Geologic Structures
❑ Faults
❑ Joints
❑ Folds
FAULTS
A fault is any surface or narrow zone with visible shear displacement
along the zone.
It is important that buildings and structures are not built on top of
faults that is why the geology of the area should be understood.
Faults are sources of mineralization and earthquakes.
Question: Will water injection at fault zones reduce earthquakes?
Three (3) types of Stress that determine the fault type:
1. Tensional Stress
2. Compressional Stress
3. Shear Stress
Three (3) types of Faults:
1. Normal Fault - hanging wall is lowered relative to the footwall
(c) Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
Horst
A block pushed upward relative to the
blocks on either side by the faulting.
Graben
A block that has been lowered
relative to the blocks on either side
due to the faulting.
2. Reverse Fault - the hanging wall is up thrown relative to the
footwall
2.1. Thrust Fault – are low-angle reverse faults
(c) Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
Reverse
Fault
Reverse
Fault
Thrust
Fault
3. Strike-slip Fault - the fault movement is lateral in the horizontal
plane
3.1 Dextral (right-lateral strike-slip) fault
3.2 Sinistral (left-lateral strike-slip) fault
San Andreas Fault (dextral fault) with
rhomb-shaped pull apart basins; note the
Salton Sea
The Philippine Fault is a sinistral fault (right).
The Valley Fault System (VFS) aka Marikina Valley Fault
is a dextral fault (bottom).
JOINTS
These are fractures on rocks or strata but
has no relative displacement.
Joint Set – joints that exhibit similar
orientation in an area.
Horizontal joint set Vertical joint set
FOLDS
A fold is when an originally flat surface such as sedimentary strata
are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation.
A fold is made up of a hinge that connects two usually differently
oriented limbs.
Fold Tightness:
1. Isoclinal 0 to 5 degrees, limbs almost parallel, aka isoclines
2. Tight 5 to 30 degrees
3. Close 30 to 70 degrees
4. Open 70 to 120 degrees
5. Gentle 120 to 180 degrees
Synform
❑ Hinge at bottom, limbs upward
❑ Age of Strata unknown
Antiform
❑ Hinge at top, limbs downward
❑ Age of strata unknown
Syncline
❑ Hinge at bottom, limbs upward
❑ Younger strata atop older strata
Anticline
❑ Hinge at top, limbs downward
❑ Younger strata atop older strata
Synformal Anticline
❑ Hinge at bottom, limbs upward
❑ Older strata atop younger strata
Antiformal Syncline
❑ Hinge at top, limbs downward
❑ Older strata atop younger strata
Question: How are the folds above conflict
the Principle of Original Horizontality and
Law of Superposition?
(c) Earth, an introduction to physical geology 11th ed. – Tarbuck, Lutgens, Tasa
SALT DOMES
Important accumulations of oil occur in association with salt domes.
Such areas have thick accumulations of sedimentary strata, including
layers of rock salt. Salt occurring at great depths has been forced to
rise in columns by the pressure of overlying beds. These rising salt
columns gradually deform the overlying strata. Because oil and gas
migrate to the highest level possible, they accumulate in the upturned
sandstone beds adjacent to the salt column
IMPORTANCE OF FAULTS, FOLDS, AND JOINTS IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
The Philippines is characterized by abundant certain
active faults that traverse almost the entirety of the
archipelago. They are shown in here as solid lines.
There are also faults in the country that remain
undiscovered by PHIVOLCS; some of them are
“inferred” whose trace is approximated. They are
shown here as dashed lines.
Faults are sources of earthquakes. Since the
Philippines has abundant fault lines, earthquakes are
one of the most common natural hazard present.
Design of structures such as buildings, roads, dams, or
bridges must consider the presence of faults in the
area. They must also be earthquake-resilient.
Fault Map from PHIVOLCS
Faults are unfavorable for dam
construction due to the active nature of the
bedrock moving. Instabilities in the
foundation due to movements and
earthquake vibrations can compromise the
integrity of dams.
Exposed outcrops with active faults located
at the dam upstream can be sources of
abundant sediments that can cause
sedimentation build up at the dam base.
This will make the reservoir shallower
affecting the amount of water the dam can
contain. Sedimentation build up can also be
a problem for dams utilizing turbines for
hydroelectric power because they can clog
the intakes.
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Folds can be advantageous in structures
such as dams. Depending on the orientation
of the fold, the stability of the dam can be
improved by taking advantage of the fold
inclination that can serve as additional
support for the foundation. Movement of
structure due to weight pressure is also
greatly reduced due to the “barrier” action of
the fold.
It is very important to consider the direction
of the fold limb because some fold
environments are unfavorable in dam
structures too. If the limb direction is
downward in the downstream direction, the
stability of the dam is compromised because
the weight of the structure along with the
immense weight pressure of the contained
water may cause the dam to move (slide)
downstream. A collapse may then happen.
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Folds can are also unfavorable for tunnel
structures. The rock environment is already
strained due to the deformation forces,
hence, any disturbance on the bedrock or
removal of overburden of rocks and soil can
release the strain that may result to cave-ins
or tunnel roof collapses.
Tunnels made at the crests can collapse due
to the reasons stated above; while tunnels
made at troughs can be more laborious and
expensive since the rocks there are
compressed, tough, and resistant.
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