Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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A review on recent development and challenges in automotive brake

pad-disc system
Shoaib Munir Mulani a,⇑, Ashwani Kumar a, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh a, Ashish Saurabh a,
Pravin Kumar Singh b, Piyush Chandra Verma a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani – Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad 500078, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Amity University, Ranchi 834001, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: From a tribological prospect, the brake pad-disc system undergoes severe abrasive and adhesive wear
Available online xxxx mechanism in the production of wear debris. Because of the constant abrasion, this procedure produces
fine particle debris, which certainly harm the environment. The conventional material for brake-discs is
Keywords: usually grey cast iron in the pearlite form with lamellar graphite phases. These materials are thermally
Brake pads conductive and have a high thermal capacity. It also has a high corrosive tendency and severe material
Friction and wear wear throughout the service. According to studies, PM10 emissions (inhalable particles-particulate mate-
Particulate matters
rials with dimensions of 10 mm or less) from disc brake wear can account for 50% of overall non-exhaust
Cast iron disc
Pin-on-disc
wear emissions from vehicle transport. The interplay between the friction pairs has the greatest impact
on the braking performance of the diverse brake regimes. The friction material used in brakes has a con-
siderable impact on the contact situation in the brake disc of a car. As a result, friction material qualities
have a critical influence in brake performance, specifically at severe braking condition, in which the sys-
tem temperature rises beyond critical value. The sensitivity of disc brakes to pressure, speed, and temper-
ature in a braking phase is generally governed by the system ingredients and their quantity. Therefore,
this research paper focusses on the analysis of the historical evolution of the brake pads, challenges
and future prospective of the automotive brake-pad disc system.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Materials, Machines and Information Technology-2022.

1. Introduction larly with the surroundings, and at some point of braking the tem-
perature may additionally rise inside the contact areas. Wear
In automobiles, the braking system is used for controlling the behaviours depends on the situation and composition of the fric-
speed and ensuring the safety of the driver and the passengers tion component materials at elevated temperatures, resulting in
from the very beginning. The disc-brake assembly as shown in different braking conditions [1,2]. The disc brakes used in modern
Fig. 1; it consists of a brake disc rotor and a brake pad. When the automobiles are not sealed to the environment. Thus, both the
brake is applied, the force on the pad pulls it toward the disc, form- brake pads and the rotors are in sliding contact during braking
ing a tribological or sliding frictional contact between them. The which results in generating loose wear particles. Some of the brak-
primary purpose of the braking technique is to transform kinetic ing system’s worn-out particles get airborne. Many studies have
energy into the thermal friction heat energy of the brake pad disc. proved the adverse effect of these airborne particles in the long
Heat dissipated from the surface interaction is exchanged particu- run, resulting in adverse health problems. Many researchers now
believe that the size of airborne grain is an important factor that
influences their deposition and impact in the human respiratory
⇑ Corresponding author. tract. The majority of coarse particles (diameter roughly 2.5 mm)
E-mail addresses: h20201060273@[Link] (S.M. Mulani), are deposited in the nasal cavity and throat, but smaller particles
h20201060276@[Link] (A. Kumar), h20201060278@hydera- (diameter: 0.1–2.5 mm) and ultrafine particles ( 0.1 mm) typically
[Link] (Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh), p20190443@[Link]-
[Link] (A. Saurabh), pksingh@[Link] (P.K. Singh), piyushchandraver-
penetrate deep into the lungs, with highly negative
ma@[Link] (P.C. Verma).

[Link]
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Materials, Machines and Information Technology-2022.

Please cite this article as: Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al., A review on recent development and challenges in automotive
brake pad-disc system, Materials Today: Proceedings, [Link]
Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

It induces smooth sliding condition, which results in less noise

generation.

It serves like a reinforcement that helps to produce first pla-
teaus, which have been crucial in the production of friction
layers.

But copper emitted while braking, on the other hand, has been
shown to have disastrous environmental and health consequences.
Copper is included in brake pad materials at a concentration of 5–
10% on average. Copper has a potentially hazardous effect on
human health and the environment, deteriorating water quality
[15–17]. Cu, brass, Cu-oxide, and Cu-sulphides are becoming com-
mon additions, and brake pads are among the most common
Fig. 1. Disc-brake assembly. causes of copper pollutants in cities [18]. The primary goal here
is to lower the quantity of copper in the brake pad material while
maintaining its qualities. Nano and micro-sized copper powders or
consequences. The metals, asbestos, and other harmful binder micro-composites with grains comprising 10% copper and average
are some of the contents of inhalable particles that lead to their size of 400–600 nm are used in nano grained copper powder
toxicity. So, to avoid these effects, most rotors in modern automo- [15,19,20]. The features of these novel friction materials must
biles are made of (GCI) grey cast iron. With the ban on such harm- include high wear resistance. It’s desirable to have friction pads
ful materials like asbestos, because it is a carcinogen, in modern with a higher coefficient of friction in typical braking circum-
automobiles, the brake pads are made up of a variety of materials. stances, such as in the range of 0.3–0.6, and a lower coefficient of
Non-asbestos organic (NAO) pads, metalloids pads, and low metal- friction in off-brake scenarios. As the pressure contact is low, lower
lic (LM) pads are types of non-asbestos pads [3–7]. When a brake than 50 kPa, to avoid braking if any misalignment exists, it must
pad wears out, it releases airborne particles, which is a huge envi- have a high degree of operational dependability and long service
ronmental concern. Wear debris pollutes the environment when it life when compared to pressures 1–3 MPa range for traditional
is released into the atmosphere. Brake pads are divided into three brakes. The combination of numerous wear processes that might
main types: metallic, organic non asbestos (NAO), and non- cause failure necessitates this condition [21,22]. Experimental val-
metallic. According to a WHO study, and some environmental pro- idation needs to perform to fully understand the tribological beha-
tection agencies, some of the metal oxides produced are toxic and viour of materials’ wear mechanism and their characteristics.
have disastrous consequences for human health and the environ- Tribological studies of two interacting surfaces are carried out by
ment. Different aerosol instruments must be used to study and sliding test. There are many types of tribological analysis experi-
assess the function of load, speed, and duration, under various mental setup available for this type of test, mostly for determining
braking situations, the volume fraction and size distribution of a the CoF and wear temperature. During pin-on-disc apparatus test,
non-asbestos organic airborne particle released by brake pad mate- the most important factors are the mechanical, physical, and
rial. Under varying weights and sliding velocities, the particle thermo-mechanical characteristics of a pin and disc, the contact
diameter ranges from 10 nm to 10 mm. The grains are classed as surface (given by pin form and microgeometry of the coating sur-
coarse fine (diameter > 1 mm), fine (diameter between 100 nm faces), particularly in comparison of sliding speed of pin and sam-
and 1 mm) and ultrafine (diameter < 100 nm), and these are the ple surface, experiment duration, surroundings, and the loading
ones that risk the infection of the respiratory system’s integrity force. By monitoring the wear track/area and evaluating the track
[8]. When the link among both wear and particulate emission char- surface after the test, helps learn a lot about the thin layer-
acteristics is recognized, the prediction of wear particle emission substrate system’s wear mechanism and adhesion-cohesion char-
becomes ever more precise [9]. It is believed that 50–70% of brake acteristics. Microstructure could also be assessed using SEM and
debris material is converted into polydisperse aerosol emissions XRD [3,23,24]. The deterioration of friction material at extreme
[3]. The composition of the brake pad material is very complex temperatures, on the other hand, is a serious concern; as tempera-
as it contains more than 30 different components, and some of ture rises, so do the degradation of friction material, the binding
them are very hazardous to humans and environmental health. properties may deteriorate. One can also reduce hardness in metal-
The physiochemical features of the emission under braking opera- lic tribological parts and increase tribological pairs’ solid and liquid
tions, as well as the tribological interaction determine the degree solubility. An elevated temperature may also lead to a change in
of emission by using a counter face disc during the braking stages the material’s mechanical and thermal properties, thus changing
[7]. Air - borne & aerosol materials account for around half of all the wear mechanism and, in some cases cause extreme adhesion
wear emissions, these contribute to pollutants and have a detri- causing high wear rates. So, to avoid this, the binders and the addi-
mental effect on health [10]. Nowadays, the primarily focus is on tives in composite materials should have high-temperature ranges
the reduction of PM10 and PM2.5 particulate emission, and by con- for the operation to meet industry and automotive safety stan-
ducting some studies, it has been found that the brake wear from dards. Most test setups can only reach a maximum of 400 ℃ (some
vehicular source is an essential source of particulate matter emis- can be tested up to 800 ℃). Still, computer simulation is suggested
sion (PM) [11]. Copper is considered one of the main components on software like ANSYS for extremely high temperatures [23]. With
of the brake pad used for road vehicles. Generally, the friction the development of simulation technology, using the CAD/CAE to
materials used to make brake pad material contains friction mod- tribological design is the primary method in tribology study. The
ifiers, reinforcements, and binders. Copper used is considered as key is establishing the suitable mesh, contact definition, mathe-
metallic filler present in the form of fibres or powders [12–14]. matics, and wear model for simulation. Some temperatures cannot
The main properties of copper due to which it is that much popular be attained on the experimental setup but predicting or simulating
for brake pad material are: the model at such elevated temperatures is possible. It gives about
7% error approximation when simulation parameters are refined

It improves the brake pad’s heat conductivity, which results in a and augmented lagrange contact is considered. In addition, much
decrease in contact temperature. effort has recently been devoted to create wear analysis and simu-
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Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

lation approaches in simulation models. The contact geometry var- energy dispersive spectroscopy. Particle production might be
ies gradually in most recent simulations. Each step’s data are sent caused by three-body oxidation of the disc surface during friction
into an iterative algorithm that changes the contact pressure and and two separate types of abrasion during braking. By reducing
sliding lengths. The global incremental wear model is a wear the abrasion processes that occur during braking, it may be able
framework that is created. Material removal is done sequentially to reduce brake particle emissions. Brake friction materials are
depending on contact pressure, mechanical, and geometrical ele- classified using a combination of tradition and experimental
ments in this process, and it employs the well-known archard’s trial-and-error with a full knowledge. With the help of the best
wear formula. Adaptive FE modelling is used to simulate the wear braking material, the future focus for vehicles will be reduced
depth in ring-on-ring and pin-on- disc tests. Pin on disc is a com- emissions and greater fuel economy [35–41].
mon tribological pair experiment for wear study. Multiple software
packages such as ANSYS and ABAQUS are utilized for FEM analysis 3. Brake pad material and advancement
to forecast wear in a composite pad–rotor interface [25–30].
The brake pad is developed in accordance with ASTM standards,
and the material for the brake pad is made up of roughly 17 con-
2. Historical background stituents, 14 of which were altered, and the rest remained con-
stant. The majority of the fluctuation occurs in copper, iron, and
Metallic, and non-asbestos, non-metallic organic brake pads are aluminium alloys, with the remaining components remaining con-
the three primary types of brake pads . Asbestos is prohibited as a stant [23,31]. Metallic, non-metallic, and non-asbestos organic
brake pad material by the environment agencies since it is carcino- brake pads are the three primary types of brake pads [32]. In brake
genic, meaning it may cause cancer. Furthermore, the brake wear pad lining materials, lubricant, abrasive, reinforcement, filler, and
dispersion mostly comprises Fe, Ti, Si, Cu, K, and, Ba which can binding agent, are all common ingredients. Each one serves a speci-
cause respiratory tract irritation, renal failure, liver damage, cell / fic purpose in the composite structure, such as increasing brake
tissue damage, as well as other health problems. The coefficient pad strength, balancing friction and wear characteristics, extend-
of friction, reduced wear rate, greater heat rate of dissipation, bet- ing brake pad life, and reducing noise. The physical and mechanical
ter resistance to moisture swell, high tensile, compressive, and properties of the brake pad material are influenced by factors such
shear strength, low water oil absorptivity, geometrical stability at as moulding temperature, time and pressure values, heat treat-
high temperatures, and no harmful environmental impact and ment temperature, and so on [4,5]. Fig. 2. shows the formulations
health are all important factors to consider when choosing brake for the friction material.
pad material. Reinforcement, lubricant, abrasive, binding agent,
and filler are common elements in brake pad lining materials,
Semi-metallic composite friction material: In 1939, the semi-
and each component has a distinct role in the composite structure, metallic friction substance was introduced as a substitute for
such as continuing to increase brake pad strength, balancing fric- asbestos. Steel fibres and other ferrous metals make up 30–
tion and wear properties, and improving life and noise. Mechanical 35 wt% or more than 50% of the semi-metallic composition, a
qualities of brake calliper materials are also influenced by process resin-bond friction material. Steel wool fibre is combined with
factors and element characteristics, such as molding temperature, iron powder in today’s semi-metallic composition. Composite
duration and pressures levels and heat treatment temperature material is made up of microscopic or macroscopic components
[26–35]. In the recent work, from the tribological aspect, it has that are interface-bonded with the use of binders to achieve the
been observed that to analyse the wear between the brake and required qualities. Differing from conventional composite mate-
brake pad material, different tribological approaches such as pin- rials, the brake composite friction material is anisotropic, extre-
on-disc, ball on disc, four-ball tester, vacuum tribometer can be mely heterogeneous, and multi-component. Each element in the
employed. With the help of tribometers, the relationship of local friction material is added to achieve certain qualities. Control-
friction coefficient, the contact pressure and the sliding speed ling the friction coefficient, lowering porosity, and enhancing
can be plotted. From these different tribometers most commonly strength are just a few examples, among other things. To achieve
used tribometer is a pin-on-disc apparatus which consists of a sta- adequate brake pad friction for their application, a sequence of
tionary pin. It is usually held against a rotating disc. Primarily the tests must be carried out before selecting multi-components.
pin can have n number of shapes to simulate a specific contact. Al, Si, S, Mg, K, Ti, Fe, Ca and other metallic components are com-
However, cylindrical tips are mainly used to simplify contact monly used in metallic compositions, and non-metallic compo-
geometry. The use of finite element simulation has been suggested nents based on the application are selected [33,34].
and used in recent research. Furthermore, the wear test findings
Copper-free ceramic friction material: Copper has been used as
show that as the ageing period increases, wear resistance increases an addition in non-asbestos friction materials because of its
in heat-treated specimens. The hardness and wear resistance also strong thermal conductivity and ability to operate as a solid lubri-
rise while the coefficient of friction drops. The transformation of cant at high temperatures. However, due to environmental con-
temperatures for the two kinds of disc brake, the vented disc, cerns, many countries have begun to phase out copper in
and the complete disc during a braking scenario, as well as the friction materials. As a result, the friction material sector has a
mathematical modelling of the static structural as well as the tran- problem in replacing copper and copper alloys with additions
sient temperature analyzation one, are performed and the results that meet the requirements. When it comes to ceramics in fric-
with the interacting thermo-structural method using mathemati- tion materials, the ceramic matrix formulation refers to the use
cal modelling and modified ANSYS software for finite element of a variety of ceramic materials to produce a wide range of func-
method are analyzed. The vented brake with (grey cast iron tions. Ceramic-based friction materials have a consistent coeffi-
FG15) likewise provides a good agreement, according to the cient of friction throughout a large temperature range. These
results. Particles from the road, brakes, and tyre wear account for brake pads can endure temperatures of above 1000 °C, indicating
around half of PM10 particulate traffic pollution emissions. The that the brake pad material has great thermal stability [33,35].
wear of a disc and a brake pad from an official production car
Non-asbestos organic friction material: Two types of organic
was studied in order to gain a better understanding of brake debris friction compounds are routinely used. a) Asbestos-containing
development and its reliance on the brake material. The disc track organic substance b) Asbestos-free organic substance These
was examined under a microscope and analysed using (EDS)
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Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Friction material formulations.

usually contain 50% metallic components, phenolic resin, fric-
Fillers: These are utilized to cut costs while simultaneously
tion dust, graphite, and other materials. Soon, it was discovered boosting production capacity. Fillers include barite (BaSO4), ver-
that a single fibre was insufficient to provide the job that asbes- miculite, mineral silicates, and potassium titanate. At high tem-
tos offered. When compared to standard ones, the current peratures, the main characteristic of a brake pad is that it
inventions of non-asbestos composite friction material cause maintains a sufficient high friction coefficient with the brake
less environmental pollution due to the reduced content of cop- disc, and it does not decompose or break down. The friction
per in the abrasion powder generated during braking operation, coefficient with the brake disc remains steady and constant.
and it can provide excellent friction coefficient, abrasion resis- Brake wear is one of the most prominent non-exhaust traffic-
tance, and anti-crack properties. Binders are used to hold an related sources of particle emissions [16]. For a compact pas-
organic filler, an inorganic filler, and a fibre base material senger car, the total brake wear of non-asbestos organic brake
together for strength [33,36,37]. pads is expected to be between 3.2 and 8.8 mg/km [11]. PM10
and PM2.5 emissions per light-duty vehicle were 2-8 mg/km
3.1. Material composition for brake pad system and 2.1-5.5 mg/km, respectively, due to brake wear [46].
According to the study, PM10 emissions from NAO pads varied
Reinforcements, solid lubricants, abrasives, and fillers are all from 0.04 to 1.4 mg/km/car, and PM2.5 emissions ranged from
found in brake pads. In order to ensure a constant coefficient of 0.04 to 1.2 mg/km/car [10]. In both field and dynamometer tri-
friction, a composition of material for a brake pad system is estab- als, roughly 50% of brake wear was discharged as airborne, with
lished for certain environmental circumstances such as sliding PM10 contributing for 63 to 85%. The bulk of this research, on
velocity, temperature, pressure, and humidity. Brake pad wear par- the other hand, was only concerned with estimating and char-
ticles contribute to increased particle concentration in the urban acterizing PM10 or PM2.5 emissions. More emphasis has been
environment. Because of the rising percentage of non-exhaust pol- devoted to the creation, monitoring, and characterization of
lutants in traffic pollution, environmental criteria for a new pad nanoparticulate emissions in the recent decade [4 45–48].
and disc materials, novel compositions have recently become more
significant [15,38–45]. 4. Friction material formulation types

3.2. The properties of the brake pad constituent Friction material formulas come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Because of the harmful asbestos airborne particles, the new mate-
Reinforcement with fibres is done to offer the brake pad rials have evolved. Semi-metallic formulations are defined as: a
mechanical strength and stability and for this, reinforcing fibres resin-bonded friction compound that contains more than 50% steel
(brass, copper, steel, carbon fibre, aramid fibre, and glass fibre) and other ferrous components is referred to as a semi-metallic for-
are utilized. Table 1 shows the ingredients of the brake pad. mulation. Steel wool fibre is combined with iron powder in today’s
semi-metallic composition. This sort of metallic composition is

Binder: It holds the brake pad’s components together and pro- ideal for automobiles used on city streets. These do not fade away
vides bonding strength. It should be able to retain excellent sta- quickly because of the increased amounts of steel present,
bility at high temperatures. Phenolic resin is frequently mixed although they do start to fade throughout the hill descent, espe-
with rubber crumb to increase the damping properties [46,47]. cially while travelling at a faster speed. It produces high noise

Abrasive: It is needed to keep the brakes steady by controlling while braking, and it also corrodes due to humid conditions [38–
the frictional qualities. Zircon (ZrSiO4), zirconium oxide, and 45].
alumina are examples of abrasives. Solid lubricants are
employed at high temperatures to keep the coefficient of fric- 4.1. Low metal and low steel formulation
tion of surfaces contacts constant [46,48].
There is hardly any significant difference in friction between the
semi-metallic formulation and the low metal and low steel formu-
Table 1 lation. In semi-metallic, it ranges in the value 0.4, whereas in soft
Brake Pad Ingredients. metal, it is in the range 0.35–0.38. The main difference is present
Composition Main ingredients Characteristics in the composition of the material. In comparison to the semi-
metallic formulation, the resin weight is often raised by 1–4%.
NAO (non- Organic compounds, mineral Relatively gentle, low brake
asbestos fibres, graphite, titanates, and noise, low friction Few elements are combined in this composition, and ore is mixed
organic) other materials are used. performance, temperature with lubricants and rubber to function as a damping mechanism
sensitivity. [40–42].
LM (low- Components that are both Friction performance is
metallic) organic and metallic. better, and durability is
better.
4.2. Ceramic formulation
SM (semi- Metallic steel fibres Highest rotor wear
metallic) predominate, with less than resistance, heat transfer, The integration of diverse ceramic materials in a ceramic matrix
60 wt% low carbon steel fibre and durability. formulation allows us to achieve a wide range of functionalities.
and/or iron powder.
These have the capacity to maintain a constant CoF across a wide
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Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

temperature range. Because huge ceramic materials are used in pad material in a controlled situation, as the wear debris will not
this procedure, the composition is highly complicated. These are be released outside the chamber. There is a stationary pin with a
usually resin bonded and can withstand temperatures of up to circular cross-section and a rotor of the substance that is under
1000 ℃, giving the brake pad considerable thermal stability. To test. The pin is cut out of the brake pad. A dead weight load or a
decrease friction at low and high temperatures, this composition hydraulic load of suitable magnitude on the hook to press the
combines hard and soft components [40,41]. pin slamming onto the spinning disc is applied. During steady-
state circumstances, the most typical outputs from a pin-on-disc
4.3. Sintered metal formulation tribometer are the CoF and the specific wear rate. The test will
be conducted with a horizontal spinning disc made of grey cast
The bonding occurs in the sintered metal formulation, also iron and a vertical pin made of brake pad friction material. To apply
known as the metallic friction material, by fusing metallic particles the appropriate nominal contact pressure on the pin, dead weight
under pressures and temperatures. Copper-based sintered metallic is used. Depending on the sort of material under testing, the disc
and iron-based sintered metallic are the two types of sintered will spin at a constant speed of around 1000 RPM. The disc bulk
metallic compositions. Fabric is coated in sintered materials to give temperature is monitored by a K-type thermocouple 3 mm below
the metallic composition a fibrous structure. Copper, iron, tin, lead, the contact surface, while the coefficient of friction is indirectly
and other metals are used to make them. These might be utilised determined by a load cell. The mass loss of the specimen is calcu-
for both dry and wet friction when the iron is incorporated. In lated by weighing it before and after the test on a high-precision
the finished result, the iron-based sintered material includes weighing scale after the test has been completed for a set period
roughly 61% weight of iron [54–56]. of time. Then, using the equation below, wear rate can be calcu-
lated [4624].
4.4. Carbon-carbon formulation
Dm
Carbonization is the process of depositing carbon on the surface k¼
of a fibre. The carbonized product is then crushed and mixed with
q:Ds:F
the friction material, which is subsequently moulded to the desired
size. These are primarily utilized in applications where the need for where k = wear rate.
braking performance exceeds the expense of production. High- Dm = mass of the specimen.
speed trains, battle tanks, jets, and racing vehicles are only a few q = specimen density.
examples. These outperform steel by 2.5 times, have higher Ds = sliding distance.
strength at higher temperatures, are 40% lighter, and have twice F = normal force.
the service life [54–57]. A blower draws outside air into the box, which will be passed
through a HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter of class H13
5. Brake pad friction material testing EN 1822 with a 99.95% collection efficiency and a maximum pen-
etration of particle size, 0.3 mm. This guarantees that only clean air
On an enclosed tribometer, the performance of various brake enters the enclosure. The air velocity entering the container is
pad friction materials can be tested. The tribometer is an enclosed measured and it is assumed that the air is sufficiently mixed within
pin-on-disc tribometer as shown in the Fig. 3. This tribometer can the box. After that, the worn particles are carried to the air outlet,
be used to investigate the friction and wear properties of disc brake where the particle sensor’s sample point is mounted [44,45].

Fig. 3. Experimental setup of the enclosed tribometer.

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Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

6. Brake disc material Friction materials: blend of raw materials.

Brake discs, also known as brake rotors, are important compo- Organic type Metallic type Inorganic type
nent of an automobile braking system because these convert rota-
tional energy into thermal energy, increasing the temperature of Asbestos Non-asbestos Sintered alloy C/C composite
the disc friction surfaces and slowing the vehicle. Disc brakes cool
down faster than drum brakes because these have a bigger sweep Semi-metallic
area and more airflow exposure [49]. Gray cast iron (GCI), because
of its outstanding dampening properties and great thermophysical Low-steel
parameters (melting point, thermal conductivity, and heat storage
capacity), is the most often utilised brake disc material, which Non-steel
helps decrease overheating, braking decibel sounds, and brake fric-
tion fade [49–52]. But, low corrosive strength causes braking vibra- Fig. 4. Current classification of friction materials.
tion, high increased weight affects fuel consumption, and
also brake wear emissions in the form of brake particulate dust is ulations, commercial use of this technology will gradually be con-
released [47,53–56]. Because GCI has a higher melting point and strained, driving the development of other techno-economically
heat conductivity than many other materials, it offers better ther- feasible alternatives.
mal stability. Aluminum MMCs have shown outstanding corrosion
and wear resistance while reducing weight dramatically. It differs 7. Current developments in friction materials
from GCI such as it has a reduced melting temperature as well as a
higher coefficient of thermal expansion [51,57–59]. Although their Modern friction materials offer a wide range of uses in automo-
wear rate is predicted to be greater, lightweight Ti-alloys are 37% tive braking systems, aeroplanes, and industry. It should also have
lighter than GCI [60]. Carbon-carbon composites (CMCs), such as high heat resistance, a wear rate of low value, and excellent ther-
carbon-fibre reinforced and silicon carbide (C/SiC) composites, mal stability. Even yet, it’s nearly hard to put all of this into prac-
have great thermal stability up to 1300 °C, better tribological per- tice. To meet these standards and develop a replacement
formance compared to GCI, and considerable weight reduction. formulation, composite friction materials are frequently backed
These are, however, extremely costly, and are thus primarily uti- by experience or a trial-and-error approach. Binders, fibres, fillers,
lised in high and extreme performance motorsport and luxury and modifiers all play a part in deciding on a new friction compos-
automobiles [61–63,64]. As a result, improving the tribo-surface ite composition. The time dependence of wear and tear patterns on
properties of disc brake composites and materials will be essential the brake pad was used to propose a friction replacement theory in
to the growth of lightweight, wear-resistant, and corrosion- braking systems. A method based on the discretization with cellu-
resistant brake disc composites and materials. Due to the limita- lar automation to gain understanding of the dynamic altering of
tions of the other composites and materials mentioned above, the surface topography within the physical phenomena was pro-
and the consequent need to produce a friction pad material that posed. Drum brakes organic brake linings on all four wheels were
can be utilised with such other materials, GCI is expected to utilized on the majority of coach and light truck vehicles in the
become the material of choice for brake discs in the next years, until the late 1960s, in the United States. The automobile industry
particularly in passenger automobiles [23]. Regardless of the fore- was confronted with the key new regulations starting in the mid-
going, issues with GCI brake disc corrosion and wear must be 1970s: federal braking regulations, as a result of the obligation to
addressed as soon as feasible, considering the recognized health remove asbestos from friction materials, large trucks have been
dangers associated with dust and airborne pollutants (aerosol) dis- converted to extreme energy-efficient, slightly lighter, and smaller
charges into the atmosphere [65,66]. According to new research, front-wheel drive vehicles. These modifications prompted the cre-
brake wear is responsible for up to 55% of non-exhaust pollution ation of a new ecofriendly generation of friction materials as
created by automobiles. The fact that over half of the pollutants shown in Fig. 4 [65–70].
produced by brake wear end up in the air (aerosol), with 80%–
98% of them falling into the PM10 (particles with a diameter of 8. Conclusions
10 mm or less) range, is particularly alarming [48,67,68]. In the
not-too-distant future, the European commission (EC) and the The negative impact of non-exhaust emissions on humans and
Environmental protection agency (EPA) are likely to impose stric- the environment has been the subject of the whole review.
ter limits on these emissions, prompting the automobile industry Researchers have also looked at its negative impact on the eco-
to seek both technologically and economically feasible alternatives system. The review articles analyses the outcome of brake pads
[69]. One intriguing idea is to investigate surface treatment meth- made with different formulations. Several researchers use com-
ods that might reduce GCI brake disc wear and corrosion while pression moulding and powder metallurgy to make brake pads.
keeping or increasing their function. In preparation of ever stricter The wear rate and friction coefficient is determined using a pin
environmental regulations, a growing number of research organi- on disc. A dynamometer is used to analyse the brake pad’s perfor-
zations have recently looked into the application of coatings to mance. The anatomy of brake pad specimens is studied using the
minimize disc wear. Despite its attractive performance, hard SEM method. Following conclusions can be drawn from the above
chrome coating is dangerous due to the presence of hexavalent analysis.
chromium Cr (VI) in the plating bath, which develops a lethal mist
and is known to cause cancer [70,57]. In the United States, the
By researching and analysing biodegradable fibres and their
Occupational safety and health administration (OSHA) has set a components, there is a lot of room to replace metals. To reduce
permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 5 g/m3 for hex chrome and sim- human and environmental risks, new materials with largest
ilar compounds, but the limit in Sweden is 20 g/m3 [33,57]. The proportion of natural components can be fabricated, and brake
European parliament and council have set a limit of 0.025 mg/m3 pad manufacturers must adhere to rules set out by various
for end-of-life vehicles in the EU, with a maximum of 2 gm per nations regarding the quantity of metallic elements in brake
vehicle allowance [15]. As a result of such tight environmental reg- pads.

6
Shoaib Munir Mulani, A. Kumar, Haris Naiyer E Azam Shaikh et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Krijgsheld, L. Ntziachristos, M. Riediker, F.R. Cassee, The policyrelevance of
wearemissions fromroad transport, nowand in the future-an
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revised estimate of copper emissions from road transport in UNECE-Europe
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