CHAPTER THREE
Measurement of Power and Energy
Measurement of power
Measurement of electric power is as essential in
industry as in commercial or even domestic
applications.
Knowledge about accurate estimation, calculation
and measurement of electric power is thus of
primary concern for designers of new
installations.
In this chapter, the most popular power
measurement methods and instruments in dc
and ac circuits are discussed.
Cont…
POWER MEASUREMENT IN DC CIRCUITS
Electric power (P) consumed by a load (R) supplied from a dc power supply (VS) is
the product of the voltage across the load (VR) and the current flowing through
the load (IR)
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 …………………...………3.1
Thus, power measurement in a dc circuit can be carried out using a voltmeter (V)
and an ammeter (A) using any one of the arrangements shown in Figure 3.1.
Cont…
Figure 3.1 Two arrangements for power
measurement in dc circuits
Cont….
The second arrangement
Cont….
Using any of the two measuring arrangements
shown in Figure 3.1 that both the voltmeter and
the ammeter requires power for their own
operations.
In the arrangement of Figure 3.1(a), the
voltmeter is connected between the load and the
ammeter.
The ammeter thus, in this case measures the
current flowing into the voltmeter, in addition to
the current flowing into the load.
Cont.….
From figure 3.1 (a)
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 Τ𝑅𝑉
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑉 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑆 − 𝐼𝑉
= 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑉
= 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 2 Τ𝑅𝑉
= 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
− 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Thus, Power indicated = Power consumed + Power loss in
voltmeter
Cont…
Figure 3.1(b), the voltmeter measures the
voltage drop across the ammeter in addition
to that dropping across the load.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝐴 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑅 − 𝑉𝐴 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑅 − 𝐼𝑅 2 𝑅𝐴
= 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Thus, Power indicated = Power consumed + Power
loss in Ammeter
Cont….
Thus, both arrangements indicate the
additional power absorbed by the instruments
in addition to indicating the true power
consumed by the load only.
The corresponding measurement errors are
generally referred to as insertion errors.
Cont…
Ideally, in theory, if we consider voltmeters to have infinite
internal impedance and ammeters to have zero internal
impedance, then from the above equations
The power consumed by the respective instruments go
down to zero.
Thus, in ideal cases, both the two arrangements can give
correct indication of the power consumed by the load.
Under practical conditions, the value of power loss in
instruments is quite small, if not totally zero, as compared
with the load power, and therefore, the error introduced on
this account is small
Cont…
EXAMPLE 1
Two incandescent lamps with 80 Ω and 120 Ω
resistances are connected in series with a 200 v dc
source. Find the errors in measurement of power in
the 80 Ω lamp using a voltmeter with internal
resistance of 100 kΩ and an ammeter with internal
resistance of 0.1 mΩ, when (a) the voltmeter is
connected nearer to the lamp than the ammeter,
and (b) when the ammeter is connected nearer to
the lamp than the voltmeter
POWER MEASUREMENT IN ac
CIRCUITS
In alternating current circuits, the instantaneous
power varies continuously as the voltage and
current varies while going through a cycle. In such
a case, the power at any instant is given by
𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉 𝑡 𝑥 𝐼 𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … . . 3.2
Thus, if both voltage and current can be assumed
to be sinusoidal, with the current lagging the
voltage by phase-angle φ, then
Cont…
𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐼 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
where, Vm and Im are peak values of voltage
and current respectively, and w is the angular
frequency.
The instantaneous power p is therefore given
by 𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sinωt sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 … … … 3.3
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 𝑡 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 ]
2
Cont…
Average value of power over a complete cycle in such
a case will be
1 2𝑇 1 2𝑇 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 𝑡 = න 𝑃 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 𝑑𝑡
2𝑇 0 2𝑇 0 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2 2
= 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 … … … … … … … … … … … … … .3.4
where, V and I are rms values of voltage and current
respectively and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 is power factor of the load.
Cont…
Involvement of the power-factor term cos𝜑 in
the expression for power in ac circuit
indicates that ac power cannot be measured
simply by connecting a pair of ammeter and
voltmeter.
A wattmeter, with in-built facility for taking in
to account the power factor, can only be used
for measurement of power in ac circuits
ELECTRODYNAMOMETER-TYPE
WATTMETER
Construction: Schematic diagram displaying the
basic constructional features of a
electrodynamometer type wattmeter is shown
in Figure below.
Cont…
Operation:-The schematic operational circuit of
an electrodynamometer-type wattmeter being
used for measurement of power in a circuit is
shown in Figure below.
Cont…
let
Cont…
The instantaneous torque of the
electrodynamometer wattmeter shown in
Figure above is given by
𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑐 … … … … … … . . 3.5
𝑑𝜃
Instantaneous value of voltage and current
across the pressure-coil circuit is
𝑉𝑝 = 2 𝑥 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 Τ𝑅𝑝 = 2 𝑥 𝑉𝑝 Τ𝑅𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 2𝐼𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
where IP = V/RP is the rms value of current in pressure coi
Cont…
Assuming that the pressure-coil resistance is
sufficiently high to prevent branching out
of any portion of the supply current towards
the pressure coil, the current coil current can
be written as
𝑖𝑐 = 2 𝑥 𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
Thus, instantaneous torque from (3.5) can be
written as 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑖 = 2 𝑥 𝐼𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑀
= 𝐼𝑝 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 … … . . 3.6
𝑑𝜃
Cont…
Average deflecting torque over a complete
cycle is
1 𝑇
𝑇𝑑 = න 𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝑇 0
1 2𝜋 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑀
= න 𝐼𝑝 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑝 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2𝜋 0 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑑𝑀
= 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑑𝑀
= … … … … … .3.7
𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝜃
With a spring constant K, the controlling torque provided by
the spring for a final steady-state deflection of θ is given by
𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝜃
Cont…
Under steady-state condition, the average
deflecting torque will be balanced by the
controlling torque provided by the spring.
Thus, at balanced condition TC = Td
𝑇𝑐 = 𝑇𝑑
𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑑𝑀
𝐾𝜃 =
𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝜃
𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= … … … … . . 3.8
𝐾𝑅𝑝 𝑑𝜃
Errors in Electrodynamometer-type
Wattmeter
We have errors due to:-
I. Pressure-Coil Inductance
II. Pressure Coil Capacitance
III. Connection
IV. Eddy-current
V. Stray Magnetic Field
VI. Vibration of the Moving System
VII. Temperature
Cont…
Error due to Pressure-Coil Inductance:
The pressure coil circuit is purely resistive.
In reality, however, the pressure coil will have
certain inductance along with resistance.
This will introduce errors in measurement unless
necessary compensations are taken care of.
To have an estimate of such error, let us consider
the following:
CONT..
Let
Cont…
The current through the pressure coil will
lag the voltage across it by a certain angle given
by
−1
𝜔𝐿 −1
𝜔𝐿
𝛼 = tan = tan
𝑅𝑝 𝑟𝑝 + 𝑅𝑣
As can be seen from figure bellow current
through the pressure coil lags voltage across it by
a phase-angle which is less than that between the
current coil current and the pressure coil voltage.
Cont…
Wattmeter phasor diagram with pressure coil
inductance
Cont…
From the phase diagram above
ሶ 𝜑−𝛼
𝜑ሶ =
Following from (3.8), the wattmeter deflection
torque will be
𝐼𝑝 𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝜃ሶ = cos 𝜑ሶ
𝐾 𝑑𝜃
𝑉 𝑑𝑀
𝜃ሶ = 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝛼
𝑍𝑃 𝐾 𝑑𝜃
When 𝑅𝑃 = 𝑍𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝜃ሶ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝛼 … … … . . 3.9
𝑅𝑃 𝐾 𝑑𝜃
Cont…
In the absence of inductance, ZP = RP and α =
0; wattmeter in that case will read true
power, given by,
𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 … … … . . 3.10
𝑅𝑃 𝐾 𝑑𝜃
Taking the ratio of true power indication to
actual wattmeter reading, we get
𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑅𝑃 𝐾 𝑑𝜃
= = =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜃ሶ 𝑉𝐼 𝑑𝑀 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝛼
𝑅𝑃 𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 cos 𝜑 − 𝛼 𝑑𝜃
Cont…
The correction factor can be identified as
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝐶𝐹 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝛼
True power indication can thus be obtained
from the actual wattmeter reading using the
correction factor CF as
True power indication = CF X Actual wattmeter
reading
Thus for lagging power factor loads;
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 − 𝛼
Cont….
For leading power factor loads, however, the
wattmeter phasor diagram will be as
shown in Figure below.
Cont…
For leading power factor loads;
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 + 𝛼
Cont….
Error due to Connection:
There are two alternate methods of connection
of wattmeter to the circuit for measurement of
power.
These are shown in Figure below.
In either of these connection modes, errors are
introduced in measurement due power losses in
pressure coil and current coil
Cont…
Wattmeter connection (a)
Cont…
Wattmeter connection (b)
Cont…
In the connection of Figure (a), Wattmeter reading
in this case will thus include power loss in current
coil as well, along with power consumed by the
load.
Wattmeter reading = Power consumed by load +
Power loss in CC
In figure (b) wattmeter reading in this case
includes, along with power consumed by the load
and power loss in the pressure coil as well
Wattmeter reading = Power consumed by load +
Power loss in PC
Cont...
SOLUTION
When load current is small, power loss in the
current coil is small and hence the connection of
wattmeter (a) will introduce comparatively less
error in measurement.
On the other hand, when load current is large,
current branching through the pressure
coil is relatively small and error in measurement will
be less if connection of wattmeter (b) is used.
Cont…
Example1
A electrodynamometer type wattmeter has a current
coil with a resistance of 0.1Ω and a pressure coil with
a resistance of 6.5 kΩ. Calculate the percentage
errors while the meter is connected as (i) current coil
to the load side, and (ii) pressure coil to the load side.
The load is specified as
(a) 12 A at 250 V with unity power factor, and
(b) 12 A at 25 V with 0.4 lagging power factor
Cont…
Example 2
measurement of a load at 100 V and 9 A at a power
factor of 0.1 lagging. The pressure coil circuit has a
resistance of 3000 Ω and inductance of 30 mH.
Calculate the percentage error in wattmeter reading
when the pressure coil is connected (a) on the load
side, and (b) on the supply side. The current coil has
a resistance of 0.1 Ω and negligible inductance.
Assume 50 Hz supply frequency.
POWER MEASUREMENT IN THREE-
PHASE SYSTEMS
Consider the case of measuring power using
three wattmeters in a 3-phase, 3-wire
system as shown below
Cont…
Current coils of the three wattmeters, W1, W2
and W3 are connected to the three lines R,
Y,and B.
Potential coils of the three wattmeters are
connected to the common point C.
Power consumed by the load is given by
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝐼𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝐼𝐵 … … … … … … … … .3.11
Cont…
Reading of wattmeter
Now, if the voltage difference between the
nodes C and N is taken as VCN = VC - VN,
then we can have
Cont…
Sum of the three wattmeter readings can now
be combined as
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node N,
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0
Thus, sum of wattmeter readings,
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝐼𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝐼𝐵 … … … … … … … … .3.12
Comparing with Eq. (3.11 & 3.12), it is observed that sum
of the three individual wattmeter readings indicate the
total power consumed by the load.
CONT…
Three-Phase Four-Wire Systems
Wattmeter connections for measurement of
power in a 3-phase 4-wire system are shown
in Figure below.
Cont….
Current through current coils of the three
wattmeters are nothing but the phase
currents of the corresponding phases.
Sum of the three wattmeter readings in such a
case will be
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝐼𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝐼𝐵
This is exactly the same as the power consumed by
the load. Hence, summation of the three wattmeter
readings display the total power consumed by the
load.
Cont…
Two-Wattmeter Method
This is the most common method of measuring
three-phase power. It is particularly useful
when the load is unbalanced.
1. Star-Connected System
2. Delta-Connected System
Cont….
Star-Connected System: The connections for
measurement of power in the case of a star-
connected three-phase load are as shown below
Cont…
The current coils of the wattmeters are
connected in lines R and B, and their voltage
coils are connected between lines R and Y,
and B and Y respectively.
Power consumed by the load
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝐼𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝐼𝐵 … … … … 3.13
Summation of the two wattmeter readings:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑥 𝐼𝐵 − 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝑥 (𝐼𝑅 +𝐼𝐵 ) … … … … 3.14
Cont…
From Kirchhoff’s law, summation of currents
at node N must be zero, i.e.
𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝑌 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐵 = −𝐼𝑌
Thus, from Eq. (3.14), we can re-write
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑁 𝑥 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝑥 𝐼𝑌 + 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑥 𝐼𝐵
Hence the sum of the two wattmeter readings
is equal to the total power consumed by the
load. This is irrespective of fact whether the
load is balanced or not.
Cont…
Delta-Connected System:
Two wattmeters can also be used for
measurement of total power in a three-phase
delta connected system.
The connections in the case of a delta
connected three-phase load are shown in Figure
below.
Cont…
Two-wattmeter method for delta-connected
load
Cont…
The current coils of the wattmeters are
connected in lines R and B, and their voltage
coils are connected between lines R and Y,
and B and Y respectively.
Power consumed by the load
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑹𝑩 𝒙 𝒊𝑹 + 𝑽𝒀𝑹 𝒙 𝒊𝒀 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 𝒙 𝒊𝑩 … … … 𝟑. 𝟏𝟓
Summation of the two-wattmeter readings:
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = −𝑽𝒀𝑹 𝒙 𝒊𝑹 − 𝒊𝒀 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 𝒙 𝒊𝑩 − 𝒊𝑹
= 𝑽𝒀𝑹 𝒙 𝒊𝒀 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 𝒙 𝒊𝑩 − 𝒊𝑹 𝒙 𝑽𝒀𝑹 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 … . . 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔
Cont….
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, summation of
voltage drops across a closed loop is zero,
i.e., 𝑽𝒀𝑹 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 + 𝑽𝑹𝑩 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓 𝑽𝒀𝑹 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 = −𝑽𝑹𝑩
Thus, from Eq. (3.16) we can re-write,
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 𝑽𝒀𝑹 𝒙 𝒊𝒀 + 𝑽𝑩𝒀 𝒙 𝒊𝑩 + 𝑽𝑹𝑩 𝒙 𝒊𝑹 … … … . . 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕
Therefore, sum of the two wattmeter readings
is equal to the total power consumed by the
load. This is once again, irrespective of fact
whether the load is balanced or not.
Effect of Power Factor on Wattmeter
Readings
Phasor diagram for the star-connected load
with a balanced load is shown in Figure below.
Cont…
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑉𝑅𝑁 , 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑌𝑁 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑅 , 𝐼𝐵 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑌
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚.
For a balanced system
For a star-connected system
Power factor = cos ϕ, where ϕ is the angle by which each of
the phase currents lag the corresponding phase voltages.
Cont…
Current through the CC of wattmeter W1 is IR and
voltage across its potential coil is VRY.
The current IR leads the voltage by VRY an angle (30°
- ϕ),
Current through the CC of wattmeter W2 is IB and
voltage across its potential coil is VBY.
The current IB lags the voltage by VBY an angle (30°
+ ϕ),
Cont…
Sum of these two-wattmeter readings:
Difference of the two wattmeter readings:
Taking the ratio of the difference to the sum
The power factor is given by
Cont…
Unity Power Factor
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 3 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 3 𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 3 𝑉𝐼
3
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊1 = 𝑉𝐼
2
3
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑊2 = 𝑉𝐼
2
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 3𝑉𝐼
Thus, at unity power factor, readings of the
two wattmeters are equal; each wattmeter
reads half the total power.
Cont…
0.5 Power Factor :
Thus, summation of the two wattmeter
readings
Therefore, at 0.5 power factor, one of the
wattmeters reads zero, and the other reads total
power.
Cont…
Zero Power Factor
Summation of two-wattmeter readings
Therefore, at zero power factor, readings of the
two wattmeters are equal but of opposite sign.
Cont…
Example
Two wattmeters are connected to measure the
power consumed by a 3-phase load with power
factor 0.4. Total power consumed by the load, as
indicated by the two wattmeters is 30 kW. Find
the individual wattmeter readings.
Measurement of Energy
Energy is the total power consumed over a
time interval, that is Energy = Power × Time.
Generally, the process of measurement of
energy is same as that for measurement of
power except for the fact that the instrument
used should not merely measure power or
rate of consumption of energy, but must also
take into account the time interval during
which the power is being supplied.
Cont….
There are two types of induction meters
I. Single phase type induction meter
II. Three phase type induction meter.
Single phase type induction meter
Single phase Induction-type instruments are
most commonly used as energy meters for
measurement of energy in domestic and
industrial ac circuits.
Cont…
Construction:
Induction type energy meter essentially consists
of following components:
1. Driving system
2. Moving system
3. Braking system and
4. Registering system
Constructional details of an induction-type
single-phase energy meter are schematically
shown in Figure below
Cont…
Construction of single phase energy meter
Cont….
Simple view of the construction looks like as
shown below
Cont…
Driving system:- It consists of two
electromagnets, called “shunt”
magnet and “series” magnet, of
laminated construction.
The driving system of the meter is
the green color as shown in the
figure below
Cont….
Figure of the driving system
Cont…
Moving system:
The moving system essentially consists of a
light rotating aluminum disk mounted on a
vertical spindle or shaft.
The shaft that supports the aluminum disk is
connected by a gear arrangement to the clock
mechanism on the front of the meter to
provide information that consumed energy by
the load.
Cont…
This green color is the moving part of the
meter
Cont…
Braking system:
Damping of the disk is provided by a small
permanent magnet, located diametrically
opposite to the magnets.
The disk passes between the magnet gaps.
The movement of rotating disc exerts a
braking torque.
By changing the position of the brake magnet
or diverting some of the flux there form, the
speed of the rotating disc can be controlled.
This green color is the barking system part of the meter.
Cont…
Registering system:
The registering or counting system essentially consists of
gear train, driven either by worm or pinion gear on the disc
shaft, which turns pointers that indicate on dials the
number of times the disc has turned.
The energy meter thus determines and adds together or
integrates all the instantaneous power values so that total
energy used over a period is thus known.
Now, the eddy current Ies interacts with flux φp to
produce a torque and the eddy current
Iep interacts with flux φs to produce another torque.
These two torques are in opposite direction
Cont…
Operation:
In all induction meters, we have two fluxes which are
produced by two different alternating currents on a
metallic disc.
Due to alternating fluxes, there is an induced emf, the
emf produced at one point interacts with the
alternating current of the other side resulting in the
production of torque.
Similarly, the emf produced at the point two interacts
with the alternating current at point one, resulting in
the production of torque again but in opposite
direction.
Hence due to these two torques which are in different
directions, the metallic disc moves. This is the basic
principle of working of an induction type meters.
Cont…
The net torque produced on disc is given by
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻 𝟐
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑽𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
The braking torque developed on the disc is
proportional to its speed
𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝟐 𝑵 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑵 = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄
For steady speed rotational braking torque
and deflecting torque should be equal.
𝑻𝒅 = 𝑻𝒃
𝑲𝟏 𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔∅ = 𝑲𝟐 𝑵
𝑲𝟏
𝑵= 𝑽𝑰 𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
𝑲𝟐
𝑵 = 𝑲𝑽𝑰𝒄𝒐𝒔∅
Cont…
The meter constant K can be calculated as
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐾=
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Three Phase Energy Meter
The three phase meter is constructed by
connecting the two single phase meter through
the shaft.
The total energy is the sum of
the reading of both the elements.
The three phase energy meter has two discs
mounted on the common shaft.
Both the disc has its braking magnet, copper
ring, shading band and the compensator for
getting the correct reading.
Cont…
The construction of the three phase meter is
shown in the figure below.
ERRORS IN INDUCTION-TYPE ENERGY
METERS
Phase-angle Error
Error due to Friction at Light Loads
Creeping Error
Error due to Change in Temperature
Error due to Overload
Error due to Voltage Variations
TESTING OF ENERGY METERS
Energy meters are tested at the following conditions:
1. At 5% of rated current at unity power factor
2. At 100% or 125% of rated current with unity power
factor
3. At one intermediate load with unity power factor
4. At rated current and 0.5 lagging power factor
5. Creep test With pressure coil supplied with 110% of
rated voltage and current coil open circuited, the meter
disc should not rotate by more than one revolution, i.e.,
it should not creep
6. Starting test At 0.5% of rated current and full rated
voltage, the meter disc should start rotating
Cont…
Phantom Loading :
In order to avoid unnecessary power loss during
the testing of energy meter a separate
arrangement is used, known as phantom loading.
a test with actual loading arrangements would
involve considerable wastage of energy and also
it is difficult to arrange for such large loads under
laboratory test conditions to avoid this, ‘phantom
loading ‘ arrangements are done for testing of
energy meters.
Cont…
Phantom loading consists of supplying the shunt
magnet pressure coil circuit from a
rated voltage source.
The series magnet current coil is supplied from a
separate low voltage supply source.
Hence the power consumption is minimum. Such
loading is favorable to avoid wastage of energy
during the test of measurement instrument.
Cont…
Example
A 220V, 10A dc energy meter is tested for its
name plate ratings. Resistance of the pressure
coil circuit is 8000 Ω and that of current coil
itself is 0.12 Ω. Calculate the energy consumed
when testing for a period of 1 hour with
(a) Direct loading arrangement
(b) Phantom loading with the current coil circuit
excited by a separate 9 V battery.
Cont…
Solution Test arrangements with direct and
phantom loading arrangements are
schematically shown in the figure. (a) direct
loading (b) phantom loading