Far Eastern University
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts
Introduction to Architecture ARCH 1412: Theory of Architecture 1
“Architecture is the thoughtful making of space.” -LOUIS KHAN
Architecture is the crystallization of ideas. It has been defined many ways.
o “As shelter in the form of art, a blossoming in stone and a flowering of geometry” -Ralph Waldo Emerson
o “Frozen music” -Goethe
o “Human triumph over gravitation and the will to power.” -Nietzs che
o “The will of an epoch translated into space.” -Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
o “The magnificent play of forms in light.” -Le Corbusier
o “A cultural instrument.” -Louis I. Kahn
o “Inhabited sculpture. -Constantin Brancusi
o “Balance of structural science and aesthetic expression for the satisfaction of needs that go far beyond
the utilitarian.” -Ada Louise Huxtable
Architecture DEFINITION
“Architecture is the ART and SCIENCE of DESIGNING and CONSTRUCTING buildings.”
o ART- Architecture as the product or result of architectural work; buildings, collectively
o SCIENCE- Architecture as a style or method of building characteristic of a people, place or time
o DESIGNING- Architecture as the profession of designing buildings and other habitable environments
o CONSTRUCTING- Architecture as the conscious act of forming things, resulting in unifying or coherent
structures
“Architecture is the ART, SCIENCE or PROFESSION of planning, designing and constructing buildings in their
TOTALITY taking into account their ENVIRONMENT, in accordance with the principles of UTILITY, STRENGTH and
BEAUTY;”
Architecture as the whole of the human-built environment.
The architectural design process is one that translates to a variety of scales and is applicable to the design of
objects, spaces, and even cities
Architecture ETYMOLOGY
Role of an Architect
Developments relating to the changing practice of building, the increasing division of labour, transformations in
building technology and the emergence of new types of building- changed the meaning of what we understand
by the term ‘architect’
RA 9266 “Architect” means a person professionally and academically qualified, registered and licensed under
R.A. No. 9266 with a Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card issued by the Professional
Regulatory Board of Architecture and the Professional Regulation Commission, and who is responsible for
advocating the fair and sustainable development, welfare and cultural expression of society’s habitat in terms
of space, forms and historical context;
RA 9266 “General Practice of Architecture” the act of planning and architectural designing, structural
conceptualization, specifying, supervising and giving general administration and responsible direction to the
erection, enlargement or alterations of buildings and building environments and architectural design in
engineering structures or any part thereof;
Role of an Architect
“Scope of the Practice of Architecture” encompasses the provision of professional services in connection with
site, physical and planning and the design, construction, enlargement, conservation, renovation, remodeling,
restoration or alteration of a building or group of buildings. Services may include, but are not limited to:
a) planning, architectural designing and structural conceptualization;
b) consultation, consultancy, giving oral or written advice and directions, conferences, evaluations,
investigations, quality surveys, appraisals and adjustments, architectural and operational planning, site
analysis and other pre-design services;
c) schematic design, design development, contract documents and construction phases including
professional consultancies;
d) preparation of preliminary, technical, economic and financial feasibility studies of plans, models and
project promotional services;
e) preparation of architectural plans, specifications, bill of materials, cost estimates, general conditions and
bidding documents;
f) construction and project management, giving general management, administration, supervision,
coordination and responsible direction or the planning, architectural designing, construction,
reconstruction, erection, enlargement or demolition, renovation, repair, orderly removal, remodeling,
alteration, preservation or restoration of buildings or structures or complex buildings, including all their
components, sites and environs, intended for private or public use;
g) the planning, architectural lay-outing and utilization of spaces within and surrounding such buildings or
structures, housing design and community architecture, architectural interiors and space planning,
architectural detailing, architectural lighting, acoustics, architectural lay-outing of mechanical, electrical,
electronic, sanitary, plumbing, communications and other utility systems, equipment and fixtures;
h) building programming, building administration, construction arbitration and architectural conservation
and restoration;
i) all works which relate to the scientific, aesthetic and orderly coordination of all works and branches of
the work, systems and processes necessary for the production of a complete building or structure,
whether for public or private use, in order to enhance or safeguard life, health and property and the
promotion and enrichment of the quality of life, the architectural design of engineering structures or any
part thereof; and
j) all other works, projects and activities which require the professional competence of an architect,
including teaching of architectural subjects and architectural computer-aided design;
Beginnings of Architecture
EARLY HISTORY
Architecture as a tool it is an invention intended to
satisfy the most basic needs of human beings:
shelter, protection, and control over one’s
environment.
Architecture as a tool: structural system evolved based on climate
Architecture as a symbolic expression
Symbolic content is most easily perceived in religious and public buildings
Principal intent is to make a broad and emphatic proclamation of
communal values and beliefs.
Beginnings of Architecture
EARLY HISTORY
1200O BCE Created societies of villages and hamlets
near caves or along shores and streams, allowing for a
combination of farming and hunting to which
domestication of animals and plants followed
Figure 1200 BCE
1500 BCE The Hittites and the Egyptians became the preeminent land powers in
Western Asia, with Egypt embarking on a remarkable period of temple architecture.
2500 BCE By the beginning of the third millennium BCE, the various
river-oriented civilizations were primed for rapid cultural
development. The five principal cultural hubs were: China, Egypt,
Figure 1500 BCE
Mesopotamia, Margiana, and the Indus,
800 BCE Between the eighth and the sixth centuries BCE, the
Assyrians and Babylonians established themselves as the controlling
powers of western Asia
Figure 2500 BCE
Figure 800 BCE
Figure 200 BCE Figure 1 CE
Figure 400 BCE Figure 400 BCE
400 BCE During this period, ethical and civic notions of government and of personal conduct began to take root
in many parts of Eurasia
200 CE the Roman Empire grew into one of the greatest and most extensive empires in the world and yet was
on the brink of disaster.
1 CE Roman emperors from Augustus to Trajan changed the architectural face of the European and West Asian
world, building impressive temples, forums, villas, and cities, all with the typical Roman imprint.
400 CE The decline of Europe in cultural and economic terms paralleled the shift of the Roman power base to
Byzantium and western Asia. In Central Asia, the most impressive buildings at the time were made by the
Sassanians in Iraq and Iran
600 CE In Eurasia, there was consolidation in which the newly arising world
religions were changing and being tested. New architectural forms were
developed, such as the brick dome, concrete by this time having been
forgotten.
Figure 600 BCE
800 CE In 800 CE, China’s T’ang Dynasty (618–906 CE) was Eurasia’s
economic engine. Also, the new Islamic kingdom’s architectural expression was the
mosque, a simple hypostyle hall oriented toward Mecca
1000 CE The turn of the millennium saw extensive temple building programs
occurring throughout South and Southeast Asia.
1200 CE The history of religions is never static, and this is
especially true during this period.
Figure 1000 BCE
Figure 1200 BCE
Basic Elements of Architecture
COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING
✓ Building Site
✓ Foundation
✓ Structures
✓ Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing System
✓ Floor
✓ Door
✓ Window
✓ Wall
✓ Room
✓ Ceiling
✓ Roof
Basic Elements of Architecture
BUILDING SITE - When designing, we always try to consider the CULTURE and CONTEXT of the site. Culture
would refer to the people/ users of the building as well as their value system while the Context is the total
environmental setting where architecture will be built upon.
• Values (attitude, priorities, preferences)
CULTURE: People • Traditions (social group, religion)
• Individual/ Population (user, client community, stakeholders)
• Site Conditions (Geographic Factors, Climatic Factors, Sensory Factors)
CONTEXT: • History (flooding, earthquake, land dispute)
Environment • General Character (size, location, zoning, soil, topography, sun, wind,
vegetation, views)
• Existing Structures
• Accessibility (pedestrian, vehicular)
• Governing laws and standards (development controls, codes)
FOUNDATION-is the lowest load-bearing part of a building, typically below ground level.
STRUCTURE-refers to the complete structural system that transfers the load through interconnected
structural members
PLUMBING SYSTEM-refers to the utility consisting of the pipes and fixtures for the distribution of water in a
building and for the disposal of sewage
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM-consists of all elements needed to distribute electrical power
MECHANICAL SYSTEM-building service that uses machine; for heating and air-conditioning systems
FLOORS- a continuous supporting surface extending horizontally throughout a building
DOOR- a hinged, sliding or folding barrier of wood, metal or glass, for opening or closing an entrance to a
building, room or cabinet.
WINDOW- a hinged, sliding or folding barrier of wood, metal or glass, for opening or closing an entrance to a
building, room or cabinet.
WALL- any of various upright constructions presenting a continuous surface and serving to enclose, divide or
protect an area.
ROOMS- a portion of space within a building, separated by walls or partitions from other similar spaces
CEILING- the overhead interior surface or lining of a room often concealing the underside of the floor or roof
above
ROOF-the external upper covering of a building including the frame for supporting the roofing.
Far Eastern University
Institute of Architecture and Fine Arts
Introduction to Theory ARCH 1412: Theory of Architecture 1
Architectural Theory
The architectural theory:
• critical commentary on or explanations of architectural works or styles or movements;
• instructions or guidelines for architectural design;
• musings on the origins of building types or styles;
• advocacy for new approaches to the architectural discipline and practice
• historical record to best govern the concepts of the discipline
Two primary goals of practitioners’ thinking in architectural theory are systemization and explanation, and
prescription:
1. First, architectural theory represents a codification of practical architectural knowledge:
• what we currently know about how to do or categorize architecture
• how architecture should be done
• how to explain aspects of architectural practice, such as spatial structuring
2. Second, architectural theory comprises prescriptive expressions:
• promote given or new ways in which to do architecture and
• ground architectural practice in moral, social, psychological, or theoretical bases.
ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS
The Architecture of space, structure, and enclosure experienced through movement in space and time and
achieved by means of technology that accommodates a program which is compatible the context and order.
Vitruvian Triad of Architecture
According to Vitruvius, architecture must provide:
• utility (utilitas) refers to the functional arrangement of rooms and spaces so that there is no hindrance
to use and so that a building is perfectly adjusted to its site.
• firmness (firmitas) refers to foundations that were solid and to building materials used wisely to do their
required work.
• beauty (venustas) meant that “the appearance of the work is pleasing and in good taste, and [that] its
members are in due proportion according to correct principles of symmetry.”
The ultimate tests of architecture are:
➢ First, does a building work by supporting and reinforcing its functional use; does it enhance its setting?
➢ Second, is it built well enough to stand up; will its materials weather well?
➢ Third, does the building appeal to the visual senses; does it provide a full measure of satisfaction and
enjoyment— does it provide delight?
BUILDING FUNCTION (UTILITAS)
“The aim of architecture is the creation of the perfect, and therefore most beautiful, efficiency.” -Architect Bruno
Taut (International Modern architecture, 1929)
Components of Function:
• Utilitarian or Pragmatic utility the accommodation of a specific use or activity in a specific room or space.
• Circulatory Function the making of appropriate spaces to
accommodate, direct, and facilitate movement from area
to area. (See Figure 1: Paris Opera, Charles Garnier, 1861-
1875.)
• Symbolic Function making a visible statement about its
use; correspondence between what the building’s use
appears to be and what the use actually is
• Psychological Function in relation to providing optimum
satisfaction (mental satisfaction)
STRUCTURE (FIRMITAS)
Essence of architectural structure making sure that objects will not fall to the earth, despite the incessant pull
of gravity
• Physical Structure and Perceptual Structure
o physical structure, that is, the “bones” of the building that carry the
structural load, and the perceptual structure, or what can be seen (See
Figure 2) Figure 2: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Lever House, New York,
1951–1952 and the New York Racquet and Tennis Club by McKim, Mead &
White, 1916–1919
• Soil Bearing Capacity
o Soil: an important structural element in a building, the nonvisible portion—
how it is supported on the ground itself on its foundation balancing act
between the weight of the building and what the soil beneath it can bear
(See Figure 3) Figure 3: Guglielmo, Giovanni di Simone, and Tommaso di
Andrea Pisano, Campanile Tower of Pisa, 1173–1350.
Structure is more than just a simple matter of creating a frame or an envelope- materials
selected and their assembly, suggesting either massiveness or dematerialization, are part
of a culture’s view of itself and its relationship to history.
Post and Lintel System (Column and Beam) (FIRMITAS)
• Also called Trabeated system (from the latin trabs, “beam”)
• An example of direct expression of post and lintel contruction is the Valley Temple East Pyramid of
Khafre, in Giza, Egypt. (see Figure 4)
• Simple Supported Beam: deflect in the middle of their span as a result of their own weight, and even
more as loads are applied.
o Compression: upper part is squeezed together
o Tension: lower part is stretched
• Cantilever: Extending the beam over the end of the column
o Tension: the upper part is stretched
o Compression: lower portion experiences squeezing
Classical Orders (FIRMITAS)
5 Classical Orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, Tuscan Doric and Composite
• Doric
• Height: 4 to 6 ½ as tall as diameter
• Entablature:1/4 the height of the column.
• Shaft: rises directly from the stylobate platform with no base; 20 broad scalloped indentions, or
flutes, with sharp outer edges
• Capital: consists of a banded necking with an outward-swelling echinus, and a final square abacus
slab
• Ionic
• Height: 9 times as high as diameter
• Entablature: 1/5 the height of the column
• Shaft: ornamental base; 24 flutes with flattened edges
• Capital: unique curled volutes resting on an egg-and dart molding; with a swelling pulvinus
connecting the curling volutes
• Corinthian
• Height: 10 times as high as diameter
• Entablature: similar to Ionic
• Shaft: rise from a base with 24 flutes
• Capital: tallest of the 3 greek orders with lush outward looking acanthus leaves
• Tuscan Doric
• Roman adaptation of the Greek Doric
• More slender with the addition of a base and a smooth, unfluted shaft
• Composite
• Roman adaptation that are formed by placing the volutes
• of the Ionic capital atop the curled acanthus leaves of the Corinthian.
Arch (FIRMITAS)
o Figure 9: Diagram of an arch system. Drawing: L. M. Roth. Arch
o Figure 10: Diagram of an arcade. Drawing: L. M. Roth
• Arch: alternative for spanning an opening advantage: not necessary to find a large stone lintel since the
masonry arch is made up of small wedge-shaped voussoirs, and arch can span much greater distances than
can a stone lintel
• disadvantage: during construction, all the voussoirs must be supported by a wooden framework
(centering) until the uppermost voussoir (keystone), is inserted, locking the arch in place
Vault (FIRMITAS)
• an arched structure of stone, brick or reinforced concrete, forming a ceiling or roof over a hall, room or
other wholly or partially enclosed space
• Longitudinal supporting walls of vaults to counteract the thrust of the arching action-provide buttress
• Barrel vault to groin vault: provide lighted interior
• Other types: ridge vault, fan vault, star vault
Domes (FIRMITAS)
• arch rotated about its center vertical axis generates a dome; a
semicircular arch makes a hemispherical dome
• symbolically suggested the over-arching heavens
• Pantheon (see figure 15)
o circular in plan;
o clear span is 142 feet, 6 inches (43.4 m),
o 4 feet (1.2 m) thick at the top,
o broad, single opening of the eye, or oculus, 30 feet (9.1 m)
across
o thickness of the dome continues to increase in thickness
down to its base at 21 feet (6.4 m) thick
o total weight of the dome is reduced by deep recesses, or
coffers
• Byzantine architects was to place a dome over a square plan by the use of curved-triangle-shaped,
spherical segment called a pendentive
Trusses, Space Frames and Geodesic Dome (FIRMITAS)
• Truss: made up of straight wood timbers (or,
nowadays, steel members) arranged in triangular
shapes or cells
• process of adding triangle to triangle; construct
extended figures that are strong despite being
light
• by the 19th century, many new forms of trusses
were devised usually identified by the name of
the engineer who first used them
• Spaceframe: truss extended in three dimensions
becomes a space frame; used only since about
1945
• Geodesic dome: truss can be curved in three
dimensions to form a geodesic dome which is
built up of small, light, easily handled steel
members
Shells (FIRMITAS)
• Curved Shells: innovative structural type developed during the 20th century constructed of concrete;
shells can be very thick and heavy or extremely thin and light
• can use shells with much less material (e.g. concrete applied by
hand over steel wire mesh) by utilizing not only the mass of the
material but also the geometric curves of the shell. (see figure
21)
• shell may also be curved or folded in only one direction—for
instance, an accordion-fold shell (see figure 22)
Delight (VENUSTAS)
most complex and diverse of all the components of architecture, for it involves how architecture engages all
our senses, how it shapes our perception and enjoyment of (or discomfort with) our built environment
Visual Perception
• what we perceive is based on what we already know
• mind interprets forms and patterns presented according to certain built-in preferences
• preferences are:
o Proximity Objects close to one another are seen to represent a pattern, and points in space
are interpreted as lying on a single plane
o
o Repetition Equalities of spacing or distance are seen even where none exist
o
Visual Perception
preferences are:
• Simplest and largest figure When presented with elements that suggest an image it can recognize, the
mind fills in any missing pieces to form the simplest and largest meaningful figure
• Continuity and closure Directly related to the simplest and largest figure wherein a fragment of a shape
will be completed as that shape
• Figure to- ground relationship A shape seen in the context of an enclosing shape will be interpreted as a
form against a background, with the mind deliberately choosing which is which
Proportion (VENUSTAS)
• mind also seeks out mathematical and geometrical relationships—or proportions—in patterns
• Golden Mean or Golden Section
o proportional system most associated with Greek architecture and design, and with Classical
architecture as a whole
o this proportional relationship believed to be perfect describes the relationship of two unequal
parts
o formula:
o
• Fibonacci Series
o based on a numerical series, first described by the medieval mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci
o numerical sequence is generated by starting with the number one, adding that to itself, and then
generating the next in the series by adding the last number to the number preceding it, thus: 1,
2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and so on
o architect Le Corbusier developed a proportional system: Modulor
o Modulor was used as the basis of design for a large apartment block, the Unite d’Habitation in
Marseilles, France
Scale (VENUSTAS)
• to determine just how big a building is by
measuring against our own human size
• Scale: how big a building is, relative to the size of
the average human being
• clues in a building as to its size—windows, doors,
steps—enlarged: sense of scale is distorted
• east exteriorwall of the Basilica of Saint Peter in
Rome: Michaelangelo
• visual unity to this huge building: used overscaled
elements to reduce the number of parts, but the
result also makes it difficult to judge the true scale
of this building relative to human size
Rhythm (Venustas)
• alternation between incident and interval, between solids and voids
• rhythm in architecture: pattern created in windows spaced in a wall, or columns in a colonnade, or piers
in an arcade.
• architecture is like music: both are experienced in time
• Le Corbusier, Secretariat Building in India
o Side: identical office cells expressed externally by the repetitive rhythm
o Center: the rhythm changes dramatically with larger, asymmetrical patterns on the center with
larger chambers and differing internal functions
Texture (VENUSTAS)
• visual, or optical texture of a building: refers to
its visual pattern at the large scale
o Secretariat at Chandigarh
o seen from a distance has a rich optical
texture in the variation between the
uniform office cells and the more
irregular “texture” of the larger meeting
rooms
• haptic, or tactile texture of a building: refers to
what can be physically felt with the human
hand
o Unite d’Habitation at Marseilles:
o concrete was poured in forms specially
made of rough lumber-a bold pattern
was left imprinted in the concrete when
forms were removed
o rotate alternate panels of the
formwork, creating a basketwork
checkerboard
Light (venustas)
• important for illuminating the environment
• creates psychological responses and has a strong physiological
effect.
• most effective element in creating a sense of mystery and awe
• manipulation of light is a principal agent in the creation of shrines
and religious buildings
Color (VENUSTAS)
• colors are powerful evoker of moods and physiological response
• color as a stimuli: possible to measure distinct
• physiological responses to colors in the spectrum
o red and warm colors (brown and orange) : human organism
prepares for flight or for digestion at the sight of red-used in
restaurants
o blue and green: body experiences a release of muscular
tension, a slowing of the heartbeat, and a slight lowering of
body temperature
• primary colors: red, blue, yellow
o warm colors : closer to the eye than they physically are
o Large room: make it seem smaller (shade of warm color)
o cool colors: being slightly farther away
o Small room: make it seem larger (add tint of blue or green)
Ugliness (VENUSTAS)
• Ugliness can be defined in a number of ways:
o as a quality that is confusing because it is ambiguous or displays
an absence of a perceivable pattern of relationships,
o as a quality that is monstrous because it does not conform to
accepted norms, or as artistic willfulness and capriciousness
• Most periods have denigrated the art and architecture of the period
immediately preceding
o During the Renaissance-despised middle ages architecture
including Gothic Architecture
o Previous generation is consiedered barbaric, since it does not
conform to contemporary standards or values
• value of ugliness is that it forces us to examine our accepted
conventions
Ornament (VENUASTAS)
• •value attached to architectural ornament has swung from one extreme
to another:
• “ornament is the chief part of architecture.” -John Ruskin, mid 19th
century
• “the evolution of culture is synonymous with the removal of ornament
from utilitarian objects.” -Adolf Loos, 1908
• ornament can be used for pure visual delight
• ornament can also have a strictly utilitarian purpose to enhance
longevity of a building.
o demon-like gargoyles from Gothic cathedrals are water spouts to throw the water collected from
the upper roofs away from the building
• ornaments can accentuate a functional aspect of a building
o Gothic cathedral of Reims, France have doors that are announced unmistakably by broad,
recessed archways
Architecture is the optimum combination of utilitas (building function), firmitas (structure) and venustas
(beauty-delight)