Chapter 6

Seed Physiology
 Seed physiology deals with:

 Seed dormancy
 Seed germination
 Seed viability (seed vigor and vigor tests)
 Seed moisture test
 Seed drying
 Seed cleaning and upgrading
 Seed health management; seed treatment
 Seed packaging and handling
 Seed storage and marketing
6.1 Seed dormancy

• What is seed dormancy?

• It is a physical or physiological condition of a viable seed which prevents

germination even in the presence of favorable conditions for germination.

• The presence and causes of seed dormancy must be known to:

• Develop nursery practices for dormancy removal and

• Thereby to ensure timely germination and uniform growth of the seedlings.

The following points are essential to understanding seed dormancy:

1. To a large degree, dormancy is under genetic control.

2. Environmental conditions during seed maturation can influence the

degree of dormancy.

3. It is possible for seeds to have more than one type of dormancy

mechanism.

4. Postharvest environment can create secondary dormancy.

5. The least severe treatment to overcome dormancy should be selected first

to avoid damage to the seeds.

 Types of Dormancy
1. Seed coat dormancy- it is the same as external dormancy.
a. Impermeability to moisture or gases, e.g., Fabaceae, Malvaceae (okra), Acacia, Prosopis, Robinia, and other
legumes.

b. Mechanical resistance to swelling embryo, e.g., Pinus, and Quercus.

2. Embryo dormancy- also known as internal dormancy or physiological dormancy

a. Inhibiting substances.

b. Physiological immaturity,

• Physiological dormancy is linked to seed metabolic rates, regulated by the presence of endogenous growth promoters
and inhibitors (e.g. phenolics, cyanogenic compounds, ABA, GA’s, cytokinins)

• A second type of physiological dormancy is linked to the osmotic effects of high sugars or salts in the seed or fruit
(e.g. beet). These osmotic effects may prevent full imbibition, thereby preventing or slowing germination (Copeland
and McDonald, 2001).
3. Morphological dormancy- The embryo is not completely developed,

4. Secondary dormancy-
Secondary dormancy is imposed as a result of some action, treatment, or injury
to seeds, e.g., Pinus taeda exposed to high temperatures and moisture during
storage.

5. Combined dormancy-
Combined dormancy results from two or more primary factors, such as seed
coat dormancy and embryo dormancy, e.g., Tilia.
 Dormancy breaking methods
1. Seed coat dormancy-Treatment must improve moisture uptake and gas exchange and ease
radicle emergence.

a) Cold water soak. Soaking seeds in water at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours.

b) Hot water soak. Bring water to a boil, put seed in, remove from heat, and allow to stand until
water cools.

c) Acid treatment. Pour a strong mineral acid over the seeds and mix. (Sulfuric acid is the favorite).
Remove seeds after a time determined by trials with samples, usually 15 to 60 minutes, and
wash thoroughly to remove acid.

d) Physical scarification. Physical scarification causes cracks or breaks in the hard seed coats.
• Use hand methods or mechanical methods for larger scale operations.
2. Embryo dormancy-Treatment must overcome physiological barriers within the seed.

a. Stratification (chilling, pre-chilling).

• Place fully imbibed seeds at 1°C to 5°C for 1 to 6 months.

• Imbibition is completed, Enzyme systems are activated, Storage foods change to soluble
forms, Inhibitor/promoter balances change.

b. Incubation/stratification. For some species, provide a short warm incubation (15 to 20°C),
followed by cold stratification.
c. Chemical treatment.
• Hydrogen peroxide-Soak for 48 hours in 1 % solution.
• Citric acid-Soak for 48 hours in 1% solution, followed by 90 or more days of stratification (e.g.,
Juniperus, Taxodium).
• Gibberelliins.
• Ethylene.
d. Light. Dormancy is overcome by the red/far red mechanism.
Source: Bewley and Black, 1994.
6.2 Seed germination
• The resumption of active growth by the embryo resulting in rupture of the seed coat and
emergence of a young plant is known as germination.

• The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) defines germination as the emergence
from the seed and development of those essential structures which indicate the ability of
the seed to develop into a normal plant under favorable conditions in the soil.

• Germination is of two types:

• Hypogeal, in which the cotyledon does not emerge above the soil surface (e.g., pea); and
• Epigeal, in which the cotyledon emerges above the soil surface (e.g., bean).

• Germination has four phases: imbibition, enzyme activation, cell elongation/division, and
protrusion.
 Factors influencing germination
• Water, oxygen, temperature, and light all influence germination, although the first three are classified as

essential.

1. Water:

• The extent to which imbibition of water occurs is determined by the chemical composition of the seed, the

seed coat's permeability to water, and the availability of water in the environment.

• Imbibition (seed swelling) is not related to seed viability but to some extent reflects the storage materials

present in seeds.

• Protein is the chief water-imbibing component of seeds, although other components such as some cellulose

parts and pectic compounds also swell.

• Starch, even in large amounts, does not add to the total swelling of seeds. Starch swells only at a very acidic

pH or after treatment with high temperature, neither of which occur in nature.

2. Oxygen:

• The process of germination requires an expenditure of energy, therefore oxygen is essential for aerobic

respiration.

3. Temperature:

• Different seeds germinate within different temperature ranges.

• Very low and very high temperatures prevent the germination of all seeds.

• The effect of temperature does not depend on other factors.

4. Light:

• The seeds of most cultivated plants usually germinate equally well in the dark or light.

• However, enhanced germination in light has been observed in freshly-harvested seeds of some species,

e.g., lettuce (Lacta saliva).

 Germination testing
• The ability of seeds to germinate and to emerge from the soil is the key for plant
establishment.

• Seed testing is commonly used to assess viability (the ability to germinate under ideal
conditions) and vigor (the ability to emerge in soil under stress conditions), and to determine
the purity of seed lots.

• It can help plant producers with many management decisions, including determining seeding
rates and to avoid planting weeds.

• The germination test must produce results that are uniform and reproducible within and
between seed testing laboratories.

• Laboratory methods have been developed to give the most regular, rapid, and complete
germination for most samples of a particular kind of seed.
General Principles for seed testing
• The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) has developed germination methods and

directions for seedling evaluation for international use.

• From well mixed pure seed, 400 seeds are counted at random into replicates of 100, 50, or 25

seeds.

• The seeds are spaced uniformly on a moist substratum to facilitate easy seedling evaluation and to

prevent the spread of any infections.

• The seedlings must be evaluated before they use up reserve nutrients.

• The normal, the rotten and decayed seedlings are removed and counted.

• When the results of the test replicates fall within the maximum tolerated range, the average of the

normal seedlings represents the percentage germination.

 Procedures and Materials for seed testing
The Substrata

• Substrata used in the germination list include paper, sand, and soil

• It must be non-toxic and relatively free of molds, other microorganisms, and their spores.

• It must also provide adequate aeration and moisture for germinating seeds.

• The substratum must be sufficiently but not excessively moist for germination requirements.

• The initial quantity of water added depends on the substratum’s nature and dimensions.

• The relative humidity of the air around the seeds should be kept as close to saturation as
possible.

• The pH value of the paper and sand should be 6.0-7.5.

Water

• Tap water reasonably free from acidic, alkaline, organic or other impurities. Otherwise, distilled or deionized water should be
used.\

Paper

• All paper substrates should be porous, but with a texture fine enough to prevent seedling roots from growing into the paper.

• For most seed types, the paper should not be so wet that a film of water forms around the finger when the moistened paper is
pressed.

• Filter paper, blotter paper, or paper towels can be used to germinate seeds.

Sand

• Sand is normally used as a substrate for larger seeds such as cereals, peas, and beans.

• Depending on their size, the seeds can either be planted on a layer of sand and covered with 10-20 mm of loose sand, or planted
atop the sand and pressed into its surface.

• The amount of water added to the sand depends on the seeds' characteristics and size, but the sand should not be so wet that
optimal aeration is prevented.

• For seeds of maize and large-seeded legumes, the sand should be moistened to approximately 60 %' of water-holding capacity.
 Seed vigor and viability test
• In many instances, seed lots of apparently equal germination percentage will produce largely
different responses in field emergence.

• In the standard germination test, weak, deteriorated seeds may be capable of producing a normal
seedling.

• Therefore, determining "the degree of aliveness" (vigor) of a seed is just as important as

determining whether the seed is alive.

• Vigor has been defined by The Association of Official Seed Analysts (Anon. 1975) as follows: "Seed
vigor is the sum total of all those properties in seed which, upon planting, result in rapid and uniform
production of healthy seedlings under a wide range of environments including both favorable and
stress conditions.

• A vigor test cannot replace a germination test but rather supplements it with more information about
seed quality.
 Selected Tests for Vigor
1. First count:
• The number of normal seedlings removed when the first count of the germination test is an indication
of the seed lot's quality; the higher the percentage of normal seedlings removed at the preliminary
count, the better the seed quality.
2. Speed of germination
• Normal seedlings are removed from the test when they reach a predetermined size, until all seeds that
are capable of producing a normal seedling have germinated.
• An index is computed for each seed lot by dividing the number of normal seedlings removed each day
by the day after planting on which they were removed.
• Thus, quality indexes of lots A and B (15 and 20, respectively) are obtained in the following manner:
Lot A = (No. of seedlings removed daily/ Days after planting)
• = 0+0+0+8+10+24+28+24
• =(0/1)+(0/2)+(0/3)+(8/4)+(10/5)+(24/6)+(28/7)+(24/8)
• = 0+0+0+2+2+4+4+3= 15
Lot B = (No. of seedlings removed daily/ Days after planting)
• = 0+0+12+24+45+7
• = (0/1)+(0/2)+(12/3)+(24/4)+(45/5)+(7/6)
• = 0+0+4+6+9+1 = 20
• Lot B, with a higher index, would be considered the better quality lot.
3. Seedling growth rate and seedling dry weight
• The seed lot producing the most growth per normal seedling is considered the best quality.

• Seedlings may be cut, dried at 110 °C for 17 hrs, and weighed for additional information.

• Better quality seed is considered to produce heavier seedlings.

4. Brick gravel test

• This test was developed in Germany by Hiltner in 1911 to show pathogenic infection.

• The method uses rather porous brick gravel of 2-3 mm diameter.

• In vigor tests on small grain, a layer of moist gravel about 2.5cm thick is placed above the seed,
which impedes the emergence of weak, partially diseased, corkscrew-type seedlings and other
seedlings with injured coleoptile tips.

• The seedlings that emerge through the layer of brick gravel are traditionally considered strong.
5. Accelerated aging test:

• This test was developed at the Seed Technology Laboratory, Mississippi State University, USA for different
kinds of seed.

• This technique requires exposing seed to 40-45°C temperature and 100% relative humidity for two to eight
days, followed by a regular germination test.

• The basic assumption of this test is that the germination percentage of a seed lot after a period of
accelerated aging is highly related to the lot's vigor and hence to its capacity to perform well under field
conditions.

6. GADA test:

• The glutamic acid decarboxylase activity (GADA) test measures the activity of one specific enzyme

• The level of enzyme activity is determined by the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) given off and is positively

correlated to seed quality; i.e., the more CO2 given off, the better the seed quality (Grabe 1965).

• Relatively inexpensive equipment needed for this test

7. Tetrazolium test (TZ):

• The TZ test is used more widely to rapidly determine the viability of seed lots.

• It provides the most accurate and useful information of any test on the physiological quality of seed.

• The TZ vigor test involves the identification, location, and appraisal of sound, weak, and dead embryo tissues for their possible

influence upon seed storage qualities, seed germination, and early seedling development under unfavorable as well a favorable

conditions.

• The degree of soundness of different areas of embryonic tissues is made visible by use of a colorless, mainly aqueous solution of

tetrazolium salt.

• The chemical 2, 3, 5-triphtnyl tetrazoliumchloride is used as the indicator.

• Differences in color, or lack of color, along with observation of tissue turgidity or flaccidness, permit recognition of sound, weak,

and dead tissues.

• Seeds with minor imperfections are considered sound.

Mechanism of the Reaction
 6.4 Seed moisture testing and drying
• The moisture content of seeds is an important determinant of the duration
of seed viability.

• During storage, a high moisture content decreases viability more rapidly,

Why?

• Because of mold growth, heating damage, ageing, and greater insect

damage.

• It is important, therefore, to know the seed's moisture content immediately

after harvest and, when necessary, after artificial drying as well.
 Moisture Determination Methods
• Air-oven method:

• This is the common standard method, which removes water from the seed by drying under prescribed
and controlled conditions.

• For detailed specifications, see International Seed Testing Association Rules, Chapter 9 (ISTA 1976).

Procedure

• Most species are dried for one hour at 130°C, except for cereals (two hours) and maize (four hours).

• The submitted sample is mixed thoroughly, and two portions of 5.0 g each are weighed along with the
containers.

• The seed should be distributed evenly over the bottom of the container.

• After weighing, the containers are placed on top of their covers on the tray in the preheated oven.

• After drying, the containers are closed with their covers (using tongs and a cloth), allowed to cool for 30
minutes in a desiccator, and weighed again.
The moisture content (M) is calculated to one decimal place using the formula:

The results of the duplicate determinations should not differ by more than 0.2%;
otherwise, the analysis should be repeated in duplicate.
 6.3 Seed drying
• Seed drying involves reduction of moisture content to the recommended levels for storage.

• It is better to commence drying process as soon as possible after the receipt of the seeds to avoid

unnecessary deterioration.

Seed-drying procedures

• Estimate moisture content of seeds and assess the need for drying depending on where the seed is going to

be stored.

• moisture content of the seeds stored as base collections (conserved under long-term storage

conditions, seed not used for routine distribution) should be between 3 and 7%, and

• Moisture content of the seeds stored as active collections should be around 6–8% for groundnut and 8–

10% for other crops.

• If the moisture is above these limits, further drying is required.

 Methods of drying
• Several methods are available for drying seeds.

• The most common and safe methods used for drying are dehumidified drying and
silica gel drying.

Dehumidified drying:

• The FAO/IPGRI Genebank Standards recommend the use of 15 + 5% relative

humidity and 15 +5°C temperature for drying seeds.

• Place the seeds packed in muslin cloth bags on the open racks of the drying room or
seed-drying cabinet.

• Leave the seeds in the drying room or cabinet until the moisture content is likely to
be in the range required for storage.
• If drying is required, place the seeds in labeled cloth bags. The bags used for
drying should allow moisture to escape easily. Muslin cloth bags are best
suited for this purpose.

• Do not keep too many seeds in the same bag.

• Close the bags properly to ensure there is no spillover and mixing of seeds.

• Use methods that minimize loss of viability during drying.

Seed drying cabinet
The length of the drying period can be predicted by one of the two methods.

• Prediction of drying period by weight loss

• Weigh the seed sample that requires drying.

• Calculate the weight of the seeds at required moisture content by the equation:

• Keep the sample in a muslin cloth bag and allow it to dry until the required weight is attained.

• Prediction of drying period from mean drying curves

• Determine the moisture content of the seed lots

• Keep the seed lots in labeled muslin cloth bags and place them in drying environment.

• Remove a small sample and repeat moisture determination of the seed lot every day.

• Plot the moisture content of the seeds on a graph with percentage moisture content on Y-axis and drying time on X-axis.
Silica gel drying

• Small samples can be dried using silica gel.

• Place dried silica gel (deep blue in color) in desiccators or glass jars with an airtight seal.

• The weight of the silica gel used should be equal to the seeds for efficient drying.

• Place the seeds in muslin bags and keep them in close proximity to the silica gel.

• Keep the desiccator at 15°–20°C.

• Change the silica gel daily or when the color changes from deep blue to pink or pale blue.

• Regenerate the silica gel by heating at 100°C until it turns deep blue again and allow it to cool in
an airtight container for reuse.

• The weight of seeds at required moisture content can be calculated by the weight loss using the
following equation:
 6.5 Seed cleaning and upgrading
• Seed cleaning is one of the most effective ways to ensure good seed quality;

• It can increase purity and germination; decrease the amount of impurities and

diseased seeds; and improve the commercial, and planting quality of the seed

lot.

• Well-equipped seed cleaning plants should be established in several localities in

a country.

• Many manufacturers can install an entire seed cleaning plant as well as train staff

to operate the machines.

6.6 Seed health management and seed treatment
• Seed health is an important attribute of quality seed.

• A seed lot that meets high standards of germination, vigor, and purity, but is
contaminated with seed-borne pathogens, may be useless for farmers.

• Optimum storage conditions help in suppressing diseases and pests.

• Seed treatment for certain group of pathogen is one means among others to achieve
healthy seed.

• The other methods include seed production in disease free areas, seed production under
effective disease control, and field inspection schemes.

• Good pesticides available to control fungal pathogens and insects: for viruses, bacteria
and nematodes
• Seed treatment can be carried out through application of heat, mixing chemicals with seeds (seed

dressing), and fumigation. Each treatment is described here in briefly.

Application of Heat

• Heat can be applied using hot water or hot air or as solar heat.

• Hot water, the most widely used, was first applied at the end of the19th century to control cereal

smuts.

• Until the introduction of systemic fungicides in the late 1960s, hot water treatment was the only

way to control loose smut (Ustilago nuda, U. tritici).

• The procedure for wheat is to presoak the seeds for 4-5 hours at 37-40°C then treat them for 10

minutes at 54°C followed by air drying.

• Hot air is also sometimes applied to eradicate viruses from seed, and solar heat treatment.
Seed Dressing
• This is now a standard seed treatment procedure for many crops such as cereals, rapeseed, and
cotton.

• The wide range of chemicals available.

• Equipment has been developed to ensure a safe, exact dosage.

• Chemicals may be available in different formulations: e.g., dust, wettable powder slurry for treatment,
or liquid concentrates.

• The latter formulations are frequently preferred over dust because they enable easier exact
measurement, allow better coating of the seeds, and less hazard cause to operators by avoiding
dustiness.

• Different admixtures may be used in dust treatment to avoid the last two problems.

• A cheap additive is a 0.2% dextrine solution added at a rate of 3-5 ml/kg of seed.
Selection of the proper chemicals depends on the target organisms:

• Pathogens contaminating the seed superficially and infecting the seedling after planting: e.g.. Common
bunt (Tilletia spp.) and flag smut (Urocystis agropyro). These are easy to control with a wide range of
chemicals.

• Pathogens infecting the embryo during flowering: e.g. loose smut (Ustilago spp.). These can be
controlled only with systemic fungicides.

• Pathogens infecting many parts of the plant (leaves, stems, pods, seeds) "e.g. Helminthosporium spp.
and Ascochyta spp. These are controlled with systemic fungicides.

• For insects, control of storage pests is usually more effective with fumigation.

• In many countries fumigation is a routine treatment, carried out mainly against storage insects (grain
weevils, bruchids).

• For effective fumigation, air-tight sealing is essential.

• The main advantage of fumigation is that all insect stages are controlled.

• Even with excellent chemicals, it is difficult if not impossible to achieve 100% control.
 5.7 Seed storage and marketing

5.7.1 Seed storage

• Availability of viable and vigorous seeds at planting time is very important
for increasing agricultural production, because good seeds act as a
catalyst for realizing the potential of other inputs.

• The loss of seed viability during storage cannot be stopped, nor can
viability be increased during storage.

• Seed storage, however, should minimize the loss of seed viability and
vigor.
There are three types of storage
1. Storage of seeds from harvest to next planting (short duration, 6-8
months).
2. Storage of carryover seeds (medium-term, usually 12-14 months).
3. Storage of germplasm, breeder seed, samples tested in seed
testing laboratories for regulatory purposes, etc. (long-term, usually
5-20 years).
Two major seed groups
Seeds can be divided into two major groups.

• Orthodox and recalcitrant, according to their viability characteristics.

• The period of viability in orthodox seeds is increased with the decrease in seed moisture and storage
temperature. Examples include seed of cereals, food legumes, and forages.
• Orthodox seeds of different species vary considerably in storage characteristics. They may be good or
poor.

• Recalcitrant seeds cannot be dried without harmful effects, and have a short viability period
under ambient conditions. Examples include seeds of coffee, rubber, cocoa, and oil palm.
 Factors that influence viability of seeds in storage
• The two most important are seed moisture, or relative humidity of the atmosphere, and storage

temperature.

• Other factors include seed inheritance, gas during storage, microflora and insects, and fungicides.

Relative Humidity

• Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of water vapor in the air relative to the amount that air can hold at

saturation at a given temperature.

• As air temperature increases, the water-holding capacity of air also increases.

• Seeds of most species can be dried to 2-3% moisture without significant injury, provided injury is not caused

by another factor associated with seed drying, such as high temperature.

Temperature

• Low temperature is more effective than higher temperatures for storing seeds

• The amount of heat produced by fungi, insects, and other organisms invading the grain is considerably higher.

• In building better seed storage structures, important points to remember about temperature are:

1. Mites do not develop below 5°C, nor insects below 15°C.

2. Most storage fungi do not develop below 0°C.

3. The effect of temperature on an organism is correlated with the amount of moisture present, because a rise in

temperature corresponds to the decrease in the relative amount of moisture in the atmosphere.

• Harrington's (1960) rule of thumb states that for each 1% increase in seed moisture, the life of the seed is halved.

• Seeds having 10% moisture and stored at 20°C will survive about twice as long as those with 8% moisture stored at 30'C.
Physical Condition of the Seed

• Commonly used tests for mechanical injuries include observations of

fractured seed coat or of seedling structures in growth tests.

• Symptoms of mechanical damage in standard growth tests are variable.

• They include, detached seed structure, breaks within structures, abnormally shaped
structures, scar tissue infections, restricted growth, unnatural shrinkage of cotyledons,
and split or otherwise abnormally developed hypocotyls and primary roots.

• Injured roots often appear dwarfed and twisted and the tips often look blunt
and dull.
Microflora and Insects

• Storage fungi chiefly comprise several "group species" of the genera Aspergillus and
Penicillium.

• These fungi do not invade grains to any extent before harvest.

• The major effects of storage fungi upon seeds are:

• decrease in germinability, discolored embryo, hole kernels, or seeds, production of

mycotoxins, heating; and total decay.
Seed viability may be affected by the presence of insects in a number of ways:

1. If the insect becomes sufficiently abundant, it may render the storage environment
harmful to the seed by simultaneously raising the temperature.

2. The embryo may be damaged or killed by the feeding of adults or larvae or by

oviposition.

3. Insects may introduce fungi that consume the seed or weaken or attack the seedling.

4. Insects may spin webs and construct cocoons that interfere sufficiently with the even
flow of seed to necessitate cleaning, and also cause loss of seed.

5. Insect control measures may kill some seeds.

Gas during Storage

• Seed moisture and various gases individually or in combination,

interact to affect the loss of viability during storage.

• An atmosphere of oxygen concentration greater than that of air

hastens deterioration, while an atmosphere of carbon dioxide is
reported to increase storage life (seed moisture less than 6%).

• An atmosphere of nitrogen gas delays the onset of deterioration;

however, once deterioration starts, it proceeds as rapidly as in air.

• Currently, different gases are not utilized commercially for storage, but
research interest on the subject is increasing.
6.7.2 Seed Marketing
The process of seed marketing has two important purposes.
• One is to assess the demand for seed and related inputs:
• The other is to ensure that enough seed of the right quality is supplied to farmers at the
right time, and at a reasonable price.

• In countries with a strong private seed sector, seed is usually distributed to

farmers through effective private distribution networks.

• In other countries, seed is distributed through the general agricultural supply

system, organized by the public sector.
• Such systems are often less effective and efficient.
World Seed Companies
• Mosanto
• Dupont
• Syngenta
Seed Demand
• Assessing the potential seed demand is rather simple and is based
on acreages, seed rates, and renewal rates.
• Establishing the effective demand for high quality seed is more
difficult, since it depends on many uncertain factors.
• The effective demand increase depends mainly on the introduction
rate and the replacement or renewal rate.
• Both rates depend in turn on many technical, sociological, economic,
and institutional factors.
Introduction rate

• The rate at which a new variety is introduced, or adopted by the farmer, depends
upon a number of factors.

• The first is agronomic superiority, including the primary and secondary uses of
the crop and the consumptive quality.

• The relation between costs and benefits also affects the rate.

• The type of crop also affects the adoption rate; farmers are often more willing to
introduce a new crop if it can be grown as a second crop.

• Other factors include: the availability of inputs and markets to absorb the extra
production, extension and promotion efforts, and the availability of credit.
Replacement rate

• The replacement rate is the rate at which farmers replace the seed, instead of using their
own harvested grain as seed.

• A farmer can usually save seed from the harvest of his commercial crop.

• The genetic purity of a new variety will remain high for several generations, particularly for
self-pollinated crops.

• Acceptable replacement rates are four-to-five years for self pollinated crops; three years
for cross-pollinated crops; and every year for hybrids.
Extension and promotion

• One part of marketing is seed extension programs which advise farmers on the availability and use of
quality seed of improved varieties.

• Farmers must also be convinced to use the seed, and trained in recommended production methods.

• In many countries, the government is responsible for extension, but private firms often have their own
extension programs.

• Many extension services are inadequate because they perform administrative and regulatory functions
instead of transferring improved technology to farmers.

• They may also have insufficient links to research.

• Careers in the extension services may not be considered attractive, and extension officers often lack the
necessary information about each crop under various growing conditions.
Credit
• Agricultural credit has become an important tool which enables the
farmer to use the quality seed and related inputs.
• In certain cases, credit is advanced only if certified seed is used.
Seed market planning must cope with many uncertain factors.
• Also, because seed production takes several years, demand has to
be assessed before the sales period.
Marketing channels

• The seed moves from the producer to the consumer via the wholesaler and retail dealer,
with each crop having its own particular pattern.

• The retail dealers play crucial role in fact the success of a distribution network depends
upon largely selecting, sufficiently motivated retail dealers who are able to provide
extension services.

• There should be numerous retail outlets distributed over the growing areas near the
farmers.

• The best dealers are those who already have contacts with the farmers and have
established a basis of trust.
Transportation of seeds

• In a comprehensive marketing system transport is required for the

distribution of seed to growers as well as collection, and also for
distribution to wholesalers, retailers, and farmers.

• Depending on the infrastructure of the country and the volume to be

transported, appropriate transport must be selected.

• Distribution is easier in a country with a good transport infrastructure.

Price of seed

• The seed price should cover the grain price, the additional costs of
production, processing, and distribution, and a reasonable profit.

• Seed prices range from 150-300% of grain prices, but may be higher
under unfavorable conditions or for hybrid varieties; prices, however,
should not be too high for farmer to pay.

• Subsidies might be needed initially to induce farmers to buy the

more expensive certified seed and other farm inputs, but should not
be necessary after five years.