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OUTLINES POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Classification of States & Government
Structures of Government
 Theory of the Separation of Power
 Legislature
 Executive
 Judiciary
 Elections
 Representation
 Public Opinion
 Pressure Group

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Notebook
If u Work Hard - Innsha_Allah- u will be Success.

Assalam o Alaikum, my Dear Students,

I hope You are All getting Good

knowledge, good Improvement in your

own work hard, but I give you this

notebook, which will help you in

Exams`s, so Please, if I make any

mistake, please help me, then I will

Improve them, and also get more

knowledge from all of you,

Thanks.
Obediently:
MemonMemon

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Classification of Stae & Government

Person MNA
  
Vote P  NA Executive
President
There are three spheres of Government ,
National Government, Provincial Government , & Local Government.

Theory of Separation of POWER

Origin and need for the theory of separation:
Since the ancient days of Aristotle political writers have recognised
the three fold distribution of governmental functions are powers they
are
 the law making a legislative power.
 the law enforcing our executive power.
 the law-adjudicating or judicial power.
Each power is exercised by its own department or organ of
government.

Montesquieu Theory
Montesquieu explained his theory in these verses in every
government there are three sorts of power legislative executive and
duty kal the liberty of the individual required that neither all these
powers nor any two of them should be placed in the hands of one man
or One body of men.
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 When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same
person or body of persons there can be no Liberty, because
apprehensions may arise that the king who is also the lawmakers,
might make and enforce the laws in a tyrannical manner.
 if the duty cal power is joint with the legislative the life and liberty
of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control for the judge
would then be the legislator.
 where the duty cal power joined to the executive power of the
judge might behavior with violence and oppression.
 there would be an end of everything if the same men are the
same body weather of the nobles or of the people were to
exercise those three powers that of enacting laws, that of
enforcing them and of trying the cases of individuals.

LEGISLATURE (to make laws)

The functions of the legislature are different in various states. In a
despotics of a autocratic government. [ The Legislature is either non –
existent or at the most consultative body, without any power to make
laws.]
The term "legislature" means a body of elected representatives that
makes laws. The prime function of legislatures, therefore, is to
formulate which is needed for the government and the country to
function. The legislature also provides a forum in which the public can
participate in issues and watch over the executive arm of government.

Parliament:
Parliament has two Houses:
The National Assembly.
The National Council of Provinces (NCOP).

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The National Assembly

The National Assembly is elected to represent the people and to
ensure government by the people under the Constitution. It does this
by:
choosing the President,
providing a national forum for public consideration of issues,
passing legislation and
scrutinizing and overseeing executive action.

Members of the National Assembly can change the government

by passing a vote of no confidence in the President and/or the Cabinet.
Membership
The National Assembly must have a maximum of 400 Members
and a minimum of 350 Members of Parliament (MPs).
The National Council of Provinces (NCOP)
The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) ensures that the nine
provinces and local government have a direct voice in Parliament when
laws are made.

Provincial Legislatures
Each province has a legislature, the size of which varies depending
on the population levels in the province. According to the Constitution
the minimum size of a Legislature is 30 members and the maximum size
is 80 members. Members are elected from provincial lists on the basis
of the number of votes received by a political party.
A provincial legislature is responsible for passing the laws for its
province as defined in the Constitution. These laws are only
effective for that particular province. Parliament may intervene
and change these laws if they undermine national security,
economic unity, national standards or the interests of another
province.
Like Parliament, provincial legislatures have the responsibility of calling
their Members of their Executive to account for their actions.
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SOME DIFFERENT VARIETIES / TYPES OF LEGISLATURE.

From Text book Page NO. (425)
FUNCTIONS:
Financial Functions:
In all democratic states today the legislature has control over
national financial. It has a power of grant money to the government
which cannot not collect texes without its previous approval.

Administrative Functions
The Legislature also controls the executive , especially in the
cabinet or parliamentary form of government . the cabinet is
responsible to the legislature.
ORGANISATION OF LEGISLATURE.
A National Repetitive body:
Legislature performs essential functions in every country . it must
therefore be so organized as to represent and reflect all sections and
interests in the nation.
Good Legislature procedure:
The legislature should be so organized as to prevent hasty
legislation. Laws affect everyone in the state. The my must therefore be
made only after a through proper discussion and deliberation in the
legislative assembly. Laws should be as `Aristotle said “reason without
passion” for this reason there must be no hustle or hurry, no emotional
outburst, while making laws.
COMPOSITIONS AND REPRESNTATION
Principle of Nomination:
According to it the executive nominates men of ability and
character to the legislature who would not like to fight election to the
popular house .
Principle of Election
The second chamber may be directly or indirectly elected. The
American senates is directly elected by the 50 states of the U.S.A . on
the basis of two members from each states.

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SATISFACTORY COMPOPSITION:
It should be indirectly [Link] does not then become a rival of
the popularly-elected house , which must be superior to it in a
democratic form of government.

DIRECT LEGISLATION BY THE PEOPLE

Direct democracy:
In modern times several devices have been in use to enable the
people to participate , directly in law-making . theoretical reason is that
sovereignty belongs to the people and trhere should be no
intermediaries like the representatives between them and the law-
making which is one of the most important sovereign powers.

People do not take much intrest in direct legislation:

Experience shows that the people do not exercise the right to
vote carefully, because very few people actually cast, their votes. It is
true that the number of those who actually vote at referenda is often
less than 50% of the qualified votes.. the cause is what is called
“electoral fatige”. The people become tired of constant polling.

In this topic (LEGISLATURE) , you have any confusion after this note-
Book ,please re-read text book Page NO.
(425 - 439)

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EXECUTIVE (to make policy)

(Book Page NO. 440)
The executive consists of the President, the Deputy President and
the Cabinet ministers at national level, and the Premier and Members
of the Executive Councils (MECs) at provincial level. It also includes
government departments and civil servants.

The responsibility of the Executive is to run the country and to

make policy in the best interests of its citizens and in terms of the
Constitution. They are empowered to implement legislation, develop
and implement policy, direct and co-ordinate the work of the
government departments, prepare and initiate legislation and perform
other functions as called for by the Constitution or legislation.
The Executives cannot pass laws, however, but may propose to the
Legislature new laws and changes to existing laws.

The Structure of the National Executive:

The President
The President is Head of State and head of the national
Executive or Cabinet and is also required to promote the unity and
interests of the nation. As head of the national Executive, the President
is also the Commander-in-Chief of the defence force.

Election of the President

The National Assembly elects one of its Members to be President
during the first sitting of the National Assembly. Once elected as
President, the President ceases to be a Member of Parliament and must
be sworn into office within five days.
The Head of the Constitutional Court (Chief Justice) presides over the
President’s election or designates another judge to do so. If the
Presidency is empty, then the Chief Justice must set a date within 30
days in which the position will be filled.

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Provincial Executive
The Executive in each province is called the Executive Council and
is headed by the Premier. Members of Executive Councils (MECs) are
accountable to their Legislatures in the same way as the Cabinet is
accountable to Parliament.
Important Types of Executive (from Text Book)
Page NO. 447 – 450
Nominal & Real Executive:
The organasitaion of the executive if the distinction between the
nominal or titular and the real executive is carefully kept in mind. In the
parliamentary state, the King or President is the chief executive . in law
or constitution he possesses great powers and Authority.

Single & Plural Executives:

A distinction is sometimes made between single and plural or
collegial executives . a single Executives is one in which all the executive
powers are in the hands of one individual, usually caleed the president.
(Example see page NO. 447)
The plural or Collegial executive is one in which two or more
persons exercise executive power.
Hereditary , Elective & Nominated Executive:
Heriditary executive is associated with the monorachial form of
government . the term of office is life long and the office goes
according to the law of primogeniture. It is the oldest way of choosing
the head of the state.
Nominated Executive:
Another the method of choosing the Executive is by selection or
nomination made by a superior authority. Obiviously the method is
usual in those countries which are dependencies , colonies, or
dominions of an imperialist country.
In this topic (EXECUTIVE) , you have any confusion after this note-
Book ,please re-read text book Page NO.
(442-452)
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JUDICIARY System of courts & applies laws

To protect fundamental rights of citizen of the state, / to
interprets law.
Judicial authority is vested in the courts, which are independent
and subject to the laws of the Constitution.

The Constitutional Court:

The Constitutional Court is the highest court for constitutional
matters. It is located in Johannesburg and presided over by a maximum
of eleven judges.
The Court guarantees the basic rights and freedoms of all persons.
Its judgements are binding on all organs of government, including
Parliament, the Presidency, the police force, the army, the public
service and all other courts.
It is also the only court that may decide upon disputes between
organs of state in the national and provincial spheres. The disputes may
concern

The High Court

High Courts used to be called Supreme Courts and are primarily
intended for more serious criminal and civil cases. They may hear some
constitutional matters - with the exception of those matters that only
the Constitutional Court may decide.

The Electoral Court :

Which deals with electoral issues, for example when there is a
dispute among political parties concerning the elections.

ORGANISATION OF JUDICIARY
One feature is common in the organization of the judicial systems
all over the modern world. The courts are arranged in an ascending or
hierarchical order of the lower superior court determined by their
sphere of powers or jurisdiction.

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Following types read from text-book Page No. (459-460)

 Criminal and Civil Courts:
 Special Courts:
 Federal Courts:
 Single Judge vs Several Judges:

IMPORTANCE OF THE JUDICIARY

Judiciary is the third organ of the government or generally it is not
considered to rank equal to the other two but it is a mistake in view its
importance is as great if not greater as that of the executive and
legislature Henry Sedgwick has rightly in precisely that the importance
of the judiciary in political construction as rather profound than
prominent.
FUNCTIONS
In modern times that Judiciary performs several functions but
there is no uniformity about them in various States we shall enumerate
the most important of them
SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES:
the primary function of the Judiciary is apply existing laws to the
cases are legal disputes brought before the courts of settlements in
these cases may be civil or criminal cases brought before a court its
duty is the first to find the fact that to discover the likely cable to the
case and pass a judgment according to it.
INTERPRETATION OF LAWS:
Sometimes the law is not clear either because the law-makers did
not foresee is the circumstances of the case, or the wording of the
statue is ambiguous or because two are more last applicable to the
case is in conflict. In deciding such cases that judge has some discretion
in interpreting the laws and deciding the case in the light of the
principles of justice equity and commonsense.

MODE OF APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES:

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Experience of the past centuries has shown that the

independence of the judges is greatly determined by the way they are
appointed. Three different methods are used in different countries for
the appointment of the judges they are;
1. Election by the people
2. Election by the legislature
3. Appointment by the executive
You can See on book page NO. 456.

In this topic (JUDICIARY) , you have any confusion after this note-Book
,please re-read text book Page NO.
(453 - 469)

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ELECTIONS (to take decision)

What is Election?
An election is a formal group
decision-making process by which a
population chooses an individual or
multiple individuals to hold public
office. To elect means "to select or
make a decision", and so
sometimes other forms of ballot
such as referendums are referred to
as elections, especially in the United
States.
Election indirect participation:
modern States are large country-States with vast territories and
great population. It is physically impossible for the people in such a
status to assemble at one place for political purposes they can take part
in the business of the state only indirectly that is through their
representatives whom they elect to make laws and policies and to
decide other affairs of the state
The purpose of elections:
Elections are the means of legitimating the assignment of a
person to an office of authorities in the state. John Austin once said the
electoral process will like to procedure in a marriage ceremony; do you
take this man (or woman) to be your lawfully wedded husband (or
wife) I do. so; a voter asks the candidates to accept my demands as
your own? I do. Says; that candidates. The point at which candidate is
elected is really not the moment of choice our decision by the voter. it
was in fact much earlier for a free voter decided a much earlier to vote
for a candidate of his preference. Really election is the point at which
voter`s preference becomes a public act; a Social and political
commitment to the kind of laws or policies her prepares it is a choice
between two Views or opinions about laws policies and decisions of the
government.
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DIFFERENT METHOD OF VOTING:

Purpose of voting,
Political issues can be settled by expressing opinion either
peacefully are with violence voting has been described as a means of a
deciding political disputes and questions without violence. It is better to
count heads them to break them. But if voting is to achieve the purpose
it must be free and independent. It means that the voter should be free
from all sorts of fears or pressure at the time of voting.
Two methods
Public VS Secret or ballot
Public voting Secret voting / vote by ballot
Freedom from intermediation Secret voting the voter casts his
and pressure at the time of vote by means of a ballot-paper
voting is essential if voter is to and in a polling-booth which is
express his choice freely and screened off from public gaze. As
independently. It means that he comes to cast his vote, the
voting should be secret. But a voter is given a ballot-paper. He
secret voting is recently put goes in the polling-booth and
into use in the past century the marks the ballot-paper according
voter Express his choice to his choice candidate.
openly & orally in the public it
is called open vote are public
voting.

What is Constituency?
It is physically impossible that millions of water say in a country
code assemble at one place and cast their votes , are known all
candidates are go long distance to vote. Owing to these considerations
the whole Territory of the state is divided into many electoral areas, or
districts called the constituencies

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Method of elections
An election is the occasion or the means by which is the qualified
voters make a choice among two or more candidates for the seat in the
legislature or for some public office it is of two kinds (direct & indirect).
Direct Elections:
The method of direct election is very simple the voters cast their
votes for or against the various candidates. Those candidates who
secures majority of the votes is declared successful and is returned as
the representative from the constituency in this method has found a
favor in all democratic States. Especially for the election of the Lower
House of the Legislature.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Elections
Advantages Disadvantages
 It stimulates political interest  Power in the hands of ignorant
among voters. masses.
 It broadents the mental  Passions and propaganda
horizon of the people. dominated direct elections.
 It secures effectives control
of the government by the
electorate.
 It is less expoese to
corruption.
Indirect Elections:
It is comparatively is more complicated. The voters do not elect
their representatives. They elect only a Number of persons is called
electors who constitute what is called an electoral college as an
intermediary body. These electors then in their turn choose the
representatives they finally. Thus an indirect election involves double
election; first a general election by the whole electorate and then a
limited election by the small body of electors who finally elect the
representatives.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of indirect Elections

Advantages Disadvantages
 It is free from the gusts of  It kills popular interest in the
popular passion. elections and politics.
 The representatives are  It is out of harmony with the
elected by men of ability and spirit of modern democracy.
intelligence  Indirect election has often
 It ensures cool consideration become direct election in
of politics issues. present times.
 It breads intrigue and
corruption.

REPRESENTATIVE
Representatives and when the elections are over successful
candidates become the representatives of their electors. They sit in the
legislature, make laws and run the government of the country.
What is the duty of representative to his electors?
There are two theories about it.
1. The delegated Theory or the theory of the instructed
representation.
2. The theory of a uninstructed representation.

Theory Of Instructed Representation:

According to this theory representatives is merely a delegate of
his electors. he is their mouthpiece. Therefore his function is the only to
act according to the instructions received from is a constituent. He is
not to use his own discretion by Judgments to decide the affairs of the
State. If he fails to abide by their instructions received from the
constituents, he can be recalled by them. Thus the duty of
representative consists in obeying the mandate or instruction of his
constituents of the people with whom Supreme Power resides.
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The Theory of Uninstructed Representation:

The theory of uninstructed representation has been rejected by
most of the writers. It is now held that the member is not a delegate
but a Trustee representatives. He is a chosen by his electors because,
firstly his views are in general accord with their view and, secondly
because his character and attainments are such as to enable him to join
with other representatives in the legislature to make laws and policy for
the good of the nation.

Annual Elections:
it was once a strongly believe pleaded in the 19th Century that
the legislature should be elected for one year only, so that they might
reflect public opinion faithfully the supporters of a new elections even
declared that “where annual elections end, tyranny begins” But
practical experience as a revealed the difficulties inconveniencies and
even dangerous of holding annual elections.
METHOD OF MINORITY REPRESENTATION
 Proportional Representation
 Limited Vote System
 The Alternative Vote System
 The Cumulative Vote System
 Communal Representation

 PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION
it is the earliest and the best method of a minority
representation it seeks to remove the defects of the majority
principle in the single member constituency on which the present-
day election and representation systems are based minorities are
not represented in the legislature, at least in proportion to their
voting strength that is in proportion to the number of votes they
have actually Secured at the polls. The system of proportional
representation seeks to obviate or correct such defects of the
existing system of Representation.
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Territorial Vs Functional Representation:

Practically all modern States have adopted the principle of
Territorial representation. The whole state is divided into a number of
constituencies. All the voters living in a constituency elect one or more
candidates together regardless of their differences of occupation,
profession, religion or social interests and status. This system of
Representation is known as a territorial representation for the elected
member claims to represent the territory from where he is elected
whatever his occupation or Social Work or status may be. For instance
representatives may be a lawyer but he represents the doctors,
teachers, workers, peasants, miners, railway men and all other sections
and classes of people in his constituency.

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PUBLIC OPINION
Public Opinion consist of desires wants
and thinking of the majority of the
people , it is the Collect opinion of the
people of society or state on an issue or
problem.

Democracy requires public opinion

because it drives authority from the
public.

It means what the people in genral think

about the political events happening
around them
It relates to the views people
entertain regarding the policies of the
Government and how they are
implemented.
It is not only a majority decision.
Sometimes it may be a minority decision of
the people .
Public Opinion is an expression of the
general population`s thoughts on a particular issues.

Citizens Attitudes about political issues, leaders institutions and events

May be understood on two levels
Individual – What one person thinks about issues , leaders , institutions
and events
Aggregate - The Accumulation of these individuals expressions are
expressed in politic Votes , town meetings, protests , etc
Preferences , beleifs and choices matter.

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PRESSURE GROUP

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