REVIEWER FOR EARTH SCIENCE FOR 2ND GRADING

External Earth processes

Weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and mass wasting are called external processes or exogenic
processes since they occur near the Earth's surface. These external processes are essential parts of the
rock cycle because they transform solid rocks into sediments. Since the beginning of the Earth,
mountains have been weathered and eroded, lakes have been filled with sediments, and plains have
been formed.

Weathering

The breaking down of rocks and other materials on the Earth's surface is called weathering. It is a slow
but continuous process affecting all substances exposed to the atmosphere. Large pieces of rocks break.
Over long periods of time, the rocks crumble and decay. Rocks on the Earth's surface may undergo
mechanical weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering occurs when rocks break into
pieces without changing their chemical composition. On the other hand, chemical weatheringood rate
hech composition of the rock is changed due to the action of other substances.

Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering causes rocks to be broken into smaller pieces. This type of weathering does not
change the chemical composition of the rocks, since they are just torn apart by physical forces.
Temperature, frost action, abrasion, and the action of living things are some of the different agents of
mechanical weathering.

Temperature. Rocks break because of the changes in temperature. During the day, the Earth's surface is
heated by the Sun. As the surface of the rock is heated, it expands but it remains cool inside. During the
night when the temperature

drops, the surface of the rock is cooled and the rock contracts. The cycle of heating and

cooling, as well as the expansion and contraction of rocks, is repeated daily. The repeated
changes in temperature causes the surface of the rock to peel off. This type of breaking off is called
exfoliation.

Frost Action. A unique property of water is that it expands when it freezes. Frost action occurs when
water seeps into the small cracks of rock layers. When air temperature drops below the freezing point of
water, the water within the cracks expands. As the

Abrasion. This is the wearing off of rocks by solid particles carried by wind, water, and other agents.
Wind that carries sand particles causes abrasion of the rocks leading to unusual rock formations on the
Earth's surface. Running water causes abrasion as it carries other rock particles. The rock particles in the
water scrape the rocks in the riverbed causing the rocks to become rounded and smooth.

Action of Living Things. Plants, animals, and even humans can cause mechanical weathering. Plant roots
try to push through the underground rocks to get their needed nutrients. As they mature, the roots
grow bigger and longer and exert pressure on the rocks causing them to break. There are burrowing
animals that build tunnel into the rocks to create a space where they live. The construction of roads,
dams, power plants, and other types of groundwork by human’s cause rocks to break, too.

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering changes the mineral content and the chemical composition of rocks. As chemical
changes occur, minerals may either be added or removed from the rocks. Water, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, sulfuric acid, and acids from plants and animals are some of the agents of chemical weathering

Water. Almost all chemical weathering is due to the action of water. Water can dissolve most of the
minerals present in rocks. It can form acids when it combines with some of the gases in the air. It can
also combine with minerals to form a different kind of mineral. For example, feldspar reacts with water
to form clay.

Oxygen. Oxygen combines with other substances to form entirely new substances. For example, when
iron-bearing rocks are exposed to the surface, their physical properties and chemical composition may
change. When iron reacts with oxygen in the air, it forms rust which is a different substance. The rocks
become brittle and break easily

Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide in air combines with rain water to form a weak solution of carbonic acid.
It can then seep into the rocks and dissolve the parts of the rock that react with acids.
Sulfur Oxides. Sulfur oxides are produced when fossil fuels are burned. They combine with rain water to
form sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is stronger than carbonic acid. It easily corrodes rocks, metals, and other
materials.

Acids and chemicals from organisms. Organisms such as plants can also cause chemical weathering.
They produce acids and other chemicals that dissolve some minerals in rocks

Soil Formation

The weathering of rocks on the Earth's surface results in soil formation. As rocks weather, they change
into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces are further broken down into soil.

Soil is very important to living organisms. Plants depend on soil for food, nutrients, and minerals. It also
holds water that the plants need. Animals depend on soil indirectly by cating the plants, or eating other
animals that eat plants.

Sometimes, soil remains on top of its parent rock or the rock from which it was formed. This is called
residual soil which has the same composition as the parent rock. Soil is moved to other places by wind,
water, glaciers, and waves. This type of soil is called transported soil. Transported soil has a very
different composition from the rock that it covers. The parent rock beneath the residual and transported
soils is called the bedrock.

Erosion and Sedimentation

Soil, the product of weathering, is carried away by erosion to other places. Erosion is the process by
which soil and weathered rocks are transported from one place to another Eroded rocks and soil are
deposited in other places. The process through which sediments are transported to another location is
called deposition or sedimentation. Over time, these materials accumulate and change the different
features of the Earth's surface. Erosion moves materials from place to place, while deposition forms
various surface features Winds, waves, running water, glaciers, and gravity are agents of erosion that
continuously shape the Earth's surface.

1. Wind is the most active agent of erosion in deserts, open fields, and beaches. In these places, loose
materials are abundant and can be easily picked up and carried by the wind. The amount of rock and soil
that can be blown away by the wind depends on its speed. The faster the wind blows the more particles
it can carry. As the speed of wind decreases, the particles that it can no longer carry are deposited as
dunes and loess. Dunes are mounds that are built by wind consisting of loose sand. Loess is the deposit
of fine sand and silt. It is light in color and without visible layer. It may be several meters thick and can
form a nearly vertical cliff. Loess deposits are very fertile.

2. Waves constantly erode and shape the shoreline. The shoreline is where the body of water and land
meet. Waves can carry large amounts of sand

rock particles, and shells. These solid particles are then deposited in other parts of the shoreline. The
shape of the shoreline is always changing and deposits form beaches, sand bars, and spits. Beaches
consist of fine sand or large pebbles that are carried by waves to the shores of seas and lakes. The
sediments comprising a beach may contain seashells, corals, and other materials that originate from
marine organisms. Sandbars are submerged or partly exposed ridge of sand or coarse sediment that is
built by waves offshore from a beach. Spits are elongated ridge of sand that stretches from the land to
on the mouth of a nearby bay. and flows to the rivers and streams. A stream or river can carry large
amounts of sediments. When the flow of rivers and streams slows down, sediments are deposited. Large
sediments usually settle on the riverbed while smaller ones are deposited along river banks forming
oxbow lakes, alluvial fans, deltas, flood plains, and levees.

• An oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water that forms when a river finds a different, shorter course.

• An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit of gravel, sand, and even smaller pieces of sediments, such as
silt, formed when the stream flow suddenly slows down. The sediment is called alluvium.

• A delta is a landform created by the deposition of sediments carried by a river as the stream flows to a
lake or an ocean.

• A flood plain is a flat area of land close to a river or stream. It stretches from the banks of the river
extending toward the outer edges of a valley.

• A levee is a natural wall that blocks the water created by the deposit of large particles. A levee may be
used to increase available land for habitation or divert a body of water, so the fertile soil of a river or
seabed may be used for agriculture. It prevents rivers from flooding cities during storm surges. However,
if a levee breaks, water may be released and flooding may occur.

Glaciers erode surfaces through abrasion. As a glacier moves along a valley, it carries with it rock debris,
such as large boulders and smaller particles. These wear down the surface by abrading the rocks that it
comes in contact with. The moving glacier scrapes away and creates grooves into rocks as it moves,
creating various surface features.

A moraine is the accumulation of dirt and rocks that have fallen onto the glacier surface or have been
pushed along by the glacier as it moves. The dirt and rocks can range in size from powdery silt to large
rocks and boulders.

A drumlin is an elongated hill with the shape of an inverted spoon or half-buried egg, which is formed by
glacial ice acting on underlying unconsolidated sediments or ground moraine.

Meltwater deposits are sediments carried and deposited along the meltwater streams, which are
formed when glaciers start to melt.

Iceberg deposits are rocks and sediments that are picked up from land and deposited on the ocean floor
by melting icebergs.

A glacial lake is a lake created by melted glacier. It is formed when a glacier erodes the land, and then
melts, filling the space that it has created with water.

Mass wasting occurs when gravity pulls rocks and soil down the slopes. The rock debris settles at the
base of the slope and is called talus or accumulated sediments.

A landslide is an example of mass wasting that can be caused by an earthquake, canic eruption, or the
weakening of supporting rocks caused by heavy rain. It can move ons of sediments down a slope and
cause tremendous damage.

A mudflow is another type of mass wasting that usually occurs after a heavy rain. The mud slides
downhill picking up rocks and boulders that cause it to become thicker. It can move just about anything
in its path including trees and houses

A slump is the downward sliding of a mass of rock or unconsolidated materials along a curved surface.

Debris flow involves the flow of soil containing large amount of water along a downward slope.
A creep is the slow type of mass wasting that involves the gradual downhill movement of soil caused by
the alternate expansion and contraction of the surface due to freezing and melting, or wetting and
drying.

Internal Earth Processes

Scientists have explored farther into space than the depths of the Earth. The tremendous heat and
pressure deeper into the Earth's interior prevents further exploration. However, different ow
technologies now enable us to be aware of what is going on inside the Earth.

The processes that happen inside the Earth are called endogenic processes. These processes are
important parts of the Earth system for they are the ones that cause changes on the Earth's surface.
These processes include the heating of the Earth's interior, formation of magma, and metamorphism

The Earth's core is extremely hot. It's temperature is about 6000 °C, which is similar to the surface
temperature of the Sun. The heat in the Earth's interior comes from three different sources: (1) heat
that was left during the formation of the Earth, (2) the gravitational pressure on the core caused by the
tidal forces of the Sun, Moon, other planets and the rotation of the Earth, and (3) the radioactive decay
of elements in the core.

The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago. Gravity pulled matter together and compressed
them to form the Earth. Matter moving at great velocities resulted in the collision of particles which
generated heat. This heat was trapped and became the initial heat source in the Earth's interior. The
Earth is under immense pressure due to the tidal forces exerted by the Sun, the Moon, and other
planets in the Solar System. Earth's rotation also heats up the Earth's interior. The combined tidal
pressure and rotation of the Earth cause the core to be under immense pressure. This pressure basically
keeps the core hot in the same way as a pressure cooker. It also helps to minimize the heat it loses.

The last and most important source of heat is nuclear fission of heavy elements in the Earth's interior.
The continuous nuclear fission of radioactive elements replaces the heat that the Earth loses. This fission
process occurs in the form of radioactive decay. It also creates the convection currents in the mantle
that causes the movement of tectonic plates.

Formation of Magma
Magma is an extremely hot and viscous mixture of molten and semi-molten rocks beneath the surface of
the Earth. Magma originates from the lower part of the Earth's crust and in the upper portion of the
mantle. It can create new landforms and cause physical and chemical changes in different environments.
The differences in temperature, pressure, and structural formation in the mantle and crust cause
magma to form in different ways.

Decompression melting is a process in which magma forms due to decreased rock pressure.
Decompression melting often occurs at divergent boundaries where tectonic plates separate. The rifting
movement causes the buoyant magma below to rise and fill the space of lower pressure. The rock then
cools into new crust. This type of melting process also occurs at mantle plumes which are small rising
columns of hot plastic mantle rock. As the mantle goes near the surface, pressure is released causing the
mantle to melt and form the mantle

plume. When this occurs beneath the ocean, plumes form the hot spots that push magma onto the
seafloor. This can accumulate as volcanic mounds that can grow into volcanic islands over millions of
years.

Heat transfer can also form magma when hot, liquid rock pushes itself to Earth's cold crust. The liquid
turns to solid as it loses its heat to the surrounding crust. This transfer of heat causes the melting of the
surrounding rock into magma.

Transfer of heat often happens at convergent boundaries, where there is collision of tectonic plates. As
the denser tectonic plate subducts or sinks, hot rock from below pushes its way into the cooler plate
above. This process transfers heat and forms magma. Over millions of years, the magma in this
subduction zone creates series of active volcanoes known as volcanic arc.

Flux melting occurs when solid rock melts into magma through the addition of water or other volatiles,
such as carbon dioxide, causing rocks to melt at lower temperatures. It usually happens around
subduction zones. Water above the subducting seafloor lowers the melting temperature of the solid
rock and forms magma that rises to the surface.

Magma After Its Formation

Magma leaves the upper mantle and crust through intrusion or extrusion. It can intrude through
sedimentary rocks. When a crystallized magma is found beneath the Earth's crust it is called pluton. The
pluton forms the intrusive igneous rocks.
The most common way for magma to reach the Earth's surface is through lava flow. Lava flows through
the fissures along the surface during a non-violent volcanic eruption. When it cools, it forms volcanic
rock known as extrusive igneous rock, as well as volcanic glass. A violent volcanic eruption can also cause
magma to go to the Earth's surface. The ejected magma solidifies in the air to form volcanic rock called
tephra or volcanic ash. Tephra, together with rocks like pumice, fall to the Earth's surface.

Formation of the Magma Chamber

With favorable temperature, pressure, and environment, magma can accumulate in magma chambers.
Most magma chambers are located deep down the Earth's crust. If the magma chamber is subjected to
extreme pressure, it may fracture the surrounding rocks. The cracks called fissures may become a
volcano. Many volcanoes lie on top of magma chambers.

Pressure within the magma chamber can increase as more magma seeps into the chamber. This may
result in volcanic eruption which reduces the pressure in the chamber. As long as there is a continuous
supply of magma in the chamber, the volcano remains active. In violent eruptions, the volume of magma
shrinks and can nearly empty the chamber, causing the entire magma chamber to collapse and form a
caldera, which is a large form of a volcanic crater.

Metamorphism

Metamorphism is the change in mineral composition and texture of a rock that is subjected to high
temperature and pressure within the Earth. The pressure involved in metamorphism results from the
rock being deeply buried underground. The intense pressure causes the crystals within the rock to grow
together or separate and rearrange into new mineral crystals. The heat needed to make this change
often comes from the hot magma beneath the surface. It may also be triggered by the chemically active
fluids that circulate around the newly forming rock and introduce different ions, which cause new and
different mineral crystals to grow. Metamorphism involves two processes, recrystallization and
neometamorphism.

Recrystallization is the process by which crystals are packed together creating a new crystal structure.
This process requires a lot of heat and pressure to change the mineral's size and shape without changing
its composition. A common example is limestone that can go through the process of recrystallization to
turn into marble. Limestone contains tiny calcite crystals that come from shells of marine organisms that
are broken down and compacted into sedimentary rock. When that limestone is buried and subjected to
intense forces, the microscopic crystals pack together and slowly transform into the larger crystals of
calcite that we find in marble.
Neometamorphism is a process that results in the formation of new minerals. This process is sometimes
called neocrystallization, which means "new crystals." As an example, shale is a sedimentary rock that
contains clay minerals, such as quartz and feldspar. When shale undergoes metamorphism, the clay
minerals change to a new mineral called garnet.

The Earth has undergone a lot of changes since its formation. The changes are more observed on its
surface which has been lifted, pushed down, bent, and broken by forces underneath. It takes millions of
years before these changes can be observed. The movement is unnoticeable because it is very small and
very slow. Still, the different processes underneath are continually working to change the Earth's
surface.

Deformation of the Earth’s crust

Rocks Under Stress

Rocks are also under stress caused by the forces within Earth. These forces push and pull the rocks on
the Earth's crust. As the crust undergoes stress, rocks slowly change their shape and volume. They also
move up, down, and sideways. These movements cause rocks to break, tilt, fold, or undergo
deformation. There are different types of stress, each of which deforms the crust in different ways. The
three types of stress are compression, tension, and shearing.

1. Compression squeezes the rocks in the crust. This causes the particles in the rocks to move closer and
become denser and smaller in volume. As rocks in the crust are being compressed, parts of these rocks
move up while others move down.

2. Tension pulls on the rocks of the crust causing them to stretch over a larger area. A rock under
tension becomes thinner in the middle and thicker at the ends. As its volume increases, its density
decreases.

3. Shearing pushes the rocks in the crust to opposite directions causing them to twist or tear apart. This
type of stress bends or breaks the rocks apart.
Compression, tension, and shearing can change the volume and form of rocks. Stress causes the rocks to
fracture or crack. If the rocks' fractures have not moved, the cracks called joints. Joints are cracks that
are parallel to one another. Some rocks form joints more than one direction. These rocks may break into
blocks. The blocks form where the different sets of joints cross one another

Faulting and Folding

Faulting is the breaking of rocks along a crack or fracture when rocks can no longer withstand stress.
When the rocks move along a break or crack, a fault is created. Faults may be in the form of normal,
reverse, and strike-strip faults.

A normal fault is characterized by a rock on one side of the fault that is lower relative to the other side.
When there are many normal faults in an area, a series m of mountains and valleys are formed.
Mountains that are formed by blocks of rocks uplifted by normal faults are called fault- block mountains.

A reverse fault is characterized by a rocky block that is pushed up relative to the rock on its side.

A strike-slip fault results when the adjacent blocks of rocks move sideways and not up and down.

Folding is an effect of compressional stress. Some rocks do not break when under stress. Instead, the
rocks bend or crumple. A bend in the rock is called a fold. A rock can fold either upward or downward.
An upward fold in a rock is called anticline and the downward fold, syncline. Large folds form mountains
that are called folded mountains. A plateau can also be formed by folding.

Determining the Layers of the Earth

Scientists gather information about the Earth's interior by observing energy during an earthquake.
Seismic waves are waves that travel through rocks in all directions from where the ground breaks during
an earthquake. These waves are picked up all over the world by instruments that detect and record
earthquakes.
The Earth's geosphere is divided into layers based on their chemical composition-the crust, mantle,
outer core, and inner core. The varying densities in each layer of the Earth causes the seismic waves to
change in behavior as they travel deep inside the Earth.

The seismic waves are in the form of body waves and surface waves. Body waves are seismic waves of
higher frequency than surface waves. They arrive before the surface waves that earthquakes emit. The
two types of body waves are primary waves (P-waves) and secondary waves (S-wave). P-waves are
faster than S-waves, and they travel about 6-7 km/s. These are the first waves detected by
seismometers. As P-waves travel along the liquid core, they slow down and bend, and so thay are not
detected by seismometers as fast as expected. This gives a clue as to the nature of the material inside
the Earth.

Secondary waves or S-waves have a speed of about 5.5 km/s, and move in an up and down motion
perpendicular to the direction of waves. S-waves can only pass through solids and cannot pass through
liquids.

Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves. During an earthquake, surface- waves exhibit an up
and down, rolling motion and side-to-side vibration.

Through data analyses of seismic waves scientists are able to better understand the features and
composition of Earth's interior. Scientists determine that the core must be very dense - it has a density
of about 10 to 13 g/cm³, which is the density of metals subjected to extreme pressure. Also, scientists
are able to explain that the magnetic metals, many iron and nickel, found in the Earth's interior are
responsible for the Earth's magnetic field.

Layers of the Earth

In terms of composition, the three layers of the Earth are the crust, the mantle, and the core.

Crust

The crust is the outermost and thinnest layer of the geosphere. Its surface is covered with soil and
water. It is made of many different types of rocks that are light and rich in silicon with an average
density of 2.7 to 3 g/cm³. The crust is of two types-continental and oceanic. The continental crust which
is thicker is composed of low density rocks such as granite. The thinner oceanic crust consists of high-
density rocks such as basalt.

Mantle

The mantle lies beneath the crust. It extends from the base of the crust to the core-mantle boundary.
The mantle is made up of two layers-the upper and the lower mantle. The upper mantle is mostly solid,
but its more flexible regions contribute to tectonic activities. Rock samples from the upper mantle are
brought to the surface by volcanic activity. These rock samples are made of silicate-based rocks that are
rich in magnesium. The upper mantle consists mainly of a kind of rock called peridotite. The uppermost
layer of the upper mantle is firmly attached to the crust above it to form a rigid, brittle single structure
called the lithosphere. Below the uppermost mantle is a less rigid warmer region of the upper mantle
called the asthenosphere. Underneath the asthenosphere is the lower mantle which is thought to be
made of more compact structure. It is hotter, denser, and more stiff than the upper mantle. Although
heat may cause the rocks to soften, intense pressure keeps the lower mantle solid.

Core

The core extends from the core-mantle boundary to the center of the Earth. This layer is. made up of
nickel-iron alloys. It consists of the fluid outer core and solid inner core. Since the Earth's core cannot be
directly observed, most of what is known about it is obtained from the observations of the behavior of
seismic waves as they travel through the layers of the Earth's interior.

Other Features of the Earth's Interior

Through further observations about seismic waves, seismologists are able to identify the boundaries
between the layers-Mohorovicic discontinuity and the Gutenberg discontinuity.

In 1909, the Croatian seismologist, Andrija Mohorovicic, discovered that seismic waves from distant
earthquakes reach the seismographs faster than those from nearby earthquakes. By analyzing the times
of arrival of earthquake waves to the seismographs on certain places on Earth, he identified the
boundary between the mantle and crust. Today, this boundary is known as the Mohorovicic
discontinuity or the Moho. It lies at a depth of 4 to 70 km.

In 1913, German seismologist, Beno Gutenberg, discovered an abrupt change in the speed of seismic
waves recorded by seismographs from 2900 km below the surface where the base of the mantle is
assumed to be located. The core-mantle boundary is so hot that despite the tremendous pressure, rocks
in this region are changed to liquid. This boundary is now called the Gutenberg discontinuity.
Plate Tectonics

Tectonic plates have the following characteristics, which explain why the Earth is moving and why
continents and ocean basins always undergo transformation.

1. One plate can carry both continental and oceanic crusts. The average thickness of the lithosphere
covered by a continent is 125 km. The average thickness of the lithosphere covered by the oceanic crust
is 75 km.

2. A plate floats on the asthenosphere and slides horizontally over it. It is like a block of ice that floats on
a lake; it may bend a little or may slightly move up and down. Each plate moves as a large solid rock.

3. Tectonic plates move at a very slow rate. Since continents and oceans make up the uppermost part of
the lithosphere, both the continents and oceanic crusts move across the Earth simultaneously with the
plates.

Tectonic activity is responsible for some of Earth's most dramatic geologic events such as earthquakes,
volcanism, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. Tectonic activity also shapes the
lithosphere itself. Most tectonic activities take place at the boundaries of the plates. The movement of
tectonic plates is made possible by heat from the upper mantle. Heat makes the rocks of the lithosphere
more elastic.

Theories That Explain Plate Movements

The changing positions of continents and ocean basins puzzled scientists in the past. They tried to
speculate the idea about the movement of the continents and ocean basins. As they tried to explain this
phenomenon, the continental drift and seafloor spreading theories were conceived.

Continental Drift Theory

In 1915 Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, introduced the continental drift theory, which states that
continents are moving. According to this theory, the Earth was once made of one large continent called
Pangaea. Pangaea broke about 225 million years ago into the continents Laurasia and Gondwanaland
and eventually into smaller pieces that slowly drifted away from one another and moved to their
present positions. Scientists did not readily accept Wegener's continental drift theory because he had no
concrete explanation on what might have caused the continents to drift and what patterns they might
have followed. Wegener simply reasoned that the rotation of the Earth perhaps caused the continents
to shift toward and apart from one another. However, more concrete pieces of evidence that support
Wegener's assumption were later discovered.

Pieces of Evidence that Support the Continental Drift Theory

Although there are more evidence today that validate the continental drift theory, the following
evidences are the initial proofs.

1. Continental fit shows that there is a close match between the coastlines of continents on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The eastern shorelines of South America and the western shorelines of
Africa seem to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.

2. Similar rock layers and mountain ranges are found in continents across the ocean. Rocks of the same
type and age are discovered in both South America and Africa. Wegener argued that the rocks could
have been formed in the same place in the past. The continents that are composed of these rocks
separated from each other.

3. Mountain ranges of the same age, structure, and rock types are found in South America and Africa.
The folded Appalachian Mountains of North America move westward through the Eastern US and
Canada and ends at the Newfoundland coastline. Mountain ranges of the same age and deformation are
found in eastern Greenland, Iceland, Great Britain, and Norway. It is believed that these mountain
ranges were once only a single mountain range but were separated when the continents drifted. The
courses of several mountain ranges seem to end at the coastline of one continent and apparently
continue on another continent across the ocean.

4. Fossils of extinct plants and animals are found on rocks that are of the same age and these rocks are
widely distributed in continents like South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica that are very
far from one another. Since it is impossible for these organisms to swim across the ocean, Wegener
proposed that these organisms lived, died, and were fossilized together in the past. They are now found
in different continents because of the movement of the landmasses. When the continents of the
southern hemisphere are reassembled into a single landmass, the distribution of the four fossils of
organisms form similar and continuous patterns of dispersion across continental boundaries.
 a. Mesosaurus is a freshwater crocodile-like reptile found in Southern Africa and Eastern South
America. It would have been impossible for the Mesosaurus to swim between the continents.
This suggests that South America and Africa were joined in the past.

b. Cynognathus is an extinct mammal-like brve the reptile which is as large as a wolf. Its fossils
intre hi were only found in South Africa and South America.

c. Lystrosaurus is an herbivorous, pig-like reptile that grew to approximately one meter in length. Its
fossils are found in Antarctica, India, and South Africa.

d. Glossopteris is a woody, seed-bearing shrub or tree. Its fossils are found in Australia, South Africa,
South America, India, and Antarctica.

5. Glacial evidence like scrubs and scratches created as plates slide along the surface are found in
different continents. These indicate that glaciers covered a large continent. Impressions on rock layers
that reveal the direction of flow of glaciers are found in South America, South Africa, India, and Southern
Australia.

6. Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps found in the tropical region are now found in places that are
very cold. It is believed that these animals had once lived in warm climates and that their fossils and
coals drifted to their present location. These fossil evidences indicate that the Northern Hemisphere had
a tropical climate when the Southern Hemisphere was covered with glaciers.

Seafloor Spreading Theory

The seafloor spreading theory introduced by Harry Hess, an American geologist, and American
oceanographer, Robert Dietz, explains how the continents drifted away from one another. They
proposed that hot and less dense material from the mantle rises to the surface along the mid-ocean
ridges. This material flows sideways pushing the seafloor the ridge in both directions. away from

As the seafloor spreads, more magma is forced upward which thickens the oceanic crust. The magma
that is exposed to the surface is called lava. Lava solidifies as it cools and
forms new oceanic crust. As the oceanic crust moves away from the mid-ocean ridges, it cools,
contracts, and becomes denser. This denser and cooler crust sinks and helps in the formation of the
ridge. Because magma continuously flows to the surface of the oceanic crust, it becomes part of the
crust, and this results in the widening of the ocean floor.

What causes the magma to rise could be explained by convection currents. The heat within the Earth's
interior causes the hot mantle to rise and the cold mantle to sink. the mantle that move like a conveyor
belt system. Since the lithosphere floats above the asthenosphere, it moves together with the
convection current in the mantle. Ocean ridges are located above the rising magma from the convection
cell. Magma exerts tremendous force to the lithosphere above it, causing it to break and form a rift.
Magma flows through the rift. It cools and causes the lithosphere to move apart. This cold magma
pushes the portion of the lithosphere above the sinking magma to move down to the mantle. It melts
and becomes part of the mantle. This is where subduction zones are situated and where volcanoes and
deep trenches are created.

More researches and technological advancements resulted in the discovery of more evidences that
prove that the Earth's tectonic plates are in constant motion. The exploration of the ocean floor showed
the spreading of the oceanic crust along the mid-ocean ridge. The rock samples gathered from the
ocean floor reveal information about the events that happened in the past.

In 1963, British geophysicists, Frederick John Vine and Drummond Hoyle Matthews, explained that
stripes of magnetic material on the seafloor provide strong evidence for tectonic movements. They
show that the Earth's magnetic field has shifted. This means that the north and south poles have
changed places many times over long periods of time. The stripes alternate between those with
magnetic material oriented toward the magnetic north, and those oriented in the opposite direction.
Earth's magnetic field reverses every few hundred thousand years, and the stripes on the ocean floor
show a record of how the magnetic poles have shifted between the southern and northern parts of the
globe. The magnetic north today lies on an island north of Canada which in the past was located in
eastern Siberia. This is confirmed by the rocks in Alaska that have magnetic materials showing that once
they have been part of or near the equator. Furthermore, the orientation of magnetic materials on the
South American east coast shows similarity with those that are found in the west coast of Africa..

By estimating when the reversal occurred and pairing that with the distance the strips have moved from
the spreading zone, scientists can estimate how fast the continents are moving.
Evolution and Structure of the Ocean Basins

Ocean basins are places on Earth covered with salt water. They are actively changing due to tectonic
activities. They are formed through seafloor spreading from volcanic rocks released from the fissures
along the mid-ocean ridges. The ocean basins have evolved through time. They undergo the different
stages in their development. Every ocean basin on the planet at present is in its own stage of
[Link]

 Embryonic. Continents are starting to separate resulting in the formation of rift valleys. An
example is the Great Rift Valley in Eastern Africa.

 Juvenile. Seafloor basalts begin forming as continental margins separate. Rift valley deepens and
is flooded by seawater. Spreading begins and mid ocean ridge is formed. An example is the Red
Sea, a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean that lies between Africa and Asia.

 Mature. Broad ocean basin widens, trenches develop, and subduction begins. Ocean basin with
spreading center and continental margins are prominent features. An example is the Atlantic
Ocean.

 Declining. Subduction narrows much of the seafloor and oceanic ridge converging tectonic
plates. This results in the formation of trenches, volcanic island arcs, and coastal mountain
ranges. An example is the Pacific Ocean.

 Terminal. Ocean basin becomes narrow and becoming shallow due to sedimentation. Young
mountain ranges are formed along the sides. Examples include the Mediterranean Sea and the
Persian Gulf. Continental Collision. The remaining seafloor is eliminated and continents collide,
forming a continental mountain chain. High mountain belts like the Himalayas and the Tibetan
Plateau form.

 Continental Collision. The remaining seafloor is eliminated and continents collide, forming a
continental mountain chain. High mountain belts like the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau
form.

Since ocean basins are created by tectonic activities, they also have different surface features like the
continental crust. Though covered with water, images of the ocean topography were obtained through
different technologies like seismic surveying, side-scan sonar, and measurement of the height of sea
surfaces by satellites. Through the images, oceanographers are able to describe the structure of the
ocean basin. The geographic features of the ocean basin include the continental shelf, continental slope,
continental rise, and abyssal plain.

Continental shelf is the continental landmass that is covered by the sea. The continental shelf slopes
gently away from the land. It is covered by the shallow sea less than 200 m deep. Its environment is rich
in biodiversity since the depth can still be reached by sunlight which is essential for food chain.

Continental slope is at the edge of the continental shelf where the seafloor suddenly drops. The slope is
much steeper than that of the continental shelf. This is the site where landslide, turbidity currents, and
sediment slumps are active. Massive underwater canyons and gorges cut through the slope. This is
created by currents carrying sediments from the continental slope down to the deep sea. love

Continental rise is located at the base of the continental slope where the gradient is shallower.
Sediments that move down from the continental shelf pile up at the base of the slope and is gently
sculptured by slow moving current, which travels al the slope. along the contours of

Abyssal plains are characterized by a vast expanse of terrain that is flat, cold, and dark since light can no
longer penetrate through this depth. Only sediments of ultra-fine particles of clay together with
microscopic marine organisms can reach this depth. Turbidity currents carry the sediments from the
continental slope to this region where sediments spread out to form thin layers on the seafloor. Layers
have very distinct division of mud and clay and this becomes useful in dating geologic events. With the
absence of light in this region, there are exotic life forms that can survive the extreme environment.
They make use of chemicals from deep water vents as as energy source. wort nod doinw singam

The deepest parts of the ocean are the deep ocean trenches with depths that may exceed 10000
meters. Most trenches are found along the margins of the Pacific Ocean. The Challenger Deep found in
the Mariana trench in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest known point in the ocean with a depth of 10 898
to 10 916 meters.

Plate Tectonics theory

In 1965, Canadian geophysicist, Tuzo Wilson, unified the continental drift theory and the seafloor
spreading theory into what we know today as the plate tectonics theory. At present, the plate tectonics
theory has been widely recognized as the scientific explanation about the formation and evolution of
Earth's surface features. This theory describes the movement of the lithosphere in simple and clear
terms. It states that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major plates and some minor ones that
move smoothly across the Earth at a rate of 1 to 16 cm a year. The plate tectonics theory may be used to
explain the continuous change of the Earth's surface through time, the occurrence of earthquakes in
some places, the volcanic activities that take place in certain regions, and the current location of
mountain ranges.

Plate movements are responsible for changing and shaping the Earth's lithosphere. Tectonic plates are
most active along plate boundaries. Different geologic processes occur in these regions of the Earth that
cause the formation of different surface features.

1. Subducting plates. At the convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crusts go under granother plate
and sink into the asthenosphere. The sinking plates melt and turn to magma which then gives
rise to new volcanoes and volcanic island arcs. Subduction zones that are mostly on the seafloor
and deep trenches are found in this region. The subduction process causes major earthquakes
and volcanic activities.
2. Spreading plates. Plates may split in both continents and oceanic crusts. When a plate starts
splitting apart in the middle of the continent, the crust becomes stretched, fissures appear, and
the crustal block collapses downward. The result is the rift valley. A rift valley is an extremely
long depression that develops along divergent boundaries. Rift valleys may give rise to new
oceans. On the other hand, when plates separate in the oceanic crust, mid-ocean ridges are
formed. Mid-ocean ridges are also known as submarine mountain ranges. They are formed
when magma goes into the ocean floor, solidifies into lava, and forms new oceanic crusts.

3. Converging plates can also fold or form faults on the crustal rocks. Collision of two plates causes
them to exert great pressure on each other. When the margins of both plates crumple or fold,
mountain ranges are created. But when the rocks cannot withstand the pressure, they break or
fracture. This results in the formation of faults. When these faults move, earthquake occurs. This
process results in the formation of block mountain.

Determining the Age of the Earth

The Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 BC), thought at the Earth was in perpetual existence.
The Roman poet, Lucretius (15 BC to 99 BC), believed that the Earth had not existed for a long
time based on the absence of accounts prior to the Trojan War. Biblical accounts were also used
to trace the beginning of the Earth. One of the most famous assumptions came from James
Ussher of Ireland, who believed that the time of creation of the Earth was 4004 BC.

It was in the 1660s when Nicolas Steno, a Danish anatomist and priest, formulated the modern
concepts of deposition of horizontal strata. Through his work which took place in the mountains
of western Italy, he came up with the idea that the historical events of the Earth can be
sequenced from outcrops of sedimentary layers.

In the 1700s, James Hutton, a Scottish geologist, proposed the principle of uniformitarianism
which states that the physical, chemical, and biological processes that work today are the same
forces that have worked in the geologic past. This means that the forces that keep on changing
the Earth have been working for very long periods of time since the beginning of Earth's history.
Hutton stated that to understand how the Earth began, we have to understand the different
geologic events that are occurring at present. This idea is commonly expressed as "The present
is the key to the past." The various agents that cause the tectonic activities remain unchanged
through time, and they only vary in intensity and frequency. me, and they only

During the 19th century, geologists used observational evidence, suggesting that the Earth was
100 million years old. At the time, radioactivity was not yet understood, and it was only during
the development of the modern quantum mechanics that radioactive dating was used to date
the Earth. In 1926, the radiometric time scale was adapted by the National Academy of Science,
and the resulting discoveries from improved technologies led to our understanding that the
Earth is 4.5 billion years old.

The natural sciences, such as chemistry, astronomy, geology, physics, and biology, have been
useful in creating a timeline of Earth's history. The results of the studies in specialized fields,
such as paleontology, as well as the discoveries made using techniques such as stratigraphy, the
study of rock layers, and radiometric dating, the use of radioactivity to determine the age of
rocks and fossil remains, attest to the very long history of the Earth.

Relative Dating

Before radioactivity was discovered, geologists could not tell exactly when geologic events took
place. They could not come up with a numerical date, which is the specific actual number of
years that have passed since an event took place, for example, the Earth's formation 4.5 billion
years ago. Geologists analyzed rock layers, which are called strata (the plural form of the Latin
word, stratum), to determine the relative age of rocks through relative dating. Relative dating is
a method of showing the sequence of events, that is, which happened first, next, and so on. For
example, the rocks beneath the volcano were formed much ahead of the volcano, which means
that the volcano is younger than the rocks beneath it. The science that deals with the
characteristics of layered rocks and how these rocks are used to trace Earth's history is called
stratigraphy.

Stratified Rocks

Geologists work like detectives in fitting pieces of evidence to establish the age of the Earth.
They make use of certain principles in stratigraphy as their guidelines in determining the Earth
processes that happened in the past. Most of the rocks exposed on the surface of the Earth are
sedimentary rocks formed from sediments that resulted from the weathering of rocks. If rock
layers are no longer horizontal, it means that they are already disturbed by the forces within.
The layers are already deformed due to folding and tilting, faulting, and volcanic intrusions.
These are the important elements considered by geologists in carrying out rock correlation.

As early as the mid-1600s, Nicolas Steno studied the relative positions of sediments in
sedimentary rocks. He found that the sequence of solid particles that settled on the seabed was
determined by their weight. The largest, or heaviest, settled first, and the smallest, or lightest,
settled last. This resulted in the formation of strata. The stratified rocks are useful in estimating
the age of the Earth. The basic principles considered by geologists in relating rocks to Earth's
history are 1) principle of superposition, 2) principle of original horizontality, 3) principle of
cross-cutting relationships, 4) principle of inclusions, and 5) principle of unconformities.
The principle of superposition states that in an undisturbed sequence of stratified rocks, each
layer is older than the one above it and younger than the one below it.

The principle of original horizontality states that sediments are deposited in flat pb layers. Thus,
if the rock still maintains 19Vel its horizontal layers, it means that it is not yet disturbed and still
has its original horizontality.

The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that when a fault or a dike-a slab of rock that
cuts through. another rock-or when magma intrudes to the rock, that fault or magma is
younger. than the rock.

The principle of inclusions states that a rock mass that contains pieces of rocks, called inclusions,
are younger than other rock masses.

The principle of unconformities states that rock layers that formed without interruption are
conformable. Although there are sections or strata that are considered conformable, no place
on Earth is completely free from interruptions as the rock layers are deposited. An unconformity
describes a layer of rock that has been deformed or eroded before another layer is deposited,
resulting in rock layers that are mismatched. Some rocks are missing due to erosion, and some
period in geologic time is undefined. The different types of unconformities are disconformity,
angular unconformity, and nonconformity.

Disconformity describes a sedimentary layer that is deposited over an eroded horizontal

sedimentary layer. Angular unconformity describes a sedimentary layer deposited over an
eroded, tilted, or folded rock. Nonconformity describes a sedimentary layer that is deposited
over an eroded igneous or metamorphic rock.

Correlation of Rock Layers

Rock correlation is essential in developing a geologic time scale, a system of chronological dating
that relates rock strata to time. This is used by geologists and other scientists to describe the
timing and relationships of events that occurred during Earth's history. Geologists apply the
principles of stratigraphy in comparing the sequence of rock layers. Rocks of the same age in
different places on Earth are matched. Geologists look for similarity of rock types and their
characteristics such as grain size, composition, cements, sorting, and rounding. It is also possible
that a layer may be identified in another location if it is composed of very distinct or rare
minerals. A more extensive view of the geologic history of a region is revealed through rock
correlation.

As climate changes over time, all rock layers present in a region experience the same condition.
For instance, at one time, large lakes and rivers maybe very common in a region. Red siltstone
Millions of years later, the lakes and rivers Dolomite may dry up and there will no longer be
traces of water. Though there is no evidence of water at present, geologists try to find clues for
the existence of lakes and rivers in the past. Evidence is gathered in the sediments deposited by
the water which also shaped the landscape. The sediments in the rock layers reveal the kind of
environment that Figure 4.8. Correlation of rock layers a particular region had in the past.
Limesto Gray Shale

Change in sea level is a natural part of Earth's history as shown by ancient rock layers. At times,
sea level rose by as much as a few hundred meters, causing the water to move inland creating
shallow seas that covered the interiors of the continents. There were also times when sea levels
dropped by hundreds of meters. The water receded to the sea, exposing even the continental
shelves above sea level. Geologists reconstruct the events that happened in the remote past by
examining the rocks in a region. They look for very fine sediments that reached the farthermost
part of the land, which is an evidence that sea level rose. The coarse sediments that reached the
farthermost part of the sea is an indicator that the sea level dropped.

However, rock correlation is applicable only to short distances since rocks are covered with soil
and vegetation. When correlation is required between widely separated areas or between
continents, fossils tend to be more reliable.

Fossils
Fossils are the remains of extinct plants and animals embedded in sedimentary rocks. They are
the most important inclusions for they are the basic tool in interpreting the geologic past.
Paleontology is the science that deals with the study of fossils. Knowing the kind of life that
existed in the past gives clues on the environmental conditions in the different regions of the
Earth during a particular geologic time. Fossils are important indicators of time and have a major
role in correlating rocks in various places in the planet.

Types of Fossils
Scientists have discovered different types of fossils left by ancient plants and animals as they dig
into the rock layers. These are true form fossils, petrified fossils, molds and casts, carbonized
fossils, and [Link]

1. True form fossils are the actual remains that did not change through time like teeth, bones,
and shells of animals. A few of this type of fossil include the wooly mammoths which were
prehistoric elephants that were preserved by the cold temperature in Siberia and Alaska.
Another example is the mummified remains of sloths preserved in dry caves.

2 Petrified fossils or fossils that turned into stone were formed when all or a part of an organism
were replaced by minerals. Water containing certain minerals seeps through the layers of
sediment to reach the dead organism. When heated, the water evaporated and only the
hardened disc minerals were left behind.

3. Molds and casts preserve the form and shape of the organism. Molds are formed when
organisms buried in sediments decay or dissolve. When minerals are deposited within the mold,
casts can be formed. no b wamein

4. Carbonized fossils result from a process undergone by leaves and delicate animal forms,
through which they were covered with fine sediments. After several years, liquid and gases are
squeezed out of the animal forms due to pressure leaving a thin residue of carbon.

5. Amber is the hardened resin of ancient trees where insects are preserved.

Principle of Fossil Succession

The principle of fossil succession was formulated by polit William Smith in 1800. It states that
the fossils of organisms succeed one another in a specific and well-established order, and that
any geologic time or period can be recognized by the kind of fossil present. Sedimentary rocks
that existed in the same age can be correlated over long distances with the help of fossils. Rock
layers containing similar collection of fossils

are of the same age. Applying the principle of superposition to the rocks in which they are
found, fossils are systematically and sequentially grouped within the layers. The oldest are at the
lowest layer while the youngest are on the uppermost layer. Fossils show how life evolved from
the simplest to the most complex life forms in the geologic time scale.

Fossil succession is based on the observation that certain groups of animals and plants lived
during certain periods of time throughout Earth's history. For example, humans beings and
modern breeds of dogs are part of the same group because they live in the same period of time.
The Age of Trilobites was the earliest to exist in fossil record. It was succeeded by the Age of
Fishes, followed by the Age of Coal Swamps, the Age of Reptiles, and the last, the Age of
Mammals. These ages refer to groups that were abundant during a particular period of time.
Within each of the ages, there are many subdivisions based on the species, for example, of
trilobites and certain types of fishes, reptiles, and so on. This same succession of dominant
organisms is found on every continent.

Index Fossils

Index fossils are fossils of organisms found in most places in the planet but lived only for a short
period. They are useful for dating rock layers since they are fossils of organisms that were
common, that lived in many areas, and existed only during a specific span of time. These
characteristics of index fossils make them especially useful in determining when rock layers
were formed.

The time span of organisms that lived in the past is measured by radioactive dating. If the time
span when an organism existed on Earth is known, then any rock containing a fossil of that
organism must have been deposited during that same time span. Index fossils are useful for
correlating rock layers from widely separated regions. These are the fossils that are useful for
relative dating. They help distinguish between rock strata from different periods, so it is
important that they existed for a short duration. Species having a very long time span is
impractical to use. For example, cockroaches have existed for more than 280 million years and
are still alive today. Therefore, cockroach fossil cannot be used in measuring the age of rocks.

The shellfish Inoceramus labiatus, for example, is a kind of sea animal that appeared 144 million
years ago and went extinct 65 million years ago. If a rock contains a fossil of this invertebrate,
the rock must be between 144 million and 65 million years old because this organism lived
during that span of time. Nerinea trinodosa is a sea animal that lived between 206 million and
144 million years ago. Tropites subbullatus is a sea animal that lived between 248 million and
206 million years ago. Applying the principle of fossil succession, T. subbullatus is embedded in
the lowest rock layer, the layer with N. trinodosa overlies the lowest layer, and I. labiatus is in
the uppermost layer since it is the youngest. When the same rock structure is found in other
continents, it can be concluded that the rocks in these places were formed simultaneously
during that span of time. Index fossils must be common, widely-distributed species that are easy
for scientists to identify. Some common index fossils used by scientists are the trilobites,
ammonites, and scallop shells.

Aside from being an essential tool for correlation, fossils are important as environmental
indicators. For example, if clam shells are found in limestones of a mountain, it can be assumed
that the place was once under the sea because that is the habitat of clams today. Knowing the
characteristics of organisms, geologists can conclude that animals with thick shells have survived
the strong force of giant waves in the shore where they lived, while animals with thin and
delicate shells may have survived in the deep sea. Fossils can also indicate the former
temperature of water. Species of some corals at present require the living conditions of a warm
and tropical shallow sea. When the same corals are found in ancient limestone in places located
in the middle latitude, it means that a tropical marine environment existed in that region during
that time.
Absolute Dating

Geologists are often curious about the exact age of rocks they encounter. To measure the age of
a rock, they use a different dating method that is much different from relative dating. Relative
dating arranges geological events in sequence. Absolute dating methods, sometimes called
numerical dating, gives rocks an actual date or date range in number of years. Most absolute
dates for rocks are obtained with radioactive or radiometric methods. Radioactive minerals in
rocks are used as geological clocks.

Radioactive Dating

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but with different
numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Some isotopes have unstable nuclei, which makes them
radioactive. Radioactive isotopes break down over time into another form. This process is called
radioactive decay.

The radioactive decay of the parent isotope, which is the original element, leads to the
formation of a stable daughter isotope. As time passes, the number of parent isotopes
decreases, and the number of daughter isotopes increases. When the parent uranium-238
decays, for example, into its daughter, lead-206, it produces subatomic particles and energy.
These rates of decay are known, so if the proportion of parent and daughter isotopes in a rock is
measured, the age of that rock can be calculated.

The rate of change of a radioactive element is measured in half-life. A half-life is the length of
time for half of the atoms in a sample of a radioactive element to change from an unstable form
into another form. Different elements have different half-lives, ranging from fractions of a
second to billions of years. Only elements with half-lives of millions to billions of years are used
to date rocks. For example, uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years. Uranium-235 is an
unstable element found in some igneous rocks. Over time, uranium-235 breaks down into lead-
207.

Using information from radioactive dating of rocks, scientists were able to estimate the age of
the Earth, which is about 4.5 billion years.

Radiocarbon dating is the use of the decay of carbon-14, an isotope of carbon, to date events in
the past. Carbon-14 has a half-life of only 5 730 years, and thus, it can only be used for dating
events from 75 000 years ago up to the present. Geologists use radiocarbon dating to determine
the age of materials, such as wood and pollen trapped in a sediment, which indicates the date of
the sediment itself.

Geologic Time Scale.

The study of the Earth from the beginning of time to the present has been the task of geologists
who attempt to unfold the secrets of the events that have shaped the planet. During the past
150 years, geologists have been doing an analysis of the rocks in all continents of the world.
They examine in detail the rock correlation and fossil correlation in ancient rock layers, which
allow them to relate the events in the rocks to Earth's history. From the information they
collected from fossil evidence and applying the principles of stratigraphy, they have been able to
arrange the sequence of events from the most outdated to the near recent. The sequence of
events that happened in the Earth's history is vividly presented in the geologic time scale. The
geologic time scale breaks relative geologic time into various divisions of known relative age.

The geologic time scale is divided into a series of time intervals that are unequal in length and
not like the time intervals in a clock. The time intervals are divided based on the significant
events in the history of the Earth, some of which include the mass extinction of a large
percentage of the Earth's flora and fauna that happened between the Permian and Triassic
periods, and the first appearance of animals with hard parts between the Precambrian time and
the Paleozoic era. The wide scope of geologic time in the history of the Earth is separated into
eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time with duration of hundreds of millions of years.
The geologic time scale is divided into four eons: Hadean eon, Archeozoic eon, Proterozoic eon,
and Phanerozoic eon. Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. Eras are
subdivided into periods. The events that occurred in each period are distributed extensively but
are not as significant as those that occurred in the eras. Epochs are the smaller subdivisions of
the Cenozoic era. Only the most recent part of the geologic time scale (e.g., the Cenozoic era) is
subdivided into epochs. This is because the events in the earlier eras cannot be recorded due to
ancient rocks being deeply buried below the surface for a long period of time because of very
intense pressure. Also, overlying rocks are deformed, making it more difficult for scientists to
clearly interpret the events that happened in the earliest eras from these rocks.

We now live in the Holocene epoch, Quaternary period, Cenozoic era of the Phanerozoic eon.

Precambrian

The Precambrian is an informal name given to the first three eons of the geologic time scale,
which include the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eons- from the Earth's formation 4.5 billion
years ago to the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon, the Cambrian period 542 million years ago,
during which a diversity of life forms appeared. The Precambrian period spans 4 billion years, or
about 88 percent of the total lifespan of Earth. The major events that took place during the
Precambrian period include the Moon's formation, the filling of ocean basins, the first evidence
of life, the beginning of plate tectonics and formation of the continents, and the oxygenation of
the atmosphere, among others.

Hadean Eon
The Hadean eon (4.5 to 4 billion years ago) is known as the rockless eon. Except for the
meteorites, no existing rocks on Earth today are from the Hadean eon. During this time, the
Earth was molten, and it would only solidify as it cooled. This happened about 800 million years
into the Earth's history. The Earth's continental and oceanic crusts began to solidify, marking the
beginning of Earth's geological history, which likely happened prior to 3.8 billion years.

Archean Eon

The Archean eon (1.5 billion years ago) preceded the Proterozoic eon. Its four eras are the
Eoarchean era (4 to 3.6 billion years ago); Paleoarchean era (3.6 to 3.2 billion years ago);
Mesoarchean era (3.2 to 2.8 billion years ago); and Neoarchean era (2.8 to 2.5 billion years ago).
It was during the Archean eon that single-celled organisms, such as blue green algae, archeans,
and bacteria, first appeared. It is the beginning of free oxygen in the atmosphere.

Proterozoic Eon

The Proterozoic eon began 2.5 billion years ago and ended 542 million years ago. It is subdivided
into the following eras: Paleoproterozoic era (2.5 to 1.6 billion years ago); Mesoproterozoic era
(1.6 to 1 billion years ago); and Neoproterozoic era (1 billion to 542 million years ago). During
the Proterozoic eon, the first continents appeared. This was

also the time when continents merged into a single land mass called, Rodina. Scientists also
found many fossils of bacteria and archaea, as well as eukaryotic cells, from this time during the
Mesoproterozoic era, which enabled eukaryotic organisms to proliferate. The Proterozoic eon is
marked by the appearance of multicellular animals like sponges and the mass extinction of these
organisms.

Phanerozoic Eon

The Phanerozoic eon precedes the Precambrian eon. It began 542 million years ago and is
divided into the Paleozoic era (541 to 252 million years ago); the Mesozoic era (252 to 66 million
years ago); and the Cenozoic era (66 million years ago to the present). The first life forms with
parts, such as shells, scales, and bones and teeth, appeared during the Phanerozoic eon. The
fossils of these life forms are great tools in the study of the history of the Phanerozoic eon.

Paleozoic Era

The supercontinent Pangaea was formed duringargro the Paleozoic era. Through a series of
collisions, Northbo America, Europe, and Siberia were gradually joined forming the continent,
Laurasia. At the same time, the continent Gondwana, which included South America, Africa,
Australia, Antarctica, India, and parts of China, was situated near the South Pole. Gondwana
collided with Laurasia during the end of the Paleozoic'era resulting in the formation of the
supercontinent, Pangaea.

Cambrian Period. The Paleozoic era is also the beginning of the Cambrian period, during which
shallow seas covered parts of the continents and a mild climate existed. Known as the "Age of
Trilobites," the Cambrian explosion of life occurred, and all N existing phyla developed. Many
marine invertebrates like shellfish, echinoderms, trilobites, brachiopods, mollusks, and delicate
coelenteratés evolved. The first vertebrates were the earliest primitive fish. During this period,
the supercontinent Rodinia began to break into smaller continents. The mass extinction of
trilobites and nautiloids happened at the end of the Cambrian period, which may have been
caused by glaciation.

Ordovician Period. Many volcanoes and mountains formed during the Ordovician period. North
America was flooded. Primitive plants appeared on land. The first corals, primitive fishes,
seaweed and fungi also appeared. Graptolites, bryozoans, gastropods, bivalves, and echinoids
were also dominant. It was also the first time that global cooling and glaciation, and frequent
volcanic activities were observed. North America went under shallow seas. The period ended in
huge extinction due to glaciation.

Silurian Period. During this period, the Caledonian mountains of Scandinavia rose, and coral
reefs were formed. The first jawed fishes and arthropods like insects, centipedes, and millipedes
appeared. The first vascular plants with water conducting tissue appeared on land such as
cooksonia, a primitive terrestrial plant. Brachiopods, crinoids, and corals were also abundant. A
rise in sea level occurred worldwide.

Devonian Period. The Acadian mountains. of New York rose during this period, and the erosion
of mountain resulted in the deposition of much sediments in seas. Known as the Age of Fishes,
fishes and terrestrial plants became abundant and diverse. The first tetrapods, amphibians,
sharks, bony fish, and ammonoids appeared during the latter part. Many coral reefs,
brachiopods, and crinoids existed. New insects like springtails appeared. A mass extinction event
occurred near the end of the Devonian period which was probably due to glaciation or
meteorite impact.

Mississippian Period. The Appalachian Mountains of North America were formed during this
period. Ice covered large areas of the Earth, and swamps covered the lowlands. The first winged
insects appeared.

Pennsylvanian Period. The first reptiles, ferns, mayflies, and cockroaches appeared during this
period.
Permian Period. The Ural mountains of Russia rose at this time. Known as the Age of
Amphibians, amphibians and reptiles dominated this period. Gymnosperms were the dominant
plants. The continents merged into a single super-continent, Pangaea, Phytoplankton and plants
supplied oxygen to the Earth's atmosphere which was close to the present level. The first
stoneflies, true bugs, beetles, and caddisflies appeared. The Permian period ended with the
largest mass extinction. Trilobites went extinct, together with all animal families, almost all
marine species, and many trees perhaps caused by glaciation or volcanism.

Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic era spans about 186 million years. The three periods of the Mesozoic era are the
Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. The breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea also
occurred during this era. About 165 million years ago, a rift developed between what is now
North America and Western Africa, resulting in the formation of the Atlantic Ocean.

Mesozoic means "middle animals." During this era, dinosaurs lived. It was not until the Jurassic
period that the dinosaurs became very diverse. Except for birds, dinosaurs became extinct at the
end of the Cretaceous period. Terrestrial vegetation also greatly changed. Ferns, cycads,
ginkgophytes, bennettitaleans, and other unusual plants lived in the early part of this era.
Modern gymnosperms, such as conifers, first appeared in their current recognizable forms in the
early Triassic period. By the middle of the Cretaceous period, the earliest angiosperms had
appeared and began to diversify, largely taking over from the other plant groups. The following
important events occurred during the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.

 Triassic Period. The Palisades of New Jersey and the Caucasus Mountains of Russia were
formed during this period. The first dinosaurs, mammals, and crocodyliformes
appeared. Mollusks were the dominant invertebrate. Many reptiles like turtles and
ichthyosaurs came to existence. The true flies also appeared. The Triassic period ended
with an extinction event, called the end-Triassic extinction event, which may have been
caused by volcanic eruptions that led to global warming and ocean acidification. This
resulted in the decimation of about 76 percent of marine and terrestrial life, thus paving
the way for the beginning of the Jurassic period and the 135-million-year dominance of
the dinosaurs.

 Jurassic Period. The Rocky Mountains rose during this period and the volcanoes of
Western North America were active. Many dinosaurs, including the giant lizard- hipped
dinosaurs roamed the Earth. Many ferns, cycads, ginkoes, rushes, conifers, mollusks,
and flying reptiles appeared. The first birds, such as the Archeopteryx, appeared. The
first flowering plants also evolved at this time. There were minor extinctions that
occurred during 190 to 160 million years ago.
  Cretaceous Period. Raging tectonic and volcanic activities occurred during the Upper
Cretaceous Period. Continents then looked like the present-day continents. The
primitive marsupials developed. A minor extinction occurred about 82 million years ago
that could have been caused by an asteroid impact or volcanic activity, and ended with
the large extinction of dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ammonites, and species of marine
invertebrates. The dinosaurs dominated the Lower Cretaceous Period. The first
crocodilians and feathered dinosaurs appeared. The 130 million years ago as well as the
earliest-known snakes, ants, and bees. Minor earliest known butterflies appeared about
extinctions of these species occurred 144 and 120 million years ago.

Cenozoic Era

The Cenozoic era is the most recent of the three major subdivisions of the Phanerozoic eon. It
spans only about 65 million years, from the end of the Cretaceous period and the extinction of
non-avian dinosaurs to the present. The Cenozoic era is sometimes called the "Age of
Mammals" because they were the largest land animals during that time. However, the history of
mammals began long before the Cenozoic era. Also, the diversity of life during the Cenozoic era
is far wider than mammals. This era could have been called the "Age of Flowering Plants," or the
"Age of Insects" just as accurately.

The Cenozoic era (65.5 million years ago to present) is divided into three periods: the Paleogene
period (65.5 to 23.03 million years ago), Neogene period (23.03 to 2.6 million years ago), and
the Quaternary period (2.6 million years ago to present). During the Cenozoic era, mammals
dominated the land. Angiosperms, the flowering plants with covered seeds, also became
dominant. Birds and mammals fed on the seeds. It was also during this time when grasses
emerged, fostering the proliferation of herbivorous mammals. The ocean during the this era was
teeming with fish such as tuna, swordfish, and barracuda. Mammals such as seals, whales, and
walruses were also present.

Small mammals coexisted with dinosaurs for about 100 million years. After the large asteroid
collided with Earth 65 million years ago, the dinosaurs were replaced by the mammals as the
most dominant group. Mammals, being warm blooded, have more active lives and were able to
adapt to diverse environments, even in cold regions.

 Paleogene Period. The Paleogene is subdivided into three epochs: the Paleocene epoch
(65.5 to 55.8 million years ago); the Eocene epoch (55.8 to 33.9 million years ago); and
the Oligocene epoch (33.9 to 23.03 million years ago). It began with the mass extinction
event at the end of the Cretaceous K-Pg boundary (Cretaceous- Paleogene), which
resulted in the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, and many other flora and fauna. It
ended with the Paleocene-Eocence thermal maximum (~0.2 million years), which was
characterized by changes in climate and carbon cycling.
 o The Eocene epoch is a major division of the geologic time scale. It is marked by a brief
period when the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was
exceptionally low in comparison with the more common carbon isotope C. It ended with
the major extinction event called the Great Break in Continuity.

o The Oligocene epoch comes from the Greek words oligos meaning "few" and kainos
"new," which refer to the sparse extant forms of the molluscs during this epoch. It is
marked by the continuous drifting of the continents to their present- day positions,
including Antarctica, which was covered with ice caps and became even more isolated.
The angiosperm continuously expanded during this time. The first felid, the Proailurus,
spread to Europe. The marine habitat was populated by bivalves, as well as baleen
whales and toothed whales. The Pinnipeds, which were ancestors of modern-day seals,
appeared during this epoch.

 Neogene Period. The Neogene period is subdivided into two epochs: The Miocene
epoch (23.03 to 5.332 million years ago) and the Pliocene epoch (5.332 to 2.588 million
years ago).

The Miocene epoch was characterized by a warmer climate, compared to the preceding Oligocene
epoch. It was also during this epoch that the kelp forests and grasslands first appeared. About 95
percent of the modern seed plants were already present.

The Pliocene epoch was marked by a cooler and more arid climate compared to the Miocene epoch. Ice
accumulated at the poles, resulting in the extinction of species living there. The increased aridity
resulted in the proliferation of grasslands, which favored grazing animals, whose primary diet consisted
of grass. Also, the Australopithecus was thought to have evolved during this epoch. Another noteworthy
event during this epoch was the collision of the tectonic plates of India and Asia, which resulted in the
formation of the Himalayas.

 Quaternary Period. The Quaternary period is subdivided into the Pleistocene epoch (2.6
to 11.7 million years ago) and the Holocene epoch (11.7 million years ago to the
present).

o The Pleistocene epoch was characterized by global cooling, also known as the ice 201 age. The
temperate zones of the world were covered by glaciers. Many species of plants, birds, and
mammals present today were already in existence during the Pleistocene. The mammoths,
mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and many large animals roamed the Earth, but went extinct
before the epoch ended. Close to the end of the Pleistocene, Homo sapiens spread out
worldwide. Although it was hypothesized that humans caused the extinction of many animals of
this time, there was no clear evidence to support this.
o The Holocene epoch is Earth at present. It is characterized by a warm period. Another informal
term for the Holocene is Anthropocene or the "Age of Man." Although humans have existed
before the Holocene, it is during this epoch when the recorded history of man existed. It is also
during this time that humans developed technological advancements that enabled them to
understand more the world around them.