BIOLOGY NOTES: WE USE THOSE ENERGY TO PHOSPHORYLATE

role of atp in energy coupling and transfer ADP INTO ATP, THIS PROCESS IS CALLED
ANABOLISM.
ATP (ADENINE TRI-PHOSPHATE)
WE USE THE RESULTING ATP INTO OUR DAILY
LIVES TO LIVE AND BE ALIVE, RESULTING TO
ADP. THIS PROCESS IS CALLED CATABOLISM.

CATABOLISM: ATP----ADP/ breakdown
ANABOLISM: ADP-----ATP/synthesis 

Note:
CELLS NEED ENERGY TO FUNCTION, THE
WHEN USED, IT HYDROLIZES (undergo chemical
breakdown due to reaction with water.) ENERGY RELEASED BY THE PROCESS OF
LOSING ONE 1 PHOSPHORUS RESULTING REMOVING THE 3RD PHOSPHORUS FROM ATP,
INTO ADP (ADENINE DI-PHOSPHATE) CAN ALLOW THE CELLS TO DO ITS JOB.

ADP

TRI- 3 PHOSPHATE
DI – 2 PHOSPHATE

Pi- LONE/ INDIVIDUAL PHOSPHORUS

- Inorganic phosphate
ANABOLIC CATABOLIC
AS SAID BEFORE, ATP CAN OLY BE USED WHEN
HYDROLIZED. EXPLAINING THE PRESSENCE OF
H2O IN THE DIAGRAM. ONCE HYDROLIZED, IT
RELEASES ENERGY THAT WE CAN USE AND Pi.
THIS PROCESS IS CLASSIFIED EXOTHERMIC, AS
ENERY EXITS THE BODY. ADDING THE Pi AGAIN
ORGANISIMS TAKE IN ENGERGY SOURCE TO MAKE ATP IS AN ENDOTHERMIC REACTION
PLANTS: SUNLIGHT AS IT REQUIRES ENERGY TO ENTER. THIS
ANIMAL: FOOD ENERGY COMES FROM RESPIRATION
(AEROBIC/FERMENTATION)
ANABOLISM IS CONSIDERED ENDORGONIC REDUCING AGENT IS THE ORIGINAL MOLECULE
REACTION AS IT REQUIRES ENERGY REDUCED IS THE MOLECULE AFTER AN
ELECTRON IS ADDED.
CATABOLISM IS CONSIDERED EXERGONIC AS IT
RELEASES ENERGY EX:
NADP+---------------------NADPH
REDUC AGENT REDUCED
THE REDOX REACTION ENZYMES/ OXIDATION
ELECTRON CARRIERS- FUNCTIONS AS AN
REDUCTION REACTION ENZYMES.
ELECTRON SHUTTLE THAT TRANSFER
ELECTRONS FROM MOLECULE TO MOLECULE.

WHAT ARE ENZYMES?

ENZYMES: catalyst / speeds up chemical
reactions in the cells. They are protein
molecules, and so are made up of amino acids.
Most of them contains 100-1,000 amino
[Link] shapes of an enzyme is important as it
THESE REACTION OCCUR WHEN A TRANSFER OF
has a direct effect on the process it catalyzes.
ELECTRON FROM ONE MOLECULE TO ANOTHER
OCCURS Amino acids- building blocks of protein.

Enzyme shape are determined by the bonds of

amino acids.

Substrate- the molecule that the enzyme will

work on

Product- the result of substrate and enzymes

Active site- part of a enzymes that the substrate

molecules fit/ will go to.

MOLECULE “A” STARTS WITH ELECTRONS ,BUT

LOSES THEM. MAKING THEM OXIDIZED.

MOLECULE “B” STARTS WITH NO ELECTRON,

BUT GAINS ELECTRONS . MAKING THEM
REDUCED.

OXIDIZING AGENT-THE ORIGINAL STATE OF

MOLECULE.
OXIDIZED- THE REMAINING MOLECULE ENZYME MODELS

EX: EMIL FISHERS LOCK AND KEY [Link]

RH--------------------------R THAT ONLY ONE SUTRATE CAN FIT IN AN
OXI AGENT OXIDIZED ENZYME. ENZYMES AS THE LOCK, SUBSTRATE
AS KEYS…
 LITTLE CAN SLOWW DOWN THE PROCESS OF
ENZYME ACTIVITY.

(EXTREME CHANGES IN PH CAN DENATURE THE

ENZYME)

ENZYME CONCENTRATION:

IF THERE IS A SUBSTRATE THAT CAN BIND TO

AN ENZYME, AND YOU RAISED THE ENZYME
CONCENTRATION IT WILL SPEED UP. BUT WHEN
THERE IS NO MORE AVAILABLE SUBSTRATE IT
WILL SLOW DOWN

DANIEL KOSHLANDS INDUCED FIT MODEL SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION:

STATES THAT ENZYME’S ACTIVE SITE CHANGES INCREASING SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION CAN
AS IT INTERACTS WITH SUBSTRATES. ONCE THE INCREASE THE REACTION RATE TO A CERTAIN
SUBSTRATE IS PERFECTLY FITTED AND LOCKED [Link] ALL ENZYMES HAVE BOUND TO A
IN THE EXACT POSITION CATALYSIS BEGIN. SUBSTRATE ADDING MORE SUBSTRATE WILL
NO LONGER AFFECT THE REACTION RATE.

(ENZYME AND SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION

ARE BASICALLY DIFFERENT SIDES OF THE SAME
COIN:

IF THERE ARE NO MORE ENZYMES THAT

SUBSTRATE CAN BIND TO IT WILL SLOW DOWN.
IF THERE IS NO MORE SUBSTRATE THAT AN
ENZYME CAN BIND TO IT WILL SLOW DOWN. )

Biological molecules review <3

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITIES

TEMPERATURE:

HIGH TEMPARATURE CAN SPEED UP A

REACTION, WHILE LOW TEMPERATURE SLOWS
IT DOWN

(TOO HIGH OF A TEMPERATURE CAN RESHAPE

THE ENZYME MAKING IT USELESS)

PH:

EACH INDIVIDUAL ENZYME HAS AN OPTIMUM

PH RANGE WHERE THEY WILL WORK TO THE CARBOHYDRATES:
FULLEST, LOWERING OR RAISING THE PH A -MOST COMMONLY BROKEN DOWN TO CREATE
ATP
-NOT STORED IN LARGE AMOUNTS CATALYST: SPEEDS UP PROCESS

-UP TO 36 ATP FROM ONE GLUCOSE MOLECULE ACTIVATION ENERGY: ENERGY NEEDED TO
START REACTIONN
LIPIDS:
REACTANTS/SUBSTRATES: MOLECULES IN
- STORES THE MOST ENERGY
WHICH ENZYMES ACTS UPON
- 80% OF ENERGY IN THE BODY
- ABOUT 146 ATP FROM 1 TRIGLYCERIDE ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX: PART OF
MOLECULE ENZYME, AFTER ENZYME CHANGES SHAPE
SLIGHTLY
PROTEINS:
OPTIMAL: MAXIMUM CAPACITY/ MOST
- BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
EFFECTIVE
- LEAST LIKELY TO BE CONVERTED INTO
ATP DENATURATION: DEAD/ DESTROYED ENZYMES
- AMINO ACIDS USUALLY ARENT NEEDED
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: INHIBITS ENZYME THAT
FOR ENERGY
CATALYZES REACTION
- 36 ATP IN ONE AMINO ACID

NUCLEIC ACID
KEY FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES:
- ARE NEVER BROKEN DOWN FOR
ENERGY 1. to copy DNA
ACTIVATION ENERGY -The energy used to break 2. build proteins
the bonds in the reactants so they can be
reformed in the products 3. digest food

4. recycle cell’s worn-out parts

5. catalyze redox reactions

COFACTORS AND COENZYMES

Graph shows that without enzymes plants will

use more energy compared to that in which
enzyme is involved (graph tu ng cell res ,
products of cell res are the reactants of
photosynthesis. While the products of
photsynthesis are the reactants of cell res)

KEY TERMS:
 VITAMINS

THEY HELP THE ENZYME AND SUBSTRATE BIND

SO THAT THE ENZYME SUBSTRATE COMPLEX
CAN BE AT THEIR OPTIMUM FUNCTION.

INHIBITORS:

MAYBE REVERSABLE OR NOT, COMPETITIVE OR

NON COMPETITIVE

COMPETITIVE INHIBITORS SITS AT THE ACTIVE

SITE OF THE ENZYME BLOCKING THE
SUBSTRATE FROM BINDING WITH ENZYME

NON COMPETITIVE INHIBITORS SITS AT THE

ENZYME THAT IS NOT THE ENZYME. WHEN THIS
HAPPENS NON COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR CAN
RESHAPE THE ACTIVE SITE SO THAT THE
SUBSTRATE CANT BIND WITH THE ENZYME
ANYMORE.

NOTE:

INHIBITORS CAN SOMETIMES BE HELPFUL ONE

EXAMPLE OF THIS IS FEEDBACK INHIBITION

Feedback inhibition:

When enzyme substrate complex creates a

CO FACTORS AND CO ENZYMES concentration of products , which can be
harmful. When the product is an inhibitor, they
SOMETIMES WHEN ENZYMES AND SUBSTRAES can attach themselves to the complex to
BIND , THERE IS AN ENDUCED FIT CREATED denature/ shut it down.
ENDUCED FIT:

ENZYMES SLIGHTLY CHANGING THE SHAPE OF

THEIR ACTIVE SITE SO THAT THE SUBSTRATE
CAN FIT EVEN BETTER.

THIS IS CATALYZED BY CO ENZYMES AND CO

FACTORS

CO FACTORS: ARE INORGANIC

EX : ZINC AND IRON

CO ENZYMES; ORGANIC
Most of the coenzymes are derived from
vitamins. They act as a transient carrier of
groups and transfer these groups in a
biochemical reaction. Examples include:

• Coenzyme A (CoA) – It is derived from

compounds such as pantothenic acid,
etc. and carries acyl groups.

• Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) – It is

derived from vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) and
carries electrons.

• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

(NAD) – Derived from nicotinic acid
(Niacin) and carries hydride ions.

COFACTOR-binds to an enzyme; Increase the

speed of reaction; It can be removed only by
denaturation; Example: Metal ions such as K +,
Zn2+

COENZYME- carries chemical groups between

enzymes; act as carriers; Can be easily removed;
Examples: Biotin, Vitamin, Coenzyme A

BINDING SITE temporarily binds with the

substrate

CATALYTIC SITE- catalyzes the reaction of the

substrate.

The binding site and catalytic site are two

components of the active site of an enzyme.

APOENZYME- inactive enzyme; An enzyme that

requires a cofactor but does not have one
bound.

HOLOENZYME = Apoenzyme + Cofactor

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FACTORS TO ENZYME
ACTIVITIES
 B6f complex creating few
atp

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

The process of turning light into energy

Occurs in chloroplasts (mesophyll cells)

- Linear -PS2 TO ETC TO
PS1 TO FD AND FNADP
REDUCTASE Creating
few ATP and a lot of
NADPH

2 stages of photosynthesis

Stage 1 :light dependent cycle

-needs light
-produces ATP and NADPH
-occurs in the thylakoid
DIVIDED INTO 5 STEPS

 Photosystems Absorb Light

Energy.
 Electrons Move Down the
Electron Transport Chain,
Providing Energy to Pump
Protons into the Thylakoid
Lumen.
 Photophosphorylation.
- Cyclic: too much ADP will
cause ions to circle around  Water Photolysis.
PS1 AND CYTOCHROME  Reduction of NADP+
 ACCEPTORS (CONTAINS ELECTRONS)
LIGHT HARVESTING COMPLEX: gather light
energy and to transfer this energy to the
reaction centers for the photo-induced
redox processes.
2 TYPES OF PHOTOSYSTEMS
PHOTSYSTEM I
– GOOD WITH LIGHT WAVELENGTH OF
700 NM (NANO METERS) WHY IT IS
SOMETIMES CALLED P700
- GENERATES NADPH

PHOTOSYSTEM II
- WORKS WELL WITH 680NM
Photosystems Absorb Light Energy
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT. WHY IT IS
PHOTOSYSTEMS ARE FOUND INSIDE SOMETIMES CALLED P680
THYLAKOIDS, THEY ARE THE FIRST - GENERATES ATP
STEPS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

ONCE LIGHT (PHOTON) REACHES

PHOTOSYSTEM 2 (680 NM) IT GETS
ACCEPTED BY LIGHT HARVESTING
CHLOROPHYLL A :  absorbs light energy COMPLEX ( PIGMENT MOLECULE )UNTIL
from wavelengths of violet-blue and IT HITS P680 (CHLOROPHYLL A). THIS
orange-red light, and it reflects ACTIVITY EXCITE THE ELECTRON IN
green/yellow light, thus resulting in the CHLOROPHYLL A CAUSING IT TO MOVE
observed green color of most plants. TO THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR
PIGMENT MOLECULE: ACCESSORY PIGMENTS [PHOTOACTIVATION]
AKA OTHER PIGMENTS OF THE PLANT.
ELECTRON ACCEPTOR WILL PUSH
 absorb light energy and pass it on to the
ENERGIZED ELECTRON INTO THE
reaction centre or principal pigment .
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
REACTION CENTERE: CONTAINS ELECTRON
THROUGH THE PROTEINS
(PLASTIQUINONE,CYTOCHROME B6F ION GRADIENT WILL FLOW TOWARDS
COMPLEX,PLASTOCYANINE) TO GET TO ENZYME ATP SYNTHASE
PSI. (CHEMIOSMOSIS)
DUE TO THE LACK OF ELECTRON IN ATP SYNTHASE PROTEIN WILL ROTATE DUE TO
PSII, A PROCESS CALLED PHOTOLYSIS THE FLOW OF HYDROGEN. CAUSING ADP TO
WILL HAPPEN. WATER WILL BE BIND WITH Pi RESULTING IN ATP
ABSORED THROUGH THE XYLEM (DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS)
(ROOTS) AND GO TO THE LEAVES
(CHLOROPLAST SPECIFICALLY ELECTRONS IN PSI WILL LOSE ENERGY BUT WILL
THYLAKOID). WATER WILL THEN BE GET EXCITED AGAIN ONCE LIGHT HITS. AND
SPLIT INTO 3 : 2 HYDROGEN MOLECULE WILL PASS THROUGH ELECTRON TRANSPORT
,2 ELECTRON AND ½ OXYGEN (OXYGEN CHAIN 2 (FERRODOXIN----FERRODOXIN NADP
WILL FIND ANOTHER OXYGEN THEN REDUCTASE) ELECTRONS WILL MEET WITH
LEAVE THE CYCLE AND GO INTO THE NADP+ and H ions that passed through ATP
ATMOSPHERE.) synthase , CAUSING REDUCTION OF NADP+
(NADPH).

CALVIN CYCLE/LIGHT INDEPENDENT/ KREBS

CYCLE: C3 PATHWAY
ELECTRONS FROM WATER WILL
REPLACE THE EXCITED ELECTRONS
FROM PSII.
ELECTRONS JOURNEY THROUGH THE
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN WILL
RELEASE ENERGY. CAUSING A
HYDROGEN ION GRADIENT
(CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN IONS
IN STROMA) THESE HYDROGEN ION
WILL PASS THROUGH B6F COMPLEX
(STROMA—B6F—LUMEN)
CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN IN
STROMA DECREASES WHILE
CONCENTRATION IN LUMEN
INCREASES.
1) FIXATION OF CO2
2) REDUCTION
3) REGENERATION
KEY PLAYERS: RESULTING INTO 3GPA

CO2- FOUND IN THE ATMOSPHERE

NADPH AND ATP – PRODUCT OF LIGHT
REACTION
RuBisCO- RIBULOSE-1, 5-BIPHOSPHATE
CARBOXYLASE OXYGENASE (CATALYZES
FORMATION OF PHOSPHOGLYCERATE)
PGA KINASE- CATALYZES FORMATION OF
1.3BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE
G3P DEHYDROGENASE – CATALYZES
FORMATION OF G3P
RuBP- MOLECULE W 5 CARBON ATOMS

STEP 1: 1 CO2 WILL ENTER AND REACT WITH 1

RuBP catalyzed/aided by RubisCO. Resulting in 3
phosphoglycerate (PGA)
STEP 2: PGA KINASE (USED TO TRANSFER
PHOSPHATE GROUP INTO MOLECULE.) ATP
ENTERS THE SCENE TO PHOSPHOLYRATE
3PHOSPHOGLYCERATE(PGA) RESULTING IN 1.3-
BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE

STEP 2.5: NADPH WILL REDUCE 1.3

IN DEPTH: Rubp WILL REACT WITH CO2 BIPHOSPHOGLYCERATE INTO G3P
RESULTING INTO UNSTABLE 6-CARBON (GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE) THIS WILL BE
MOLECULE, WHICH WILL THEN BE DIVIDED CATALYZED BY G3P DEHYDROGENASE
INTO 2 GROUPS OF 3-CARBON MOLECULE . (REMOVES HYDROGEN FROM NADPH)

STEP 3: 1 MOLECULE OF G3P WILL BE

CONVERTED INTO GLUCOSE BY THE HELP OF 1
EXTRA ATP, WHILE THE REMAINING 5 WILL BE
REGENERATING THE 3 RuBP’s
 (peroxisome and the mitochondria) to create
PGA in the process called photorespiration
(oxidative photosynthetic calvin cycle). This
process will be inefficient to the plant, as
instead of using ATP and NADPH it wastes them.
This process also creates ammonia which shuts
down the xylem and stops bringing water to the
mesophyll cell which contains chlorophyll. This
can lead to plants not being able to
EXTRA INFO: photosynthesize and die.

3 cycles will be needed to use all 3 RuBP’s this

will result into one G3P molecule to turn into
C3H6O3, IT WILL NEED TO UNDER GO ANOTHER
3 CYCLES TO HAVE ANOTHER C3H606 . both
compounds will combine to form GLUCOSE
C6H12O6 (6 cycles of calvin cycle will be needed
to form sugar)

THERE WILL BE 3 ATPS USED IN ONE CYCLE OF

CALVIN CYCLE. BY 6 CYCLES 18 ATPs WILL BE
USED (2 ATP WILL BE USED IN REDUCTION 1
ATP USED IN REGENERATION) C4 PLANTS / C4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS /
PATHWAY :
THERE WILL BE 2 NADPH USED IN 1 CYCLE OF
CALVIN CYCLE AND 12 NADPH WILL BE USED IN HAVE DISCOVERED A WAY TO STOP
6 CYCLES. UNDERGOING PHOTORESPIRATION.

Glucose will them go through the phloem tissue First it fixes CO2 in the mesophyll cell’s
and go downward to be stored and be used in chloroplasts then move on to calvin cycle in
the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells
the future

CALVIN CYCLE/LIGHT INDEPENDENT/ KREBS

CYCLE: C4 PATHWAY

C4 PATHWAY:

C3 is one of the most common photosynthesis

process in the world, however it is very flawed.
When temperature rises(above20-30 degree
celcius/ 65-85 degree Fahrenheit), the stomata
will close to stop water from evaporating, this
leads to CO2 not being able to enter. when CO2
is unavailable, RuBisCO pairs up with oxygen, STAGE 1 OF C4 PHOTOSYSTEM /
which results in the lack of PGA .When this PATHWAY: CARBON FIXATION
happens , the plant will try its best to keep
photosynthesizing by using two more organelles
-OCCURS IN THE MESOPHYLL CELLS PHOTORESPIRATION.
CHLOROPLASTS
STEP 1:As the stoma closes, remaining
CO2 in the c4 plant will enter the mesophyll
cell to under go carbon fixation.
STEP 2: Carbon dioxide will encounter
enzyme PEP carboxylase(will not bind to
oxygen only carbon) which will then react
Carbon from CO2 to PEP
(PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE; 3 carbon
molecule) which then results in the
formation of oxaloacetic acid (OAA :4
carbon molecule) OAA will then be
converted into another 4 carbon molecule
called MALATE.
STAGE 2 OF C4 PHOTSYNTHESIS:
CALVIN CYCLE CAM PHOTOSYNTHESIS/ CAM
-OCCUR IN THE BUNDLE SHEATH CELL PATHWAY:
CHLOROPLASTS CAM plants developed due to their very hot
Malate will leave the mesophyll cell environment (usually deserts) because of
chloroplast and migrate towards the bundle this the primary concern of the CAM
sheath cell, once it enters the bundle sheath pathway or Crassulean acid metabolism
cell. It will got o the B.S chloroplast and join pathway is to conserve water as much as
the calvin cycle. MALATE be broken down possible. It achieves this goal by closing the
into Pyruvate and 1 carbon CO2. CO2 will stomata all day and only opening it during
undergo the calvin cycle, while pyruvate will the night
return to the mesophyll cell and convert into CAM PLANT:
PEP by ATP to await the arrival of new CO2
molecules. Part 1 : night

SINCE CARBON FIXATION OCCURS IN During the night the stomata opens to let
ONE CELL AND THE CALVIN CYCLE CO2 inside the plant. Once CO2 enters
OCCURS ON ANOTHER, RuBisCO WILL PEP carboxylase binds it with PEP to create
NOT COME INTO CONTACT WITH OXYLOACETATE or OAA (oxyloacitic acid)
OXYGEN, THEREFORE STOPPING this OOA will then be converted into
MALATE or MALATIC ACID which will be
stored in the vacoule of the plant cell . once
daytime appears the stomata closes and
stage 2 occurs.
PART 2 : DAYTIME
Malatic acid from the vacuole will migrate to
chloroplast to undergo the calvin cycle.
Malatic acid while in there will be turned into
CO2 that RuBisCO can bind to and
pyruvate which will be reduced by ATP into
PEP and return to the stroma. PIGMENT NOTES:

This process is useful as the plant can still Pigments absorbs visible light and converts it
undergo photosynthesis while the stomata into useful energy the plants can use for
is closed. photosynthesis

3 photosynthesis:

Calvin Cycle- also known as C3 pathway Chlorophyll: absorbs R,Y,B light but reflects
because a 3-C molecule, PGA, is the first stable green (meaning: red and blue light are mostly
compound used, THEN GREEN)
C3, C4 and CAM plants
Chlorophyll A: is a primary pigment, has a
C3- to fix carbon from CO2; 95% of plants(e.g.
structure of c55h75o5n4mg consisting of a
cereals, peanuts, tobacco, spinach, sugar
hydrophilic pyrole head.(water loving head) and
beets, soybeans, most trees, some lawn
a hydrophilic phytol tail (water fearing tail)
grasses)
found in the thylakoid membrane. 4 pyrole
C4- happens in mesophyll cells then forms 4C,
heads connect together by methane group to
moves to bundle-sheath cells; 1% of plants
form a pophyrin ring (a large ring molecule
(e.g. crab grass, crop plants such as sugarcane consisting of 4 pyrroles, which are
and corn) smaller rings made from 4 carbons and 1
CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism)- opens nitrogen) side group at ring II is ch3
stomata at night, fix CO2, then fix it again in
the Calvin Cycle during the day; unlike C4, both Phytol definition: a long hydrocarbon
fixation happen in the same cell (pineapple chain that is hydrophobic in nature
and cacti-adapted to dry habitats) C A appears bluish green as it reflects
the green visible light
Bacteriochlorophyll: found in green or also has a bluish green color absorbing 447-
purple colored bacterias has a structure 52 nm
of c55h74o6n4mg absorbs in infrared
CHLOROPHYLL D: found in cynobacterias
region > 720 nm
that can perform photosynthesis it has a
ACCESSORY PIGMENTS: found in the structure of C54H70MgO6N4 it absorbs 710 nm
LHC and is the reason why leaves which is why ir appears red.
changes colors, once principal pigment Cartenoids group: accessory pigments
CHLOROPHYLL A breaks down (due to found in ALL plants. RESPONSIBLE FOR
reasons of change of season, PH of MAKING THE COLOR OF PLANTS IN
water, and many more) it reveals the AUTUMN.
accessory pigments chlorophyll b c d ,
carotenoid pigments (carotene, CAROTENES (BETA CAROTENES): has
xanthrophyll)phycobilins (phycoerythrin, a structure of C40H56. has a max
phycocyanin) and flavonoids absorption of blue-violet region and
(anthocyanin) which is why plants, when reflects yellow-orange region , which is
undergoing changes appear why it appears in the yellow to orange
yellow/orange/reddish etc. spectrum.
CHLOROPHYLL B: FOUND IN PLANTS
AND ALGAE HAS A FORMULA OF C55
H70 O6 N4 Mg, main difference is that it
absorbs 640 to 450 nm, which explains
why it appears olive-green. CHO side
group

XANTHROPHYLLS (LUTEIN): C40H56O2,

REFLECTS BROWN-YELLOW SPECTRUM

Olive green
PHYCOBILINS: only found in algae and cyno
bacterias

Phycoerythrin: water soluble, can absorb dim to

bluish green light reflecting red

Phycocyanin: water soluble, absorbs orange-red

Chlorophyll c:found in
diatoms,dinoflagelettes and brown algae light reflecting blue.
it has a structure of C35H30MgN4O5. It
4th group (flavonoids): ANTHOCYANIN The Photoautotrops/autotrophs: organisms that
pigments are in glycosylated forms(the convert light into their food
attachment of carbohydrates to the
backbone of a protein through an Ex: most plants plants, bacterias
enzymatic reaction). Anthocyanins
absorbs bluish-green light which is why its heterotrophs: organisms that rely on other
responsible for the colors, red, purple, and organisms for food (cant make their own food)
blue,in fruits and vegetables. Berries,
currants, grapes, and some tropical fruits ex: humans and animals
have high anthocyanins content.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: (tuloy ko nalang next

time di pa naman involved sa long test hehe)

Reflected: not absorbed

absorbed: used for photosynthesis
transmitted: not absorbed not reflected, just
passes through.