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25–2 The Human Eye;

Corrective Lenses
The human eye resembles a camera in its basic structure (Fig. 25–9), but is far PHYSICS APPLIED
more sophisticated. The interior of the eye is filled with a transparent gel-like The eye
substance called the vitreous humor with index of refraction n = 1.337. Light
Ciliary
enters this enclosed volume through the cornea and lens. Between the cornea and muscles
lens is a watery fluid, the aqueous humor (aqua is “water” in Latin) with n = 1.336. Retina
Iris
A diaphragm, called the iris (the colored part of your eye), adjusts automatically
to control the amount of light entering the eye, similar to a camera. The hole in the Aqueous Fovea
humor Vitreous
iris through which light passes (the pupil) is black because no light is reflected
humor
from it (it’s a hole), and very little light is reflected back out from the interior of Pupil
the eye. The retina, which plays the role of the film or sensor in a camera, is on the Cornea
curved rear surface of the eye. The retina consists of a complex array of nerves Optic
Lens nerve
and receptors known as rods and cones which act to change light energy into elec- Ciliary
trical signals that travel along the nerves. The reconstruction of the image from all muscles
these tiny receptors is done mainly in the brain, although some analysis may also FIGURE 25–9 Diagram of a human
be done in the complex interconnected nerve network at the retina itself. At the eye.
center of the retina is a small area called the fovea, about 0.25 mm in diameter,
where the cones are very closely packed and the sharpest image and best color
discrimination are found.
Unlike a camera, the eye contains no shutter. The equivalent operation is
carried out by the nervous system, which analyzes the signals to form images at
the rate of about 30 per second. This can be compared to motion picture or tele-
vision cameras, which operate by taking a series of still pictures at a rate of 24
(movies) and 60 or 30 (U.S. television) per second. Their rapid projection on the
screen gives the appearance of motion.
The lens of the eye (n = 1.386 to 1.406) does little of the bending of the light FIGURE 25–10 Accommodation
rays. Most of the refraction is done at the front surface of the cornea (n = 1.376) by a normal eye: (a) lens relaxed,
at its interface with air (n = 1.0). The lens acts as a fine adjustment for focusing focused at infinity; (b) lens thickened,
at different distances. This is accomplished by the ciliary muscles (Fig. 25–9), focused on a nearby object.
which change the curvature of the lens so that its focal length is changed. To Focal point of lens and cornea
focus on a distant object, the ciliary muscles of the eye are relaxed and the lens is
thin, as shown in Fig. 25–10a, and parallel rays focus at the focal point (on the
retina). To focus on a nearby object, the muscles contract, causing the center of Object
the lens to thicken, Fig. 25–10b, thus shortening the focal length so that images of at ∞
nearby objects can be focused on the retina, behind the new focal point. This
focusing adjustment is called accommodation. (a)
The closest distance at which the eye can focus clearly is called the near point
of the eye. For young adults it is typically 25 cm, although younger children can
often focus on objects as close as 10 cm. As people grow older, the ability to
accommodate is reduced and the near point increases. A given person’s far point
Focal point of lens and cornea
is the farthest distance at which an object can be seen clearly. For some purposes
it is useful to speak of a normal eye (a sort of average over the population),
defined as an eye having a near point of 25 cm and a far point of infinity. To check Object
your own near point, place this book close to your eye and slowly move it away
until the type is sharp.
The “normal” eye is sort of an ideal. Many people have eyes that do not (b)
accommodate within the “normal” range of 25 cm to infinity, or have some other
defect. Two common defects are nearsightedness and farsightedness. Both can
be corrected to a large extent with lenses—either eyeglasses or contact lenses.
In nearsightedness, or myopia, the human eye can focus only on nearby
objects. The far point is not infinity but some shorter distance, so distant objects
are not seen clearly. Nearsightedness is usually caused by an eyeball that is too
long, although sometimes it is the curvature of the cornea that is too great.
In either case, images of distant objects are focused in front of the retina.

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Object Object
FIGURE 25–11 Correcting eye defects at ∞
with lenses. (a) A nearsighted eye, which
cannot focus clearly on distant objects
(a) Nearsighted eye (c) Farsighted eye
(focal point is in front of retina), can
be corrected (b) by use of a diverging lens.
(c) A farsighted eye, which cannot focus
clearly on nearby objects (focus point
Object
behind retina), can be corrected (d) by
use of a converging lens.

(b) Corrected (d) Corrected

nearsighted eye farsighted eye

PHYSICS APPLIED A diverging lens, because it causes parallel rays to diverge, allows the rays to be
Corrective lenses focused at the retina (Figs. 25–11a and b) and thus can correct nearsightedness.
In farsightedness, or hyperopia, the eye cannot focus on nearby objects.
Although distant objects are usually seen clearly, the near point is somewhat greater
than the “normal” 25 cm, which makes reading difficult. This defect is caused by an
eyeball that is too short or (less often) by a cornea that is not sufficiently curved. It
is corrected by a converging lens, Figs. 25–11c and d. Similar to hyperopia is
presbyopia, which is the lessening ability of the eye to accommodate as a person
ages, and the near point moves out. Converging lenses also compensate for this.
Astigmatism is usually caused by an out-of-round cornea or lens so that point
objects are focused as short lines, which blurs the image. It is as if the cornea were
FIGURE 25–12 A cylindrical lens spherical with a cylindrical section superimposed. As shown in Fig. 25–12, a cylin-
forms a line image of a point object drical lens focuses a point into a line parallel to its axis. An astigmatic eye may
because it is converging in one plane focus rays in one plane, such as the vertical plane, at a shorter distance than it does
only. for rays in a horizontal plane. Astigmatism is corrected with the use of a compen-
Image (line) sating cylindrical lens. Lenses for eyes that are nearsighted or farsighted as well
as astigmatic are ground with superimposed spherical and cylindrical surfaces, so
that the radius of curvature of the correcting lens is different in different planes.
Object
(point) EXAMPLE 25;5 Farsighted eye. A farsighted eye has a near point of
100 cm. Reading glasses must have what lens power so that a newspaper can be
read at a distance of 25 cm? Assume the lens is very close to the eye.
APPROACH When the object is placed 25 cm from the lens (= do), we want the
image to be 100 cm away on the same side of the lens (so the eye can focus it),
and so the image is virtual, as shown in Fig. 25–13, and di = –100 cm will be
negative. We use the thin lens equation (Eq. 23–8) to determine the needed
focal length. Optometrists’ prescriptions specify the power (P = 1兾f,
Eq. 23–7) given in diopters A1 D = 1 m–1 B.
SOLUTION Given that do = 25 cm and di = –100 cm, the thin lens equation
gives
1 1 1 1 1 4 - 1 1 .
= + = + = =
f do di 25 cm –100 cm 100 cm 33 cm
So f = 33 cm = 0.33 m. The power P of the lens is P = 1兾f = ±3.0 D. The
plus sign indicates that it is a converging lens.
NOTE We chose the image position to be where the eye can actually focus. The lens
needs to put the image there, given the desired placement of the object (newspaper).

Image Lens Eye

Object
FIGURE 25–13 Lens of reading glasses
(Example 25–5).
do
di

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EXAMPLE 25;6 Nearsighted eye. A nearsighted eye has near and far points 2 cm
of 12 cm and 17 cm, respectively. (a) What lens power is needed for this person Object
at ∞
to see distant objects clearly, and (b) what then will be the near point? Assume
I
that the lens is 2.0 cm from the eye (typical for eyeglasses).
APPROACH For a distant object Ado = q B, the lens must put the image at the 17 cm
far point of the eye as shown in Fig. 25–14a, 17 cm in front of the eye. We can (Far point)
use the thin lens equation to find the focal length of the lens, and from this its
lens power. The new near point (as shown in Fig. 25–14b) can be calculated for (a)
the lens by again using the thin lens equation.
SOLUTION (a) For an object at infinity Ado = q B, the image must be in front
of the lens 17 cm from the eye or (17 cm - 2 cm) = 15 cm from the lens; hence
O I
di = –15 cm. We use the thin lens equation to solve for the focal length of the
needed lens:
1 1 1 1 1 1 . 12 cm
= + = + = – (Near point)
f do di q –15 cm 15 cm
So f = –15 cm = –0.15 m or P = 1兾f = –6.7 D. The minus sign indicates (b)
that it must be a diverging lens for the myopic eye. FIGURE 25–14 Example 25–6.
(b) The near point when glasses are worn is where an object is placed Ado B so
that the lens forms an image at the “near point of the naked eye,” namely 12 cm
from the eye. That image point is (12 cm - 2 cm) = 10 cm in front of the lens,
so di = –0.10 m and the thin lens equation gives
1 1 1 1 1 –2 + 3 1 .
= - = – + = =
do f di 0.15 m 0.10 m 0.30 m 0.30 m
So do = 30 cm, which means the near point when the person is wearing glasses
is 30 cm in front of the lens, or 32 cm from the eye.

Contact Lenses
Suppose contact lenses are used to correct the eye in Example 25–6. Since PHYSICS APPLIED
contacts are placed directly on the cornea, we would not subtract out the 2.0 cm Contact lenses—different
for the image distances. That is, for distant objects di = f = –17 cm, so f and P
P = 1兾f = –5.9 D. The new near point would be 41 cm. Thus we see that a
contact lens and an eyeglass lens will require slightly different powers, or focal
lengths, for the same eye because of their different placements relative to the eye.
We also see that glasses in this case give a better near point than contacts.
EXERCISE C What power of contact lens is needed for an eye to see distant objects if its
far point is 25 cm?

Underwater Vision
When your eyes are under water, distant underwater objects look blurry because PHYSICS APPLIED
at the water–cornea interface, the difference in indices of refraction is very small: Underwater vision
n = 1.33 for water, 1.376 for the cornea. Hence light rays are bent very little and
are focused far behind the retina, Fig. 25–15a. If you wear goggles or a face mask,
you restore an air–cornea interface (n = 1.0 and 1.376, respectively) and the
rays can be focused, Fig. 25–15b.

Water
Object
n ⫽1.33
FIGURE 25–15 (a) Under water, we see a blurry
(a) image because light rays are bent much less than
in air. (b) If we wear goggles, we again have an
Water Air air–cornea interface and can see clearly.
Object
Face mask
(b)
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Image
25–3 Magnifying Glass
θ Much of the remainder of this Chapter will deal with optical devices that are used
to produce magnified images of objects. We first discuss the simple magnifier,
(a) or magnifying glass, which is simply a converging lens (see Chapter-Opening
Photo, page 713).
Image
How large an object appears, and how much detail we can see on it, depends
on the size of the image it makes on the retina. This, in turn, depends on the
θ angle subtended by the object at the eye. For example, a penny held 30 cm from
the eye looks twice as tall as one held 60 cm away because the angle it subtends is
(b) twice as great (Fig. 25–16). When we want to examine detail on an object, we
FIGURE 25–16 When the same object
bring it up close to our eyes so that it subtends a greater angle. However, our
is viewed at a shorter distance, the eyes can accommodate only up to a point (the near point), and we will assume
image on the retina is greater, so the a standard distance of N = 25 cm as the near point in what follows.
object appears larger and more detail A magnifying glass allows us to place the object closer to our eye so that it
can be seen. The angle u that the object subtends a greater angle. As shown in Fig. 25–17a, the object is placed at the
subtends in (a) is greater than in (b). focal point or just within it. Then the converging lens produces a virtual image,
Note: This is not a normal ray diagram which must be at least 25 cm from the eye if the eye is to focus on it. If the eye is
because we are showing only one ray relaxed, the image will be at infinity, and in this case the object is exactly at the
from each point. focal point. (You make this slight adjustment yourself when you “focus” on the
object by moving the magnifying glass.)
Image

θ′
h Object h θ
F do θ′
N
di (⫽ 25 cm for normal eye)

(a) (b)
FIGURE 25–17 Leaf viewed (a) through a magnifying glass, and (b) with the unaided eye. The eye is
focused at its near point in both cases.

A comparison of part (a) of Fig. 25–17 with part (b), in which the same
object is viewed at the near point with the unaided eye, reveals that the angle the
object subtends at the eye is much larger when the magnifier is used. The angular
magnification or magnifying power, M, of the lens is defined as the ratio of the
angle subtended by an object when using the lens, to the angle subtended using
the unaided eye, with the object at the near point N of the eye (N = 25 cm for
a normal eye):
u¿ ,
M = (25;1)
u
where u and u¿ are shown in Fig. 25–17. We can write M in terms of the focal
length by noting that u = h兾N (Fig. 25–17b) and u¿ = h兾do (Fig. 25–17a), where
FIGURE 25–18 With the eye relaxed, h is the height of the object and we assume the angles are small so u and u¿ (in
the object is placed at the focal point, radians) equal their sines and tangents. If the eye is relaxed (for least eye strain),
and the image is at infinity. Compare the image will be at infinity and the object will be precisely at the focal point;
to Fig. 25–17a where the image is at see Fig. 25–18. Then do = f and u¿ = h兾f, whereas u = h兾N as before
the eye’s near point. (Fig. 25–17b). Thus
Image at ∞
c d (25;2a)
u¿ h兾f N. eye focused at q;
M = = =
u h兾N f N = 25 cm for normal eye
h We see that the shorter the focal length of the lens, the greater the magnification.†
F θ′ †
Simple single-lens magnifiers are limited to about 2 or 3 * because of blurring due to spherical
θ′ aberration (Section 25–6).

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The magnification of a given lens can be increased a bit by moving the lens
and adjusting your eye so it focuses on the image at the eye’s near point. In this
case, di = –N (see Fig. 25–17a) if your eye is very near the magnifier. Then the
object distance do is given by
1 1 1 1 1.
= - = +
do f di f N

We see from this equation that do = fN兾(f + N) 6 f, as shown in Fig. 25–17a,

since N兾(f + N) must be less than 1. With u¿ = h兾do the magnification is

u¿ h兾do
M = =
u h兾N

= Na b = Na + b
1 1 1
do f N
or

c d (25;2b)
N eye focused at near point, N;
M = + 1.
f N = 25 cm for normal eye

We see that the magnification is slightly greater when the eye is focused at its
near point, as compared to when it is relaxed.

EXAMPLE 25;7 ESTIMATE A jeweler’s “loupe.” An 8-cm-focal-length

converging lens is used as a “jeweler’s loupe,” which is a magnifying glass. Esti-
mate (a) the magnification when the eye is relaxed, and (b) the magnification if
the eye is focused at its near point N = 25 cm.
APPROACH The magnification when the eye is relaxed is given by Eq. 25–2a.
FIGURE 25–19 (a) Objective lens
When the eye is focused at its near point, we use Eq. 25–2b and we assume the
(mounted now in an ivory frame) from
lens is near the eye. the telescope with which Galileo
SOLUTION (a) With the relaxed eye focused at infinity, made his world-shaking discoveries,
including the moons of Jupiter.
N 25 cm (b) Telescopes made by Galileo (1609).
M = = L 3*.
f 8 cm
(b) The magnification when the eye is focused at its near point (N = 25 cm),
and the lens is near the eye, is
N 25
M = 1 + = 1 + L 4*.
f 8

25–4 Telescopes
A telescope is used to magnify objects that are very far away. In most cases, the
object can be considered to be at infinity.
Galileo, although he did not invent it,† developed the telescope into a usable (a)
and important instrument. He was the first to examine the heavens with the
telescope (Fig. 25–19), and he made world-shaking discoveries, including the
moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, sunspots, the structure of the Moon’s
surface, and that the Milky Way is made up of a huge number of individual stars.

†
Galileo built his first telescope in 1609 after having heard of such an instrument existing in Holland.
The first telescopes magnified only three to four times, but Galileo soon made a 30-power instrument.
The first Dutch telescopes date from about 1604 and probably were copies of an Italian telescope
built around 1590. Kepler (see Chapter 5) gave a ray description (in 1611) of the Keplerian telescope,
which is named for him because he first described it, although he did not build it. (b)

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fo
fe fe

Parallel
rays from
FIGURE 25–20 Astronomical object at ∞
telescope (refracting). Parallel light from θ Fe′ Fo Fe
one point on a distant object Ado = q B θ h θ′
is brought to a focus by the objective
lens in its focal plane. This image AI1 B is
I1
magnified by the eyepiece to form the
final image I2 . Only two of the rays Objective Eyepiece
lens
shown entering the objective are
standard rays (2 and 3) as described in
Fig. 23–37.

I2
Several types of astronomical telescope exist. The common refracting type,
sometimes called Keplerian, contains two converging lenses located at opposite
ends of a long tube, as illustrated in Fig. 25–20. The lens closest to the object is
called the objective lens (focal length fo) and forms a real image I1 of the distant
object in the plane of its focal point Fo (or near it if the object is not at infinity).
The second lens, called the eyepiece (focal length fe), acts as a magnifier. That is,
the eyepiece magnifies the image I1 formed by the objective lens to produce
a second, greatly magnified image, I2 , which is virtual and inverted. If the view-
P R O B L E M S O LV I N G ing eye is relaxed, the eyepiece is adjusted so the image I2 is at infinity. Then the
Distance between lenses = fo + fe real image I1 is at the focal point Feœ of the eyepiece, and the distance between the
for relaxed eye lenses is fo + fe for an object at infinity.
To find the total angular magnification of this telescope, we note that the
angle an object subtends as viewed by the unaided eye is just the angle u sub-
tended at the telescope objective. From Fig. 25–20 we can see that u L h兾fo ,
where h is the height of the image I1 and we assume u is small so that tan u L u.
Note, too, that the thickest of the three rays drawn in Fig. 25–20 is parallel to the
axis before it strikes the eyepiece and therefore is refracted through the eyepiece
FIGURE 25–21 This large refracting focal point Fe on the far side. Thus, u¿ L h兾fe and the total magnifying power
telescope was built in 1897 and is (that is, angular magnification, which is what is always quoted) of this telescope is
housed at Yerkes Observatory in Ah兾fe B
c d (25;3)
u¿ fo telescope
,
Ah兾fo B
Wisconsin. The objective lens is M = = = –
u fe magnification
102 cm (40 inches) in diameter, and
the telescope tube is about 19 m where we used Eq. 25–1 and we inserted a minus sign to indicate that the image is
long. Example 25–8. inverted. To achieve a large magnification, the objective lens should have a long
focal length and the eyepiece a short focal length.
EXAMPLE 25;8 Telescope magnification. The largest optical refracting
telescope in the world is located at the Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin,
Fig. 25–21. It is referred to as a “40-inch” telescope, meaning that the diameter of
the objective is 40 in., or 102 cm. The objective lens has a focal length of 19 m,
and the eyepiece has a focal length of 10 cm. (a) Calculate the total magnifying
power of this telescope. (b) Estimate the length of the telescope.
APPROACH Equation 25–3 gives the magnification. The length of the telescope
is the distance between the two lenses.
SOLUTION (a) From Eq. 25–3 we find
fo 19 m
M = – = – = –190 * .
fe 0.10 m
(b) For a relaxed eye, the image I1 is at the focal point of both the eyepiece and the
objective lenses. The distance between the two lenses is thus fo + fe L 19 m,
which is essentially the length of the telescope.

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EXERCISE D A 40 * telescope has a 1.2-cm focal length eyepiece. What is the focal
length of the objective lens?
For an astronomical telescope to produce bright images of faint stars, the
objective lens must be large to allow in as much light as possible. Indeed, the diam-
eter of the objective lens (and hence its “light-gathering power”) is an important
parameter for an astronomical telescope, which is why the largest ones are specified
by giving the objective diameter (such as the 10-meter Keck telescope in Hawaii).
The construction and grinding of large lenses is very difficult. Therefore, the
largest telescopes are reflecting telescopes which use a curved mirror as the objec-
tive, Fig. 25–22. A mirror has only one surface to be ground and can be supported
along its entire surface† (a large lens, supported at its edges, would sag under its
own weight). Often, the eyepiece lens or mirror (see Fig. 25–22) is removed so
that the real image formed by the objective mirror can be recorded directly on
film or on an electronic sensor (CCD or CMOS, Section 25–1).
Concave mirror
(objective)

Parallel
rays from Secondary
distant mirror
object Eyepiece

Eyepiece

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 25–22 A concave mirror can be used as the objective of an astronomical telescope. Arrangement (a) is called the
Newtonian focus, and (b) the Cassegrainian focus. Other arrangements are also possible. (c) The 200-inch (mirror diameter)
Hale telescope on Palomar Mountain in California. (d) The 10-meter Keck telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The Keck
combines thirty-six 1.8-meter six-sided mirrors into the equivalent of a very large single reflector, 10 m in diameter.
A terrestrial telescope, for viewing objects on Earth, must provide an upright
image—seeing normal objects upside down would be difficult (much less important
for viewing stars). Two designs are shown in Fig. 25–23. The Galilean type, which
Galileo used for his great astronomical discoveries, has a diverging lens as eye-
piece which intercepts the converging rays from the objective lens before they reach
a focus, and acts to form a virtual upright image, Fig. 25–23a. This design is still
used in opera glasses. The tube is reasonably short, but the field of view is small.
The second type, shown in Fig. 25–23b, is often called a spyglass and makes use
of a third convex lens that acts to make the image upright as shown. A spyglass
must be quite long. The most practical design today is the prism binocular which
was shown in Fig. 23–28. The objective and eyepiece are converging lenses. The
prisms reflect the rays by total internal reflection and shorten the physical size of
the device, and they also act to produce an upright image. One prism reinverts
the image in the vertical plane, the other in the horizontal plane.
FIGURE 25–23 Terrestrial
†
Another advantage of mirrors is that they exhibit no chromatic aberration because the light doesn’t telescopes that produce an upright
pass through them; and they can be ground into a parabolic shape to correct for spherical aberration
image: (a) Galilean; (b) spyglass, or
(Section 25–6). The reflecting telescope was first proposed by Newton.
erector type.
Final image (virtual)
Final image (virtual)

Parallel
rays from
distant
object Fo

Objective Eyepiece Objective Third

lens Eyepiece
lens lens
(a) (b)
SECTION 25–4 725
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25–5 Compound Microscope

PHYSICS APPLIED The compound microscope, like the telescope, has both objective and eyepiece
Microscopes (or ocular) lenses, Fig. 25–24. The design is different from that for a telescope
because a microscope is used to view objects that are very close, so the object
distance is very small. The object is placed just beyond the objective’s focal point
as shown in Fig. 25–24a. The image I 1 formed by the objective lens is real, quite
FIGURE 25–24 Compound microscope: far from the objective lens, and much enlarged. The eyepiece is positioned so that
(a) ray diagram, (b) photograph this image is near the eyepiece focal point Fe . The image I 1 is magnified by the
(illumination comes from below, eyepiece into a very large virtual image, I 2 , which is seen by the eye and is
outlined in red, then up through the inverted. Modern microscopes use a third “tube” lens behind the objective, but
slide holding the sample or object). we will analyze the simpler arrangement shown in Fig. 25–24a.
do l Eye
fe

Object Eyepiece
Objective Eyepiece
lens lens
Fo′ Fe
Fo
Objective
I1 lens

Sample

Light
source
(a) (b)

The overall magnification of a microscope is the product of the magnifica-

tions produced by the two lenses. The image I 1 formed by the objective lens is
a factor mo greater than the object itself. From Fig. 25–24a and Eq. 23–9 for the
I2
magnification of a simple lens, we have
hi di l - fe ,
mo = = = (25;4)
ho do do
where do and di are the object and image distances for the objective lens, l is the
distance between the lenses (equal to the length of the barrel), and we ignored
the minus sign in Eq. 23–9 which only tells us that the image is inverted. We set
di = l - fe , which is exact only if the eye is relaxed, so that the image I 1 is at the
eyepiece focal point Fe . The eyepiece acts like a simple magnifier. If we assume that
the eye is relaxed, the eyepiece angular magnification Me is (from Eq. 25–2a)
N,
Me = (25;5)
fe
where the near point N = 25 cm for the normal eye. Since the eyepiece enlarges
the image formed by the objective, the overall angular magnification M is the
product of the magnification of the objective lens, mo , times the angular magni-
fication, Me , of the eyepiece lens (Eqs. 25–4 and 25–5):
N l - fe
c d (25;6a)
microscope
M = Me mo = ¢ ≤¢ ≤
fe do magnification
Nl .
L [fo and fe V l] (25;6b)
fe fo
The approximation, Eq. 25–6b, is accurate when fe and fo are small compared to l,
so l - fe L l, and the object is near Fo so do L fo (Fig. 25–24a). This is a good
approximation for large magnifications, which are obtained when fo and fe are
very small (they are in the denominator of Eq. 25–6b). To make lenses of very
short focal length, compound lenses involving several elements must be used to
avoid serious aberrations, as discussed in the next Section.
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EXAMPLE 25;9 Microscope. A compound microscope consists of a 10 *

eyepiece and a 50 * objective 17.0 cm apart. Determine (a) the overall magnifi-
cation, (b) the focal length of each lens, and (c) the position of the object when the
final image is in focus with the eye relaxed. Assume a normal eye, so N = 25 cm.
APPROACH The overall magnification is the product of the eyepiece magnifica-
tion and the objective magnification. The focal length of the eyepiece is found
from Eq. 25–2a or 25–5 for the magnification of a simple magnifier. For the
objective lens, it is easier to next find do (part c) using Eq. 25–4 before we find fo .
SOLUTION (a) The overall magnification is (10 * )(50 * ) = 500 * .
(b) The eyepiece focal length is (Eq. 25–5) fe = N兾Me = 25 cm兾10 = 2.5 cm.
Next we solve Eq. 25–4 for do , and find
l - fe (17.0 cm - 2.5 cm)
do = = = 0.29 cm.
mo 50
Then, from the thin lens equation for the objective with di = l - fe = 14.5 cm
(see Fig. 25–24a),
1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = 3.52 cm–1;
fo do di 0.29 cm 14.5 cm
so fo = 1兾A3.52 cm–1 B = 0.28 cm.
(c) We just calculated do = 0.29 cm, which is very close to fo .