipped with a dust extraction system. Dust may also occur from chain-
sawing dry material. Water flushing provides for dust removal and cooling.
Water-flushed tools do not give rise to dust, and the water itself hardly causes
any nuisance. The limited speed of operation contributes to making this an
environmentally acceptable technique. For this reason, it need not cause
nuisance to adjacent residents or be detrimental to the environment and is
considered a safe technique.
 All tools, particularly electrically powered tools, must comply with the statutory
safety requirements. Hand tools generally require gloves, and face protection is
recommended with grinding machines. Power chain saw operators should wear
protective clothing, safety boots, helmets, and ear protectors.
 In enclosed or poorly ventilated spaces, use machines powered by internal
combustion engines only after providing arrangements for discharging exhaust
gases.

Shears
Hand Shears
Hand shears for reinforcing steel have two blades that move toward each other by the
lever action of the two arms linked to them. The arms move manually. Some shears
are equipped with interchangeable blades. Hydraulic hand shears for reinforcing steel
also have two blades, which move toward each other by a hydraulic cylinder. There
are several versions, such as electrically powered shears with their own hydraulic
system and shears supplied with hydraulic oil from a hydraulic power unit driven by
an internal combustion engine, electric motor, or pneumatic motor. Another version
exists which can generate oil pressure either manually or by an electric motor.

Hydraulic Shears Attachment

A hydraulic shears attachment is fitted to a hydraulic excavator. A shearing device of
this kind is much larger and considerably more powerful than the hand shears for
reinforcing steel. Because of its great weight, it is suitable only for mechanized
actuation and movement from one working position to another. This device has two
blades, but these move longitudinally in relation to each other. In this case, the
shears are mounted on the excavator's hydraulic system that supplies the power, and
a cylinder is fed with the necessary hydraulic oil under pressure from the hydraulic
system.

Hydraulic Shearing Frame

A hydraulic shearing frame has blades in a frame-shaped mounting. One blade is
fixed and the other moves parallel to the fixed blade. Two cylinders accommodated in
the frame power the blade movement, and a hydraulic excavator or a separate
hydraulic power unit supplies the necessary oil under pressure. Because of its
considerable weight, a mechanical means is needed to handle or move the shearing
frame from one working position to another.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

 No special safety measures other than compliance with the generally applicable
safety requirements is required when working with the tools and equipment for
this technique.
 The hydraulic shears attachment can operate at a considerable height above
ground level. When the demolished material dislodged by the shears falls to the
ground, appropriate precautions must be taken. In such cases the driver's cab
should be protected against falling material.

Wire Rope & Hardware

Steel wire ropes can be attached in demolition work to pull down structural members,
but the force applied must never exceed the permissible load for the rope. This
technique is virtually unrestricted based on the height of, or the distance from, the
member to be demolished.

There are various ways of applying the pull to the rope: using independent winches,
using the winches of draglines, or by traction. For example, the rope may be passed
through a double or triple pulley block to increase the pulling force. The arm of a
hydraulic excavator can also provide the required force on the rope. The advantage of
this arrangement is that the machine operates at a suitable distance from the
member to be demolished.
Wrecking Balls
Balls generally are made of cast steel and generally weigh not more than 5,000
kilograms. The suspension point of a ball is almost always made of steel. A steel chains
is often used as the first part of the suspension. The ball may be spherical,
rectangular, pear-shaped, or cylindrical. The advantage of the pear shape is that it
cannot roll away when dropped vertically. Cylindrical balls are often made of steel.

Types of Balls
There are three types of guided balls available: pestle balls guided by a tube.
cylindrical balls guided by a tube; and an arrow drop ram, a rectangular ball with two
U-shaped guides. The arrow drop ram is a fully automatic balling machine designed to
demolish horizontal objects such as roads, runways, floors, and carriageways. It is
mounted on a driven chassis with four wheels and pneumatic tires. The rectangular
ball is suspended in two U-shaped guides. The entire suspension can be displaced
transversely across the width of the chassis. The automatic adjustments are the
height of fall, the number of blows and the speed at which the machine is displaced.
If required, the ball can be fitted with an impact tool in the form of a spike, knifeedge, or
cylinder.

Auxiliary Machines
For demolition by balling, the auxiliary machine from which the ball is suspended
must permit the ball to perform two types of motion: free fall and a swinging or
ballistic motion.

The choice of auxiliary machine depends on the:

 Object to be demolished
 Direction of impact (horizontal or vertical)
 Size of ball required
 Distances involved, including the height

The most common auxiliary machine is the dragline. For demolition purposes it is
equipped with free-fall winches. This machine can drop the weight vertically, impart a
swinging motion to it in the longitudinal direction of the arm via the pulling cable,
and, by moving the arm sideways, impart an oscillatory motion perpendicular to the
arm.

Safety Requirements and Controlling Hazards

 To comply with safety requirements, the distance between the dragline and the
structures to be demolished must equal at least half of the structure's height and
must always be at least six meters high. It is important to maintain the dragline
stability. This rule does not apply to balling horizontal structures such as roads,
foundations, floors, etc., as the dragline is often situated on the structure itself.
  If the demolition work is carried out above the level of the base of the dragline, or
if the work is being done with a swinging ball, the size of the ball should
preferably not exceed 50 percent of the permitted load of the dragline at the
operational jib length and span of the dragline.
 Balling produces vibrations. The extent of the vibrations depends on the object to
be shattered, the soil, and the ball range used. Every time an object is to be
demolished, check to ensure that the vibrations that arise are permissible.
 The demolition operator can minimize the vibrations by:
o Adjusting the ball
o Adjusting the speed of impact
o Adopting a suitable size of collapse
 Isolating the portion of the object to be demolished can localize the vibrations by
separating the portion of the structure to be retained from the portion to be
demolished. Isolating an object can also considerably reduce transmission of
vibrations to neighboring objects. If the demolition leads the structure to collapse,
this may also produce vibrations as the materials fall.
 The impact itself does not create a lot of dust. Large or small amounts of material
falling during balling may create a lot or just a little dust, depending upon the
object. Cleaning or wetting the object beforehand and keeping it wet during
demolition work can minimize dust formation.

Clothing and Dress Tips

A large part of demolition safety involves wearing proper clothing and using
appropriate safety accessories, especially when using power tools. These guidelines
can help provide safe demolition:
 Do not wear loose clothing that can get caught in machinery.
 Pull back long hair and secure it. Remove any jewelry that can interfere with safe
machinery operation.
 Wear safety goggles or glasses with side protection.
 Use a facemask in dusty applications and earplugs when the site is especially
noisy or for extended periods of work.
 Wear heavy work gloves to protect against the steady vibration of power tools
and the heat that can be generated, especially in the bit.
 Wear steel-toed shoes or boots.

Topic 4: Special Structures Demolition

This topic reviews procedures for ensuring safety when demolishing various types of
special structures such as towers, pre-stressed concrete construction, and confined
spaces

Safe Work Practices

When planning demolition of special structures such as chimney stacks, silos, and
cooling towers, these guidelines should be followed:
 Carry out hand demolition from a working platform.
 During scaffold erection, a competent person should be present at all times.
 Install portable walkways to provide access to the top of scaffolds.
 Deck platforms solidly and bridge the area with a minimum of two-inch-thick
lumber from the work platform to the wall.
 Install a back rail 42 inches above the platform with a midrail covered with
canvas or mesh around the perimeter of the platform to prevent injury to workers
below. Debris netting below the platform may also be installed.
 When working on the platform, all personnel should wear hard hats, longsleeve
shirts, eye and face protection (such as goggles and face shields), respirators,
and safety belts, as required.
 Assign the proper number of workers to the task. Too many people on a small
work platform can lead to incidents.
 An alternative to erecting a self-supporting tubular steel scaffold is to "climb" the
structure with a creeping bracket scaffold. A competent person should carefully
inspect the masonry and decide the safety of the climbing alternative.
 Do not work in inclement weather conditions such as lightning or high wind.
 Wet down the worksite, as needed, to control dust.

Safety When Demolishing Tower-Like Structures

When preparing to demolish any chimney, stack, silo, or cooling tower, the first step
must be a careful, detailed inspection of the structure by an experienced person. If
possible, architectural/engineering drawings should be consulted. Pay particular
attention to the condition of the chimney or stack. Workers should identify any
structural defects such as weak or acid-laden mortar joints and any cracks or
openings. The interior brickwork in some sections of industrial chimney shafts can be
extremely weak.

Follow these additional guidelines before demolition activities begin:

 If the stack has been banded with steel straps, remove these bands as the work
progresses from the top down. Consider sectioning the chimney by water.
 Chimney masonry must be in good enough condition to support the bracket
scaffold.
 Experienced personnel must install a self-supporting tubular scaffold, suspended
platform, or knee-braced scaffolding around the chimney. Pay particular attention
to the design, support, and tie-in (braces) of the scaffold.
 Adequate working clearance between the chimney and the work platform is
essential.
 Rope off, barricade, and secure the area around the chimney and post
appropriate warning signs. No unauthorized entry should be permitted to this
area. As a good practice, keep a supervisor, operating engineer, another worker,
 or a "safety person" on the ground with communication capabilities to the
workers above.
 Pay special attention to weather conditions when working on a chimney.

Clearing Debris
Debris disposal guidelines should be considered when working in special structure
demolition.
 Do not allow excessive debris to accumulate inside or outside the chimney shaft.
Excess weight of the debris can impose pressure on the structure and cause the
shaft to collapse.
 The foreman should determine when debris is to be removed, halt all demolition
during debris removal, and make sure the area is clear of cleanup workers before
continuing demolition.
 Remove debris dropped inside the shaft through an opening in the chimney at
grade level.
 Keep the opening at grade relatively small so the structure is not weakened. If a
larger opening is desired, consult a professional engineer.
 Provide an overhead canopy of adequate strength when removing debris by
hand. If employing machines to remove debris, use proper overhead protection
for the operator.

Deliberate Collapse Demolition

Another method of demolishing a chimney or stack is to cause a deliberate collapse.
Deliberate collapse requires extensive planning and experienced personnel, and
should be used only when conditions are favorable.
Using explosives is one way of setting off deliberate collapse. Only qualified persons
should undertake this type of demolition. The entire work area should be cleared of
nonessential personnel before placing any explosives. Although the use of explosives
is a convenient method for bringing down a chimney or stack, there is a considerable
amount of vibration produced, and caution should be taken if there is any likelihood
of damage.

Requirements for deliberate collapse include:

 Providing a clear space for the fall of the structure of at least 45 degrees on each
side of the intended fall line and 11/2 times the total height of the chimney
 Verifying that no sewers or underground services are on the line of the fall
because of the considerable vibration that may occur when the chimney falls
 Posting required lookouts and arranging for mandatory warning signals on the
site -- keep the public and other workers at the job site well back from the fall
area

Prestressed Concrete Structures Demolition

Different forms of construction used to build conventional structures during the last
few decades present a variety of problems when they are demolished. Prestressed
concrete structures fall in this general category. Before demolishing a prestressed
concrete structure, an engineering survey must be completed to determine if the
structure to be demolished contains any prestressed members.

If so, the demolition contractor must inform and instruct all workers on the demolition
job site of the:
 Presence of prestressed concrete members
 Work practice to perform the demolition safely
 Hazards of deviating from the prescribed procedures
 Importance of following their supervisor's instruction

Categories of Prestressed Construction

There are four main categories of prestressed construction. These categories should
be determined before attempting demolition, bearing in mind that any prestressed
structure may contain elements of more than one category.
 Category 1 contains members prestressed before the application of the
superimposed loads, and all cables or tendons are fully bonded in the concrete
or grouted within ducts.
 Category 2 contains members like those in Category 1, but the tendons are left
ungrouted. This type of construction can sometimes be recognized from the
access points provided for inspection of the cables and anchors. More recently,
unbonded tendons were used in the construction of beams, slabs, and other
members. These tendons are protected by grease and surrounded by plastic
sheathing instead of the usual metal duct.
 Category 3 members are prestressed progressively as building construction
proceeds, and the dead load increases using bonded tendons as in Category 1.
 Category 4 members are like Category 3 but use unbonded tendons as in
Category 2.

Examples of construction using members of Categories 3 or 4 are relatively rare.

However, they may be found in places like the podium of a tall building or some types
of bridges and require particular care in demolition.

Pretensioned Members
Pretensioned members have wires embedded or bonded within the length of the
member and usually do not have any end anchors. Simple pretensioned beams and
slabs of spans up to about seven meters (23 feet) can be demolished in a manner
similar to ordinary reinforced concrete.

Pretensioned beams and slabs may be lifted and lowered to the ground as complete
units after removing any composite concrete covering to the tops and ends of the
units. To facilitate breaking up, members should be turned on their sides. Generally,
lifting from the structure should be done from points near the ends of the units or
from lifting point positions. Reusing lifting eyes, if in good condition, is recommended
whenever possible. When units are too large to be removed, consider temporary
supporting arrangements.

Precast Units Stressed Separately

In the demolition of any of the following prestressed structures, a professional
engineer experienced in prestressed work should be consulted prior to the start of
any demolition.

Before breaking up precast units stressed separately, lower units of this type to the
ground, if possible. This work is hazardous especially where there are ungrouted
tendons because, in general, grouting is not always 100 percent efficient.

After lowering, the units can be turned on their sides with the ends up on blocks after
any composite concrete is removed. This may be sufficient to break the unit and
release the prestress.

If not, erect a sandbag screen, timbers, or a blast mat as a screen around the ends.
Clear the area of any personnel before demolition commences. Remember, the end
blocks may be heavily reinforced and difficult to break up.

Monolithic Structures
Before attempting to expose any tendons or anchorages of structures with two or
more members stressed together on a single tower, seek the advice of a professional
engineer experienced in prestressed work. It is usually necessary to provide
temporary supports so the tendons and anchorage can be cautiously exposed.

In these circumstances it is essential not to make any indiscriminate attempts to

expose and destress the tendons and anchorages.

Progressively Prestressed Structures

With progressively prestressed structures, the structure must be demolished in strict
accordance with the engineer's method of demolition. The stored energy in this type
of structure is large. In some cases, the inherent properties of the stressed section
may delay failure for some time, but sudden and complete collapse with little warning
may occur because of the presence of these large prestressing forces.

Safe Work Practices in Confined Spaces

Demolition contractors often come in contact with confined spaces when demolishing
structures at industrial sites. These confined spaces generally can be categorized into
two major groups:
 Those with open tops and a depth that restricts the natural movement of air
  Enclosed spaces with very limited openings for entry

Examples of these spaces include storage tanks, vessels, degreasers, pits, vaults,
casings, and silos.

The hazards encountered when entering and working in confined spaces are capable
of causing bodily injury, illness, and death. Incidents occur among workers because of
failure to recognize that a confined space is a potential hazard.

Therefore, whenever such spaces are involved, consider that the most unfavorable
situation exists in every case and that the danger of explosion, poisoning, and
asphyxiation can be present at the onset of entry.

Topic 5: Safe Blasting Procedures

This topic introduces safe blasting procedures in demolition.

Blasting Survey and Site Preparation

Prior to blasting any structure or part of a structure, a complete written survey must
be made by a qualified person of all adjacent improvements and underground
utilities. When there is a possibility of excessive vibration from blasting operations,
seismic or vibration tests should determine proper safety limits to prevent damage to
adjacent or nearby buildings, utilities, or other property.

Preparing a structure for demolition by explosives may require removing structural

columns, beams, or other building components. A structural engineer or a competent
person qualified to direct the removal of these structural elements should direct this
work. Extreme caution must be taken during this preparatory work to prevent the
weakening and premature collapse of the structure.

Using explosives to demolish smokestacks, silos, cooling towers, or similar structures

should be permitted only if either:
 There is a minimum of 90 feet of open space extended for at least 150 percent of
the height of the structure
 The explosives specialist can demonstrate consistent previous performance with
tighter constraints at the site

Personnel Selection
A blaster is a competent person who uses explosives. A blaster must be qualified by
training, knowledge, or experience in the field of transporting, storing, handling, and
using explosives. In addition, the blaster should have a working knowledge of state
and local regulations that pertain to explosives. Training courses are often available
from manufacturers of explosives. The Institute of Makers of Explosives (IME) and
other organizations offer blasting safety manuals.
Blasters are required to furnish satisfactory evidence of competency in handling
explosives and in safely performing the type of blasting required. A competent person
should always be in charge of explosives and should be held responsible for enforcing
all recommended safety precautions in connection with them.

Fire Precautions
The presence of fire near explosives presents a severe danger!
Every effort should be made to ensure that fires or sparks do not occur near explosive
materials.
 Smoking, matches, firearms, open flame lamps, and other fires, flames, or heat-
producing devices must be prohibited in or near explosive magazines or in areas
where explosives are being handled, transported, or used.
 Persons working near explosives should not even carry matches, lighters, or
other sources of sparks or flame.
 Open fires or flames should be prohibited within 100 feet of any explosive
materials.
 If there is a fire in imminent danger of contact with explosives, all employees
must be removed to a safe area.
 Radio frequency (RF) signal sources should be restricted from or near the
demolition site if electrical detonators are used. Electrical detonators can be
triggered inadvertently by stray RF signals from two-way radios.

Transportation of Explosives
Vehicles used for transporting explosives should be in good mechanical condition and
should be strong enough to carry the load without difficulty. All vehicles used to
transport explosives should have tight floors. Any exposed spark-producing metal on
the inside of the body should be covered with wood or some other non-sparking
material. Vehicles or conveyances transporting explosives should be driven by and
supervised by only a licensed driver familiar with the local, state, and federal
regulations governing the transportation of explosives. No passengers should be
allowed in any vehicle transporting explosives.

Additional specifications regarding handling of explosives include the following:

1. Do not transport explosives, blasting agents, and blasting supplies with other
materials or cargo.
2. Do not transport blasting caps in the same vehicle with other explosives.
3. If an open-bodied truck is used, completely cover the entire load with a fireand
water-resistant tarpaulin to protect it from the elements.
 4. Vehicles carrying explosives should not be loaded beyond the manufacturer's
safe capacity rating, and in no case should explosives be piled higher than the
closed sides and ends of the body.
5. Mark or placard with warning signs required by OSHA and the Department of
Transportation (DOT) every motor vehicle or conveyance used for transporting
explosives.
6. Equip each vehicle used for transportation of explosives minimally with at least a
10-pound rated, serviceable ABC fire extinguisher.
7. Train all drivers in using extinguishers on their vehicles.
8. Avoid congested traffic and high-density population areas where possible when
transporting explosives and make no unnecessary stops.
9. Do not take any vehicle carrying explosives, blasting agents, or blasting supplies
inside a garage or shop for repairs or servicing.
10. Never leave a motor vehicle transporting explosives unattended.

Inventory Maintenance and Safe Handling

All explosives must be accounted for at all times, and all not being used must be kept
in a locked magazine. A complete detailed inventory of all explosives received, placed
in, removed from, and returned to the magazine should be maintained at all times.

Appropriate authorities must be notified of any loss, theft, or unauthorized entry into
a magazine.

Manufacturers' instructions for safe handling and storage of explosives are ordinarily
enclosed in each case of explosives. Refer to these instructions and the Institute of
Makers of Explosives (IME) manuals to learn the specifics of storage and handling.

Follow these instructions carefully.

Safe Handling
 Do not handle any package of explosives roughly.
 Do not use sparking metal tools to open wooden cases.
 You may use metal slitters for opening fiberboard cases, provided the slitter does
not come in contact with the metallic fasteners of the case.
 Always use the oldest stock first to minimize the chance of deterioration from
long storage.
 Because of the hazards involved, segregate and properly dispose of any loose
explosives or broken, defective, or leaking packages according to the specific
manufacturer's instructions.
 If the explosives are in good condition, it may be advisable to repack them. In this
case, contact the explosives supplier. Explosives cases should not be opened, or
explosives packed or repacked while in a magazine.

Storage Conditions
Providing a dry, well-ventilated place for the storage of explosives is one of the most
important and effective safety measures. Exposure to weather damages most kinds of
explosives, especially dynamite and caps. Every precaution should be taken to keep
them dry and relatively cool. Dampness or excess humidity may cause misfires,
resulting in injury or loss of life. Explosives should be stored in properly constructed
fire- and bullet-resistant structures, located according to the IME American Table of
Distances Explosives should not be left, kept, or stored were children, unauthorized
persons, or animals have access to them, nor should they be stored in or near a
residence. Detonators should be stored in a separate magazine located according to
the IME American Table of Distances.

DETONATORS SHOULD NEVER BE STORED IN THE SAME MAGAZINE WITH ANY

OTHER KIND OF EXPLOSIVES

Ideally, decide to have the supplier deliver a single day's supply of

explosives to the job site so that they will be used during the workday. Alternatively,
ask the supplier to return to pick up unused explosives. If it is necessary for the
contractor to store his explosives, he should be familiar with all local requirements for
such storage.

Proper Use of Explosives

Blasting operations should be conducted between sunup and sundown, whenever
possible. Adequate warning should be sounded to alert everyone in the area to the
hazard presented by blasting. Blasting mats or other containment should be used
where there is danger of rocks or other debris being thrown into the air or were
there are buildings or transportation systems nearby. Use care to make sure mats
and other protection materials do not disturb the connections to electrical blasting
caps.

Radio, television, and radar transmitters create fields of electrical energy that can,
under exceptional circumstances, detonate electric blasting caps. Certain precautions
must be taken to prevent incidental discharge of electric blasting caps from current
induced by radar, radio transmitters, lightning, adjacent power lines, dust storms, or
other sources of extraneous or static electricity.
Click here to see additional precautions.

These precautions should include:

 Ensuring that mobile radio transmitters on the job site that are less than 100 feet
away from electric blasting caps, in other than original containers, are de-
energized and effectively locked
 Prominently displaying adequate signs warning against the use of mobile radio
transmitters on all roads within 1,000 feet of the blasting operations
  Maintaining the minimum distances recommended by the IME between the
nearest transmitter and electric blasting caps
 Suspending all blasting operations and removing people from the blasting area
during the approach and progress of an electric storm
 Adopting standard signals to indicate that a blast is about to be fired and to
indicate a later all-clear signal -- it is important that everyone working in the area
be familiar with these signals and that they be strictly obeyed
 After loading of explosives is completed, there should be as little delay as
possible before firing.
 The blaster should directly supervise each blast fired.
 The blaster should inspect all connections before firing and personally see that
all persons are in the clear before giving the order to fire.

Inspection and Disposal Procedures

Immediately after the blast has been fired:
 Disconnect and short-circuit the firing line from the blasting machine.
 Where power switches are used, they must be locked in the off position. Allow
sufficient time for dust, smoke, and fumes to leave the blasted area before
returning to the spot.
 The blaster should inspect the area and the surrounding rubble to determine if all
charges have been exploded before employees are allowed to return to the
operation.
 The blaster should trace all wires and search for unexploded cartridges.

Disposal of Explosives
 Do not use explosives, blasting agents, and blasting supplies that are obviously
deteriorated or damaged; they should be disposed of properly. Explosives
distributors will usually accept returns of old stock. Local fire marshals or
representatives of the United States Bureau of Mines may also arrange for
disposal of explosives.
 Do not abandon any explosives under any circumstances!
 Wood, paper, fiber, or other materials that have contained high explosives should
not be used again for any purpose. They should be burned at an isolated outdoor
location at a safe distance from thoroughfares, magazines, and other structures.
These materials should not be burned in a stove, fireplace, or other confined
space.
 It is important to check that the containers are entirely empty before burning.
During burning, the area should be protected adequately from intruders and all
persons kept at least 100 feet from the fire.
 Blasting
Introduction
This lesson will enhance your safety, knowledge, and skills regarding blasting
operations and help you communicate responsible behavior to other workers, who will
be directly affected by your activities.

Topic 1: General Provisions

This topic covers the proper training and qualifications for those engaged in blasting,
as well as safety practices involving the storage, handling, and transportation of
explosives. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 List six safe blasting practices
 Identify the qualifications of explosive engineers
 Exercise safety precautions for working around explosives
  Apply safeguards for storing, handling, and transporting explosives
 Use the American Table of Distances for the storage of explosives

Safety First
Blasting is inherently a dangerous activity. SAFETY MUST ALWAYS COME FIRST!
Never compromise safety for any reason. There are several keys to safe blasting
practices:
 Ongoing training for both new and experienced personnel
 Correct procedures for the storage, transportation, loading, and detonation of
explosives that are consistently followed and frequently audited
 Correct explosive product selection and use
 Defining responsibility for the blast (blaster-in-charge)
 Careful analysis of blast site conditions
 Paying attention to details

General Safety Areas

With the hazards that are presented by blasting operations, there must be a strict
commitment to safety in these general areas.

Blaster Qualifications
In order to be qualified as a blaster, the individual must be:
 Able to understand and give written and oral orders
 In good physical condition and not be addicted to narcotics, intoxicants, or similar
types of drugs
 Qualified, by reason of training, knowledge, or experience, in the field of
transporting, storing, handling, and use of explosives, and have a working
knowledge of state and local laws and regulations that pertain to explosives
 Required to furnish satisfactory evidence of competency in handling explosives
and safely performing the type of blasting that will be required
 Knowledgeable and competent in the use of each type of blasting method used

Working Around Explosives

Only authorized and qualified persons are permitted to handle and use explosives,
and no person under the influence of intoxicating liquors, narcotics, or other
dangerous drugs are to handle or use explosives.

The following are prohibited in or near explosive magazines or while explosives are
being handled, transported, or used:
 Smoking
 Other fires
 Firearms
 Flame or heat-producing devices
  Matches
 Sparks
 Open flame lamps

The original containers, or Class II magazines, must be used to take detonators and
other explosives from the storage magazines to the blasting area.

Explosives are extremely dangerous, and therefore, all explosives must be accounted
for at all times. The following requirements must be met:
 Keep unused explosives in a locked magazine so that they are unavailable to
any workers not authorized to handle them.
 Document an inventory and record of use for all explosives.
 There must be procedures in place to notify the appropriate authorities in the
event of any loss, theft, or unauthorized entry into a magazine.
 Attend to explosives or blasting agents at all times and never abandon them.

Fire and Emergency Preparedness

You should not fight a fire where the fire is in imminent danger of contact with
explosives. In the event of a fire, all employees have to be removed to a safe area
and the fire area guarded against intruders.

Explosive Handling
Explosives need to be transported and stored with strict safety concerns in mind.
Click each image below to learn its handling requirements.

Surface Transportation of Explosives

Specific safety requirements apply to transportation of explosives by motor vehicle.
The following requirements are mandated by OSHA:
 A licensed driver who is physically fit and familiar with the local, state, and federal
regulations governing the transportation of explosives can transport explosives
by motor vehicles or conveyances.
 Smoking is absolutely prohibited, and no person will even be permitted to carry
matches or any other flame-producing device while in or near a motor vehicle or
conveyance transporting explosives. The carrying of firearms or loaded
cartridges is also prohibited.
 Transporting vehicles must be rated for load factors, be in good mechanical
condition, and never be left unattended.
 No other cargo or blasting caps can be transported on a vehicle with explosive
materials, and the car cannot to be taken inside a garage or shop for repairs or
servicing while the explosives are on board.
 If the vehicle has an open body, a Class II magazine or original manufacturer's
container must be mounted securely on the bed to contain the cargo. The vehicle
must also be marked or placarded on both sides, the front, and the rear with the
word "Explosives" in red letters, not less than four inches in height, on a white
background.
 A fully charged fire extinguisher must be on board the vehicle with a rating of at
least 10-ABC, and the driver must be trained in its use.
 Underground Transportation of Explosives:
o Whenever explosives or blasting agents are transported underground,
they must be taken to the place of use or storage without delay, and the
following safety requirements apply:
o Take only the required quantity of explosives or blasting agents to any
underground loading area.
o No one except the operator, his helper, and the powderman is permitted to
ride on a transport carrying explosives and blasting agents.
o Check the truck's electrical system weekly. It is prohibited to install
auxiliary lights on truck beds that are powered by the truck's electrical
system.
o Explosives and blasting agents must be hoisted, lowered, or conveyed in
a powder car, and no other materials, supplies, or equipment are to be
transported at the same time. The car or conveyance containing
explosives or blasting agents should be pulled, not pushed, and it must
bear a reflectorized sign on each side with the word "Explosives" in letters
not less than four inches in height upon a background of sharply
contrasting color.
o If they are being transported in a shaft, then the hoist operator must be
notified prior to their being moved, and the explosives must never be left
unattended.
o Detonators and other explosives are not to be transported at the same
time in any shaft conveyance, and explosives, blasting agents, or blasting
supplies cannot be transported with other materials.
 Storage of Explosives and Blasting Agents
o In order to maintain the maximum degree of safety, explosives and all
related materials have to be stored in approved facilities. When storing
explosives, the following requirements apply:
o Blasting caps, electric blasting caps, detonating primers, and primed
cartridges must not be stored in the same magazine with other explosives
or blasting agents.
o Smoking and open flames are not permitted within 50 feet of explosives
and the detonator storage magazine.
 o No explosives or blasting agents can be permanently stored in any
underground operation until the operation has been developed to the point
where at least two modes of exit have been provided.
o Permanent underground storage magazines must be at least 300 feet
from any shaft or active underground working area, and those containing
detonators cannot be located closer than 50 feet to any magazine
containing other explosives or blasting agents.

American Table of Distances

Use the American Table of Distance to determine the safe distance between
magazines to store explosives. There are three points to consider.
1. Applies to the manufacture and permanent storage of commercial explosive
materials. The distances specified are those measured from the explosive
materials storage facility to the inhabited building, highway, or passenger railway,
irrespective of property lines.
2. Covers all commercial explosive materials, including, but not limited to, high
explosives, blasting agents, detonators, initiating systems, and explosive
materials in process. The table is not designed to be altered or adjusted to
accommodate varying explosive characteristics such as blast effect, weight
strength, density, bulk strength, detonation velocity, etc.
3. Provides a guide for developing distances for the unconfined, open burning of
waste explosive materials where the probability of transition from burning to high-
order detonation is improbable. It should not be used to determine safe distances
for blasting work, the firing of explosive charges for testing or quality control
work, or the open detonation of waste explosive materials.

Topic 2: Planning and Operating

Overview
When conducting blasting operations, workers must always keep safety in mind.
Construction activities often take place in areas that affect other operations. Planning
must occur to minimize personal and property risks. This topic introduces safety
planning and operating strategies. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 Formulate a planning strategy for preventing accidental discharge, handling
explosives, securing areas, and monitoring explosive shelf lives, and placing
detonators
 Implement procedures for loading explosives safely and efficiently
 Identify provisions for initiating electric and non-electric charges

General Safety Provisions

The blaster must take special precautions in the loading, delaying, initiation, and
confinement of each blast with mats or other methods to control the throw of
fragments and thus prevent bodily injury to employees.
Employees authorized to prepare explosive charges or conduct blasting operations
must use every reasonable precaution to ensure employee safety, including:
 Visible and audible warning signals
 Flags
 Barricades

Whenever possible, blasting operations above ground must be conducted during

daylight hours between sunup and sundown.

Preventing Accidental Discharge

Precautions have to be taken to prevent the accidental discharge of electric blasting
caps from current induced by radar, radio transmitters, lightning, adjacent power
lines, dust storms, or other sources of extraneous electricity. These precautions
include:
 Short-circuit detonators in holes that have been primed and shunted until wired
into the blasting circuit.
 Suspend all blasting operations and remove persons from the blasting area
during the approach and progress of an electric storm.
 De-energize and effectively lock radio transmitters that are less than 100 feet
from electric blasting caps.
 Display signs warning against the use of mobile radio transmitters on all roads
within 1,000 feet of blasting operations.

Handling Explosives
 All empty boxes, paper, and fiber packing materials that previously contained
high explosives are not to be used again for any purpose and must be destroyed
by burning at an approved location.
 Explosives, blasting agents, and blasting supplies that are obviously deteriorated
or damaged are not to be used.
 Delivery and issue of explosives is to be made by and to only authorized persons
and into authorized magazines or approved temporary storage or handling areas.
All loading and firing must be directed and supervised by a competent person.
 All blasts must be fired electrically with an electric blasting machine or properly
designed electric power source.
 The use of black powder is prohibited.

Blasting Areas
Blasting operations in the proximity of overhead power lines, communication lines,
utility services, or other services and structures must not be conducted until the
operators and/or owners have been notified and measures for safe control have been
taken.
Buildings that are to be used for the mixing of blasting agents or water gels must be
made of noncombustible construction or sheet metal on wood studs. Floors in a
mixing plant are to be made of concrete or other nonabsorbent materials.

In areas where fuel oil is used, all fuel oil storage facilities must be separated from
the mixing plant and located so that, in the event of tank rupture, the oil will drain
away from the mixing plant building. Also:
 The building must be well ventilated.
 Heating units that do not depend on combustion processes can be used in the
building. All direct sources of heat must be provided exclusively from units
located outside the mixing building.

All internal combustion engines used for electric power generation must be located
outside the mixing plant building or be properly ventilated and isolated by a firewall.

The exhaust systems on these engines must be located so that any spark emission
would not be a hazard to any materials in or adjacent to the plant.

Shelf Life of Explosive Materials

Explosive manufacturers want their products to function at full efficiency; therefore,
they advise distributors and/or consumers regarding the shelf life of the products and
make recommendations as to proper use and application.

Store explosive materials so that corresponding grades, brands, sizes and "DatePlant-
Shift" codes are together, and rotate stocks so the oldest material in the
magazine is used first.

NOTE: Consult with the manufacturer to assure that accepted practices for the
use and storage of explosive materials are being followed.

Detonator and Booster Placement

Surface blasts are initiated electronically, depending upon local conditions and
operating requirements. Whichever system is employed, plan the delay sequence for
each blast before loading starts to ensure proper relief and control. Otherwise, fly
rock, excessive throw, cutoffs, and misfires may occur. Errors are most apt to happen
when:
 A large number of holes are being blasted
 The blast consists of multirow
 There are several crews loading the blast
 The blast pattern is irregular
 A combination of delay systems (electronic detonators, sequential blasting
machine, shock tube/delay primers, etc.) is being deployed
To ensure that the designed delay pattern is being followed, the blaster-in-charge
normally "lays out" the pattern by placing the initiators and/or delay devices at the
collar of the hole prior to loading. This eliminates any possibility of the loading crews
selecting the wrong initiator or delay and allows the blaster-in-charge to effectively
monitor the loading operation.

Blasting Loading Procedures

Before loading starts, safe and efficient procedures for loading explosives are carried
out.

Drill and Check the Holes

 All drill holes must be sufficiently large to freely admit the insertion of the
cartridges of explosives.
 Drilling must not be started until all remaining butts of old holes are examined for
unexploded charges, and if any are found, they must be refired before work
proceeds.
 No person must be allowed to deepen drill holes that have contained explosives
or blasting agents.
 Drill holes which have been sprung or chambered and which are not waterfilled
must be allowed to cool before explosives are loaded.
 Holes
 Tamping must be done only with wood rods or plastic tamping poles without
exposed metal parts; however, non-sparking metal connectors may be used for
jointed poles. Violent tamping must be avoided, and the primer must never be
tamped.
 No holes must be loaded except those that are to be fired in the next round of
blasting. After loading, all remaining explosives and detonators must be returned
to an authorized magazine immediately.
 Holes must be checked prior to loading to determine depth and conditions.
Where a hole has been loaded with explosives, but the explosives have failed to
detonate, there must be no drilling within 50 feet of the hole.
 When loading a long line of holes with more than one loading crew, the crews
must be separated by practical distance consistent with efficient operation and
supervision of crews.
 All blast holes in open work must be stemmed to the collar or to a point that will
confine the charge.
 A borehole must never be sprung when it is adjacent to or near a hole that is
loaded. Flashlight batteries must not be used for springing holes.
 No loaded holes must be left unattended or unprotected.

Equipment
 Machines and all tools not used for loading explosives into boreholes must be
  removed from the immediate location of holes before explosives are delivered.
Equipment must not be operated within 50 feet of loaded holes.
 When loading blasting agents pneumatically over electric blasting caps,
semiconductive delivery hose must be used, and the equipment must be bonded
and grounded.
 Powerlines and portable electric cables for equipment being used must be kept a
safe distance from explosives or blasting agents being loaded into drill holes.
Cables in the proximity of the blast area must be deenergized and locked out by
the blaster.

The Blasting Area

 No activity of any nature other than that which is required for loading holes with
explosives must be permitted in a blast area.
 No explosive must be loaded or used underground in the presence of
combustible gases or combustible dusts.
 No explosives or blasting agents must be left unattended at the blast site.
 Warning signs indicating a blast area must be maintained at all approaches to
the blast area.

Electric Blasting
When initiating electric charges for electric blasting, care must be given to various
general provisions, underground operations, and blasting machines.

General Provisions
 Electric blasting caps must not be used where sources of extraneous electricity
make the use of electric blasting caps dangerous. Blasting cap leg wires must be
kept short-circuited (shunted) until they are connected into the circuit for firing.
 Before adopting any system of electrical firing, the blaster must conduct a
thorough survey for extraneous currents, and all dangerous currents must be
eliminated before any holes are loaded.
 In any single blast using electric blasting caps, all caps must be of the same style
or function and of the same manufacture.
 Electric blasting must be carried out by using blasting circuits or power circuits in
accordance with the electric blasting cap manufacturer's recommendations or
with the approved contractor or his or her designated representative.
 When firing a circuit of electric blasting caps, care must be exercised to ensure
that an adequate quantity of delivered current is available in accordance with the
manufacturer's recommendations.
 Connecting wires and lead wires must be insulated, single solid wires of sufficient
current-carrying capacity.
 Bus wires must be solid single wires of sufficient current-carrying capacity.
  When firing electrically, the insulation on all firing lines must be adequate and in
good condition.
 A power circuit used for firing electric blasting caps must not be grounded.

Underground Operations
 In underground operations when firing from a power circuit, a safety switch must
be placed in the permanent firing line at intervals. This switch must be made so it
can be locked only in the "Off" position and must be provided with a short-
circuiting arrangement of the firing lines to the cap circuit.
 In underground operations, there must be a "lightning" gap of at least five feet in
the firing system ahead of the main firing switch; that is, between this switch and
the source of power. This gap must be bridged by a flexible jumper cord just
before firing the blast.
 When firing from a power circuit, the firing switch must be locked in the open or
"Off" position at all times, except when firing. It must be so designed that the
firing lines to the cap circuit are automatically short-circuited when the switch is in
the "Off" position. Keys to this switch must be entrusted only to the blaster.

Blasting Machines
 Blasting machines must be in good condition, and the efficiency of the machine
must be tested periodically to make certain that it can deliver power at its rated
capacity.
 When firing with blasting machines, the connections must be made as
recommended by the manufacturer of the electric blasting caps used.
 The number of electric blasting caps connected to a blasting machine must
exceed its rated capacity. Furthermore, in primary blasting, a series circuit must
contain no more caps than the limits recommended by the manufacturer of the
electric blasting caps in use.
 The blaster must be in charge of the blasting machines, and no other person
must connect the leading wires to the machine.
 Blasting galvanometers are equipped with a silver chloride cell especially
designed for this purpose.
 Whenever the possibility exists that a leading line or blasting wire might be
thrown over a live power line by the force of an explosion, care must be taken to
see that the total length of wires is kept too short to hit the lines, or that the wires
are securely anchored to the ground. If neither of these requirements can be
satisfied, a non-electric system must be used.
 In electrical firing, only the person making leading wire connections must fire the
shot. All connections must be made from the borehole back to the source of firing
current, and the leading wires must remain shorted and not be connected to the
blasting machine or other source of current until the charge is to be fired.
  After firing an electric blast from a blasting machine, the leading wires must be
disconnected from the machine immediately and short-circuited.

Non-Electric Blasting
 The selection and design of the initiation system should be under the supervision
of the blaster-in-charge.
 The initiation system hookup must be used in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendation.
 The blaster-in-charge must conduct a visual check after blast hookup.
 When using a system that can be checked for continuity, the blast layout must be
tested for continuity as recommended by the manufacturer.
 Where judged necessary by the blaster-in-charge, a double trunkline or
closedloop hookup must be used

When not using electrical charges to ignite the blast, the blasting system is comprised
of fuses, detonators, firing, and the final inspection. Click each system component to
learn about its safety processes.

Use of safety fuse

A safety fuse must be used only where sources of extraneous electricity make the use
of electric blasting caps dangerous. When a safety fuse is being used, the following
requirements must be followed:
 Use of a fuse that has been hammered or injured in any way must be forbidden.
 The hanging of a fuse on nails or other projections which will cause a sharp bend
to be formed in the fuse is prohibited.
 Before capping a safety fuse, a short length must be cut from the end of the
supply reel to assure a fresh cut-end in each blasting cap.
 Only a cap crimper of approved design must be used for attaching blasting caps
to safety fuse. Crimpers must be kept in good repair and accessible for use.
 No unused cap or short capped fuse must be placed in any hole to be blasted;
such unused detonators must be removed from the working place and destroyed.
 No fuse must be capped, or primers made up, in any magazine or near any
possible source of ignition.
 No one must be permitted to carry detonators or primers of any kind on his
person.
 The minimum length of safety fuse to be used in blasting must be as required by
state law but must not be less than 30 inches.
 At least two men must be present when multiple cap and fuse blasting is done by
hand lighting methods.
 Not more than 12 fuses must be lighted by each blaster when hand lighting
devices are used. However, when two or more safety fuses in a group are lighted
 as one by means of igniter cord or other similar fuse-lighting devices, they may
be considered as one fuse.
 The so-called "drop fuse" method of dropping or pushing a primer or any
explosive with a lighted fuse attached is forbidden.
 Cap and fuse must not be used for firing mudcap charges unless charges are
separated sufficiently to prevent one charge from dislodging other shots in the
blast.

When blasting with safety fuses, consideration must be given to the length and
burning rate of the fuse. Sufficient time, with a margin of safety, must always be
provided for the blaster to reach a place of safety.

Use of Detonating Cord

Care must be taken to select a detonating cord consistent with the type and physical
condition of the borehole and stemming and the type of explosives used, and the
detonating cord must be handled and used with the same respect and care given
other explosives. The following requirements must be followed:
 The line of detonating cord extending out of a borehole or from a charge must be
cut from the supply spool before loading the remainder of the borehole or placing
additional charges.
 Detonating cord must be handled and used with care to avoid damaging or
severing the cord during and after loading and hooking up.
 Detonating cord connections must be competent and positive in accordance with
approved and recommended methods. Knot-type or other cord-to-cord
connections must be made only with detonating cord in which the explosive core
is dry.
 All detonating cord trunklines and branchlines must be free of loops, sharp kinks,
or angles that direct the cord back toward the oncoming line of detonation.
 All detonating cord connections must be inspected before firing the blast.
 When detonating cord millisecond-delay connectors or short-interval-delay
electric blasting caps are used with detonating cord, the practice must conform
strictly to the manufacturer's recommendations.
 When connecting a blasting cap or an electric blasting cap to detonating cord,
the cap must be taped or otherwise attached securely along the side or the end
of the detonating cord, with the end of the cap containing the explosive charge
pointed in the direction in which the detonation is to proceed.
 Detonators for firing the trunkline must not be brought to the loading area nor
attached to the detonating cord until everything else is in readiness for the blast.

Firing the Blast

A code of blasting signals must be posted on one or more conspicuous places at the
operation, and all employees must familiarize themselves with suitable locations.
WARNING SIGNAL - A 1-minute series of long blasts 5 minutes prior to blast signal.
BLAST SIGNAL - A series of short blasts 1 minute prior to blast shot.
ALL CLEAR SIGNAL - A prolonged blast following the inspection of blast area.

 Before a blast is fired, a loud warning signal must be given by the blaster in
charge, who has made certain that all surplus explosives and all employees are
in a safe place and all employees, vehicles, and equipment are at a safe distance
or under sufficient cover.
 Flagmen must be stationed safely on highways that pass through the danger
zone to stop traffic during blasting operations.
 It must be the duty of the blaster to fix the time of blasting.
 Before firing an underground blast, warning must be given, and all possible
entries into the blasting area, and any entrances to any working place where a
drift, raise, or other opening is about to hole through, must be carefully guarded.
The blaster must make sure that all employees are out of the blast area before
firing a blast.

Inspection After Blasting

Immediately after the blast has been fired, the firing line must be disconnected from
the blasting machine or, where power switches are used, they must be locked open or
in the off position.

Sufficient time (not less than 15 minutes in tunnels) must be allowed for the smoke
and fumes to leave the blasted area before returning to the shot. An inspection of the
area and the surrounding rubble must be made by the blaster (and, in tunnels, the
muck pile wetted down) to determine if all charges have been exploded before
employees are allowed to return to the operation.

Topic 3: Hazards and Special Circumstances

Overview
This topic makes you aware of blasting hazards and focuses on two special blasting
circumstances. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 Identify hazards related to misfires, fumes, and underground and outdoor
blasting
 Identify special precautions required for underwater blasting and blasting in
excavation work under compressed air

Blasting Hazards
You have been presented with the precautions for safe blasting; however, blasting is
still a very dangerous activity.
Misfires
Misfires must be handled under the direction of the person in charge of the blasting.
If a misfire is found, the blaster must first provide proper safeguards for excluding all
nonessential employees from the danger zone then remove the hazard without before
starting any new work.

No attempt must be made to extract explosives from any charged or misfired hole, da
new primer must be put in and the hole re-blasted. If refiring of the misfired hole
presents a hazard, the explosives may be removed by washing out with water or,
where the misfire is under water, blown out with air.

If there are any misfires while using cap and fuse, all employees must remain away
from the charge for at least 1 hour. All wires must be carefully traced and a search
made for unexploded charges. In addition, no drilling, digging, or picking must be
permitted until all missed holes have been detonated or the authorized representative
has approved that work can proceed.

Fumes From Blasting Operations

Blasting operations produce toxic and nontoxic gases as a normal byproduct,
regardless of the types of explosive materials used. Normally, prevailing winds or air
currents readily dilute and dissipate to the atmosphere any gases generated in openpit
blasting or outdoor construction blasting.

Underground Blasting
Special efforts, such as using low fume-producing products and providing fresh air
ventilation, minimize exposure to gases generated by underground blasting.
For underground blasting operations, explosive materials with Fume Class 1, 2, or 3
ratings can be ordered from an explosive supplier. Fume Class 1 explosives are
recommended for use in poorly ventilated areas such as dead headings and blind
raises. Explosives complying with the requirements of Fume Class 2 and Fume Class 3
may be used if adequate ventilation has been provided.

No explosives other than those rated in Fume Class 1, 2, or 3 should be used

underground.

Outdoor Blasting
Blasters should be aware that under certain blasting or geologic conditions, gases
may migrate and collect in the basements of adjacent buildings or in nearby
underground locations such as manholes, sumps, or tunnels. Where necessary,
monitoring and/or venting practices to detect and eliminate entrapped gases should
be employed.

To minimize any hazardous exposure from the gases produced by outdoor blasting, it
is essential that the blaster:
1. Be aware that lack of ground displacement may prevent venting of the blasted
material and result in the entrapment of gases
2. Excavate blasted material as soon as possible after blasting Excavation should
start as close to the underground-enclosed space as possible in order to provide
for venting of any entrapped gases. Additionally, it is recommended that the
blaster:
a. Be aware of and look for geologic pathways for carbon monoxide (CO),
such as old trenches, horizontal partings, faults, joints, hill seams,
unconsolidated material, water, and voids that would allow movement of
gas toward underground-enclosed spaces.
b. Enclosed spaces and fractures caused by the detonation may create a
pathway for the gases.
3. Conduct a preblast survey to determine any possible problem areas when
blasting near inhabited buildings or underground facilities (tunnels, manholes,
etc.).
4. Monitor possible problem areas to determine if any gases have migrated from the
blasting operation. If gases are detected, use adequate and positive ventilation.
5. Keep accurate and complete records of all blasts.

Drilling monitoring holes between the blasting operation and the inhabited building or
other area of concern can detect the movement of CO from the blast site. However,
these monitoring holes, even on close spacing, may not intersect the geologic
pathway and therefore may not allow detection of CO. These holes will not provide
adequate passive venting of migrating gases. If located too close to the blast, these
holes actually may create a hazard by allowing blast gases to rifle up them and create
fly rock.

One technique has removed migrated CO from the ground successfully and quickly.
This technique involved applying negative pressure to the earth and removing the CO
from the ground surrounding the underground-enclosed space. Even rudimentary
systems, involving placing a fan on top of a vertically buried large-diameter pipe with
holes drilled in the side, have worked.

Special Circumstances
Two types of blasting have their own unique requirements: blasting underwater and
using comprised air.

Underwater Blasting
A blaster must conduct all blasting operations, and no shot must be fired without his
approval.
 Loading tubes and casings of dissimilar metals must not be used because of
possible electric transient currents from galvanic action of the metals and water.
  Only water-resistant blasting caps and detonating cords must be used for all
marine blasting. Loading must be done through a non-sparking metal loading
tube when a tube is necessary.
 No blast must be fired while any vessel underway is closer than 1,500 feet to the
blasting area. Those on-board vessels or craft moored or anchored within 1,500
feet must be notified before a blast is fired.
 No blast must be fired while any swimming or diving operations are in progress in
the vicinity of the blasting area. If such operations are in progress, signals and
arrangements must be agreed upon to ensure that no blast is fired while any
person is in the water.
 Blasting flags must be displayed.
 The storage and handling of explosives aboard vessels used in underwater
blasting operations must be according to provisions outlined herein on handling
and storing explosives.
 When more than one charge is placed underwater, a float device must be
attached to an element of each charge in such a manner that it will be released
by the firing. Misfires must be handled in accordance with the requirements of
§1926.911.

Underground Blasting
 Detonators and explosives must not be stored or kept in tunnels, shafts, or
caissons. Detonators and explosives for each round must be taken directly from
the magazines to the blasting zone and loaded immediately. Detonators and
explosives left over after loading a round must be removed from the working
chamber before the connecting wires are connected.
 When detonators or explosives are brought into an airlock, no employee except
the powderman, blaster, lock tender, and the employees necessary for carrying
must be permitted to enter the air lock. No other material, supplies, or equipment
must be locked through with the explosives.
 Detonators and explosives must be taken separately into pressure working
chambers.
 The blaster or powderman must be responsible for the receipt, unloading,
storage, and on-site transportation of explosives and detonators.
 All metal pipes, rails, airlocks, and steel tunnel lining must be electrically bonded
and grounded at or near the portal or shaft and cross-bonded at not less than
1,000-foot intervals throughout the length of the tunnel. In addition, each low air
supply pipe must be grounded at its delivery end.
 The explosives suitable for use in wet holes must be water-resistant and must be
Fume Class 1.
 When tunnel excavation in rock face is approaching mixed face, and when tunnel
excavation is in mixed face, blasting must be performed with light charges and
with light burden on each hole. Advance drilling must be performed as tunnel
 excavation in rock face approaches mixed face to determine the general nature
and extent of rock cover and the remaining distance ahead to soft ground as
excavation advances.

Stairways and Ladders

Introduction
Many construction workers have probably thought, "Ladders and stairways are
so easy to use that there are no way people could get hurt using them."

Guess what? Stairways and ladders are a major source of injuries and
fatalities among construction workers. OSHA estimates that there are nearly
25,000 injuries and as many as 36 fatalities per year due to falls from
stairways and ladders used in construction. Nearly half of all of the injuries are
serious enough to require time off the job. When a fall occurs, the person who
falls usually gets hurt. In addition, others working around the ladders may also
be injured.
It is because abuse and misuse of ladders in the workplace is the rule rather
than the exception. Practically all falls from ladders can be traced to using
them in an unsafe manner.

So, what should you do to prevent injuries?

You must observe ladder safety rules for your own and other people's safety.
OSHA requires that safe equipment be furnished for use. However, it is the
responsibility of the user to use the safe equipment safely. Following the
correct safety procedures and complying with OSHA's requirements for the
safe use of ladders and stairways can prevent many of the injuries and
fatalities that occur each year.

Topic 1: General Information

The use of differing methods to access a higher or lower level has been around
since the beginning of man. Over time, these means, and methods have
developed into our current stairway and ladder systems.

Stairways and ladders are two of the most easy-to-use tools in the
construction industry. However, they are often misused or used in a careless
manner and, therefore, cause many injuries. This topic addresses the
coverage of OSHA standards on stairways and ladders, the general
requirements of using stairways and ladders, OSHA's training requirements,
and Turner's policy on using stairways and ladders. Upon completing this
topic, you should be able to:
 List the four general requirements for using stairways and ladders
 Describe OSHA training requirements

Coverage of OSHA Standards

OSHA's construction safety and health standards apply to all stairways and
ladders used in construction, alteration, repair (including painting and
decorating), and demolition operations. They also specify when stairways and
ladders must be provided.

The standards do not apply to ladders that are manufactured specifically for
scaffold access and egress. However, they do apply to job-made and
manufactured portable ladders intended for general purpose use which are
then used for scaffold access and egress.

General Requirements
The following are general OSHA requirements for using stairways and ladders:
  A stairway or ladder must be provided at all points of access where there is a
break in elevation of 19 inches (48 cm) or more, and no ramp, runway,
embankment, or personnel hoist is provided.
 When there is only one point of access between levels, it must be kept clear to
permit free passage by workers. If free passage becomes restricted, a second
point of access must be provided and used.
 When there are more than two points of access between levels, at least one
point of access must be kept clear.
 All stairway and ladder fall protection systems must be installed and all duties
required by the stairway and ladder rules must be performed before employees
begin to use stairways, ladders, and their respective fall protection systems.

Training Requirements
Under OSHA provisions, employers must provide a training program to
employees on using stairways and ladders.

The training must enable each employee to recognize hazards related to

stairways and ladders and to use proper procedures to minimize them. This
training must be conducted by a competent person.

Employers must ensure that each employee is trained in the following areas,
as applicable:
 The nature of fall hazards in the work area
 The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining, and disassembling the fall
protection systems to be used
 The proper construction, use, placement, and care in handling of all stairways
and ladders
 The maximum intended load-carrying capacities of ladders used
In addition, retraining must be provided for each employee, as necessary, so that the
employee maintains the understanding and knowledge acquired.

Information From Suppliers

Before purchasing or putting into use stairway or ladder systems, employers
should obtain information about the systems from the supplier.

Not all systems may need to be individually tested. The performance of some
systems may be based on data and calculations derived from testing of similar
systems, provided that enough information is available to demonstrate
similarity of function and design.

Employers should obtain comprehensive instructions from the supplier as to

the system's proper use and application, including, where applicable:
 The force measured during the sample force test
  Caution statements on critical use limitations
 Application limits
 Methods of inspection, use, cleaning, and storage

Topic 2: Stairway Safety

Stairways, both permanent parts of the structure and those for temporary use,
are a common means of access to other elevations on the construction site.

General Requirements
There are some general requirements that apply to all stairways used during
the process of construction.

Landings
If a stairway is not going to be a part of the permanent structure on which the
construction work is being performed; it must have landings every 12 feet of
rise or less. These landings must be at least 30 inches deep and 22 inches
wide.

Angle of Inclination
Stairways must be installed at least 30 degrees and no more than 50 degrees
from the horizontal.

Variations in Riser Height

Variations in riser height or stair tread depth must not exceed 1/4 inch in any
stairway system, including any foundation structure used as one or more
treads of the stairs.

Platform Near Doors or Gates

A platform must be provided wherever there are doors or gates that open
directly onto a stairway. The platform must extend at least 20 inches beyond
the swing of the door.

Others
 Metal pan landings and metal pan treads must be secured in place before filling.
 All stairway parts must be free of dangerous projections such as protruding nails.
 Slippery conditions on stairways must be corrected.

Temporary-Stairway Requirements
There are three main requirements that apply to stairs in temporary service
during construction.
  Except during construction of the actual stairway, stairways with metal pan
landings and treads must not be used where the treads and/or landings have not
been filled in with concrete or other material, unless the pans of the stairs and/or
landings are temporarily filled in with wood or other material. All treads and
landings must be replaced when worn below the top edge of the pan.
 Except during construction of the actual stairway, skeleton metal frame structures
and steps must not be used (where treads and/or landings are to be installed at a
later date), unless the stairs are fitted with secured temporary treads and
landings.
 Temporary treads must be made of wood or other solid material and installed the
full width and depth of the stair.

Stair Rail and Handrail Requirements

This page introduces some general requirements that apply to all stair rails
and handrails.

Under what situations are handrails required?

 Stairways having four or more risers, or rising more than 30 inches, whichever is
less, must have at least one handrail. A stair rail also must be installed along
each unprotected side or edge.
 Winding or spiral stairways must be equipped with a handrail that is offset
enough so that the worker will be prevented from walking on areas where the
tread width is less than 6 inches.

What is the height requirement for handrails?

 The height of handrails must not be more than 37 inches nor less than 30 inches
from the upper surface of the handrail to the surface of the tread.
 When the top edge of a stair rail system also serves as a handrail, the height of
the top edge must not be more than 37 inches nor less than 36 inches from the
upper surface of the stair rail to the surface of the tread.

What is the minimum weight that handrails should support?

 Handrails and the top rails of stair rail systems must be capable of withstanding,
without failure, at least 200 pounds of weight applied within 2 inches of the top
edge in any downward or outward direction, at any point along the top edge.

What are some of the requirements regarding the surface of stair rails and
handrails?
 Stair rail systems and handrails must be surfaced to prevent injuries such as
punctures or lacerations and to keep clothing from snagging.
  Handrails must provide an adequate handhold for employees to grasp to prevent
falls.
 The ends of stair rail systems and handrails must be constructed to prevent
dangerous projections such as rails protruding beyond the end posts of the
system.

What is the minimum clearance requirement between the temporary handrails

and walls?
 Temporary handrails must have a minimum clearance of 3 inches between the
handrail and the wall, stair rail system, and other objects.

Stair Rail and Handrail Requirements

In addition to handrails, midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical
members, or equivalent intermediate structural members must be provided
between the top rail and stairway steps of the stair rail system.

Midrails
Midrails, when used, must be located midway between the top of the stair rail
system and the stairway steps.

Screens or mesh
Screens or mesh, when used, must extend from the top rail to the stairway
step and along the opening between top rail support.

Intermediate vertical members

Intermediate vertical members, such as balusters, when used, must not be
more than 19 inches apart.

Other intermediate structural members

Other intermediate structural members, when used, must be installed so there
are no openings more than 19 inches wide.

Guardrail systems
Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings must be provided with
standard 42-inch guardrail systems.

Topic 3: Ladder Overview

Ladders come in all shapes, sizes, and material types. They are useful in many
different industries for a variety of applications. Unfortunately, they have also
become one of the major causes of fall-related fatalities.
No matter what type of ladder you use or what you use it for, it pays to take
some extra precautions. Any fall can be serious, and a fall from the height of

even a low ladder can mean a painful and incapacitating injury.

This topic reviews the uses of ladders on construction sites, addresses the
hazards associated with using ladders, and introduces the types and
classifications of ladders. Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:
 Describe the common situations where ladders are used on a construction site
 List the hazards associated with using ladders
 Differentiate Type 1A, I, II, and III ladders
 Describe the common ladder classifications

Uses of Ladders on Construction Sites

Portable ladders are one of the handiest, simplest tools we use. Because of
their effectiveness, ladders are used frequently on construction sites to
perform many different tasks:
 Accessing working surfaces above or below ground level on a shortduration job
before installing a permanent means of access
 Accessing roof and attic work areas in wood frame buildings
 Accessing points above the highest floor that has been planked or decked in
steel frame buildings
 Accessing scaffolds
 Accessing levels in a vertical shoring system above the lowest floor in concrete
buildings

Ladder Hazards
Although ladders are very easy to use, planning and care are still required to
use them safely. Each year in the U.S., incidents involving ladders cause an
estimated 300 deaths and 130,000 injuries requiring emergency medical
attention.

Ladder incidents usually are caused by improper selection, care, or use, not by
manufacturing defects. Some of the common hazards are:
 Loss of balance
 Slippery surface
 Overreaching
 Carelessness
 Reckless climbing
 Carrying equipment while climbing
 Electrical shock
  Unprotected bases
 Ladder not secured
 Falling objects

These hazards can be predicted and prevented. Prevention requires proper

planning, correct ladder selection, good work procedures, and adequate ladder
maintenance.

Duty Ratings
A ladder's duty rating tells you its maximum weight capacity. There are four
categories of duty ratings. Click the duty ratings to see short descriptions.

Type IA
These ladders have a duty rating of 300 pounds. Type IA ladders are
recommended for extra-heavy-duty industrial use.

Type I
These ladders have a duty rating of 250 pounds. Type I ladders are
manufactured for heavy-duty use.

Type II
These ladders have a duty rating of 225 pounds. Type II ladders are approved
for medium-duty use.

Type III
These ladders have a duty rating of 200 pounds. Type III ladders are rated for
light-duty use.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) requires that a duty rating
sticker be placed on the side of every ladder so users can determine if they
have the correct type of ladder for each task/job.

Key Point: Type IA and Type I ladders are the only acceptable ladders on
a construction job site.
Taking proper precautions with ladders begins with choosing the ladder.
Consider the type of work the ladder will be used for, the weight the ladder
must bear, and the condition of the ladder. Be sure the ladder being used has
the proper duty rating to carry the combined weight of the user and the
material being installed.

Portable and Fixed Ladders

The American Heritage Dictionary defines a ladder as "a device consisting of
two long structural members crossed by parallel, equally spaced rungs, used
to climb or descend vertically."

OSHA defines a ladder as an appliance usually consisting of two side rails

joined at regular intervals by cross-pieces called steps, rungs, or cleats, on
which a person may step in ascending or descending.

A fixed ladder is a ladder permanently attached to a structure, building, or

equipment. It cannot be readily moved or carried because it is an integral part
of a building or structure.

A portable ladder is a ladder that can be readily moved or carried. Portable

ladders may be either self-supporting (ex. stepladder) or non-self-supporting
(ex. straight ladder).

A stepladder is a self-supporting portable ladder and is nonadjustable in

length. It has flat steps and a hinged back. Its size is designated by the overall
length of the ladder measured along the front edge of the side rails.

A straight ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder. There are two mains

types of straight ladders: single ladder and extension ladder.

A single ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder. It is nonadjustable in

length and consists of one section. Its size is designated by the overall length
of the side rail.

An extension ladder is a non-self-supporting portable ladder. It is adjustable in

length. It consists of two or more sections traveling in guides or brackets that
are arranged as to permit length adjustment. Its size is designated by the sum
of the lengths of the sections measured along the side rails.

Ladder Materials
Ladders are constructed of three main materials: wood, aluminum, and
fiberglass. Each has advantages and disadvantages.

Wood ladders are nonconductive and are the least expensive. However, they
are subject to weathering which makes them to rot. They are usually heavier
than fiberglass or aluminum ladders.

Fiberglass ladders are nonconductive. They do not absorb moisture and do not
rot. They are strong and usually last longer than ladders made of other
materials. However, they are typically the most expensive.

Aluminum ladders are lightweight yet strong. They do not absorb moisture and
do not rot. However, they conduct electricity and may pose an electrical
hazard.

Key Point: In short, aluminum is a good choice of material for ladders

since it is lightweight and is not affected by weather as much as wood.
However, wood or fiberglass ladders are not as "shaky" as aluminum
ladders.

Topic 4: Portable Ladder Safety

Portable ladders are common and convenient on a construction site. Both
straight ladders and stepladders are used extensively. This topic reviews the
safe use of both straight ladders and stepladders. Upon completing this topic,
you should be able to:
 State the five safety rules that apply to both stepladders and straight ladders
 Describe the special rules that apply to stepladders
 Describe the special rules that apply to straight ladders
 Explain the proper angles when setting up straight ladders
 List at least five don'ts of ladder use

Five Rules of Safe Ladder Use

There are five rules for ladder safety, with emphasis on stepladders and
straight ladders. Click each rule to learn more about it.
 Rule 1: Select the right ladder for the job.
 Rule 2: Inspect the ladder before you use it.
 Rule 3: Set up the ladder with care.
 Rule 4: Climb and descend ladders cautiously.
 Rule 5: Use common sense when working on a ladder.

Rule 1: Select the Right Ladder for The Job

There are many types of ladders available, each intended for a specific
purpose. In addition, they may be of wood, aluminum, or fiberglass
construction and designed for light to industrial use.
Regardless of the type or construction, be sure the ladder has a label
certifying that it complies with specifications of the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) and that it is listed by Underwriters Laboratories
(UL).

Be sure the ladder is long enough to work from comfortably and sturdy
enough to withstand repeated use. Aluminum is a good choice of construction
since it is lightweight and is not affected by weather as much as wood.
However, wood or fiberglass ladders are not as "shaky" as aluminum ladders.
If the work involves possible contact with sources of electrical current, an
aluminum ladder is not suitable since it conducts electricity. In these places a
dry wood or fiberglass ladder is needed.

Rule 2: Inspect the Ladder Before You Use It

Any ladder can develop a problem that can render it unsafe. Each time you
use a ladder, inspect it for loose or damaged rungs, steps, rails, or braces.

Also check for loose screws, bolts, hinges, and other hardware. Make certain
the spreaders on stepladders can be locked in place and that the ladder has
safety feet which will provide more stability and reduce the chances of the
ladder slipping while you work.

If the ladder has any type of defect, it must be repaired, or the ladder must be
replaced. Never use a ladder that is defective. A painted wood ladder may
have defects that are hidden by the paint. Painting a wood ladder is not
recommended. However, it can be treated with clear materials such as varnish
and wood preservatives.

Rule 3: Set Up the Ladder with Care

No matter how safe the ladder is, if it is placed in a dangerous location or set
up improperly incidents bound to happen. Set a ladder on firm, level
ground. Use ladder levelers on uneven ground. If needed, secure the ladder -
tie it down, use slip-resistant feet, or have someone hold it in place. Again, a
ladder on a slippery surface must be tied in place or held.

Keep the area around the top and bottom of a ladder clear. If you must set the
ladder in a traffic area, use a barricade or guard to prevent collisions. Lock or
block any nearby door that opens toward you. The area around the base
should be kept uncluttered.

Stepladders should be fully opened with the spreaders locked. Straight ladders
should be placed at a four-to-one ratio. This means the base of the ladder
should be one foot away from the wall or other vertical surface for every four
feet of height to the point of support.

If you plan to climb onto a roof or platform from a ladder, be sure the ladder
extends above the edge at least three feet.

If possible, secure a straight ladder as close to the point of support as possible

to prevent shifting. Never lean a ladder against an unstable surface.

Rule 4: Climb and Descend Ladders Cautiously

Always face the ladder and hold on with both hands. If you need tools, carry
them in a tool belt or raise and lower them with a hand line.

To avoid slipping, always check the rungs and the bottoms of your shoes for
slippery substances. You may wish to apply a slip-resistant material to the
steps of a metal ladder to provide better footing.

Rule 5: Use Common Sense When Working on A Ladder

Always hold on with one hand and never reach too far to either side or to the
rear. To maintain your balance, keep your belt buckle between the ladders
rails. Climbing too high can also lead to incidents, so never climb higher than
the second step from the top on a stepladder or the third from the top on a
straight ladder.

The following is a list of common work practices when using a ladder:

 Always face a ladder when working on it, or when moving up or down.
 Wear shoes with slip-resistant soles.
 Always have three-point contact (one hand and two feet).
 Do not work from the top or top step of a stepladder, or from any of the top three
steps of a straight or extension ladder.
 Stand so your belt buckle is between the side rails of the ladder, so you don't tip
the ladder over.
 If possible, use a personal fall arrest system attached to a secure anchor point on
a building when working from a ladder.
 Do not hold objects in your hand when moving up or down. Attach them to your
tool belt or pull them up on a line (after you get to your work spot).
 Do not use a ladder when it is windy.
 Never move a ladder while someone is on it.
 For an extension ladder, never move it until you completely lower the top section.
 Never leave an unsecured ladder set up and unattended.

Additional Safety Rules for Stepladders

In addition to the general rules for ladder uses discussed on the previous
page, additional special safety rules exist for stepladders.
 Never use a stepladder over 20 feet long.
 Always open a stepladder completely and make sure the spreader is locked open
before using the ladder.
 Never substitute makeshift devices of wire or rope for stepladder spreaders.
 Do not stand higher than the second step from the top of a stepladder.
  Do not stand or sit on the top cap or stand on the pail shelf or on the back of a
stepladder.
 Do not straddle the front and back of a stepladder.
 All four legs must be on solid, level ground.
 Never climb on the cross-bracing.
 Never lean a stepladder against a wall.

Additional Safety Rules for Single and Extension Ladders

There are additional special safety rules for single and extension ladders.

Top Support for a Ladder

Top support for a ladder is just as important as good footing. The top should
rest evenly against a flat, firm surface. Both rails must rest evenly on the
resting spot, unless the ladder has a single-support attachment. If a ladder is
to be leaned against roof gutters, the strength and stability of the gutters
should first be tested.

Secure a Ladder
A ladder used for access to an upper-landing surface should be secured
against sideways movement at the top or held by another worker whenever it
is being used.

If possible, the base of a long ladder should be secured to the ground and the
top should be tied to the upper-landing surface.

Extend an Extension Ladder

Extend an extension ladder only from the ground. Determine the needed
height, extend and lock the fly section securely in place, and then set it up
against the wall. Check for stability and support before climbing.

Overlap of an Extension Ladder

An extension ladder should overlap enough to retain the strength of the ladder
even though the usable length of the ladder is shortened by the amount of the
overlap.

Use the following table as a guideline.

Length of Ladder Required Overlap
Up to 36 feet 3 feet
Over 36 to 48 feet 4 feet
Over 48 to 60 feet 5 feet

Using a Ladder to Access an Upper-Landing Surface

When a ladder is used for access to an upper-landing surface, it must extend
three rungs, or at least three feet above the landing surface. When a ladder is
used to get on or off a roof, secure the ladder by tying it.

Job-made ladders should let you get on or off a ladder by stepping between
the rails. If you have to step around a ladder because of rungs, there should
be a grab rail attached to the building to help you. (OSHA requires the grab
rail and tie-off if a ladder doesn't extend at least 36 inches above the roof.) If
there is a high parapet wall, use a stairway or some other way to get on or off
the parapet.

Proper Angles for Single and Extension Ladders Setup

The technically proper angle for a non-self-supporting ladder is about 75
degrees above horizontal. This means that the ladder base should be about 1
foot away from the vertical support for every 4 feet of ladder height between
the foot and the top support. For example, if a ladder is to be supported at a
point 20 feet off the ground, its base should be set 5 feet out from the wall
(20 feet divided by 4 = 5 feet). If the ladder top will rest against the wall, an
easy way to measure this is to pace off the length of the ladder or count the
rungs, and divide by four to get the proper distance from the wall for placing
the foot of the ladder.

Note: The distance from the foot of a ladder to the wall should never be
more than 1/2 the height to the support point, an angle of about 63
degrees above horizontal. Otherwise, more strain will be put on the side
rails than they are designed to carry.

What happens if ladders are not set up at the correct angle?

 If ladders are set up at a steeper angle than 75 degrees above horizontal, they
are more likely to tip backward in use. At a minimum they must be tied off at the
top to prevent this from happening.
 If ladders are set up at an angle less than 75 degrees above horizontal, they are
more likely to slide out from the bottom. Safety ladder shoes or base-tying is a
must in this case.

Ladder Don'ts
There is much don'ts of ladder use. Remember this don’ts and follow these
safety rules in your practice.
 DON'T splice or tie ladders together unless they are made to be used that way.
 DON'T let more than one person at a time on a ladder unless you're using a
ladder that's specially designed for that purpose.
 DON'T use a metal ladder near live electrical parts or within six feet of high-
voltage electrical lines (increase the distance for very high voltage). To be safe, if
 the overhead power line is 50 kV or less, stay 10 feet away. For everything else,
keep at least 35 feet away.
 DON'T use a ladder for anything but its intended purpose. For example, don't use
it as a brace or skid. Don't use it horizontally as a platform, plank, scaffold, or
material hoist.
 DON'T try to move a ladder while you are on it by rocking, jogging, or pushing it
away from a supporting wall.
 DON'T use a ladder when under the influence of alcohol, on drugs or medication,
or in ill health.
 DON'T leave tools or materials on top of ladders. If they fall on you, you can be
hurt. If they fall on someone else, your company can be sued.
 DON'T push or pull anything sideways while on a ladder. This puts a side load on
the ladder and can cause it to tip out from under you.
 DON'T use a ladder on a scaffold platform. If you need to reach higher, the
scaffold should be higher. Don't set it on a box or other objects either.

Topic 5: Care, Storage, and Inspection of Ladders

This topic reviews the proper care, storage, and inspection of ladders.

Proper Care for Ladders

 Maintain ladders in good condition.
 Keep all ladder accessories, especially safety shoes, in good condition.
 Wood ladders, which are to be used outside, should be treated with a clear
sealer varnish, shellac, linseed oil, or wood preservative to prevent weather
damage. A clear finish or transparent penetrating preservative should be used.
Linseed oil is a good treatment for a wood ladder, although it does add some
weight to the ladder. An oil treatment also helps rustproof the metal parts of a
wood ladder.
 Never paint a wood ladder. This will cover dangerous cracks or fill and hide them.
 Never sit on ladder side rails.
 Never store materials on a ladder.

A comprehensive and coordinated housekeeping program on job sites,

including around ladders, will eliminate slip, trip, and fall hazards significantly.
Proper Transportation of Ladders
Be sure that ladders are properly supported and secured when in transit.
Vibration and bumping against other objects can damage them.

When one man is carrying a ladder by hand, the front of the ladder should be
kept high enough to clear a man's head, especially around corners, in aisles
and through doorways.
Reasonable care should be taken at all times to avoid damaging a ladder. Do
not drop, toss, or throw a ladder. Use side stakes when hauling to prevent
lateral swing and tie the ladder down securely. Drive slowly over rough terrain.

Proper Storage of Ladders

Ladders should be stored in well-ventilated areas and in a manner that will
prevent sagging and warping.
 Straight ladders are best stored in flat racks or on wall brackets, which give them
proper support when not in use.
 Stepladders should be stored in the vertical, closed position.
 Wood ladders should be protected from moisture, insect damage, and excessive
heat. Moisture and sun exposure are the two main enemies of wood ladders and
can rapidly shorten the useful life of a ladder.
 Store fiberglass ladders where they will not be exposed to sunlight or other
ultraviolet light sources.

Ladder Inspection
The brief time needed to inspect ladders can prevent a painful and costly
incident.

OSHA says a ladder must be inspected regularly for visible defects by a

competent person and after any incident that could affect its safe use. Check
your ladder for damage before each use.

If a ladder is damaged, label it, do not use it, and take it away until it is fixed.
Destroy it if it can't be fixed.

What should you look for when inspecting wood, aluminum, and fiberglass
ladders, respectively?

Wood ladders: Check carefully for cracks, rot, splinters, broken rungs, loose
joints and bolts, and hardware in poor condition.

Aluminum or steel ladders: Inspect for rough burrs and sharp edges before
use. Inspect closely for loose joints and bolts, faulty welds, and cracks. Make
sure, the hooks and locks on extension ladders are in good condition. Replace
worn or frayed ropes on extension ladders at once. Never use a metal ladder
that has been exposed to fire or strong chemicals.

Fiberglass ladders: Check whether they still have a surface coat of lacquer. If
it is scratched beyond normal wear; it should be lightly sanded before applying
a coat of lacquer. Never use a fiberglass ladder that has been exposed to fire
or strong chemicals.
Checklist:
 Make sure the feet work and are not broken and slip-resistant pads on the feet
are secure.
 Inspect ladder parts for cracks, bends, splits, or corrosion. Check all rung and
step connections.
 Make sure rung locks and spreader braces are working.
 On extension ladders, make sure the rope and pulley work is not frayed.
 All bolts and rivets should be secure.
 All rung locks and other movable parts should be oiled or greased.
 Make sure the steps, rungs, and other ladder parts are free of oil, grease, and
other materials.
 All defective ladders are tagged and immediately removed.
 Ladders have no broken or defective rungs or side rails, and rungs are firmly
attached to side rails.
 Ladders have no nails, screws, or splinters sticking out.
 Rungs have no oil or grease on them.
 Non-slip safety feet or bases on ladders are in good condition.
 Non-slip safety material on ladder rungs is in good condition.
 Interiors of open-end hollow rungs of metal ladders are free from corrosion.

Structural Defects
Common structural defects of ladders include:
 Broken or missing rungs, cleats, or steps
 Broken or split rails
 Corroded components
 Faulty or defective components

Portable ladders with structural defects must immediately be marked

defective, or tagged with "Do Not Use" or similar language and withdrawn
from service until repaired.

Fixed ladders with structural defects must be withdrawn from service until
repaired. Defective fixed ladders are considered withdrawn from use when
they are: (a) immediately tagged with "Do Not Use" or similar language; (b)
marked in a manner that identifies them as defective; or (c) blocked (such as
with a plywood attachment that spans several rungs).

Ladder repairs must restore the ladder to a condition meeting its original
design criteria before the ladder are returned to use.
 Environmental Risk
Introduction
Water, air, and land pollution are a significant challenge to the construction industry.
Environmental Liability is serious business. Not only is the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) stepping up enforcement, but more important, it is your duty as a
responsible employee to protect the environment and make a commitment to the
future.
Topic 1: Waste Disposal
Waste Overview
The topic introduces the regulations for managing the handling and disposing of the
various sources of waste generated by construction. Upon completing this topic, you
will be able to:
 Identify the long-term risk management and legal liability issues concerning
waste management
 Identify the regulations imposed on construction debris, hard fill, and solid waste
 Determine the additional regulations for these special risk wastes: asbestos,
PCBs, lead-based, universal wastes, and used oil
 Identify hazardous wastes and describe the three categories of hazardous waste
generators
 Identify risk management associated with construction sites and underground
tanks
 Explain the risk management issues of the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)

General Information
Nearly all construction creates both solid waste and hazardous waste. Hazardous
waste comes in many shapes and forms. Chemical, metal, and furniture
manufacturing are some examples or processes that create hazardous waste.

The EPA regulates all this waste under the federal Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) and equivalent state laws govern the management and disposal
of waste materials. The goal is to protect us from the hazards of waste disposal.
conserve energy: and clean up waste, which may have spilled, leaked, or been
improperly disposed.

Obviously, there are a vast amount of waste materials generated on a construction

site. The nature of the material determines how it is categorized under the law. How
it is categorized in turn determines how it must be managed. There are five basics
categories of waste material that you need to be concerned with:
 Hazardous Waste
 Special Wastes (Asbestos, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) and Universal
Wastes)
 Solid Waste
 Construction and Demolition (C&D) Debris and Yard Waste
 Clean Hard Fill

There are two aspects to be mindful of when dealing with a waste material. The first
is a long-term risk management issue and the second is a legal liability issue. Under
CERCLA (or the Superfund law) Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act, any company that disposed of almost any waste
material at a site that later becomes contaminated can be held liable for all costs
associated with cleanup of that site regardless of whether the site was licensed to
accept the waste material.

At the same time, the environmental laws and regulations discussed in this lesson
require the employer to properly dispose of all waste materials generated during a
project, with steep penalties for any noncompliance.

Site Clearing
Construction and Demolition Debris and Clean Hard Fill Handling and Disposal
Almost every project begins with site clearing activities or demolition activities that
generate waste material that are trucked off-site. Then, throughout the project there
are dumpsters on-site. The contractor, subcontractors, the owners and even
trespassers to dispose of waste material generated on the site use these dumpsters.
The most basic waste generated on jobsites is clean hard fill. The next most
commonly regulated material is construction and demolition (C&D) debris and yard
waste. These wastes are often disposed of in unlined and unprotected landfills. Given
that the disposal sites are minimally regulated, there is a high potential for long term
risk management issues associated with future contamination if improper materials
are shipped to these facilities. Click Nice to Know to see the specific state handling
regulations.

Yard Waste and Scrap Tires Generated During Site Clearing

Yard waste and scrap tires are commonly generated during site clearing. These
wastes are generally treated differently than C&D debris and clean hard fill discussed
above. Click Nice to Know below to see the specific state regulations for these
materials.

Solid Waste
Solid waste generally refers to garbage, refuse, and sledges from water treatment
plants, industrial wastes, and other discarded materials. The name is misleading in
that a regulated solid waste can be a solid, semi-solid, liquid, or even a contained
gaseous material. Another important aspect to the definition of a solid waste is that
the material must generally be a "discarded material."

Certain materials are not solid waste including hazardous waste, domestic sewage,
industrial wastewater discharges and certain nuclear material.

Hazardous waste is a subset of solid waste. In other words, for a waste to be a

hazardous waste, it must first be included in the definition of a solid waste.
Nonhazardous solid waste is subject to fewer restrictions than hazardous waste and
do state and local governments regulate predominately. A material is considered a
nonhazardous solid waste if it meets the definition of solid waste, but does not meet
the definition of a hazardous waste.

When evaluating solid waste, consider these key points:

1. It is important to determine what type of solid wastes are being generated and
disposed of at each site and ensure that proper disposal is occurring based on
the nature and characteristics of the waste generated at that site.
2. Nonhazardous solid waste that does not contain PCBs (polychlorinated
biphenyls) or other specially regulated wastes may generally be disposed of at a
permitted solid waste landfill.
3. The important issue at any construction site is to prevent ordinary solid waste
from being contaminated with other wastes that cannot be disposed of in the
same manner.

Special Wastes
While not necessarily defined as hazardous waste, certain waste products are subject
to additional regulation and disposal requirements due to the risks associated with
disposing these materials with ordinary solid waste.

Asbestos
Asbestos is a rock fiber mined from the earth and used for building material prior to
1981 because it is strong, flexible, a good insulator, and will not burn. Asbestos can
cause severe health problems when inhaled in large quantities or over a long period
of time. Thus, asbestos is subject to extensive environmental and OSHA regulation
and must be removed by a licensed asbestos contractor.

Asbestos containing material (ACM) is described as being either friable or nonfriable.

If dry ACM can be crumbled by hand pressure it is considered to be friable and is
more likely to release fibers than if it is nonfriable.
Friable handling:
 Packed in leak tight packaging and conspicuously labeled with appropriate
warnings
 Transported only to a solid waste landfill licensed to accept asbestos waste and
be buried carefully in a special area where releases of asbestos fibers cannot
occur.
 Accompanied by a special manifest that will be signed by the landfill operator and
returned to the generator noting any discrepancies between what is allegedly
shipped and what is actually received at the landfill.

In general, resilient floor coverings and asphalt-based siding and 1 roofing shingles
containing asbestos that are in good condition (i.e., nonfriable) typically may be
disposed at a construction/demolition landfill or a permitted solid waste landfill.
PCBs
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are chemicals that were historically used in electrical
equipment and hydraulic oils because of their non-flammability, chemical stability
under high temperature, high boiling point and electrical insulating properties. For
example, PCBs were used in electrical, heat transfer and hydraulic equipment, as well
as in some paints, plastics, and rubber products. U.S. EPA has banned the use of
PCBs, with limited exceptions, since 1977.

Certain PCB-containing items must contain the following mark (with specific size
requirements) during their use, servicing, storage, and disposal:

"CAUTION: CONTAINS PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyl’s), Atoxic

environmental contaminant requiring special handling and disposal in
accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Regulations 40
CFR Part 761-For Disposal Information, contact the nearest U.S. EPA
Office. In case of an accident or spill, call toll-free the U.S. Coast Guard
National Response Center: (800) 424-8802. Also contact (name and
telephone number of local emergency responder)."

If the equipment is not labeled as to its PCB content, generally it must be assumed
that it contains PCBs. Most PCB-containing materials must be disposed of in
incinerators or chemical waste landfills that meet U.S. EPA specifications for the
disposal of PCBs.

Universal Waste
Universal Waste is waste that is generated prevalently by society (e.g., fluorescent
bulbs, batteries) and would otherwise be considered a "hazardous waste." U.S. EPA's
Universal Waste rule is designed to reduce the amount of hazardous waste items in
the municipal solid waste stream, encourage recycling and proper disposal of certain
common hazardous wastes, and reduce the regulatory burden on businesses that
generate these wastes.

The rule eases the regulatory burden by streamlining the requirements related to
notification, labeling, marking, prohibitions, accumulation time limits, employee
training, response to releases, offsite shipments, tracking, exports, and
transportation. For example, companies can transport these wastes with a common
carrier instead of a licensed hazardous waste transporter and no manifest is required.
Different rules apply based on whether the business is a Large Quantity Handler
(11,000 Ibs or more total accumulation of all Universal Waste at any one time) or a
Small Quantity Handler (less than 11,000 Ibs total accumulation of all Universal
Waste at anyone given time).
Small Quantity Handler of Universal Waste (Sqh)
SQH's are not required to notify EP A of their Universal Waste handling practices, but
must manage such waste in a manner that prevents any releases into the
environment. Wastes must be maintained in a container that does not leak and that is
clearly marked as "universal waste," "waste," or "used" along with the type of
universal waste (batteries, thermostats, pesticides, or lamps). The wastes cannot be
accumulated for more than one year. In order to prove compliance with this
requirement, a SQH must use some type of labeling, inventory system, or other
means to show the total accumulation period.

Employees must be trained in handling and emergency procedures appropriate to the

type of Universal Waste being handled. All releases of Universal Wastes must be
immediately contained and managed in accordance with hazardous waste regulations.
SQH's must send Universal Wastes to another Universal Waste handler or to a
"Destination facility" where they are properly managed. If a SQH transports Universal
Waste offsite themselves, they must comply with the rules applicable to Universal
Waste transporters.

Large Quantity Handler of Universal Waste (Lqh)

Once a handler accumulates more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 Ibs) of all Universal
Wastes collectively at any one time, they will be deemed a LQH for the remainder of
the calendar year. Generally, LQHs are required to comply with all the restrictions for
SQHs must notify U.S. EP A in writing and obtain an identification number, and track
shipments of Universal Wastes shipped from the facility.

Used Oil
Proper management and disposal practices for used oil is regulated by U.S. EPA
regulations passed in 1992. However, some state regulations were passed under
older regulations and may differ. Therefore, the requirements for disposal of used oil
may differ based on the location of the site where the used oil is generated.
Under the current federal program, used oil is defined as any oil that has been refined
from crude oil or synthetic oil that has been used and as a result of such use is
contaminated by physical or chemical impurities. The present federal program is
based on the presumption that most used oil will be recycled instead of disposed.
Because U.S. EPA assumes all use oil will be recycled, it is only when used oil is sent
for disposal that it is no longer subject to the Used Oil regulations and is treated as if
it was any other hazardous or solid waste.

Used Oil Includes:

 engine oils from vehicles/equipment
 lubricating oil
 brake fluids
 transmission fluid
  hydraulic fluid
 insulating oils
 metal cutting fluids
 industrial process oils
 compressor/refrigerant

Used Oil Does Not Include:

 oil products
 cleanup materials from oil spills
 animal or vegetable oil
 oil sludge from virgin oil tanks
 kerosene
 petroleum distillates used as solvents

Common Hazardous Wastes

The federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) comprehensively
regulate hazardous wastes. Most states have enacted comparable programs.
The federal and state hazardous waste management programs are intended to ensure
that hazardous waste is managed safely from the moment it is generated to the
moment it is finally disposed ("cradle-to-grave"). These programs include standards
for those facilities that generate, transport, treat, store, or dispose of hazardous
waste and include provisions for corrective action or cleanup of contaminated air,
ground water, and soil to address spills or releases into the environment.

Hazardous waste may come in many forms, such as liquids, solids, gases, and
sludges. There are two types of hazardous wastes --"listed" and "characteristic."
Listed hazardous wastes are those wastes specifically identified by U.S. EPA
regulations as being hazardous wastes. Characteristic hazardous wastes are those
wastes that are not listed hazardous wastes, but have certain defined characteristics
that make them hazardous. In addition to considering these two categories, there are
several regulatory exemptions that must be considered.

Making the determination of whether something is a hazardous waste, especially a

characteristic hazardous waste, can be a complex task and cannot be sufficiently
explained in this lesson in any way that would allow you to accurately identify all
hazardous wastes. The best that can be accomplished here is to identify common
hazardous wastes that may be encountered on construction sites. Hazardous waste
disposal contractors are capable and qualified to assist you in identifying whether a
waste is a hazardous waste.

Common Hazardous Wastes:

 Oil based paint
  Paint thinners
 Cleaning solvents
 Certain refrigerants
 Batteries (if not managed as universal waste)
 Spent lamps such as fluorescent bulbs (if not managed as universal waste)
 Gasoline (but not diesel)
 Acids and caustics

In addition to the common examples shown, be aware of products with warning labels
indicating the substances are flammable, toxic, reactive, or corrosive, since these
products may create wastes that are hazardous. Anytime a suspected hazardous
waste is encountered, proper steps must be taken to have the waste identified and to
properly dispose of the waste.

Generators
A "generator" includes any person who first creates or produces a hazardous waste or
first brings a hazardous waste into the RCRA system. The degree of regulation to
which each generator is subject depends upon how much waste the generator
produces each month.
1. Large Quantity Generators -If a facility generates more than 1,000 kg (2,200 lbs)
of hazardous waste per month it is an LQG. LQGs cannot store hazardous waste
on site for more than 90 days.
2. Small Quantity Generators -If a facility generates more than 100 kg (220 lbs) but
less than 1,000 kg (2,200 lbs) of hazardous waste per month and accumulates
less than 6,000 kg (13,200 Ibs) of hazardous waste at any one time it is a SQG.
SQGs cannot store hazardous waste for more than 180 days.
3. Conditionally Exempt Small Quantity Generators -If a facility generates less than
100kg (220 Ibs) of hazardous waste per month and accumulates less than 1,000
kg (2,200 Ibs) of hazardous waste at any one time, it is a CESQG. CESQGs are
generally subject to minimal hazardous waste regulation.
LQGs and SQGs must identify and count hazardous waste, obtain an EPA ID number,
comply with accumulation and storage requirements including training, contingency
planning, and emergency arrangements, prepare the waste for transportation, track
the shipment and receipt of such waste, and meet recordkeeping and reporting
requirements. If management believes that a particular site may become a LQG or a
SQG, the proper environmental personnel need to be notified to create an
appropriate environmental plan for that site.

CESQGs must identify their hazardous wastes, comply with storage limit requirements
(i.e., 90 days) and properly treat or dispose of their hazardous waste.
[Here is a question graphic] What is the Uniform Hazardous Waste Manifest?
The Uniform Hazardous Waste Manifest is a shipping document which tracks
hazardous waste from the point of generation to the final destination at a permitted
hazardous waste management facility. This cradle-to-grave tracking system for
hazardous waste ensures that hazardous wastes are properly managed. LQGs and
SQGs are required to use a manifest to ship hazardous waste off-site. Each individual
in the transportation chain retains a copy of the manifest. Once the waste is delivered
to the designated facility, the owner and operator of that facility must sign and return
a copy of the manifest to the generator. Also, a generator may not offer waste for
transport unless the transporter has an EP A ID number.

This manifest is a national form, but many states have adopted variations. This
becomes important if you are shipping waste out of state since the receiving state
may require additional information on the manifest. Manifest forms can usually be
obtained from transporters or storage or disposal facilities that handle your waste.

Hazardous Construction Sites

Construction Site
Most construction sites will be CESQG's, but it is important to remember that it is the
entire amount of waste generated at the entire site in each month that dictates the
facility's regulatory status not the amount of waste generated by each contractor.
Also, this determination must be made separately for each site each calendar month.
Additionally, the determination is made on a monthly basis and can change from
month-to-month.

Underground Storage Tanks

Underground storage tanks (USTs) have been commonly used for many years as a
means of storing flammable, combustible, and other hazardous materials. Materials
leaking from USTs can cause significant contamination that may remain unknown for
several years. USTs are mainly regulated under RCRA and similar state and local
laws, which govern tank design, construction, installation, operation, release
detection, release response, corrective action, closure, and financial responsibility.
It is unlikely that most employers would own or operate USTs on a regular basis.
however, there may be circumstances where a company needs to have a tank
installed or removed at a particular site. While such installation or removal will need
to be performed by properly licensed contractors, you should still be aware of the
basic regulatory requirements to help ensure the work is performed properly and
minimize any risk to the company.

Installation of new USTs is governed by federal and state regulations concerning tank
design, construction, installation, upgrading, leak detection requirements,
registration, licensing, and permitting. If installation of an UST is required,
management must ensure a properly licensed individual performs the installation. In
addition, the owner or operator will require proper registration and licensing of the
tank. More specific information is provided for each state below.
CERCLA
Congress enacted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act (CERCLA), commonly known as the "Superfund" law, in 1980. This law
imposes liability for releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that
may endanger public health or the environment. Liability at Superfund sites often
runs into the millions of dollars.

The number of hazardous substances regulated by CERCLA is much broader than that
regulated under RCRA. CERCLA includes RCRA hazardous wastes, hazardous
substances designated under the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Toxic
Substances Control Act, and an additional list of substances maintained by EPA that
present a potential threat to human health and the environment.

The Superfund law imposes liability for a contaminated site on the current owner or
operators of the site, the past owner or operators of the site, the generator of the
hazardous substances, and the transporter of the hazardous substances. All or any of
these entities may be required to pay the cost of investigating and cleaning up
property contaminated with hazardous substances. There is a substantial risk of
liability because a company may become liable for the total costs of cleanup even if
they only contributed to small portion of the contamination. In this case, the party
can seek reimbursement from other responsible parties, but there is no guarantee
that such reimbursement will be achieved or how long it will take.

Topic 2: Water and Air Pollution

In addition to waste disposal, the construction treatment of air and water need to be
managed to protect the environment. This topic provides an overview of the
regulations that prevent air and water pollution. Upon completing this topic, you will
be able to:
 Evaluate the water environmental laws governing storm water, wetlands
protection, and spill prevention
 Apply for a permit to install and operate air emission sources
 Define the standards set by the National Emission Standards for Air Pollutants
 Recognize the prohibition of open burning
 Identify the risks and regulations applied to lead-based paint
 Explain the notification and annual reporting policies under Emergency Planning
and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA)

Water
Environmental laws governing water pollution and water quality are comprehensive
and include regulation of discharges of any pollutants to waters of the state or United
States, regulation of water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters,
and regulation of public and semi-public water systems. Fortunately, there are only a
few specific areas of regulation that will normally impact construction activities. These
areas are discussed below.

Storm Water
Storm water consists of large volumes of water that can result from rain, snowmelt,
surface runoff, and other drainage. Storm water is regulated because it often picks up
and carries away natural and manmade pollutants, such as heavy metals, oils and
solvents depositing them in lakes, rivers, wetlands, and coastal waters. Discharges
from storm water systems are regulated under the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) storm water permit program.

Storm water discharges that require a NPDES permit include discharges associated
with certain industrial activities, including construction activity. In addition to the
NPDES permit, a storm water management program utilizing best management
practices to reduce or prevent the discharge of pollutants into receiving waters is
required.

For construction activities, discharge permits requirements have been applicable for
several years for construction activity disturbing five or more acres. New federal
regulations became effective in early 2000 that extend some of these requirements to
construction sites disturbing one to five acres. Under the new federal rule, these
smaller sites must obtain storm water permit coverage by March 10, 2003. However
state regulations may be more restrictive than the federal program.

Wetland Protection
The federal Clean Water Act (CWA) authorizes the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to
issue permits for the discharge of dredged or fill material into U.S. waters, including
wetlands. For purposes of the CW A, the term "wetlands" means areas that are
inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration
sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support a prevalence of
vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Swamps, marches,
and bogs are all well-recognized types of wetlands, however, there are other types of
wetlands that are more difficult to distinguish such as vernal pools which may be dry
for most of the year.
To discharge dredged or fill material into waters of the United States, you must obtain
a Section 404 permit under the Clean Water Act from the Army Corps of Engineers.
Generally, no discharge of dredged or fill material will be allowed if practicable
alternative exists that is less damaging to the aquatic environment or if the nation's
waters would be significantly degraded. When applying for a 404 permit, you must
show that you have taken steps to avoid wetland impacts where practicable.
minimized potential impacts to wetlands; and provided compensation for any
remaining, unavoidable impacts through activities to restore or create wetlands.

Generally, an individual Section 404 permit will be required. However, for discharges
that will have only minimal adverse effects, the Army Corps of Engineers has
"preapproved" general permits. Activity specifically meeting one of these general
permits does not require an individual permit but does require filing a notice with the
Army Corps of Engineers. You should contact the Army Corps of Engineers to
determine whether a contemplated activity qualifies for a general permit.

In connection with obtaining a section 404 permit, state environmental agencies are
typically involved in reviewing and approving the environmental impact, if any,
associated with the planned activities.

Spill Prevention Control

The federal CW A and Oil Pollution Act regulate the storage of large quantities of "oil."
Under these regulations oil is defined broadly to include all grades and types of
petroleum including gasoline, diesel, hydraulic fluid and used oil. In addition,
vegetable oils and animal fats are also considered oils. The regulations are intended
to protect waterways and waterbodies from adverse impacts of an oil spill through the
creation and implementation of a Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures
(SPCC) plan.

SPCC plans are required whenever the following conditions are met:
 due to location, a discharge of oil from a site could cause a discharge of oil in
handful quantities (i.e. create a sheen on) on navigable waters or adjacent
shorelines
 the facility has aggregate aboveground oil storage capacity in excess of 1,320
gallons or anyone aboveground container with a capacity in excess of 660
gallons or has aggregate underground capacity in excess of 42,000 gallons

The first criteria can be somewhat difficult to evaluate. In general, you must evaluate
site drainage features, including storm drains, and surrounding water courses. The
term "navigable waters" is defined much broader than suggested and includes ditches
and streams.

The SPCC regulations set forth specific requirements that the must be considered and
included in the SPCC Plan. These include design and operational considerations to
prevent and control releases of oil to waterways. The Plans must be developed within
6 months of the site becoming subject to the SPCC requirements and certified by a
registered professional engineer stating that they were developed in accordance with
good engineering practice. Among other things, the Plan includes an identification of
emergency contacts and remediation contractors who should or must be contacted in
the event of a spill.

The SPCC Plans must be reviewed every three years or more frequently if a release
occurs. They need not be submitted to any government agency, but must be
maintained on site in the event of an inspection and be implemented in the event of a
release. SPCC requirements may apply to jobsites were temporary fuel storage
tanks and hydraulic oil tanks are maintained.

Air Pollution
Air pollution regulations apply to virtually any activity that causes materials to be
released into the ambient air. Gasoline dispensing, underground storage tanks,
boilers, generators, industrial operations, asbestos removal activities, air conditioner
and refrigeration units, and the cars we drive are all regulated in some fashion by
federal and state air pollution control regulations.

Many of these regulations affect those who will be building new industrial operations
and other air contaminant sources.

Permits To Install and Operate Air Emission Sources

Under federal and state air pollution control laws, while called by different names in
different places, before "commencing construction" of regulated air contaminant
sources, the "owner or operator" of the facility must first apply for and obtain a
"Permit to install" (PTI) from the state. This is essentially another building permit that
is issued by state environmental agencies. "Commence construction" is defined very
broadly and often means enter contracts for purchase of the air contaminant sources
and/or pouring a foundation for the source equipment.

If an owner does not have the required permits in hand at the time the foundations
are being poured they could be opening themselves up to severe consequences. In
addition to fines and penalties for violating the law, the environmental agencies may
ultimately determine that the new facility is not acceptable due to existing air
pollution problems in the area and either halt construction and/or mandate the
installation of costly air pollution control equipment that the owner never anticipated
acquiring, changes in process and building design, etc.

If you are working with a client that is building a facility that will house any type of
manufacturing, processing, or similar activity that will emit air contaminants, you
should check early on to confirm that they have begun the process of obtaining the
required permits or determined no permits are required. Obtaining these permits can
take anywhere from 60 to 90 days to two or more years, depending upon the type of
facility.

Owners and operators of air contaminant sources required to obtain a PTI usually must
also obtain a permit to operate the source. Typically, the PTI will allow for
operation for a limited period of time, but a PTO application must be submitted
shortly after the source begins to operate. Again, this is primarily an issue for the
owners, but one that should not be forgotten. Asbestos National Emissions Standard
For Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP)

Asbestos is a natural rock fiber used extensively in building materials from the early
20th century through approximately 1981. Thus, for newer buildings constructed
since the mid-1980s, the potential for asbestos containing material (ACM) should be
low. Asbestos consists of very fine fibers that can be inhaled and trapped in the lungs
causing irritation and possibly lung cancer. Thus, all regulations focus on preventing
asbestos fibers from becoming airborne. ACM is typically described as being either
"friable" or "nonfriable." If dry ACM can be crumbled by hand pressure, it is
considered to be friable and is more likely to release fibers and is therefore regulated
extensively by EPA and OSHA.

Activities disturbing ACM are regulated under the Clean Air Act National Emission
Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) program. The asbestos NESHAP is
intended to minimize the release of asbestos fibers during "demolition" and
"Renovation," when asbestos may be disturbed and released into the air. The key
distinction between renovation and demolition from the regulators' perspective is that
demolition involves removal of load supporting structural components and renovation
does not.

Owners and operators must thoroughly inspect building materials in any area to be
demolished or renovated before the project to determine whether ACM exists in the
space to be affected. If friable ACM (or non-friable ACM that has a high probability of
becoming friable) is found in the space in quantities above certain minimum
thresholds, it must be removed by a licensed contractor before any activities that
could cause it to be disturbed take place.

The appropriate regulatory agency must be given at least IO-days advance notice
before beginning any renovation or demolition project involving asbestos. The
asbestos abatement contractors generally take care of these notification
requirements, but failure to give notices and, more importantly, failure to advise the
agencies of changes to the removal schedule can lead to violations and enforcement
actions. The actual asbestos removal work must be done in a manner that prevents
the release of asbestos fibers. This includes wetting of the asbestos prior to disturbing
it, immediately placing it into double bags and disposing of it at a specially licensed
landfill. Sometimes, the contractors will also build a negative pressure "bubble"
around the work zone to prevent releases of asbestos fibers.

Even where an employer is not necessarily doing the abatement work and does not
own the buildings, some court cases have nevertheless held a general
contractor/project manager responsible for asbestos violations. The key is to be
mindful of the reason for the regulations and the goal to minimize releases of
asbestos fibers. If you see dust exiting the abatement workspace or tom negative
pressure enclosures or dry asbestos being put into bags, these issues need to be
addressed by the owner and abatement contractor immediately. In addition, if you
are involved in demolition or renovation work and comes across suspect ACM, the
work needs to be discontinued until the situation is appropriately evaluated and
remedied. Failing to do so can have serious consequences.

Open Burning Prohibitions

For years, it was common practice to bum trees and stumps and other debris from
site clearing, as well as the scrap wood and paper from construction sites. This
practice is still somewhat prevalent among residential builders. Open burning of this
nature is strictly prohibited in Ohio, Kentucky and Indiana unless express approval
from the state agencies is obtained. Generally speaking, such approval is only
granted in rare circumstances, certainly not to avoid the proper disposal of waste
materials. Recently, criminal investigations have been commenced against builders
who open burn J' despite warnings from the state.

Lead-Based Paint
Lead-based paint regulations stem not from the Clean Air Act, but from other federal
regulations issued jointly by U.S. EPA and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development intended to protect the general public from lead poisoning. Lead
poisoning causes nervous system problems and brain defects, especially in young
children.

Lead was commonly added to paints through approximately 1980. Sanding, grinding
or burning lead paint can cause the lead to be released into the air and deposited on
surfaces. Inhaling or ingesting lead causes lead poisoning so the regulations focus on
preventing such releases and contact with lead dust.

The lead-based paint requirements only affect projects involving schools and
residential dwellings (including apartments, condominiums, and townhouses). Much
like the asbestos abatement regulations, the lead-based paint regulations require the
use of licensed or certified contractors, supervisors and employees when working on a
lead abatement project.

The lead-based paint regulations only apply to projects that involve measures
"Designed and intended to permanently eliminate lead hazards." These projects
include the removal, encapsulation, or enclosure of lead hazards, replacement of
lead-contaminated soil. However, the regulations do not apply to renovation,
remodeling, or landscaping activities which are merely designed to repair, restore, or
remodel a structure or a dwelling, even though these activities may incidentally result
in a reduction or elimination of lead hazards.
Lead exposure on a construction site may also present OSHA issues, as OSHA has
established acceptable levels of lead exposures in workplace air. Where cutting,
sanding, grinding, will disturb lead paint surfaces and similar abrasive action, even if
it is not related to a school or residential project; lead exposures may present an
OSHA issue. In such cases, a qualified safety specialist should be contacted to discuss
the work and any precautions that may be appropriate in advance

EPCRA
The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) is a federal law
adopted after a cyanide release from a chemical plant in Bhopal, India killed
thousands of nearby residents. The purpose of the Act is clear from its name.

INITIAL AND ANNUAL REPORTING TO STATE AND LOCAL 0FFICIALS OF THE

PRESENCE OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AT A FACILITY

EPCRA requires that owners and operators of facilities that have "present" more than
10,000 pounds of "hazardous chemicals" or 500-pounds of an "extremely hazardous
substance" at any one time in a calendar year report that condition to the local fire
department, local emergency planning commission and state emergency response
commission.

Hazardous chemicals are defined broadly to mean essentially any product that is
required to have a material safety data sheet (MSDS) under OSHA regulations (e.g.,
diesel fuel, paint, solvents, etc.). There is a list of approximately 750 "extremely
hazardous substances" published by U.S. EPA. Common chemicals such as sulfuric
acid, nitric acid and other compounds appear on this list. Thus, if a contractor or
subcontractor brings such materials onto a jobsite in excess of the threshold amounts
the reports must be made.

The initial reports are due within 60 days of the materials first being on-site in excess
of the threshold. Annual reports are due by March 1 of each year thereafter.

EPA has published a list of extremely hazardous substances and threshold quantities.
Any facility having an amount of any of these substances above the designated
quantity must notify the state planning commission and the local planning committee.
In addition to the initial reporting, facilities must report annually on quantities and
locations of their hazardous chemicals.

Common Hazardous Chemicals

Fuels, such as diesel and gasoline are oftentimes present in amounts greater than
10,000 pounds. Diesel and gasoline weigh about 7.25 Ibs/gallon. Thus, if there are
more than about 1,380 gallons of gasoline or diesel stored on a site the EPCRA
reporting requirements are triggered. Sulfuric acid is a common electrolyte in large
batteries and UPS systems. Since sulfuric acid is an extremely the hazardous
substance, only 500 pounds of it triggers reporting requirements.

What is required in the event of a spill?

NOTIFICATION AND REPORTING IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL

Related to EPCRA are various state and federal laws that require immediate
reporting to appropriate officials in the event of a spill or release of oil or
"Hazardous substances" into the environment. When chemicals are released
into air, water or soil, there may be reporting obligations on the person who
discovers these conditions. From the government's perspective, if an incident is
reportable, it must be reported as soon as possible and no longer than 30
minutes after a responsible person has knowledge of it in order to avoid
penalties.

40 CFR § 302.4 contains a table that lists thousands of "hazardous

substances." This list also includes a "reportable quantity" or "RQ" for the
substance. If the amount of the hazardous substance released in one 24-hour
period exceeds the RQ, immediate reporting is required. If a material has been
spilled, the first thing to do is find a MSDS or contact the manufacturer. The
MSDS oftentimes identifies, usually under the heading "Hazardous
Components" near the beginning or "Regulatory Information" near the end,
whether it contains hazardous substances that are subject to the reporting and
sometimes they will give the RQ. These might be under a description of "SARA"
or "EPCRA" "302."

In the event of a significant spill, first assess the situation and determine
whether assistance from fire or other emergency response officials is necessary
and appropriate. Then, immediately contact an environmental professional
knowledgeable in dealing with emergency response issues. Environmental
professionals will be able to evaluate the situation and gather the appropriate
resources to address the spill and evaluate whether reporting is required. Key
to preparation for such an incident is maintaining good MSDS records for the
chemicals present on the site. This is an OSHA requirement that will greatly
assist in addressing the spill.

Topic 3: Specific Hazards and Controls

In this topic you will learn specific hazards and controls for several environmental
risks. Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:
 Identify the health effects and actions required for working with asbestos
 Identify the health effects and actions required for working with lead-based paint
  Identify the health effects and actions required for working with mold
contamination

Asbestos
Asbestos is a general term used to describe several naturally occurring fibrous
mineral silicates, including actinolite, amosite, anthophyllite, crocidolite, tremolite,
and chrysotile. Although amosite, chrysotile, and crocidolite are the only asbestos
forms that have wide-spread commercial use, chrysotile currently accounts for more
than 99% of world asbestos consumption, and 90% in the United States. Each
asbestos type, however, is different in physical and chemical properties, depending on
the other components of the rock, such as calcium, magnesium, or iron. It is mined,
processed, separated into very thin fibers, and ultimately, they are incorporated into
an estimated 3,000 commercial products.

The Use of Asbestos

The fact that asbestos fibers are microscopic in size, resistant to chemicals and
abrasion, have high tensile strength, they have excellent insulating capabilities, are
resistant to heat, and are inexpensive and readily available, has resulted in its wide
spread use. Asbestos fibers are strong, durable, resist heat, acids, and friction, and
are virtually indestructible. The types of asbestos products that have been used in
construction is many, they include; insulation, fireproofing and acoustical textured
products, flooring, and textile & cloth products, just to name a few. Although these
materials contain asbestos, the mere presence of asbestos in a building does not
mean that the health of building occupants is endangered. If asbestos containing
materials (ACM) are not damaged or disturbed in any way, then it is not likely that
fibers will be released into the air. The EPA estimates that "friable" ACM can be found
in an estimated 700,000 public and commercial buildings. About 500,000 of these
buildings are believed to contain at least some damaged asbestos. For this reason, it
is imperative that a comprehensive asbestos inspection and assessment be conducted
by a professional prior to any disturbance.

Health Effects
Health effects associated with exposures to asbestos fibers have been well
documented with some controversy surrounding the health effects of low-level
exposures. However, there is little disagreement about the detrimental effects of
occupational or high-level exposures to asbestos fibers. The primary route of
exposure for asbestos is through inhalation, although there have been reports of
asbestos fibers becoming imbedded in the skin, and there have been documented
overexposures through ingestion. Asbestosis or scaring of the lung results in a
retracted or restricted lung with an inability to exchange oxygen, and to a lesser
extent, carbon dioxide in a normal manner.

Lung cancer is the most common of the serious health effects associated with
airborne asbestos fiber exposure. The greater the total exposure to asbestos fibers,
the greater the risk of developing lung cancer.
Mesothelioma, is a very rare form of malignant cancer involving the membrane-like
linings (pleural thickening) of one or more body cavities. In severe cases of

Mesothelioma, lung capacity and function are reduced, along with an elevated blood
carbon dioxide level.

It is important to note, that individuals with heavy asbestos exposure who are also
heavy smokers, have an incidence of lung cancer as much as 90 times greater than
the incidence of lung cancer in non-smokers without asbestos exposure.

Response Action
EPA regulations require that, not only must there be an inspection performed by the
owner prior to any disturbance of ACM, but that a notification to the enforcing
regulatory agency be made prior to any removal. The extent and quality of asbestos
removal prior to re-occupancy of the building, is dependent on many factors, one of
which should include the involvement of an industrial hygienist to evaluate and
address any and all remaining health hazards upon completion of the work.

Lead
There are many sources of lead in the environment, including drinking water, food,
and emissions from gasoline combustion, industrial air emissions, and paint coatings.
In the construction industry, however, exposure to Lead-Based Paint (LBP) coatings
poses the greatest hazard as demonstrated in the observance of elevated blood lead
levels in construction workers.

Use
LBP coatings have been applied to steel structures and commercial buildings for more
than 100 years. LBP coatings were used for protective treatment of various
substrates to include, steel structures, exterior wood framing, and many interior
components. These attributes of cost, effectiveness, and minimal surface preparation
contributed to the widespread use of LBP coatings. In time (about 15-25 years), LBP
coatings become cracked, chipped, corroded, and many times delaminate or dislodge
from the surface. Intact paint coatings containing lead pose no significant public
health hazard or environmental risk. However, the application of new coatings
systems frequently require substantial removal and surface preparation of the
existing coating and if these painted surfaces are disturbed and become airborne,
exposure to lead may occur.

Health Effect for Everyone

Lead is highly toxic and affects virtually every system of the body. At high exposure
levels, lead poisoning can cause coma, convulsions, and death. At low levels,
exposure to lead may cause numerous symptoms to include, stomach pain,
headaches, anxiety, irritability, and poor appetite. The most common pathway that
lead enters into the body is by inhalation (breathing) and/or ingestion (eating). Once
absorbed into the blood stream, it is circulated throughout the body and various
organs and body tissues. As the exposure to lead increases, the amount stored in the
body continues to increase. It can slowly cause irreversible damage, first to
individual cells, then to organs, and finally whole-body systems. In large enough
doses or when other illnesses cause rapid release of stored lead into the blood
stream, lead exposure can kill within a matter of days. Long - term overexposure to
lead in adults can result in severe damage to the following functional systems; (1)
blood-forming, (2) nervous, (3) urinary, and (4) reproductive. Although the adverse
health effects described above can be severe in adults, children are at even greater
risk from exposure to lead. This elevated risk to children is due to the greater
susceptibility of the developing brain and nervous system in young children and
fetuses. Even low levels of lead are known to significantly affect a child's IQ, ability
to learn and read, attention span, and behavior. The effects may be irreversible,
depressing intellectual performance both in school and later in adult life.

Health Effects for Construction Industry

Construction workers exposed to lead dusts and fumes can also inadvertently expose
their families to lead hazards. Studies indicate that a higher percentage of
construction workers' children, especially those under six years of age, have elevated
blood lead levels when compared to age-specific averages for the United States and
neighbors' children. In short, lead is a cumulative poison that warrants attention,
concern, and exposures should be avoided at all costs, especially for young children.

Response Action
Operations such as abrasive blasting, sanding, burning, torch cutting or welding on
structural steel coated with lead-based paint coatings may produce very high
concentrations of airborne lead dust and fumes. For this reason, OSHA and NIOSH
recommend that all lead containing paint coating be removed prior to conducting hot
work (> 1200 (F). When this is not possible, then the exposure to lead dust and
fumes created by hot work, must be minimized by use of engineering controls,
acceptable work practices, and the use of PPE, including respirators for additional
protection. The best way to minimize or prevent exposures to lead dust and fumes is
to remove the hazard from the work task.

There are ways to strip the paint from the substrate by various mechanical and/or
chemical means. Unfortunately, this work poses a potential health risk and threatens
an adverse environmental impact, as well as an occupational hazard to workers
performing the removal activity or working adjacent to the removal operation. The
use of chemicals strippers for removing LBP coatings usually involve, corrosive
strippers, volatile organic solvents, and/or organic biodegradable gels. The most
commonly used chemical is the use of corrosive products, such as "Peel-A-Way",
"Piranha", and "Back II Nature". Each of the above products has their advantages and
disadvantages depending on the substrate type (structural steel, wood, plaster),
condition of the paint, environmental conditions, and weather. The use of mechanical
removal methods also have its advantages and disadvantages. The most commonly
used mechanical method used is abrasive blasting, although other methods such as
needle guns, protopines, and grinders are also used.

An experienced and accredited "Lead Inspector and Risk Assessor", or a

knowledgeable and Board-Certified Industrial Hygienist (CIH) should be consulted to
evaluate the site condition, conduct an inspection and survey of the area, and
determine what, if any, action is necessary to complete the response.

Mold, Fungi, and Bioaerosol Contamination

Microbial contamination in the form of mold, specifically observed in pre-demolition
buildings and new construction, represents an extremely diverse and often confusing
component of indoor air quality. Mold is simply a universal term used to describe
organisms grouped in the phylum fungi, which are organisms that obtain nutrients by
breaking down organic materials and then digesting its nutrients. Fungal colonies are
also, hydrophilic (i.e., water loving) and therefore tend to predominate in areas of
chronic moisture. In buildings, fungal growth is found in areas of high humidity,
water leaks and standing water. If conditions are favorable, molds can grow on any
building material, such as cloth, carpets, leather, wood, sheet rock, pipe insulation,
and fireproofing. While the presence of airborne fungi and/or the occasional and
visual staining of mold growth on walls and ceilings may not in itself pose a hazard,
but if disturbed and left unchecked, exposure to mold may carry the potential for
adverse health effects and structural deterioration. It is therefore important to avoid,
or control dusts containing mold products prior to any construction, excavation, or
demolition activities in areas of excessive mold growth.

Types of Molds
Molds can produce infectious disease, trigger an immune response, or become
chemically toxic. There are literally hundreds of species of mold, all of which at
excessive concentration can produce an allergic or toxic response. Common genera
frequently found during indoor air quality investigations, include Aspergillus,
Penicillium, Schirbort’s, and Cladosporium. Schirbort’s chartarum has been
much discussed in the press and has been the subject of a number of building related
illness investigations. This organism has high moisture requirements and therefore
grows aggressively where moisture has accumulated from roof or wall leaks. It also
has an affinity to cellulose-based products such as drywall and insulation. Another
mold that has received attention in the past few years, include Histoplasma
capsulatum. This organism may be found in areas of accumulation of bat or bird
manure, and inhalation of its spores is known to cause an infectious disease called
histoplasmosis.

Bats can become infected with the organism and consequently can excrete the
organism in their droppings.

Health Effects of Molds

It is possible for people to become exposed to molds and their products, either by
direct contact on surfaces, or through the air if mold spores, fragments, or products
are aerosolized and become airborne. Once exposed to airborne mold products, the
impact to human health is dependent on a number of factors, the nature of the
species involved, the metabolic products being produced by these species, the
amount and duration of the individual's exposure to mold products, and the specific
susceptibility of those exposed. Generally, health effects fall into four (4) categories.
allergy, infection, irritation, and toxicity. The most common response to mold
exposure is an allergic reaction. These allergic reactions can range from a mild
transitory response, to severe chronic illnesses. Toxic poisonings from ingestion of
molds are not uncommon (e.g., severe injury and death of livestock has been reported
following ingestion of moldy hay that contain Stachybotrys chartarum). Worker and
building occupants rarely acquire infections from molds, however, allergic response to
mold products are a very common condition in the general population. This allergic
response demonstrates a dose-response relationship and conditions were higher
concentrations of mold spores are present increase the frequency and intensity of the
allergic response in sensitive persons.

Response Action
The evaluation and remediation of mold contamination in buildings is extremely
difficult. Additionally, the available science is incomplete, sometimes controversial,
and there is also no universal consensus on how and to what extent mold
contamination should be remediated. Although there is several guidance
documents, there are no accepted national standards or clear-cut Federal regulations
which would clearly outline procedures on how one should conduct testing,
remediation, clearances, how to interpret the results, and compare the results to the
accepted standards. Finally, medical diagnosis of mold related health effects is
difficult and uncertain. There is insufficient scientific knowledge and controversy on
some aspects of the association between microbial growth and health effects among
building occupants and remediation workers.
 Confined Space
Introduction
Statistics show that confined space incidents are more likely to result in death than
any other type of workplace emergency. In fact, the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) reports that each year more than 300 deaths and 3,000
serious injuries occur in the United States to workers in confined spaces.
Most of these incidents involve human failure to:
 Study the potential hazards
 Recognize hazards
 Provide appropriate safety and health programs
 Follow standard safety operating procedures and enforce regulations
 Take appropriate action to avoid the effects of existing hazards

If you learn the responsibilities of your role and that of your supervisor and employer,
you should be alert to conditions you may face and learn how to avoid them, how to
alert others, and how prevent hazards that can make you and others one of these
statistics.

Lesson Overview
Many workplaces contain spaces that are known as "confined spaces" by OSHA
because their shape hinders employees who must enter, work in, and exit them. For
example, employees who work in process vessels generally must squeeze in and out
through narrow openings and perform their tasks while cramped or contorted. In
addition, there are many instances where employees who work in confined spaces
face increased risk of exposure to serious hazards.

Confinement poses entrapment hazards or keeps employees closer to hazards, such

as asphyxiating atmospheres or the moving parts of machinery. OSHA uses the term
"Permit-required confined space" (permit space) to describe those spaces that both
meet the definition of "confined space" and pose health or safety hazards.

Topic 1: Confined Space Overview

Confined spaces don't always look dangerous, but they contain many potential
hazards for anyone working in and around them. Because there are hundreds of
different types of confined spaces, it may be hard to recognize a confined space and
know all the hazards that you can encounter. This topic defines various types of
confined spaces and what conditions cause a space to require a permit.

Upon completing this topic, you will be able to:

 List three characteristics of a confined space
 Define what conditions may cause a space to require a permit
 Give several examples of spaces on a construction site that can be classified as
confined spaces

What is a Confined Space?

Think about places you may have worked which were difficult to enter or exit. They
may have been shaped differently or were hotter or colder than outside work
locations. You may have even had to squeeze past machinery to do your work. If this
sounds familiar, you have a basic understanding of what a confined space is.

Strictly speaking, confined spaces are defined as:

 Those with open tops with a depth that restricts the natural movement of air
 Enclosed spaces with very limited openings for entry

In either case, the space may contain mechanical equipment with moving parts. Any
combination of these parameters can change the nature of the hazards you may face.

These are examples of confined spaces:

 Storage tanks
 Settling tanks
 Manholes
 Utility vaults
 Tunnels
 Pipes
 Pits
 Silos
 Elevator shafts
 Tanker cars
 Underground vaults
 Diked areas
 Vessels

Characteristics of a Confined Space

Limited or restricted entry/exit
Many confined spaces have only one opening that is often small, awkwardly shaped,
or hard to reach. Some confined spaces, such as pits and excavations, may have
large openings, but they are difficult and dangerous to enter or exit. The limited
entry/exit of confined spaces impedes or prevents easy escape and rescue.

Not designed for continuous occupancy

In most instances, workers enter confined spaces to inspect, repair, and clean the
space itself, the equipment it contains, or to get access to another structure. Whether
a confined space is entered every day for a limited period of time or only a few times
a year, it is not designed for continuous worker occupancy.

Large enough and shaped for a worker to do his job

Some confined spaces house equipment or provide access to equipment and
structures. Most confined spaces have poor ventilation and limited access because
they are designed to store, process, and transport materials, affording little more
than the space necessary to perform the task at hand.
[End of popup]

Permit-Required Confined Space

The OSHA Permit-Required Confined Space Standard (29 CFR 191a.146) defines a
second level of confined spaces. Known as permit-required confined spaces (permit
spaces), these work areas must also have at least one of the following hazards:
 Hazardous atmosphere (or the potential for one)
 Material that could engulf a person -- the material could be stored in the space
(for example, grain) or enter the space through pipes (such as water or
chemicals)
 A shape (tapers, slopes, or converges) that could trap or asphyxiate someone
 Any other recognized serious safety or health hazard

These additional hazards require an entry permit prior to start of any work.

Reasons for Entering Confined Spaces

There are many reasons to enter a confined space when you work in the construction
industry. Sometimes it is necessary to maintain industrial facilities such as when
inspecting, repairing, or performing maintenance (cleaning or painting) on the job
site. These and similar operations may be an infrequent or irregular function of the
total industrial activity.

New construction may require entry to such spaces. Potential hazards should be
easier to recognize during construction since the confined space has not been used.
The types of hazards involved will be limited by the specific work practices. When the
area meets the criteria for a confined space, all ventilation, and other requirements
should be enforced.

Unauthorized entry is one of the most difficult entries to control, especially when
there are large numbers of workers and trades involved, such as welders, painters,
electricians, and safety monitors.

But the most important reason for entry would be for an emergency rescue. This,
and all other reasons for entry, must be well planned before initial entry is made, and
the hazards must be reviewed thoroughly. The standby person and all rescue
personnel should be aware of the structural design of the space, emergency exit
procedures, and life support systems required.

Topic 2: Hazardous Atmospheres

This topic introduces hazardous atmospheres as the greatest threat to worker safety.
By defining oxygen deficiency and oxygen enrichment and describing flammable,
combustible, and explosive measures of vapors and gases and toxic air contaminants,
the topic gives the learner important guidelines that should always be monitored in
confined space work.

Potential Hazards
When entering a confined space, you should anticipate that the most unfavorable
situation exists in every case and that the danger of explosion, poisoning, and
asphyxiation will be present at entry.

Failure to anticipate potential hazards can result in injury, illness, and death.
 A space that combines limited access and mechanical devices is the most
hazardous confined space. The movable parts found in equipment such as
digesters and boilers usually contain power-driven equipment that, unless
properly isolated, may be inadvertently activated after entry.

The potential hazards of confined spaces can become real hazards very quickly.
 Lack of ventilation can allow toxic gases/vapors to accumulate.
 Materials stored in the space or brought in by pipes can engulf entrants
instantaneously.
 All power sources not locked out at their source can be turned on by people
outside the space.

All potential hazards must be evaluated and controlled before work inside the space
begins.

The Primary Hazard

Ninety percent of all confined space deaths are caused by atmospheric hazards!

Because these hazards are your greatest threat, it is important to understand fully
the primary causes of atmospheric hazards.

Most confined spaces have the potential for atmospheric hazards. These hazards in
confined space include:

Oxygen deficiency and oxygen enrichment

Oxygen deficiency is displacement in the air by another gas. Carbon dioxide and
argon are colorless and odorless gases with specific gravities greater than air. As
such, they may lie in a tank or manhole for hours or days after opening and pose an
immediate health hazard unless appropriate oxygen measurement and ventilation
occur.

Sometimes the air in confined spaces contains too much oxygen. An atmosphere that
is oxygen enriched increases the risk of fire or explosion. Flammable materials burn
more violently and ignite more easily in oxygen-enriched atmospheres.

Flammable or explosive vapors and gases

An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible material
in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur.

Toxic air contaminants

Atmospheric hazards can suffocate you, poison you, or cause an explosion!

Oxygen Deficiency
Oxygen is reduced in a confined space through consumption or displacement. It
occurs in displacement by gases such as helium, argon, and nitrogen. The number of
workers and the amount of physical activity can also influence the oxygen
consumption rate.

Oxygen deficiency is a form of asphyxiation that occurs as the percentage of oxygen

in the atmosphere decreases sufficiently. The desirable level of atmospheric oxygen is
20.9 percent, but the body can tolerate deviation from this ideal.

What Happens to Your Body If You Do Not Have Enough Oxygen?

When the oxygen level falls to 17 percent, the first sign of hypoxia is
deterioration to night vision that is not noticeable until a normal oxygen
concentration is restored. Physiologic effects are increased breathing volume
and accelerated heartbeat.
When the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere falls to 16 percent, most
people begin to breathe rapidly and feel giddy. At 12 percent oxygen, you
begin to breathe unevenly and may faint. When there is only 6 percent oxygen
in the air, breathing stops and death can occur within minutes.

Carbon dioxide can naturally displace air in sewers, storage bins, wells, tunnels, wine
vats, and grain elevators.

Certain gases are also used as Inerting agents to displace flammable substances and
retard pyrophoric reactions. Gases such as nitrogen, argon, helium, and carbon
dioxides are frequently referred to as non-toxic inert gases but have claimed many
lives. The use of nitrogen to inert a confined space has claimed more lives than
carbon dioxide. The total displacement of oxygen by nitrogen will cause immediate
collapse and death.

Key Point: The only way to find out if the atmosphere in a confined space is
oxygen deficient is to monitor the air.
 Amount of Oxygen Results
21% Normal breathing
19.5% Minimum for safety entry
16% Dizziness and confusion
14% Difficulty breathing
6% Breathing stops, death

Oxygen Enrichment
Sometimes the air in confined spaces contains too much oxygen. An oxygen-enriched
atmosphere increases the risk of fire or explosion. Flammable materials burn more
violently and ignite more easily in oxygen-enriched atmospheres.

The OSHA Permit-Required Confined Space Standard defines oxygen enrichment as

an atmosphere with more than 23.5 percent oxygen. (Other organizations may set
the defining concentration at 22 or 23 percent.)

Rules to Remember:
 Always monitor the air to find the oxygen content of the confined space.
 Do not operate a heater or motor inside a confined space.
 Rust, drying paint, cement, or caulking can increase the chances of oxygen
deficiency.
 Welding, burning, and riveting inside confined spaces present major hazards and
require special precautions and special hot work permits.
 Always use ordinary air to ventilate confined spaces. Never ventilate with pure
oxygen. Ventilate with clean breathing air, even if the atmosphere is oxygen
deficient. Adding oxygen can create a dangerous and flammable oxygen
enriched atmosphere.

Flammable or Explosive Gases and Vapors

Flammable gases and vapors can reach an explosive concentration in a confined
space more rapidly than in an open area. When an adequate concentration of a
flammable gas/vapor occurs, a spark can ignite the fuel and cause an explosion. And
when a fire occurs in a confined space, it becomes an explosion!
Understanding the fire risk of chemicals
 Not all chemicals can burn. Chemicals that don't burn are called non-
combustible. Non-combustibles pose no fire risk.
 Combustibles are all substances and materials that can burn.
 Some combustible materials burn at lower temperatures than others. These
combustible materials are called flammable and pose the greatest fire risk.
 Combustible gases or vapors will accumulate in confined spaces when there is
inadequate ventilation.
Flammable and Combustible Chemicals
To understand when each chemical may become a risk, you must understand the
term flashpoint. Flashpoint is the temperature at which a liquid chemical gives off
enough vapors to burn if there is a source of ignition. The lower the flashpoint, the
greater the fire hazard.
 Liquid chemicals with flashpoints below 100°F are called flammable. They are
high fire risks.
 Liquid chemicals with flashpoints between 100°F and 200°F are called
combustible. They present moderate fire risks.
 Chemicals with flashpoints above 200°F are considered low fire risks.

Confined spaces can trap flammable gases such as acetylene, butane, propane,
hydrogen, methane, natural or manufactured gases, or vapors from liquid
hydrocarbons.

Examples:

 Benzene has a flashpoint of 12°F

 Acetic acid has a flashpoint of 102°F
 Toluene diisocyanate (TDI) has a flashpoint of 260°F

Remember, flashpoint is used for liquid chemicals only. It is the temperature at which
the liquid gives off enough vapors to burn if there is a spark.

NOTE: Many gases are heavier than air; they will seek lower levels as in pits,
sewers, and various types of storage tanks and vessels. However, in a closedtop
tank, gases that are lighter than air may rise and develop a flammable
concentration if trapped above the opening.

Major Sources of Flammable Atmospheres

An atmosphere becomes flammable when the ratio of oxygen to combustible material
in the air is neither too rich nor too lean for combustion to occur. Flash starts form here

A flammable atmosphere generally arises from the following sources.

Enriched oxygen atmospheres

An oxygen-enriched atmosphere increases the risk of fire or explosion. Flammable
materials burn more violently and ignite more easily in oxygen-enriched
atmospheres.

Vaporization of flammable liquids: Vaporization of flammable liquids. Flammable

liquids such as paints and coatings, solvents, and thinners, cutting oils and lubricants,
hydraulic fluids, adhesives and fuels can vaporize and form an extremely flammable
mixture with air. The Flammable vapors are usually invisible, can be conveyed great
distances from their source, and can collect in areas with unprotected ignition
sources.

Byproducts of work
Byproducts of work procedures can generate flammable or explosive conditions within
a confined space. For example, spray painting can release explosive gases or vapors,
and welding in a confined space is a major cause of explosions in areas containing
combustible gas.

Chemical reactions
Chemical reactions forming flammable atmospheres occur when surfaces are initially
exposed to the atmosphere or when chemicals combine to form flammable gases.

Concentrations of combustible dusts

High charges of static electricity, which accumulate rapidly during periods of relatively
low humidity, produce sparks and ignite concentrations of combustible dust. These
sparks may also cause explosions when the right air- or oxygen-to-dust or gas
mixture is present. These conditions usually are found during loading, unloading, and
conveying grain products, nitrated fertilizers, finely ground chemical products, and
any other combustible material.

Desorption of chemical from inner surfaces of the confined space

Desorption of chemicals from the inner linings of surfaces of a tank or vessel may
produce a flammable mixture. An example of desorption can occur when propane is
emptied from a tank. After the removal, the walls may desorb some remaining gas
and create a flammable mixture in the tank.

What flammable spontaneous chemical reactions may occur on the job site?
Here are some examples:
 Dilute sulfuric acid reacts with iron to form hydrogen gas.
 Calcium carbide contacts water to form acetylene.
 Explosions from small amounts of unstable compounds are acetylene-metal
compounds, peroxides, and nitrates.

In a dry state, these compounds can explode upon percussion or exposure to

increased temperature.

Tanks containing flammable deposits of pyrophoric (metal that can spontaneously

ignite-can spontaneously erupt in the air) substances (carbon, ferrous oxide, ferrous
sulfate, iron, etc.) will ignite spontaneously upon exposure to air. These tanks can be
found in the chemical and petroleum industry.
Upper and Lower Explosive Limits
To understand the limits of flammability and explosiveness, remember that explosive
limits are expressed as percentages. Flammable gases and vapors must reach a
certain concentration (or percentage) in the air in order to burn.
 The minimum concentration of a flammable gas/vapor in the air needed for a fire
or explosion is called the lower explosive limit (LEL). It is also called the lower
flammable limit (LFL). Once the LEL is reached, the air/chemical mixture will burn
if there is a source of ignition.
 The air/chemical mixture is "just right" for a fire until the concentration of the
chemical in the air reaches the upper explosive limit (UEL). The UEL is the
maximum concentration of a flammable gas/vapor in the air that will burn. The
UEL is also called the upper flammable limit (UFL).
 When the chemical's concentration in the air goes beyond the upper explosive
limit (UEL), there is too much chemical in the air and the air/chemical mixture is
too rich to burn. When the mixture is too rich to burn, there usually isn't enough
oxygen for a fire.
 The explosive or flammable range of a chemical is between the LEL and the
UEL. Within the explosive/flammable range, the chemical/air mixture will burn if
there is a source of ignition.

The wider the explosive or flammable range, the more hazardous the chemical.

The LEL for benzene is 1.3 percent. When benzene vapors make up 1.3
percent of the atmosphere and there is a spark, the air/benzene mixture
will burn.

The UEL for benzene is 7.9 percent. When benzene vapors are more
than 7.9 percent of the atmosphere, the air/benzene mixture is too rich
to burn.

If you were told that:

 The LEL for benzene is 1.3 percent, the UEL is 7.9 percent
 The LEL for trichloroethylene is 8 percent and the UEL is 10.5 percent

Which chemical, benzene, or trichloroethylene, has the greater flammable

range? Based only on flammable range, which chemical is more
hazardous?

Benzene is more hazardous; it has a greater flammable range.

How could you tell the concentration of a flammable gas/vapor in a confined

space?
The only way to find the concentration of a flammable gas/vapor is to use an air
monitor. LEL meters show you how close to the LEL the concentration of a flammable
gas/vapor is.

Remember to never assume a confined space is safe. Never rely on your sense of
smell to detect chemicals. Always use non-sparking tools and equipment so you do
not provide the source of ignition that could start a fire.

Vapor Density
Vapor density is another characteristic of gases and vapors that can provide clues to
atmospheric hazards in confined spaces. Knowing the vapor density of a chemical is
especially important when you monitor for toxic or flammable gases/vapors.

It is important to remember that other factors can affect whether a vapor rises or
sinks. For example, when the atmosphere is very hot, even dense vapors/gases may
not sink.

Knowing the vapor density of the gas/vapor in the confined space tells you were
within the space to monitor and in what areas the most hazardous atmosphere is
likely to be.
 Air has a vapor density of one.
 A gas or vapor heavier than air will have a vapor density greater than one.
Chemicals with vapor densities greater than one tend to sink toward the ground.
 A gas or vapor lighter than air will have a vapor density between zero and one.
Gases and vapors lighter than air tend to rise toward the ceiling.
 Gases and vapors with densities around one mix evenly with air. The vapor
density of carbon monoxide is very close to one; it will generally mix throughout
the confined space atmosphere.

Toxic Atmospheres
Substances that can make the atmosphere in a confined space toxic (poisonous)
cover the entire spectrum of gases, vapors, fumes, and finely divided airborne dust
found in industry. Many chemicals can cause serious health effects at very low
concentrations, whether they are flammable or non-combustible.

Toxic atmospheres may arise from:

1. The manufacturing processes
2. The product stored
3. The operation performed in the confined space

During loading, unloading, formulation, and production, mechanical and/or human

error also may produce toxic gases that are not part of the planned operation.
In confined spaces, chemical toxicity is likely to harm you at a level well below the
LEL.

Hydrogen sulfide (sewer gas or swamp gas) can be found in industrial

sewers. The LEL for hydrogen sulfide is 4.0 percent, which is the same
as 40,000 parts per million (ppm).

If you were exposed to only 500 ppm of hydrogen sulfide for 30 minutes
you could suffer headache, diarrhea, dizziness, staggering gait, and
respiratory distress. At 1,000 ppm (well below the LEL of 40,000 ppm),
the nerves that control breathing is paralyzed and death can occur in
minutes.

Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a relatively abundant colorless, odorless, flammable gas.
Because of its poor warning properties, it is a particularly insidious toxic gas and can
be deadly. Carbon monoxide asphyxiates you by replacing the oxygen in your blood.
CO formation may result from chemical reactions or work activities. Fatalities are not
confined to any particular industry because CO can be produced by:

 Incomplete combustion of organic materials such as wood, coal, gas, oil, and
gasoline
 Decomposition of microbial organic matter in sewers and fermentation tanks and
in the formation of silo gas in grain storage elevators
 Boilers, engines, motors, heaters, etc.
 Recirculation of diesel exhaust emissions (Increased CO levels can be prevented
by strict ventilation control and use of catalytic converters.)

KEY POINT: Carbon monoxide may build up in a confined space and,

therefore, any untested atmosphere must be suspect.

NOTE: a safe reading on a combustible gas indicator does not ensure that CO is not
present. Carbon monoxide must be tested for specifically. Confined spaces with more
than 35 ppm of carbon monoxide should not be entered until they have been properly
ventilated. The vapor density of carbon monoxide is approximately 0.97, or about the
same density as air.

What are the symptoms of CO poisoning?

 Carbon monoxide is considered dangerous at 200 ppm, because it forms
carboxyhemoglobin in the blood that prevents the distribution of oxygen in the
body.
 Early stages of CO intoxication can begin at 400-800 ppm and include nausea,
clumsiness, and headache.
  Even though the LEL for carbon monoxide is 12.5 percent (or 125,000 ppm),
fatalities have also occurred at 1,000 ppm in air.
 A two-hour exposure at 800 ppm can be fatal.

Irritant (Corrosive) Atmospheres

Irritant or corrosive atmospheres can be divided into primary and secondary groups:
those that have on effects on the entire body and those that do produce these toxic
effects in addition to surface irritation.

Prolonged exposure at irritant or corrosive concentrations in a confined space may

produce little or no evidence of irritation. This may result in a general weakening of
the defense reflexes from changes in sensitivity. The danger in this situation is that
the worker is usually not aware of any increase in his or her exposure to toxic
substances.

Examples of primary irritants are chlorine, ozone, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid,
sulfuric acid, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, and sulfur dioxide. Examples of secondary
irritants include benzene, carbon tetrachloride, ethyl chloride, trichloroethane,
trichloroethylene, and chloropropene.

Irritant gases vary widely among all areas of industrial activity. They can be found in
plastics plants, chemical plants, the petroleum industry, tanneries, refrigeration
industries, paint manufacturing, and mining operations.]

Confined Space Contaminants

The contaminants you find in a confined space vary by the type of space in which you
work.
 Methane - toxic (asphyxiant) and flammable gas. Sources/uses: Occurs in
natural gas, produced by decomposition of organic matter; used in production of
ammonia and other chemicals.
 Hydrogen sulfide - toxic and flammable gas. Sources/uses: Byproduct of many
industrial processes; found where petroleum products are processed, stored, and
used. Occurs in coal, natural gas, oil, and decaying organic matter.
 Acetylene - toxic (asphyxiant) and flammable. Sources/uses: Used for welding,
cutting metals, and in the production of vinyl chloride and other chemicals.
 Gasoline - toxic and flammable. Gasoline and related hydrocarbons are found in
refinery work and can also drift/leak into below-ground confined spaces.
 Solvents - most, but not all, solvents are both flammable and toxic. Common
solvents include Stoddard solvent (mineral spirits), trichloroethylene, 1, 1, 1-
trichloroethane, methylene chloride, toluene, MEK, thinners (for paint, varnish,
lacquer).
 Residues of chemicals that were stored or processed in the confined space may
include acids and bases, solvents, and intermediate chemicals (Glossary popup
 text -- Intermediate chemicals are "steppingstones" in the production of chemical
products such as benzene, toluene, naphthalene, aniline, etc.)
 Chemicals that migrate into confined spaces or may be stored in the space, such
as gasoline, pesticides, carbon monoxide, and PCBs.

Health Effects of Exposure

In confined space work, the acute (immediate) health effects of exposure to toxic
substances, rather than the chronic (long-term) health effects, are the main concern.
For example, the acute effects of exposure to solvents such as toluene, xylene, and
methylene chloride includes confusion, lack of coordination, and drowsiness. All of
these seriously impair your ability to function and escape from a confined space.

Many acute health effects disappear when exposure to the chemical stops; however,
damage from acute exposure can be permanent. Most toxic chemicals can, with long
term, low-dose exposure, also cause chronic health effects that may not show up for
many years. For the solvents mentioned above, the health effects caused by chronic
exposure include liver damage, central nervous system damage, reproductive effects
and, for methylene chloride, cancer.

To reduce the possibility of exposure to toxic chemicals in confined spaces, you may
need to use personal protective equipment (PPE).

Topic 3: Other Hazards

Even though atmospheric hazards are the primary cause of confined space death,
workers should recognize that many other hazards could exist in confined spaces. In
this topic you will learn about such hazards. Upon completing this topic, you will be
able to:
 List the three elements that can exacerbate potential hazards in contained
spaces
 Describe the difference between clean air and oxygen and tell why oxygen is not
used in forced ventilation

Three Types of Hazards

Workers in confined spaces should recognize that they face many other hazards.

General hazards
Some hazards cannot be eliminated because of the nature of the work to be
performed. These hazards include general hazards such as surface residues and
structural hazards.
 Surface residues in confined spaces can increase the already hazardous
conditions of electrical shock, reaction of incompatible materials, liberation of
 toxic substances, and bodily injury from slips and falls. Without protective
clothing, these residues can present additional health hazards.
 Structural hazards: Scaffolding in confined spaces contributes to many incidents
caused by falling materials or workers, improper use of guardrails, and lack of
scaffold maintenance. The choice of material used for scaffolding depends on the
type of work to be performed, the weight to be supported, the surface on which
the scaffolding is placed, and any substance previously stored in the space.
 Other structural hazards, such as baffles in horizontal tanks, trays in vertical
towers, bends in tunnels, overhead structural members, or scaffolding installed
for maintenance constitute physical hazards, which are exacerbated by the
physical surroundings in confined spaces. In dealing with structural hazards,
workers must review and enforce safety precautions to assure safety. Rescue
procedures may require withdrawal of an injured or unconscious person. Careful
planning must be given to the relationship among the internal structure, the exit
opening, and the worker. If the worker is above the opening, the system must
include a rescue arrangement operated from outside the confined space, if
possible, by which the employee can be lowered and removed without injury.

Physical hazards
Physical hazards that have not been described elsewhere in this lesson include
thermal effects (heat and cold) and vibration while working in a confined space.
 Thermal Effects: Four factors influence the interchange of heat between people
and their environment. They are air temperature, air velocity, moisture in the air,
and radiant heat. Because of the nature and design of most confined spaces,
moisture content and radiant heat are difficult to control. Confined spaces have
poor natural ventilation and are not intended for continuous occupancy. It is
common for them to have very uncomfortable temperatures. Heat can lead to
fatigue and, at extremes, may even contribute to oxygen deficiency. Workers
continue to function until the body temperature reaches approximately 102oF.
When this body temperature is exceeded, workers are less efficient and are
prone to heat exhaustion, heat cramps, or heat stroke. Cold can affect your
muscular coordination. The most severe strain in cold conditions is chilling of the
extremities, restricting activity. Cold environments require special precautions to
prevent frostbite, trench foot, and general hypothermia. Protective insulated
clothing for both hot and cold environments add additional bulk to the worker and
must be considered in allowing for movement in the confined space and exit
time.
 Vibration: Whole-body vibration may affect multiple body parts and organs.
Segmental vibration, unlike whole body vibration, appears to be more localized in
creating injury to the fingers and hands of workers using tools such as pneumatic
hammers, rotary grinders, or other hand tools that vibrate.

Miscellaneous Hazards
  Bacteria and Viruses: Industrial sewers and wastewater treatment facilities may
have bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites that can affect you and your family.
The bacteria can include tuberculosis and salmonella (usually contracted from
food poisoning). Flu viruses as well as Hepatitis A may also be in wastewater.
 Falling Objects: While falling objects are covered in detail in the lesson on falls, in
confined spaces it is very important to guard top-hatch openings to prevent
objects from falling into the confined space.

Topic 4: Ventilation and Air Monitoring

This topic explains the ventilation process and the necessity for monitoring the air in
confined spaces. It also details what hazards to monitor for and what instruments to
use in monitoring.

Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Specify the order of elements to test for when monitoring a confined space, if
possible, hazards are unknown
 Identify two conditions that may require forced ventilation
 Describe types of hazards that can be introduced by forced ventilation of oxygen
rather than normal air
 Define the common parts of an air monitor and how to check to see they are
working
 Explain what hazard is avoided when an intrinsically safe instrument is used

Forced Ventilation
To assure that a healthy atmosphere is available for workers within confined spaces,
some conditions warrant forced ventilation of fresh air. Conditions that may require
forced ventilation include increasing or decreasing the level of oxygen and reducing
the levels of toxic or explosive gases and vapors.

Because lack of ventilation is a hazard for workers, before beginning forced

ventilation, consider the following:
 Restricted areas within the confined space
 Voids
 Nature of contaminants present
 Size of the space
 Type of work to be performed
 Number of people involved

The terms air and oxygen are sometimes considered synonymous. However, air is
defined as approximately 20.9 percent oxygen, 78.1 percent nitrogen, and 1 percent
argon, with small amounts of various other gases. Fresh or "normal" air, when used
for ventilation, should not create an additional hazard.
Failure to understand the difference between air and oxygen is dangerous!

Using oxygen in place of fresh air for ventilation will increase the hazards of fire and
explosion. Using anything other than fresh air can cause recirculation of contaminants
just as improper arrangement of the inlet duct can.

What to Monitor in a Confined Space

Most deaths in confined spaces occur because the air isn't tested or the air monitor
isn't used properly. You have learned the three common atmospheric hazards of
confined spaces:
 Too little or too much oxygen
 Explosive gases and vapors
 Toxic gases and vapors

Do you know the acceptable levels of each?

 Oxygen: Between 19.5 and 23.5 percent
 Explosive gases or vapors: Less than 10 percent of the lower explosive limit
(LEL)
 Toxic gases or vapors: Below OSHA's permissible exposure limit (PEL)

Before entering any confined space, you should monitor the atmosphere, ventilate if
necessary, and continue monitoring to make sure that the air remains safe.

The Nose Doesn't Know

Don't rely on odors to warn you of toxic exposures. The ability to smell varies
throughout the population. Many people have a poor sense of smell and may not even
be able to detect a chemical that has great warning properties.
Some gases and vapors with good warning properties can be smelled below the level
where they cause harm. Other chemicals have a distinct smell. Hydrogen sulfide at
low levels smell like rotten eggs. However, chemicals like hydrogen sulfide can
deaden your sense of smell so that you stop being able to smell them at higher
exposure levels that could kill you.

Many gases and vapors have poor warning properties and can't be smelled until they
reach harmful levels.
 Your nose can't tell the amount of oxygen in the air.
 Oxygen is an odorless, colorless, and tasteless gas.
 Many hazardous gases and vapors are also odorless.
 Carbon monoxide is odorless and can kill.
 Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are odorless and can replace the oxygen in the air.
 Hydrogen is odorless and can explode with a single spark.
Never Rely on Your Sense of Smell to Detect Gases and Vapors.

Direct-Reading Instruments
Air monitors are used to test the air in confined spaces. They are called direct reading
instruments because they "read " an air sample and give you an answer quickly. Air
monitors test for oxygen. They also test for explosive and toxic gases and vapors, but
only a few gases and vapors can be specifically detected.

Chemical-specific sensors are currently available for the following compounds:

 Oxygen
 Hydrogen sulfide
 Carbon monoxide
 Hydrogen cyanide
 Chlorine
 Nitrogen oxide
 Hydrogen
 Sulfur dioxide
 Ammonia
 Ozone

If you know that the confined space contains one of these chemicals listed, you can
use a sensor to detect that chemical. But a hydrogen sulfide sensor will not detect
solvent vapors from thinners or glues. If you are dealing with unknown chemicals, it
is better to use a non-specific sensor that is sensitive to small amounts of toxic gases
and vapors.

Order of Air Monitoring

So how do you begin the monitoring process if you don't know what hazards to look
for in a confined space?

Be logical and always monitor a confined space in the following order.

1. Oxygen must always be sampled and tested first in order to know if the LEL
reading is accurate. If the sensor doesn't register, do not enter the space. Why?
Because the oxygen content may be very low.
2. Explosive gases and vapors - If there is not enough oxygen, you’re reading for
explosive gases and vapors may be inaccurate. When the air contains less than
15 percent oxygen, the reading for explosive gases/vapors may be falsely low.
 3. Toxic gases and vapors - A confined space can have enough oxygen, be safely
below 10 percent of the LEL, but still be hazardous to your health. Some
chemicals can cause health effects at very low levels. It is always important to
test for toxic gases and vapors.

How to Monitor a Confined Space

Remember that confined spaces have increased risks for hazards, so always monitor
the inside of a confined space from outside the space.
 Collect the air sample through a sampling probe inserted into the space. A probe
is a long, hollow, narrow tube connected to the inlet of the monitor.
 To obtain a sample, keep the cover to the space closed. This keeps hazardous
air inside the space and prevents it from mixing with the outside air.

Some air monitors draw a sample with a motorized or hand-activated pump. Passive
diffusion monitors allow the air to move across the sensor passively. They may have
to be lowered into the confined space if the monitor doesn't have sampling lines and
probes.

Here are the steps to follow while monitoring.

1. If initial testing shows the air is within safe limits, remove the cover to the space
and begin sampling vertically every four feet. Sampling every four feet ensures
that you will detect all the gases and vapors that accumulate at different levels
within the space.
2. To be safe, allow at least two to three minutes for a full response, because some
monitors take a long time to respond fully. The vapor density of a chemical
generally determines where it can be found in a confined space.
3. Sensors in direct-reading monitors take time to respond fully. When sampling air
through more than 10 feet of sample line, the instrument requires more time to
respond.
4. To help direct the sampling probe, attach it to a long, sturdy pole. Sample each
vertical layer horizontally within a radius of six feet (space permitting).
5. Monitor slowly, carefully, and completely! The air within a confined space may be
unevenly mixed. Hazardous gases may exist within several feet of an area that
reads safe.
6. OSHA requires only periodic monitoring for permit spaces.

NOTE: Monitors can be worn on a belt or in an outside shirt pocket. If possible,

tubing should be near the entrant's breathing zone to measure the content of the air
the entrant is actually breathing.

Types of Direct-Reading Air Monitors

Direct-reading air monitors contain several types of sensors to measure the air. The
three types of sensors used are:
 Electrochemical Cells: Electrochemical cells detect oxygen and a small number
of other specific chemicals, including carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide.
They may respond to gases for which they were not intended, resulting in false
readings.
 Combustible Gas Sensors: Combustible gas sensors are non-specific detectors
that measure the total amount of explosive gas as a percentage of the lower
explosive limit (LEL). Combustible gas sensors are used in LEL meters.
 Broadband Sensors: Broadband sensors are non-specific detectors that respond
to explosive and toxic gases and vapors. These sensors are good screening
tools for detecting toxic chemicals in confined spaces.

Detector Tubes
Detector tubes, which can measure approximately 200 different substances, can be
used to detect the presence of toxic gases/vapors in confined spaces. To use a
detector tube, you must know for which gas or vapor you are testing.

If you use detector tubes to sample a confined space, always check to verify:
 The right tube is used for the chemical being sampled
 The tube has not expired
 Both ends of the tube are properly broken off before use
 The sample pump passes a leak test
 The correct amount of air is drawn for each sample
 The air sample is collected from the location in the space where entrants will be
working

Accuracy of detector tubes can be "off" by as much as 25 percent because they are
affected by temperature, humidity, pressure, and the presence of other chemicals.

How to Check an Air Monitor

In addition to the sensor or detector, direct-reading air monitors generally contain an

alarm, a battery indicator, and a sampling pump.

Alarm
Monitors should be equipped with both audible and visual alarms to warn you of a
hazardous atmosphere. The alarm points should be set at 19.5 and 23.5 percent for
oxygen, 10 percent for the LEL, and the amount of the PEL or threshold limit value
(TLV) in parts per million.

A "locked on" alarm is intended to sound continuously when a hazardous atmosphere

is detected, even if you move out of the hazardous atmosphere into a safe area. The
continuous ringing is intended to tell you to leave the space immediately. Some
monitors have alarms that can be turned off only by shutting the instrument off and
then turning it back on.

Always turn the air monitor off and on in a safe and clean atmosphere, away from the
confined space.

Power Supply /Battery Indicator

Air monitors should be equipped with battery indicators. Some instruments will
indicate battery strength on startup. Some monitors will turn on an alarm when the
power supply drops below a certain point. This indicates it is time to change the
batteries or recharge the battery unit.

Checking the battery seems pretty obvious. Yet this simple procedure is often
skipped. Always check the battery and find out how long it can hold a charge. This is
essential for confined space work.

Sampling Pump
Two kinds of sampling pumps are used with air monitors: hand pumps and motor driven
pumps. Always check the sampling pump on an air monitor before using it.
Leaks affect the accuracy of the reading because the pump will not draw enough air
for a sample.

Hand pumps draw an air sample with an oval-shaped, rubber squeeze bulb. The bulb
should be capable of holding a vacuum when fully squeezed. Never use a cracked or
taped bulb. Squeeze bulbs require a lot of contractions to draw a sample through
several feet of sample line and can quickly cause hand fatigue.

To check whether a motorized sampling pump is working, briefly hold your thumb
over the opening to the sample port. You should hear the motor strain under the
load. Some instruments will shut off and sound an alarm if the strain on the pump is
great enough. Other instruments use a visual indicator, such as a floating ball, to
show that air is moving through the instrument. When the sample port in the
instrument is blocked, the ball will flutter, indicating a strain on the sampling pump.

Calibrating Air Monitors

Before an air monitor is used, it must be calibrated properly. Ask the person
monitoring the confined space when the instrument was last calibrated. Monitors
should be bench calibrated at least once every six months. Air monitors are
calibrated at the factory or by a certified person. The date of this bench calibration
should be marked on the outside of the instrument.

Before an instrument is used to monitor a confined space it should be checked with

special calibration gas. If a monitor is used for eight hours or longer it may need to
be field calibrated more than once during the day. Always ask the person monitoring
the confined space when the instrument was last field calibrated.

Air monitors must be zeroed every time they are used.

Intrinsic Safety
If a confined space contains explosive gases or vapors, any spark can set off an
explosion. Intrinsically safe equipment does not provide that spark. All equipment
used in areas that contain gases and vapors, particles and dusts, and fibers should be
intrinsically safe. Air monitors used in confined spaces that contain hazardous gases
and vapors should be certified for Class I, Division 1 and 2, Group A. This category
covers all explosive gases and vapors -- even acetylene, which is the most
flammable.

Topic 5: PPE for Confined Space Entry

This topic describes the personal protective and communications equipment you may
need for safe confined space entry. It contains a brief overview of the OSHA
Respiratory Protection Standard, but it does not provide complete information on
respirators.

Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:

 Describe the primary protection offered by PPE used in confined space work
 Explain the different functions performed by APRs and SARs
 List some employer requirements of the OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard

Air Purifying Respirators (APRs)

When engineering controls such as mechanical ventilation cannot eliminate the
atmospheric hazards in a permit space, entrants must use respirators. The type of
respirator used depends upon the hazards in the space. Once monitoring shows that
respiratory protection is required, respirator selection is made according to OSHA's
Respiratory Protection Standard.

Air purifying respirators (APRs) filter out the contaminants from the air around you.
They do not supply you with clean breathing air.

When could you use an APR for confined space work?

 There is enough oxygen (more than 19.5 percent) and no chance of oxygen
deficiency developing.
 You know the identity of the chemical and its concentration, and the selected
respirator offers adequate protection.
 There is continuous or periodic monitoring of the space.
  The contaminant is not a carcinogen.
 The contaminant has adequate warning properties.

Supplied Air Respirators (SARs)

Because confined spaces have limited or restricted means of entry and exit, hazards
exist even with the safety equipment described in this topic.

Often the entry hole is too small for an entrant and his respirator. In such cases,
there are several entry methods.
 The entrant goes in wearing his mask and the tank is passed in after him.
 The tank can be lowered in first.

Either way, fatalities may occur.

Supplied air respirators (SARs) give you the greatest respiratory protection because
they supply clean breathing air. There are two types of SARs: self -contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) and airline respirators. Airline respirators eliminate the
problem of trying to fit through a small opening with a tank on your back.

With SCBAs you carry your air supply in a tank on your back. Airline respirators
deliver the air to you through a hose connected to larger air tanks. When you use an
airline respirator, you must also have an escape bottle that provides you with about
five minutes of breathing air. If anything happens to interrupt the flow of air coming
into your mask (for example, a forklift outside the space parking on the hose), you
can switch over to the escape bottle and then exit the permit space.

Airline respirators are more comfortable than SCBAs because you don't have the air
tank on your back. If conditions allow you a choice, opt for the airline respirator with
escape bottle.

When must you use a supplied air respirator?

 The oxygen content in the space is below 19.5 percent or there is a potential for
oxygen deficiency.
 The atmosphere contains unidentified contaminant(s).
 The concentration of the contaminant is immediately dangerous to life or health
(IDLH). IDLH conditions always require SARs.
 The contaminant is a carcinogen.
 The contaminant has poor warning properties. (You can't smell it at all or until it
reaches dangerous concentrations).
 APRs cannot provide adequate protection against the concentration of the
contaminant found in the space.

The OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard

The respiratory protection required for a permit space entry must be listed on the
entry permit. When respirators are required for permit space entry, the employer
must have a respirator program in accordance with OSHA' s Respiratory Protection
Standard.

To comply with OSHA's respiratory protection standard, the employer must:

 Train respirator wearers in the proper use and limitations of respirators
 Have a written respirator program
 Select respirators on the basis of hazards to which employees are exposed
 Monitor work conditions and employee exposure
 Make sure that respirators are cleaned, disinfected, properly stored, and
inspected
 Make sure respirators "fit" properly
 Evaluate the respirator program

KEY POINT: OSHA also recommends that only "medically fit" workers wear
respirators.

Chemical PPE
PPE used for confined space entry can range from ordinary work clothes to a Level A
chemical protective suit. Requirements vary based on the hazards of the space.
Equipment required for entry must appear on the entry permit.

Level A suits are required when the contaminant is:

 A gas or vapor that can be absorbed through the skin or is corrosive or damaging
to the skin
 Unknown or a mixture of chemicals

When you wear a Level A chemical protective suit you must use an SCBA inside the
suit.

Some Level B suits are fully encapsulating, but they are not gas and vapor tight. In
many situations, Level B suits provide adequate protection. If the atmospheric hazard
is a dust, an uncoated Tyvek suit may give you enough protection.

PPE can be hot, uncomfortable, and make it hard to see, hear, and move. You need
to balance the chemical hazards against the obstacles of wearing too much PPE.

Gloves - The type of glove you use depends on the hazards and the work to be done.
They may be leather or cotton and chemical, cut, or abrasion resistant.

OTHER PPE:
  Safety glasses or face shield
 Hard hat and steel-toed work boots, or chemical resistant boots
 Hearing protection

Communications Equipment

Not all equipment that provides safety to the worker is worn. In the PRCS Standard,
confined space workers must be able to communicate "as necessary" whenever a
worker is within the confined space.

The shape of the permit space may prevent the attendant from being able to see the
entrant. Noise may prevent them from being able to hear each other without special
radio communication.

When personal communication is difficult, communications equipment is available to

assure that the attendant and entrant can verify that the entrant continues to do his
job safely.

Several communications systems on the market have been NIOSH-approved for use
with different respirators. Battery-operated, voice-activated systems leave the
entrant's hands free. It is important to check the transmission range of the units.
Remember to check the battery before entering the permit space.

Alarms that are worn by the entrant and go off if he doesn't move for a set period of
time is also available. For example, the "motion detector" can be set to go off if the
entrant doesn't move for 20 seconds. Alarms must be loud enough to alert the
attendant outside the space. These devices do not replace the need for good
communications between entrant and attendant. They may be used only in addition
to an effective communication system.

Topic 6: Permit-Required Confined Space

This topic describes the requirements of the OSHA Permit-Required Confined Space
Standard. It defines the responsibilities of the employer and the employee for permit
spaces.

The goal of this topic is to explain standard safety procedures that should be followed
for all confined spaces, not just permit space entries.
OSHA'S Definition
The OSHA Permit-Required Confined Space Standard establishes a two-tier definition
of confined spaces:
 Confined spaces

 Permit-required confined spaces (PRCS or permit spaces)
According to OSHA, only permit spaces require entry permits. A permit-required
confined space:
 Contains material such as grain or water that could engulf an entrant
 Has a shape such as a sloping floor or converging walls that could trap or
suffocate an entrant
 Contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazard

Requirements of the Standard

In general, employers must evaluate the workplace to determine if spaces are permit
required confined spaces.
The employer must inform exposed employees of the existence, location, and danger
posed by any permit spaces in the workplace. This can be accomplished by posting
danger signs or by another equally effective warning device. The following language
would satisfy sign requirements:

DANGER--PERMIT REQUIRED-CONFINED SPACE--AUTHORIZED ENTRANTS

ONLY

Employers also must develop a written permit space program.

Written Program
The employer who allows employee entry must develop and implement a written
program for permit-required confined spaces and make it available to employees or
their representatives who are to enter permit spaces.

Responsibilities of Contractors
Contractors also must be informed of permit spaces and permit space entry
requirements, any identified hazards, the employer's experience with the space (that
is, the knowledge of hazardous conditions), and precautions or procedures to be
followed when in or near permit spaces.

Coordination of Responsibility
When employees of more than one employer conduct entry operations, the affected
employers must coordinate entry operations to ensure that affected employees are
appropriately protected from permit space hazards. In addition, contractors must be
given any other pertinent information regarding hazards and operations in permit
spaces and be debriefed at the conclusion of entry operations.

Exceptions: Under certain conditions, the employer may use alternate procedures for
worker entry into a permit space. For example, if employers can demonstrate with
monitoring and inspection data that the only hazard is an actual or potential
hazardous atmosphere, which can be made safe for entry by the use of continuous
forced air ventilation alone, they may be exempted from some requirements such as
permits and attendants. Even in such circumstances, however, the internal
atmosphere of the space must be tested first for oxygen content, second for
flammable gases and vapors, and third for potential toxic air contaminants before any
employee enters.

The OSHA Permit System

While the OSHA permit system serves as a guide to safe confined space entry,
OSHA establishes minimum safety and health standards. OSHA regulations are not
always adequate to protect workers' health and safety. Many companies have
confined space entry programs that are more protective of health and safety than
OSHA's program. These employers require entry permits for all confined spaces, not
just permit spaces.

The PRCS standard explains the permit system and how entry permits are prepared,
signed, canceled, terminated, and stored.

Before entry starts:

Your employer must prepare an entry permit that at a minimum document that:
 The conditions are considered safe for entry
 The space has been isolated by locking out energy sources (blanking pipes, etc.)
 Atmospheric hazards have been eliminated or controlled (by ventilating, purging,
and/or Inerting)
 Barriers that will keep objects from falling into the space are in place
 Safe entry conditions will be maintained throughout the entry work

Entry into the space is authorized when:

 The supervisor listed on the permit signs the permit
 The completed permit is posted so that all the entrants can read it
The permit is valid only for as long as the job takes.

The supervisor must stop entry and cancel the permit when:
 The work listed on the permit is finished
 An unsafe condition in or near the confined space exists

Any problems that occur during a confined space entry must be noted on the permit.

Your employer must keep canceled permits for at least one year. These permits are
supposed to be used in your employer's annual review of the confined space program.

Entry Permits
Just as there is no standard Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) form, there is no
standard entry permit.
Entry permits must include the following information:
1. Name of permit space to be entered, authorized entrant(s), eligible attendants,
and individual(s) authorized to be entry supervisor(s)
2. Why the space needs to be entered (description of the work to be done)
3. Date and the length of time covered by the permit
4. Authorized entrant's name(s) or identification
5. Attendants' names
6. Name and signature of the entry supervisor (Include space for signature or
initials of the entry supervisor who originally authorized entry.)
7. Hazards of the space
8. Measures to be taken to isolate permit spaces and to eliminate or control space
hazards (These measures could include locking out or tagging equipment and
procedures for purging, making inert, ventilating, and flushing permit spaces,
blanking and blinding.)
9. Acceptable entry conditions for entry to begin
10. Date that the tests were done, air monitoring results, and the name(s) or initials
of the people who did the monitoring
11. Name and telephone numbers of rescue and emergency personnel
12. Communication procedures between entrants and attendants and equipment to
maintain contact during entry
13. All monitoring equipment, personal protective equipment, communication and
rescue equipment, and alarms that must be provided to comply with the standard
14. Any other information needed to ensure worker safety during confined space
entry
15. Other permits, such as hot work permits, issued to authorize work in the permit
space

Key point: According to OSHA, an entry permit is required only for entry into
permit-required spaces.

Training and Education

The OSHA Permit-required confined spaces (PRCS) standard says that employers
must train employees who will do confined space work. This training, including
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and first-aid training in emergencies, is also
required for rescue team members.

Training must be given:

 Before the worker is given a confined space job to do
 Before duties are changed
 When the permit space operation presents a new hazard
 When a change in the permit space program occurs
 When the employer thinks the permit system isn't being followed properly
  When an employee's job performance shows deficiencies
 When any new or revised procedures are developed

After completing this training, employers must ensure that employees have acquired
the understanding, knowledge, and skills necessary for the safe performance of all
duties required of them.

Employers must certify in writing that training was accomplished, specifying the
employee's name and dates of training, and include the signatures or initials of
trainers. Employees and their authorized representatives must be allowed to inspect
the required certification completed by the employers.

The Employee's Role

No matter what your role on the job site is, you have defined responsibilities. By
reviewing the duties of entrants, attendants, and entry supervisors of a permit space,
you will understand your responsibilities and those who will work with you.

Work safety in these spaces depends on well-trained workers and a good confined
space entry program. Make certain when you are trained that you have a clear
understanding of how to perform your duties and responsibilities.

Authorized Entrant's Responsibilities

An entrant is a worker who enters the permit space.
Duties and Responsibilities:
1. Know confined space hazards, including information on the mode of exposure
(that is, inhalation or dermal (skin) absorption, signs or symptoms, and
consequences of the exposure).
2. Equipment - Entrants need to know the appropriate use of:
a. Monitoring equipment used in the permit space
b. Ventilating equipment for making the atmosphere safe
c. Communications equipment for maintaining contact with the attendant
PPE to wear
d. Lighting equipment
e. Barriers to keep people and things out of the space
f. Equipment, such as ladders, to use for safe entry and exit
g. Rescue and emergency equipment, unless this equipment is provided by
outside rescue services
h. Any other equipment required for safe entry
i. As necessary, maintain communication (through telephone, radio, visual
observation) with attendants to enable the attendant to monitor the
entrant's status and to alert the entrant to evacuate
3. Communication - Communication is vital for entrant safety. Entrants and
attendants must communicate with each other while the entrant is in the permit
 space. The attendant needs to know that the entrant is OK. The entrant needs to
be able to alert the attendant when he sees a dangerous situation or recognizes
signs or symptoms of hazard exposure.
4. Evacuation - Exit from permit space quickly and safely under hazardous
situations. Entrants must leave the permit space when:
a. Told to exit by the attendant or entry supervisor
b. The entrant notices warning signs or symptoms of exposure, or a
prohibited (dangerous) situation exists
c. An evacuation alarm is sounded

Alert the attendant when a prohibited condition exists or when warning signs or
symptoms of exposure exist.

Attendants' Responsibilities
A confined space attendant stays outside the permit space and remains in
communication with the entrant.
Entry attendants must:
 Unless relieved by another authorized attendant, remain outside permit space as
long as there is an entrant inside
 Perform no other duties that could interfere with the attendant's primary duties
 Perform no-entry rescues when specified by employer's rescue procedure
 Know existing and potential hazards, including information on the mode of
exposure, signs or symptoms, consequences of the exposure -- especially any
changes in behavior of the entrants that could be caused by exposure to hazards
(physiological effects)
 Maintain communication with and keep an accurate count and identity of those
workers entering the permit-required space
 Monitor activities inside and outside the space and order entrants to evacuate if
the attendant:
o Detects a prohibited condition
o Thinks a worker shows signs of behavior due to the effects of hazardous
exposure
o Notices a dangerous or emergency situation outside the space that could
harm entrants
o Cannot effectively and safely perform required duties
 Call rescue and emergency team immediately to help during an emergency
 Inform authorized entrants and entry supervisor of entry by unauthorized people.
Entry Supervisor's Responsibilities
An entry supervisor (ES) is the person responsible for deciding if the permit space is
ready for safe entry. The ES authorizes the entry, oversees operations, and ends the
operation as required. The ES may also act as an entrant or attendant as long as he
has received the proper training.
Entry supervisors must:
 Know potential hazards of the permit space as well as the mode of exposure and
signs, symptoms, and effects of exposure
 Check that the entry permit is complete and accurate and that all:
o Entry operations remain consistent with the permit
o Acceptable entry conditions are maintained
o Required air monitoring has been done
o Required procedures and equipment listed on the permit are in place
o End the entry and cancel the permit if:
o The job is done
o A new or prohibited condition arises in or near the permit space
 Verify emergency plans and specified entry conditions such as permits, tests,
procedures for contacting rescuers, and equipment before allowing entry
 Make sure safe entry conditions are maintained; check conditions periodically
depending on the hazards of each entry (Conditions must be tested when one
ES hands over his duties to another ES.)
 Take appropriate steps to keep unauthorized people out of the permit space]

NOTE: The PRCS standard allows attendants to monitor more than one permit
space at a time provided they can still do all their duties effectively.

Training for Emergencies

The standard requires the employer to ensure that rescue service personnel are
provided with and trained in:
 Proper use of personal protective and rescue equipment, including respirators
 Performing assigned rescue duties
 Authorized entrant's training
 First aid and CPR

At least one rescue team member must be currently certified in first aid and in CPR.
The employer also must ensure that practice rescue exercises are performed
annually. Rescue services must be given access to permit spaces to practice rescue
operations. Rescuers also must be informed of the hazards of the permit space.

Safety Preplanning
Introduction
The modern construction site is a showcase of technology and design. With the
use of new tools and new materials, structures are created that were
unimaginable just a century ago. With the enormous scope of some of today's
projects, it is easy to say that the construction industry has changed the face
of America.

As projects become more complex, attention to safety is more important than

ever before. The greatest challenge to the construction industry today is to
complete projects without injury to the greatest asset of any company - the
construction worker.

During construction projects, the work activity and site change constantly.
New hazards are created with each new phase. This situation creates some
unique and difficult challenges in the area of job site safety. One of the best
tools to help meet these challenges is safety preplanning.

Lesson Overview
In this lesson, you will learn about the five essential items that need to be
addressed in safety preplanning. You will also learn about the specific
preplanning procedures in some special areas.

Topic 1: Areas to Address in Safety Preplanning

This topic covers the five essential areas that need to be addressed in safety
preplanning.

Safety Awareness
Whether you are a manager, a supervisor, a subcontractor, or an employee,
you as a part of the construction industry are required to comply with all of
the safety rules and requirements set forth by OSHA.

The statement "Safety is Everyone's Business" is more than just a phrase; it

means that everyone has a part to play in creating a safe workplace. It takes
individual effort to identify risks and hazards through safety preplanning and
to implement preventative controls.

For your protection and that of your fellow workers, you should act safely in
the performance of every task you do.

Every job site should have a safety reference library on site that includes the
following:
 Safety policies
 Job safety planning checklists
  Site-specific safety and fire prevention plans
 OSHA regulations
 State and local regulations
 OSHA posters
 Emergency phone numbers
 First aid
 Sanitary facilities

Pre-Job Safety Planning Meeting

The chance of success increases with proper planning. Safety preplanning will
ensure that safety is considered along with costs, schedules, quality,
and other important job goals. If safety is not included in the planning stage, it
is unlikely that it will receive much consideration during the actual construction
process.

It is a good idea to hold a project meeting prior to beginning construction. This

meeting should be used to discuss the entire safety program and define
responsibilities. The safety program for the project should be in written form
and should include safety policies, safety management strategies, and safety
rules.

The five main items to address in the meeting are:

 Safety management strategies
 Specific hazards and controls
 Subcontractor requirements
 Job hazard analysis
 Purchasing

Planning for safety actually starts at the estimating phase. The total bid should
budget a reasonable amount of money for this function.

The designated safety person should prepare the safety budget. The total
safety expenditure from similar past projects will be a helpful figure to review.
It is also important to know how many employees are expected for the project
so that the time and costs associated with required safety training are
considered. The architectural design also should be reviewed in order to
appropriate and consider any extra safety costs created by design factors.

If available, a quick review of the project schedule may provide some insight
into any additional safety costs that will be necessary. The expected cost of
personal protective equipment, safety equipment, and other safety-related
materials should be included in the safety budget.
Keeping a construction project under budget is frequently tremendous
challenge. If a safety bid is not included in the total budget, then finding the
necessary dollars for safety expenditures during the project will be difficult.

Safety Management Strategies

You need to consider five main elements when setting up comprehensive
safety management strategies.

Training program
Training is the most important aspect of any safety program, and OSHA
requires it. Any comprehensive training program begins with a new employee
orientation regarding job site safety. The orientation should include the
general safety information needed for every new employee to perform his or
her jobs safely.

In addition, it is recommended to conduct refresher training through the

presentation of weekly toolbox safety meetings. There will be additional
specialized training required for hazard-specific activities such as scaffold
erection and powder-actuated tool usage.

Safety audit program

A safety audit program is necessary to ensure that unsafe conditions and
practices are identified and corrected.

Enforcement policy for noncompliance

Another important area of safety management is the establishment of an
enforcement policy for noncompliance. This policy must be established clearly
and communicated to all employees. It should contain progressive action for
violations. Enforcement and discipline are necessary for dealing with
individuals who knowingly violate safety rules and procedures. In contrast,
praise should be given frequently to individuals who consistently adhere to the
safety rules and procedures.

Incident investigation
Incident investigation is necessary in order to find out what caused the
incident so that the appropriate steps can be taken to prevent a similar
recurrence. Timely reporting of every incident is essential for the investigation
to be effective.
Record keeping
All posting and record keeping requirements should also be addressed.
Someone should be trained and assigned to maintain the OSHA 300 Log and
post it from February 1 - April 30 each year. A safety bulletin board should be
established for locating required posters, emergency contacts and phone
numbers and for posting other safety-related materials.

Note: Another element of preplanning is to decide with

occupational medicine clinics near the project site so that workers can
receive timely and appropriate initial treatment for injuries.

Specific Hazards and Controls

Hazard controls will vary from project to project depending upon the scope
and type of construction activities. The hazards that are presented by the
specific activity or the applicable OSHA regulations may call for additional
training.

Some of the most common construction hazards to address during the

planning stage are:
 Blasting
 Compressed Air
 Concrete Work
 Confined Spaces
 Cranes and Rigging
 Electrical
 Emergency Planning and Disaster Response
 Excavations/Trenching/Shoring
 Fall Protection
 Fire Protection/Prevention
 First Aid
 Hazard Communication
 Hazardous Waste
 Heavy Equipment
 Housekeeping/Cleanup
 Ladders
 Lighting
 Lockout/Tagout
 Material Handling and Storage
 Noise
 Personal Protective Equipment
 Respirators
 Sanitary Requirements
 Scaffolding
 Tool Use and Maintenance
 Traffic Control
  Warning Signs, Signals, and Barricades
 Welding and Cutting

Note: This list is not all-inclusive, but it can be used as a general guideline
to assist in developing your own specific list of items related to your
project. Some of these areas will be covered later in this lesson.

Subcontractors
Construction projects frequently have workers from many different companies
and different specialty trade contractors on the site at the same time. The
problem that arises in these multi-employer situations is that the activities of
the workers employed by one contractor often can create hazards for workers
employed by others in the immediate work area.

In many cases the general or prime contractor assumes safety responsibility

for all contractors and workers on the project. When this is the case, the
subcontractors must all be advised of the project safety procedures. They
should also be informed of what course of action should be taken to resolve
any safety issues that arise due to subcontractor activity.

It is the responsibility of subcontractors to review the project safety program

prior to commencing work. Subcontractors should know exactly what is
expected from them regarding safety. The subcontractor should be bound to
the safety rules established for the project and all applicable federal, state,
and local safety requirements. In addition, each subcontractor's safety
program should be collected and maintained in a common location.

Job Hazard Analysis

A key component to a good preplanning strategy is to identify any special
safety equipment, tools, hazards, or methods that will help in completing the
job efficiently and safely. Planning ahead can help to avoid work stoppages
and delays caused from being unprepared for unexpected hazardous
conditions on the project.

Job hazard analysis is simply the process of identifying the hazards that are
associated with each step of a particular job or phase of a job. The
development of a job hazard analysis will allow you to identify and eliminate or
minimize safety hazards associated with the specific job activity.

Job hazard analysis can be used to make a habit of safe work practices. It is
beneficial as a guideline to follow during new employee training efforts. It is
also useful for quickly identifying the cause of an incident should one occur.
Each job hazard analysis must be reviewed periodically for possible
improvements throughout the program.

There are five basic steps to follow in the preparation of a job hazard analysis:
 Select the jobs for hazard analysis.
 Break the task into individual components or activities.
 Identify the hazards.
 Develop safe procedures.
 Apply the analysis to the job.

Purchasing
Purchasing is an often-overlooked component of safety preplanning. However,
it is essential to plan ahead for the purchasing of all safety equipment and
supplies that will be required during the project so that they will be available
when needed.

It may be necessary to purchase a few different styles of some personal

protective equipment to ensure proper fit and comfort. Safety glasses are one
example where a few different styles should be available.

All required safety features should be included on any new power equipment
that is to be purchased for the project. If any equipment is to be rented, you
should verify with the rental company that the equipment would have all of
the required safety features included. For example, if scaffolding components
are going to be rented, it is vital to make sure that the delivered components
include all of the necessary safety features.

A Success Story
On August 20, 1998, carpenters were assigned the task of cutting up five
1,000-gallon polyethylene tanks into pieces for disposal. These tanks had
served as holding tanks for liquids containing strontium 90 and cesium 137.
The tanks had been emptied and contained only a small amount of liquid
residue in the bottom. The employees were cutting at eye level, working from
the ground. During the operation, one employee inadvertently sawed through
the power cord to the circular saw. The carpenters were properly using a
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) extension cord and a double-insulated
circular saw. These safety barriers performed as expected; therefore, no shock
or personnel injury resulted.

Prior to the job, the facility supervisor and the craft supervisor evaluated
potential hazards and discussed the need for a Safety Work Permit as well as a
Radiation Work Permit (RWP). Since waste management personnel had
emptied the tanks already, it was decided that only a RWP would be required.
Radiation protection personnel issued the RWP with the appropriate personnel
protective equipment listed. The three workers were wearing the required
protective equipment. A wrecking bar, a portable power generator, an
extension cord, a GFCI, and double-insulated circular saws were the tools and
safety equipment required as a result of the pre-job hazard evaluation.
Analysis

Personnel ensured their safety by pre-job planning and by properly utilizing

safety equipment.

When pre-job hazard analysis is conducted, and proper safety equipment is

used, potential incidents which could result in human injury or fatality are
avoided.

Topic 2: Specific Preplanning Procedures

If you include safety in the early stages of the pre-job planning process,
positive results naturally will follow. Reductions in the frequency and severity
of incidents will transform into higher productivity, lower insurance costs, and
a competitive advantage in bidding against other contractors for future
projects. Therefore, safety preplanning should be listed as a line item in all
project schedules.

This topic covers some of the areas where preplanning is necessary to ensure
that hazards are addressed prior to work being performed. Note that the
discussion is not all-inclusive.

Safety in Excavations and Trenches: Pre-Job Planning

When planning to dig an excavation or trench, consider the following areas.

Soil Conditions at the Site

Before work begins, the employer must determine what soil types are present
at the site. Check for recent excavations in the area. Find out if there are any
"hidden" hazards, such as unmarked underground services or soil
contaminated by fuel leaks from old underground tanks.

Check for overhead services, such as power and phone lines. If overhead lines
could be hazardous, consult the owner of the service.

Underground Services
Underground services must be identified and accurately located before
excavation work begins. Notify the owners and arrange for the identification
and marking of the following underground services:
 Gas lines, pipelines, sewers, and water mains
  Phone, television, and other communication lines
 Power lines

All calls to utility services must be reported to the general contractor and/or
an owner representative.

Existing services must be supported when unearthed. Any damage must be

reported immediately to the owner of the service.

Check the atmosphere in utility trenches and sewer access points before work
begins. Gasoline and other liquid hydrocarbons have been unexpectedly
encountered in these places. Ensure hazardous contaminants are not present
and sufficient oxygen is available.

Identify sewer access covers and areas that may be contaminated with toxic
substances. Control sources of ignition whenever an explosive environment
may be present.

Engineering Approvals
A professional engineer must design each of the following:
 A temporary structure to protect workers who may be affected by a trench or
excavation collapse
 A temporary structure to protect the stability of a building or structure that may be
affected by a trench or excavation
 Artificial freezing of the ground, performed according to the specifications and
instructions of the professional engineer

Protective structures must be installed, used, maintained, and dismantled

according to the professional engineer's design. Drawings and instructions
must be kept at the site and made available to workers.

A professional engineer must design and certify the following as safe:

 Temporary protective structures used in excavations
 Temporary protective structures used in trenches
 Temporary protective structures used in a tunnel or excavated shaft

Equipment and Protective Structures

Before work begins, the employer is expected to determine what equipment
and protective structures will be needed. Equipment should be inspected and
traffic control plans drawn up for the site.
Select appropriate protective structures for the soil and working conditions.
Ensure that metal shoring will be wide enough to accommodate the size of the
trench. Make sure that a professional engineer certifies the safety of any
protective structure not manufactured to an accepted standard.

Site Organization
The employer and supervisors should plan carefully how the site will be
organized. For example:
 Where are power lines and other hazards?
 Where will material be stored?
 Where will spoil piles be? Ensure that there will be at least two feet between the
spoil pile and the edge of a trench.
 How will lose material be removed from trench or excavation walls and nearby
areas so that it cannot fall onto workers?
 How much operating room will equipment need?
 Where will exits and entrances to the trench be? Make sure there are enough
ladders and ramps available. Any worker in a trench must be no further than 25
feet from a ladder.
 Could buildings or structures be destabilized by the work?
 Where will traffic entrances to and exits from the site be?

Where a worker is in a trench more than four feet deep, station competent
worker on the surface to alert workers in the trench of potentially unsafe
conditions and help in an emergency.

Emergency Planning
The employer should be prepared for emergencies. Everyone should know
what to do and whom to contact if an incident occurs. First aid and emergency
plans should be reviewed with every subcontractor on site and an appropriate
employee representative. Consider the types of mishaps that could occur and
how each will be dealt with. For example:
 What level of first aid preparedness is required?
 How far is the site from a medical facility? Are ambulance and emergency
medical services available at the site? Can the local ambulance and fire
department respond? For example, is a municipal boundary involved?
 Does the employer have emergency transportation available for injured workers?
Does it meet the requirements of the first aid regulations?
 Are emergency rescue equipment and supplies at the site adequate?
 Can responders safely get an injured worker out of a cave-in?
 Are workers adequately trained to handle workers injured in a cave-in or other
incident?

A competent person should be present at all times. A competent person is one

who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the
surroundings or working conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Demolition and Blasting Plan

You should consider the following areas when creating a demolition and
blasting plan:

Procedures
Before the start of every demolition job, the company must take a number of
steps to safeguard the health and safety of workers at the job site. These
preparatory operations involve the overall planning of the demolition job,
including the methods to be used to bring the structure down, the equipment
necessary to do the job, and the measures to be taken to perform the work
safely. Planning for a demolition job is as important as actually doing the
work. Therefore, a competent person experienced in all phases of the
demolition work to be performed must perform all planning work.

Engineering Survey
Prior to starting all demolition operations, OSHA requires that competent
person conduct an engineering survey of the structure. The purpose of this
survey is to determine the condition of the framing, floors, and walls so that
measures can be taken, if necessary, to prevent the premature collapse of any
portion of the structure. When indicated as advisable, any adjacent structures
must also be similarly checked. The company will maintain a written copy of
this survey. The competent person designated will also photograph existing
damage in neighboring structures.

The engineering survey provides the company with the opportunity to evaluate
the job in its entirety. The company must plan for the wrecking of the
structure, the equipment to do the work, manpower requirements, and the
protection of the public. The safety of all workers on the job site will be a
prime consideration.

During the preparation of the engineering survey, the company must plan for
potential hazards such as fires, cave-ins, and injuries. If the structure to be
demolished has been damaged by fire, flood, explosion, or some other cause,
appropriate measures, including bracing and shoring of walls and floors, must
be taken to protect workers and any adjacent structures.

It must also be determined if any type of hazardous chemicals, gases,

explosives, flammable material, or similar dangerous substances have been
used or stored on the site. If the nature of a substance cannot be easily
determined, samples must be taken and analyzed by a qualified person prior
to demolition.

Utility Location
One of the most important elements of the pre-job planning is the location of
all utility services. All electric, gas, water, steam, sewer, and other services
lines must be shut off, capped, or otherwise controlled at or outside the
building before demolition is started. In each case, any utility company
involved must be notified in advance and its approval or services, if necessary,
must be obtained.

If it is necessary to maintain any power, water, or other utilities during

demolition, such lines must be relocated temporarily as necessary and/or
protected.

The location of all overhead power sources must also be determined, as they
can prove especially hazardous during any machine demolition. All workers
must be informed of the location of any existing or relocated utility service.
The telephone numbers of the local police, ambulance, and fire departments
must be available at each job site. This information can prove useful to the job
supervisor in the event of any traffic problems, such as the movement of
equipment to or from the job site.

All calls to utility services must be reported to the general contractor and/or
an owner representative.

Medical Services and First Aid

Prior to starting work, provisions must be made for prompt medical attention
in case of serious injury. The nearest hospital, infirmary, clinic, or physician
must be located as part of the engineering survey. The job supervisor must be
provided with instructions for the most direct route to these facilities. Proper
equipment for prompt transportation of an injured worker, as well as a
communication system to contact any necessary ambulance service, will be
available at the job site. The telephone numbers of the hospitals, physicians,
or ambulances must be posted conspicuously.

A properly stocked first aid kit (as determined by an occupational physician)

will be available at the job site. The first aid kit must contain approved
supplies in a weatherproof container with individual sealed packages for each
type of item. It must also include rubber gloves to prevent the transfer of
infectious diseases. Provisions must also be made to provide for quick
drenching or flushing of the eyes should any person be working around
corrosive materials. Eye flushing will be done with water containing no
additives. The contents of the kit must be checked before being sent out on
each job and at least weekly to ensure the expended items are replaced.

A competent person should be present at all times. A competent person is one

who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the
surroundings or working conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Crane and Power Lines

Preplanning is the key to safety. The time to take care of power line problems
is during pre-job planning after the first site survey is made. Take care of the
problem prior to the crane's arrival to avoid job delays and prevent incidents.
When power lines are present on or near the site, the safety of the crane
operation is totally the responsibility of the personnel in charge of the job site.

Establish and enforce the following procedures and practices to prevent

contact:

Utility Location Procedures

Before setting up or operating on any project, operators must look for power
lines and, if present, exercise extreme caution. High-voltage contact is the
largest single cause of fatalities associated with cranes. All incidents can be
prevented. The power company or utility may consider (if given advance
notification) shutting down the line temporarily or moving the line. If it is not
possible to have the line moved or the power shut off, the following
procedures should be enforced by the project supervisor and strictly followed
by all operators.

Keep your distance. Surrounding every live line is an area referred to as the
absolute limit of approach. It is strictly forbidden to move any crane boom,
load line or load into this area unless the power line has been de-energized.
There are no exceptions. This absolute limit of approach may vary according to
local, state, and federal laws but is generally ten feet for up to 50kv and
increases as the voltage increases.

Treat all wires and electrical equipment as "hot" until you have reliable
information to the contrary. Notify the utility company when and where any
crane is to be working near power lines.

Supervisors must contact the owner of the power lines to plan the safest
operating procedures. Power lines must be de-energized and visibly grounded,
rerouted, barricaded, rubbered-up, or some other action must be taken to
prevent the crane from becoming energized.
Crane Operation
Use a qualified signal person whenever the crane is within a boom's length of
the lines. The signal person must warn the operator when the machine is
approaching the lines because the operator may not be able to judge the
distance accurately. The signal person should have no other duties while the
machine is working near the power lines.

Don't rely on proximity warning devices, hook insulators, insulating boom

guards, swing limit stops, or any other similar devices, as each type has
serious limitations.

Although all ropes will conduct electricity, dry polypropylene provides better
insulating properties than most commercially available rope. Use only
appropriate-length taglines.

Slow down the operating cycle of the machine by reducing hoisting, booming,
swinging, and travel speeds.

Ensure that whenever cranes must travel repeatedly beneath power lines a
route is plainly marked and "rider poles" erected on each side of the crossing
approach to ensure that the crane structure is lowered to a safe height.
 Exercise caution when traveling the crane as uneven ground can cause the
boom to weave or bob into the lines.
 Exercise caution when working near overhead lines having long spans, as they
tend to swing laterally in the wind, and accidental contact could occur.
 The operator must not leave the crane if the boom, when lowered, can enter the
limit of approach.

Safety Procedures for Personnel

Except for the operator, keep all personnel well away from the crane whenever
it is working near power lines. Do not allow anyone standing on the ground to
touch the crane. Do not allow anyone to touch the load, the crane, or the
crane hook until the signal person indicates that it is safe to do so.

Do not rely on ground rods for safety since they provide little or no protection.
People touching the crane or load will still draw enough current to kill, even
with the best ground rods in place.

A competent person should be present at all times. A competent person is one

who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards in the
surroundings or working conditions that are unsanitary, hazardous, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective
measures to eliminate them.

Public Liability Planning

One public liability incident on your construction job can cost tens of
thousands of dollars, and cancel out all the results of your efforts to work
safely and control job hazards.

By thinking ahead and anticipating the hazards that are likely to cause
incidents on a particular job, you can take steps to help prevent them.
Preplanning is the best way to ensure safe and efficient operations.
Part of the preplanning process is considering how you will react if, despite
your best efforts, an incident does occur. Taking the proper actions
immediately following an incident can go a long way toward minimizing false
or exaggerated claims and controlling your insurance costs.

Consider these issues as you plan: general precautions, transporting

equipment, and unloading equipment.

General Precautions
 Use security personnel where necessary.
 Arrange for local police to check the site.
 Discourage children from loitering or playing near the site.
 Comply with applicable regulations for handling and disposal of hazardous
waste.
 Stack and block all materials securely so that they will not topple or roll if climbed
upon.
 Enforce the same hazard-reduction controls for employees of other contractors
as you do for your own employees; injury to other contractors' employees on the
job is a common source of liability losses.
 Use a job site safety check form and give the assignment of checking job site
conditions to a specific supervisor.
 Maintain records (contracts, insurance policies, insured endorsements from other
contractors, permits, photographs, and toolbox meeting minutes) and keep them
accessible.
 Records should be retained in a secure place after job completion in accordance
with the advice of legal counsel.

Transporting Equipment
 Assign qualified drivers.
  Know and comply with all federal and state regulations.
 Secure the necessary permits.
 Observe the weight limits established for highways and bridges.
 Preplan the route to avoid height obstructions, bad intersections, sharp turns,
heavily populated areas, and rush-hour traffic. If possible, give drivers a route
plan indicating hazardous areas.
 If overhanging loads cannot be avoided, mark them with warning flags/lights.
 Allow no free-swinging chains.
 Secure the load, in accordance with DOT requirements, to prevent movement.

Unloading Equipment
 Provide advance warning to motorists by posting warning signs and devices and
assigning employees to serve as flaggers.
 Avoid unloading immediately over the crest of a hill, where the vehicle can't be
seen.
 When unloading equipment on the highway or shoulder, move the transport
vehicle after unloading.
 Plan your moves and unloading to avoid rush-hour traffic.

Parking Equipment- Work Periods

 Select a parking place completely off the road and shoulder, especially if the road
is open to traffic.
 Lower all buckets, blades, etc., to the ground.
 Turn off the ignition.
 Install wheel chocks for wheeled equipment that has to be parked on a grade.

Parking Equipment- Non-Work Periods

 Select a parking place completely off the road and shoulder.
 Parked equipment should be safeguarded as much as possible to control access
by children or vandals who may be attracted to it.
 Don't use the equipment as a barricade.
 Illuminate barricades around the equipment with flashing warning devices.
 Lower buckets, blades, etc., to the ground before leaving.
 Be sure the equipment is inoperative and secure.
 Remove ignition key.
 Disconnect starting mechanism on switch-operated equipment.
 Install wheel chocks for wheeled equipment that has to be parked on a grade.
 Develop and use a jobsite and equipment security plan.
 If use of equipment is completed, return it to shop/yard as soon as possible.

Flaggers and Backing Operations

  Assign trained and qualified persons to do the flagging.
 Provide them with proper signaling devices and signs, hard hats, and reflective
vests.
 Check periodically for use of proper procedures and alertness.
 Study each hazardous area (intersections, crossovers, two-way traffic over one
lane, etc.) and provide flaggers with instructions to control specific hazards in
each area.
 Refer to the Flagging Handbook, published by the American Traffic Safety
Services Association, or to the Federal Highway Administration's Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).

Signing and Barricading

It is extremely important to keep accurate records and maintain them with the
job files in case of future litigation alleging negligence.

Work Periods
 Take steps to ensure that all government regulations are met.
 Mark both ends of the job well in advance of construction. Refer to local codes or
the MUTCD.
 If necessary, install concrete barriers to channel traffic and protect workers.
 Post maximum speed limit signs on the job wherever possible.
 Keep signs free of dust and mud to maintain their visibility.
 Don't use unclear abbreviations on signs.
 Highlight all hazardous areas of the job with barriers, reflective signs, and/or
printed warnings.
 Assign flaggers wherever needed.

Non-Work Periods
 Follow the same procedures outlined in Signing and Barricading Work Periods.
 Provide suitable illuminated or reflective barricades to prevent motorists from
hitting parked equipment or using closed roads or drives.
 Verify that all flashers are in operation where needed.
 Post reflective or properly illuminated advance warning signs.
 Use flashers to outline curves and unfinished shoulders on roads that must be
left open to traffic.
 Use additional illumination on hazardous areas, parked equipment, bad curves,
and signs when inclement weather is expected.
 Consider providing flares for use in case of emergency.
 Check signs and barricades periodically. Record the results for future use should
there be a need to show that signs and barricades were in place.

Special Hazards
  Hold a preplanning meeting with railroad officials to coordinate safety efforts.
 Ascertain any special insurance requirements.
 Establish the need for railroad crossovers prior to start of job.
 Show the operators where the authorized railroad crossovers are and instruct
them to use only the authorized crossovers.
 Instruct operators to check periodically for damage or debris on the tracks at the
crossovers and to advise the field office immediately if they observe damage.
 Provide flaggers when needed and as arranged with the railroad.
 Establish procedures for contacting the railroad in an emergency.

Detours
Refer to local codes and the MUTCD.
Vibration
 Perform pre-job condition surveys of surrounding areas.
 Establish vibration controls before performing pile driving or blasting and monitor
them frequently.

Burning During Clearing and Grubbing

 Comply with local ordinances and state laws regarding open burning.
 Check wind velocity and direction before starting to burn.
 Be sure smoke will not obstruct vision of motorists.
 Minimize fire spread through controlled burning, along with placement of fire
control equipment.
 Keep a worker on duty at all times during burning.
 Fully extinguish all fires at the end of the shift. (Note: Earth cover may allow a fire
to continue smoldering.)

Use of Explosives
 Use blasting mats to prevent fly rock from damaging property or injuring persons.
 Stop all traffic and notify all nearby residents before detonation.
 Keep an accurate log of all shots.
 Use a knowledgeable and licensed blaster as recognized by pertinent regulations
to design the shot pattern and supervise drilling and loading operations.

Trenching, Excavation, and Underground Utilities

 Comply with OSHA standards for shoring or sloping trenches.
 Barricade all trenches and excavations and illuminate them at night. Keep them
dry if at all possible.
 Leave as little open trench as possible, particularly in residential or congested
areas.
 Keep spoil piles small, well-barricaded, and illuminated.