Definition of Sets

A set is a collection of objects, things or symbols which are clearly defined. The individual objects in a set are called the members or elements of the set. A set must be properly defined so that we can find out whether an object is a member of the set.

There are two ways of doing this. 1. Listing the elements The set can be defined by listing all its elements, separated by commas and enclosed within braces. Example: B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} X = {a, b, c, d, e} However, in some instances, it is impossible to list all the elements of a set. In such cases, we define the set by method 2.

2. Describing the elements

The set can be defined, where possible, by describing the elements. Example: C = {x : x is an integer, x > 3 } This is read as: C is the set of elements x such that x is an integer greater than 3. D= {x: x is a river in a river}

We should describe a certain property which all the elements x, in a set, have in common so that we can know whether a particular thing belongs to the set. We relate a member and a set using the symbol . If an object x is an element ofset A, we write x A. If an object z is not an element of set A, we write z A. denotes is an element of or is a member of or belongs to

denotes is not an element of or is not a member of or does not belong to Example:

If A = {1, 3, 5} then 1 A and 2 A

Set Notation
We start with the most basic set notation - the symbol showing membership. The individual objects in a set are called the members or elements of the set . We relate a member and a set using the symbol . If an object x is an element of set A, we write x A. If an object z is not an element of set A, we write z A. denotes is an element of or is a member of or belongs to denotes is not an element of or is not a member of or does not belong to Example:
If A = {1, 3, 5} then 1 A and 2 A

Finite sets are sets that have a finite number of members. If the elements of a finite set are listed one after another, the process will eventually run out of elements to list. Example: A = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, , 100} C = {x : x is an integer, 1 < x < 10} An infinite set is a set which is not finite. It is not possible to explicitly list out all the elements of an infinite set. Example: T = {x : x is a triangle} N is the set of natural numbers A is the set of fractions The number of elements in a finite set A is denoted by n(A).

Example: If A is the set of positive integers less than 12 then

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} and n(A) = 11 If C is the set of numbers which are also multiples of 3 then C = {3, 6, 9, } and C is an infinite set If D is the set of integers x defined by 3 < x < 6 then D = {2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and n(D) = 8 If Q is the set of letters in the word HELLO then Q = {H, E, L, O } , n(Q) = 4 L is not repeated.

here are some sets that do not conatin any element at all. For example, the set of months with 32 days. We call a set with no elements the null or empty set. It is represented by the symbol { } or . Some other example of null sets are: The set of dogs with six legs. The set of squares with 5 sides. The set of cars with 20 doors. The set of integers which are both even and odd.

Set Equality
Consider the sets: P ={Tom, Dick, Harry, John} Q = {Dick, Harry, John, Tom} Since P and Q contain exactly the same number of members and the memebers are the same, we say that P is equal to Q, and we write P = Q. The order in which the members appear in the set is not important. Consider the sets: R = {2, 4, 6, 8} S = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Since R and S do not contain exactly the same members, we say that R is not equal to S and we write R S.

Set Equality
Consider the sets: P ={Tom, Dick, Harry, John} Q = {Dick, Harry, John, Tom} Since P and Q contain exactly the same number of members and the memebers are the same, we say that P is equal to Q, and we write P = Q. The order in which the members appear in the set is not important. Consider the sets: R = {2, 4, 6, 8} S = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} Since R and S do not contain exactly the same members, we say that R is not equal to S and we write R S

Set Theory: Venn Diagrams

We can also represent sets using Venn diagrams. In a Venn diagram, the sets are represented by shapes; usually circles or ovals. The elements of a set are labelled within the circle. Example: Given the set P is the set of even numbers between 15 and 25. Draw and label a Venn diagram to represent the set P and indicate all the elements of set P in the Venn diagram. Solution: List out the elements of P. P = {16, 18, 20, 22, 24} between does not include 15 and 25

Draw a circle or oval. Label it P . Put the elements in P.

Example: Draw and label a Venn diagram to represent the set R = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday}. Solution: Draw a circle or oval. Label it R . Put the elements in R.

Example: Given the set Q = {x : 2x 3 < 11, x is a positive integer }. Draw and label a Venn diagram to represent the set Q. Solution: Since an equation is given, we need to first solve for x. 2x 3 < 11 2x < 14 x < 7

So, Q = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Draw a circle or oval. Label it Q . Put the elements in Q.

Set Theory: Subsets

If every element of a set B is also a member of a set A, then we say B is a subset ofA. We use the symbol to mean is a subset of and the symbol to mean is not a subset of . Example: A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} So, A B because every element in A is also in B.

X = {1, 3, 5}, Y = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. X Y because 1 is in X but not in Y.

Note:
y y y

Every set is a subset of itself i.e. for any set A, A A The empty set is a subset of any set A i.e. A For any two sets A and B, if A B and B A then A = B

Example: List all the subsets of the set Q = {x, y, z} Solution: The subsets of Q are { }, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}and {x, y, z}
The number of subsets for a finite set A is given by the formula: Number of subsets = 2 n(A)

where n(A) = number of elements in the finite set A

Example: Q = {x, y, z}. How many subsets will Q have? Solution: n(Q) = 3 Number of subsets = 23 = 8

Example: Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets. A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Solution: Since A is a subset of B: Step 1: Draw circle A within the circle B Step 2 : Write down the elements in circle A. Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in circle B.

Set Theory: Universal Set

A universal set is the set of all elements under consideration, denoted by capital U or sometimes capital E.

Example: Given that U = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, list the elements of the following sets. a) A = {x : x is a factor of 60} b) B = {x : x is a prime number} Solution: The elements of sets A and B can only be selected from the given universal set U . a) A = {5, 6, 10, 12} b) B = {5, 7, 11}

In Venn diagrams, the universal set is usually represented by a rectangle and labelled U.

Example: Draw a Venn diagram to represent the following sets: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {1, 2, 5, 6}, B = {3, 9} Solution: Step 1 : Draw a rectangle and label it U to represent the universal set. Step 2 : Draw circles within the rectangle to represent the other sets. Label the circles and write the relevant elements in each circle. Step 3 : Write the remaining elements outside the circles but within the rectangle.

Complement Of A Set
The complement of set A, denoted by A , is the set of all elements in the universal set that are not in A.

The number of elements of A and the number of elements of A make up the total number of elements in U . n(A) + n(A ) = n( U )

Example: Let U = {x : x is an integer, 4 x 7}, P = {4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 5, 6} and Q = {3, 2, 1, 2, 3}. a) List the elements of set P b) Draw a Venn diagram to display the sets U , P and P c) Find n(Q)

Solution: a) First, list out the members of U. U = {4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} P = {3, 1, 1, 3, 7} in U but not in P

b) Draw a Venn diagram to display the sets U , P and P

c) Find n(Q) n( U ) = 12, n(Q ) = 5 Use the formula: n(Q) + n(Q ) = n( U ) n(Q) = n( U ) n(Q ) = 12 5 = 7

Set Operations

Sets Intersection: Intersection Of Two Sets

The intersection of two sets X and Y is the set of elements that are common to both set X and set Y. It is denoted by X Y and is read X intersection Y.

Example: Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10} Solution: We find that X Y = {1, 5, 6, 10} in both X and Y

For the Venn diagram, Step 1 : Draw two overlapping circles to represent the two sets. Step 2 : Write down the elements in the intersection. Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets. Notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the intersection first.

If X Y then X Y = X . We will illustrate this relationship in the following example.

Example: Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets X = {1, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}

Solution: We find that X Y = {1, 6, 9} which is equal to the set X

For the Venn diagram, Step 1 : Draw one circle within another circle Step 2 : Write down the elements in the inner circle. Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the outer circle.

Intersection Of Three Sets

The intersection of three sets X, Y and Z is the set of elements that are common to sets X, Y and Z. It is denoted by X Y Z

Example: Draw a Venn diagram to represent the relationship between the sets X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 9}, Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and Z = {3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} Solution: We find that X Y Z = {5, 6}, X Y = {1, 5, 6},

Z = {3, 5, 6, 8} and X

Z = {5, 6, 7}

For the Venn diagram: Step 1 : Draw three overlapping circles to represent the three sets. Step 2 : Write down the elements in the intersection X Y Z

Step 3 : Write down the remaining elements in the intersections: X Y, Y Z and X Z

Step 4 : Write down the remaining elements in the respective sets. Again, notice that you start filling the Venn diagram from the elements in the intersection first.

In general, there are many ways that 3 sets may intersect. Some examples are shown below.

Complement Of The Intersection Of Sets

The complement of the set X Y is the set of elements that are members of the universal set U but not members of X Y. It is denoted by (X Y)

Example: Suppose U = set of positive integers less than 10, X = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} . a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate ( X b) Find ( X Solution: a) First, fill in the elements for X Y = {1, 5, 6} Y) Y)

Fill in the other elements for X and Y and for U

Shade the region outside X

Y to indicate (X

Y)

b) We can see from the Venn diagram that (X Y ) = {2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9} Y = {1, 5, 6} and so

Or we find that X (X

Y ) = {2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9}

Union Of Sets
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements, which are in A or in B or in both. It is denoted by A B and is read A union B

Example : Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} X = {1, 2, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8} Find X Solution: X Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} 1 is written only once. Y and draw a Venn diagram to illustrate X Y.

If X

Y then X

Y = Y. We will illustrate this relationship in the following example.

Example: Given U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} X = {1, 6, 9} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9} Find X Solution: X Y = {1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9} Y and draw a Venn diagram to illustrate X Y.

The complement of the set X Y is the set of elements that are members of the universal set U but are not in X Y. It is denoted by (X Y ) Example: Given: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} X = {1, 2, 6, 7} and Y = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8} a) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate ( X Y)

b) Find ( X Solution:

Y)

a) First, fill in the elements for X

Y = {1}

Fill in the other elements for X and Y and for U Shade the region outside X Y to indicate (X Y)

b) We can see from the Venn diagram that (X Y ) = {9} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and so

Or we find that X (X Y ) = {9}

Example: Given U = {x : 1 x 10, x is an integer}, A = The set of odd numbers, B = The set of factors of 24 and C = {3, 10}. a) Draw a Venn diagram to show the relationship. b) Using the Venn diagram or otherwise, find: i) (A B ) ii) (A C ) iii) (A B C)

Solution: A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8} and C = {3, 10} a) First, fill in the elements for A B C = {3}, A B {1, 3},

C = {3}, B

C = {3} and then the other elements.

b) We can see from the Venn diagram that i) (A ii) (A iii) (A B ) = {10} C ) = {2, 4, 6, 8} B C)={}

Combined Operations
Combined operations involve the intersection, union and complement of sets. Perform the operations within brackets first. Other operations are performed from left to right. Example: Given that U = {x : 1 x 10, x is an integer}, G = {x : x is a prime number}, H = {x : x is an even number}, P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. List the elements of: a) G b) (G H P H

P)

c) H d) (P
Solution:

(G H

P) G) (G H)

G = {2, 3, 5, 7}, H = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} a) G H P = {2} P G H = {2}

= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} b) (G P) H = {2, 3, 5} H

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10} c) H (G P)=H {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

= {1, 3, 5, 7} d) (P = {9} H G) (G H) = {9} (G H)

{2} = { }

Drawing Venn Diagrams

First, we need to determine the relationships between the sets such as subsets and intersections. There could be several ways to describe the relationships. We would draw A within B if we know that:

All members of A belongs to B or A or n(A B) = n(A)

B or A

B = B or A

B=A

We would draw A overlap B if we know that:

Some members of A belongs to B or A

B or n(A

B)0

We would draw disjoint sets A and B if we know that

No members of A belongs to B or A Example:

B = or n(A

B)=0

U = the set of triangles, I = the set of isosceles triangles, Q = the set of equilateral triangles and R = the set of right-angled triangles. Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate these sets. Solution: First, we determine the relationships between the sets. All equilateral triangles are isosceles, so Q I. (within) I (overlap) Q = (disjoint)

Some right-angled triangles may be isosceles. R Right-angled triangles can never be equilateral. R Then we draw the Venn diagram:

Set-theoretic equalities There are a number of general laws about sets which follow from the definitions of settheoretic operations, subsets, etc. A useful selection of these is shown below. They are grouped under their traditional names. These equations below hold for any sets X, Y, Z: 1. Idempotent Laws (a) X X = X (b) X X = X 2. Commutative Laws (a) X Y = Y X (b) X Y = Y X 3. Associative Laws (a) (X Y) Z = X (Y Z) (b) (X Y) Z = X (Y Z) 4. Distributive Laws (a) X (Y Z) = (X Y) (X Z) (b) X (Y Z) = (X Y) (X Z) 5. Identity Laws (a) X = X (c) X =

(b) X U = U (d) X U = X 6. Complement Laws (a) X X = U (c) X X = (b) (X ) = X (d) X Y = X Y 7. DeMorgan s Laws (a) (X Y) = X Y (b) (X Y) = X Y 8. Consistency Principle (a) X Y iff X Y = Y (b) X Y iff X Y = X We will see later that operations on subsets of a set form a Boolean algebra.