BENDING FREQUENCIES OF BEAMS, RODS, AND PIPES

Revision U

By Tom Irvine
Email: tom@[Link]
July 19, 2022
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction
The fundamental frequencies for typical beam configurations are given in Table 1. Higher
frequencies are given for selected configurations.

Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies

Configuration Frequency (Hz)

1  3.5156  EI
f1 =  
2  L2  

Cantilever f2 = 6.268 f1

f3 = 17.456 f1

Cantilever with 1 3EI

f1 =
End Mass m 2  0.2235  L  m  L3

Simply-Supported 2
1 n  EI
at Both Ends fn = , n=1, 2, 3, ….
(Pinned-Pinned) 2  L  

Simply-Supported
π EI 1
at Both Ends with Point fn =
2 √ L3 πx 2
Mass m at Position x1 { 2m [sin ( 1 )] + ρ L }
L
relative to left end

1
 Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies (continued)
Configuration Frequency (Hz)

f1 = 0 (rigid-body mode)

1  22.373  EI
f2 =  
2  L2  
Free-Free

f3 = 2.757 f1

f4 = 5.404 f1

Same as free-free beam except there is no rigid-body

Fixed-Fixed
mode for the fixed-fixed beam.

1 15.418  EI
Fixed - Pinned f1 =  
2  L2  

where

E is the modulus of elasticity

I is the area moment of inertia
L is the length
 is the mass density (mass/length)
P is the applied force

Note that the free-free and fixed-fixed have the same formula.
The derivations and examples are given in the appendices per Table 2.

2
 Table 2. Table of Contents

Appendix Title Mass Solution

End mass. Beam mass is
A Cantilever Beam I Approximate
negligible
B Cantilever Beam II Beam mass only Approximate
Both beam mass and the
C Cantilever Beam III Approximate
end mass are significant
D Cantilever Beam IV Beam mass only Eigenvalue
Beam Simply-Supported at Center mass. Beam mass
E Approximate
Both Ends I is negligible.
Beam Simply-Supported at
F Beam mass only Eigenvalue
Both Ends II
Beam Simply-Supported at
G Beam mass & point mass Approximate
Both Ends III
H Free-Free Beam Beam mass only Eigenvalue
Steel Pipe example, Simply
I Supported and Fixed-Fixed Beam mass only Approximate
Cases
Rocket Vehicle Example,
J Beam mass only Approximate
Free-free Beam
K Fixed-Fixed Beam Beam mass only Eigenvalue

L Fixed-Pinned Beam Beam mass only Eigenvalue

Wavenumber and Phase
M - Eigenvalue
Speed

|
Reference
1. T. Irvine, Application of the Newton-Raphson Method to Vibration Problems,
Revision E, Vibrationdata, 2010.

3
 APPENDIX A

Cantilever Beam I
Consider a mass mounted on the end of a cantilever beam. Assume that the end-mass is
much greater than the mass of the beam.

g
EI
m

Figure A-1.

E is the modulus of elasticity.

I is the area moment of inertia.
L is the length.
g is gravity.
m is the mass.

The free-body diagram of the system is

MR
mg
R

Figure A-2.

R is the reaction force.

MR is the reaction bending moment.
Apply Newton’s law for static equilibrium.

  forces  0 (A-1)

R - mg = 0 (A-2)

4
 R = mg (A-3)

At the left boundary,

  moments  0 (A-4)

MR - mg L = 0 (A-5)

MR = mg L (A-6)

Now consider a segment of the beam, starting from the left boundary.

V
y

MR M
R

Figure A-3.

V is the shear force.

M is the bending moment.
y is the deflection at position x.

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

  moments  0 (A-7)

MR - R x - M = 0 (A-8)

M = MR - R x (A-9)

The moment M and the deflection y are related by the equation

M  EI y  (A-10)

5
 EI y   M R  R x (A-11)

EI y   mgL  mg x (A-12)

EI y   mg  L  x (A-13)

 mg 
y     L  x (A-14)
 EI 

Integrating,

  x2  
 mg  
y     Lx      a (A-15)
 EI    2  


Note that “a” is an integration constant.

Integrating again,

 3 
 mg   x   x 
2
y( x)    L       ax  b (A-16)
 EI    2   6  
 

A boundary condition at the left end is

y(0) = 0 (zero displacement) (A-17)

Thus
b=0 (A-18)

Another boundary condition is

y'  0  0 (zero slope) (A-19)

6
Applying the boundary condition to equation (A-16) yields,

a=0 (A-20)

The resulting deflection equation is

 3 
 mg   x   x 
2
y( x)    L      (A-21)
 EI    2   6  
 

The deflection at the right end is

 3 
 mg    L   L  
2
y( L)    L     (A-22)
 EI    2   6  
 

 mgL3 
y( L)    (A-23)
 3EI 

Recall Hooke’s law for a linear spring,

F=ky (A-24)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.

The stiffness is thus

k=F/y (A-25)

The force at the end of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the end of the beam is

 
 
 mg 
k   (A-26)
  mgL3  
  3EI  
   

3EI
k (A-27)
L3

7
The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

1 k
fn  (A-28)
2 m

The mass term m is simply the mass at the end of the beam. The natural frequency of the
cantilever beam with the end-mass is found by substituting equation (A-27) into (A-28).

1 3EI
fn  (A-29)
2 mL3

8
 APPENDIX B

Cantilever Beam II
Consider a cantilever beam with mass per length . Assume that the beam has a uniform
cross section. Determine the natural frequency. Also find the effective mass, where the
distributed mass is represented by a discrete, end-mass.

EI, 

Figure B-1.

The governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (B-1)
x 4 t 2

The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

y(0) = 0 (zero displacement) (B-2)

dy
 0 (zero slope) (B-3)
dx x 0

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

d2y
 0 (zero bending moment) (B-4)
dx 2
x L

d 3y
 0 (zero shear force) (B-5)
dx 3
x L

Propose a quarter cosine wave solution.

9
   x 
y( x)  y o 1  cos   (B-6)
  2L  

dy     x 
 y o   sin  (B-7)
dx  2L   2L

d2y   2  x 
 y o   cos  (B-8)
dx 2  2L   2L 

d 3y  x  3  x 
  y o   sin  (B-9)
dx 3  2L  2L

The proposed solution meets all of the boundary conditions expect for the zero shear
force at the right end. The proposed solution is accepted as an approximate solution for
the deflection shape, despite one deficiency.

The Rayleigh method is used to find the natural frequency. The total potential energy
and the total kinetic energy must be determined.

The total potential energy P in the beam is

2
EI L  d 2 y 
2 0  dx 2 
P dx (B-10)

By substitution,

   2 2
EI L  x  
2 0
P y o   cos   dx (B-11)
  2 L   2L 


2
EI     2  L   x  
2
P y   
2  o  2 L   0 cos 2L   dx (B-12)

2
EI     2  L  1   x  
P y   
2  o  2 L   0  2  1  cos L  dx
 
(B-13)

10
 2 L
EI     2   1    L   x  
P y    x    sin 
2  o  2 L    2       L  
(B-14)
0

 4 
2  
P
EI
y  
2 o  32 L4 
L (B-15)
 

 EI 
P
1 4
64
  
 3  yo
2
(B-16)
L 

The total kinetic energy T is

  2n   y dx
1 L 2
T  (B-17)
2 0

2
1 L   x   
T    n  y o 1  cos    dx
2 (B-18)
2 0    2L  

2 L  x   x  
T 
1
2
 
  2n y o  1  2 cos   cos2   dx
0   2L   2L  
(B-19)

2 L  x   x  
T 
1
2
 
  2n y o  1  2 cos   cos2    dx
0   2L   2L  
(B-20)

2 L  x  1 1  x  
T 
1
2
 
  2n y o  1  2 cos    cos  dx
0   2L  2 2  L  
(B-21)

3  x   x  
T 
1
2
  2 L
  2n y o 
0  2  2 cos 2 L   cos L  dx
 
(B-22)

L
2 3  4 L   x   L   x  
T 
1
2
 
  2n y o  x    sin     sin  
2     2L      L  
(B-23)
0

2 3  4L  
T 
1
2
 
  2n y o  L    
2   
(B-24)

11
 2   8
T 
1
4
 
  2n y o L 3    
   
(B-25)

Now equate the potential and the kinetic energy terms.

2   8   1 4  EI 
1
4
 
  2n y o L 3     
     64
   yo
3
2
  (B-26)
L 

  8 1  EI 
  2n L 3       4   (B-27)
     16  L3 

  EI  
 4   
  L3  
 2n    (B-28)
16L 3   8   
     
  

 1/2
4  EI  
    
  L3  
n    (B-29)
16L 3   8   
     
  

 1/2
4  EI  
    
 1   L4  
f n     (B-30)
 2     8
16 3    
      


 1/2
4  EI  
    
 1   L4  
f n     (B-31)
 2     8
16 3    
      


12
  1/2
2  
 1    EI 
f n       (B-32)
 2   4 L2    8   
 3  
      

 1  3.664  EI
f n     (B-33)
 2   L2  

Recall that the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

3EI
k (B-34)
L3

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam is thus

k
meff  (B-35)
2 fn2

3EI
m eff  (B-36)
3   1   3.664  EI  2
L 2      
  2    L2   

3EI
meff  (B-37)
L3  EI 
13.425  
L4 

meff  0.2235 L (B-38)

13
 APPENDIX C

Cantilever Beam III

Consider a cantilever beam where both the beam mass and the end-mass are significant.

g
EI, 
m

Figure C-1.

The total mass mt can be calculated using equation (B-38).

mt  0.2235L  m (C-1)

Again, the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

3EI
k (C-2)
L3

The natural frequency is thus

1 3EI
fn  (C-3)
2  0.2235L  m  L3

14
 APPENDIX D

Cantilever Beam IV
This is a repeat of part II except that an exact solution is found for the differential
equation. The differential equation itself is only an approximation of reality, however.

EI, 

Figure D-1.

The governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (D-1)
x 4 t 2

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.
Separate the dependent variable.

y( x, t )  Y( x)T(t ) (D-2)

 4 Y( x)T( t )  2 Y( x)T( t )

 EI  (D-3)
x 4 t 2

 d 4   d 2 
 EI T(t )  Y( x )    Y ( x )  T(t )  (D-4)
 dx 4   dt 2 

15
  d 4   d 2 
 4 Y( x)   2 T(t ) 
  EI   dx   dt 
   (D-5)
   Y( x ) T(t )

Let c be a constant

 d 4   d 2 
 Y ( x )   2 T(t ) 
  EI   dx 4   dt 
     c2 (D-6)
   Y( x) T(t )

Separate the time variable.

 d 2 
 2 T(t ) 
 dt 
  c2 (D-7)
T(t )

d2
T(t )  c 2 T(t )  0 (D-8)
dt 2

Separate the spatial variable.

 d 4 
 Y( x) 
  EI   dx 4 
    c2 (D-9)
   Y ( x )

d4 
Y( x)  c 2  Y( x)  0 (D-10)
dx 4  EI 

A solution for equation (D-10) is

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x (D-11)

16
  a1 cosh x  a 2 sinh x  a 3 cos x  a 4 sin x
dY( x)
(D-12)
dx

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 2 2 cosh x  a 3 2 sin x  a 4 2 cos x (D-13)
dx 2

d 3 Y( x )
 a1 3 cosh x  a 2 3 sinh x  a 3 3 cos x  a 4 3 sin x (D-14)
dx 3

d 4 Y( x )
 a1 4 sinh x  a 2 4 cosh x  a 3 4 sin x  a 4 4 cos x (D-15)
dx 4

Substitute (D-15) and (D-11) into (D-10).

a14 sinhx  a 24 coshx  a 34 sinx  a 44 cosx


 
 c 2   a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x  0
 EI 

(D-16)


 4 a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x 

 
 c 2   a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x  0
 EI 

(D-17)
The equation is satisfied if


4  c2   (D-18)
 EI 

  1/4
  c 2  (D-19)
 EI 

17
The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0 (zero displacement) (D-20)

dY
 0 (zero slope) (D-21)
dx x 0

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (D-22)
dx 2
x L

d 3Y
 0 (zero shear force) (D-23)
dx 3
x L

Apply equation (D-20) to (D-11).

a2  a4  0 (D-24)

a4   a2 (D-25)

Apply equation (D-21) to (D-12).

a1  a 3  0 (D-26)

a 3  a1 (D-27)

Apply equation (D-22) to (D-13).

a1 sinh L  a 2 cosh L  a 3 sin L  a 4 cos L  0 (D-28)

Apply equation (D-23) to (D-14).

a1 cosh L  a 2 sinh L  a 3 cos L  a 4 sin L  0 (D-29)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-28).

a1 sinh L  a 2 cosh L  a1 sin L  a 2 cos L  0 (D-30)

18
   
a1 sin L  sinh L  a 2 cos L  cosh L  0  (D-31)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-29).

a1 cosh L  a 2 sinh L  a1 cos L  a 2 sin L  0 (D-32)

  
a1 cos L  cosh L  a 2  sin L  sinh L  0  (D-33)

Form (D-31) and (D-33) into a matrix format.

 sin L  sinh L cos L  cosh L   a1  0

    
      (D-34)
cos L  cosh L  sin L  sinh L  a 2  0


By inspection, equation (D-34) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a2 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.

 sin2 L  sinh2 L 

 cos L  cosh L 2  0 (D-35)

 sin2 L  sinh2 L  cos2 L  2 cosL coshL  cosh2 L  0
(D-36)

 sin 2  L  sinh 2  L  cos2  L  2 cos L cosh L  cosh 2  L  0
(D-37)

 2  2 cos L cosh L  0 (D-38)

1  cos L cosh L  0 (D-39)

cos L cosh L  1 (D-40)

There are multiple roots which satisfy equation (D-40). Thus, a subscript should be added
as shown in equation (D-41).
cos n L cosh n L  1 (D-41)

19
The subscript is an integer index. The roots can be determined through a combination of
graphing and numerical methods. The Newton-Rhapson method is an example of an
appropriate numerical method. The roots of equation (D-41) are summarized in Table D-
1, as taken from Reference 1.

Table D-1. Roots

Index n L
n=1 1.87510
n=2 4.69409
n>3 (2n-1)/2

Note: the root value formula for n > 3 is approximate.

Rearrange equation (D-19) as follows

 EI 
c2   n4   (D-42)


Substitute (D-42) into (D-8).

d2   EI  
T(t )   n 4    T(t )  0 (D-43)
dt 2    

Equation (D-43) is satisfied by

 EI    EI  
T(t )  b1 sin   n 2  t   b 2 cos  n 2  t (D-44)
       

20
The natural frequency term n is thus

EI
 n   n2 (D-45)


Substitute the value for the fundamental frequency from Table D-1.

187510
.  2 EI
1   (D-46)
 L  

1  3.5156  EI
f1    (D-47)
2  L2  

Substitute the value for the second root from Table D-1.

2
 4.69409  EI
2    (D-48)
 L2  

1  22.034  EI
f2    (D-49)
2  L2  

f 2  6.268 f1 (D-50)

Compare equation (D-47) with the approximate equation (B-33).

SDOF Model Approximation

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam for the fundamental mode is thus

k
meff  (D-51)
 2  fn  2

21
 3EI
m eff  (D-52)
  1   35156 2
3 .  EI 
L 2      
  2    L2   

3EI
meff  (D-53)
L3  EI 
12.3596  
L4 

meff  0.2427  L (SDOF Approximation) (D-54)

Eigenvalues

n n L
1 1.875104
2 4.69409
3 7.85476
4 10.99554
5 (2n-1)/2

Note that the root value formula for n > 5 is approximate.

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows

L
0 Yn
2 ( x ) dx  1 (D-55)

22
The calculation steps are omitted for brevity. The resulting normalized eigenvectors are


 1 
Y1 ( x )   cosh1 x   cos1 x   0.73410 sinh 1 x   sin 1 x   (D-56)

 L 



 1 
Y2 ( x )   cosh 2 x   cos 2 x   1.01847 sinh  2 x   sin  2 x   (D-57)

 L 



 1 
Y3 ( x )   cosh3 x   cos3 x   0.99922 sinh 3 x   sin 3 x   (D-58)

 L 



 1 
Y4 ( x )   cosh 4 x   cos 4 x   1.00003 sinh  4 x   sin  4 x   (D-59)

 L 


The normalized mode shapes can be represented as


 1 
Yi ( x )   coshi x   cosi x   D i sinh i x   sin i x   (D-60)

 L 


where

cosi L   coshi L 
Di  (D-61)
sin i L   sinh i L 

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
n   Yn ( x ) dx (D-62)
0

23
The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1  0.7830 L (D-63)

2  0.4339 L (D-64)

3  0.2544 L (D-65)

4  0.1818 L (D-66)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

Effective Modal Mass

The effective modal mass is

2
 L  Y ( x )dx 
 0 n 
m eff , n  L (D-67)
  Yn (x ) dx
2
0

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

0  Yn (x) dx  1
L 2
(D-68)

Thus,
2
m eff , n  n 2     Yn ( x )dx 
L
(D-69)
 0
 

The effective modal mass values are obtained numerically.

m eff , 1  0.6131 L (D-70)

m eff , 2  0.1883 L (D-71)

m eff , 3  0.06474 L (D-72)

m eff , 4  0.03306 L (D-73)

Wave Speed

24
The bending phase speed cp is

EI
c p  n (D-74)


Table D-3. Cantilever Beam Bending Phase Speed

n n L cp

1.875104
1 1.875104 EI 
L

4.69409
2 4.69409 EI 
L

7.85476
3 7.85476 EI 
L

10.99554
4 10.99554 EI 
L

n>5 (2n-1)/2
 2n  1  / 2 EI 
L

Note: the root value formula for n > 5 is approximate.

25
 APPENDIX E

Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends I

Consider a simply-supported beam with a discrete mass located at the middle. Assume
that the mass of the beam itself is negligible.

EI
m

L1 L1

Figure E-1.

The free-body diagram of the system is

L1 L1

Ra mg Rb

Figure E-2.

Apply Newton’s law for static equilibrium.

  forces  0 (E-1)

Ra + Rb - mg = 0 (E-2)
Ra = mg - Rb (E-3)
At the left boundary,

26
   moments  0 (E-4)

Rb L - mg L1 = 0 (E-5)

Rb = mg ( L1 / L ) (E-6a)

Rb = (1/2) mg (E-6b)

Substitute equation (E-6) into (E-3).

Ra = mg – (1/2)mg (E-7)

Ra = (1/2)mg (E-8)

x
V y

L1

Ra M
mg

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

  moments  0 (E-9)

- Ra x + mg <x-L1 > - M = 0 (E-10)

27
Note that < x-L1> denotes a step function as follows

 0, for x  L1

 x  L1   
 x  L , for x  L
 1 1
(E-11)

M = - Ra x + mg <x-L1 > (E-12)

M = - (1/2)mg x + mg <x-L1 > (E-13)

M = [ - (1/2) x + <x-L1 > ][ mg ] (E-14)

EIy  [ - (1/2) x   x - L1  ][ mg ] (E-15)

 mg 
y  [ - (1/2) x   x - L1  ] (E-16)
 EI 

1 2 1  mg 
y  [ - x   x - L1  2 ] a (E-17)
4 2  EI 

 1 1   mg 
y( x )  - x 3   x - L1  3    ax  b (E-18)
 12 6   EI 

The boundary condition at the left side is

y(0) = 0 (E-19a)

This requires
b=0 (E-19b)

Thus
 1 1   mg 
y( x )  - x 3   x - L1  3    ax (E-20)
 12 6   EI 

The boundary condition on the right side is

y(L) = 0 (E-21)

28
  1 3 1 3   mg 
- 12 L  6  L - L1    EI   aL  0 (E-22)

 1 3 1 3   mg 
- 12 L  48 L   EI   aL  0 (E-23)

 4 3 1 3   mg 
- 48 L  48 L   EI   aL  0 (E-24)

 3 3   mg 
- 48 L   EI   aL  0 (E-25)

 1 3   mg 
- 16 L   EI   aL  0 (E-26)

 1 3   mg 
aL  L  (E-27)
 16   EI 

 1 2   mg 
a  L  (E-28)
 16   EI 

Now substitute the constant into the displacement function

 1   mg   1 2   mg 
1
y( x )  - x 3   x - L1  3    L x  (E-29)
 12 6   EI  16   EI 

 1 1 1   mg 
y( x )  - x 3  xL2   x - L1  3   (E-30)
 12 16 6   EI 

The displacement at the center is

L  1 L   mg 
3 1 L
  1 L
y   -     L2     - L1  3   (E-31)
 2   12  2  16  2  6 2   EI 


29
 L  1 1   mgL3 
y   -    (E-32)
 2   96 32   EI 

L  1 3   mgL3 
y   -    (E-33)
 2   96 96   EI 

 L   2   mgL 
3
y       (E-34)
 2   96   EI 

 L   1   mgL 
3
y       (E-35)
 2   48   EI 

Recall Hooke’s law for a linear spring,

F=ky (E-36)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.

The stiffness is thus

k=F/y (E-37)

The force at the center of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the center of the beam is

 
 
 mg 
k   (E-38)
  mgL3  
 
  48EI  

48 EI
k (E-39)
L3

The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

30
  1 k
fn    (E-40)
 2  m

The mass term m is simply the mass at the center of the beam.

 1  48 EI
fn    (E-41)
 2  mL3

 1 
fn   6.928
EI
(E-42)
 2  mL3

31
 APPENDIX F

Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends II

Consider a simply-supported beam as shown in Figure F-1.

EI,

Figure F-1.

Recall that the governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (F-1)
x 4 t 2

The spatial solution from section D is

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x (F-2)

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 2 2 cosh x  a 3 2 sin x  a 4 2 cos x (F-3)
dx 2

The boundary conditions at the left end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0 (zero displacement) (F-4)

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (F-5)
dx 2 x  0

32
The boundary conditions at the right end x = L are

Y(L) = 0 (zero displacement) (F-6)

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (F-7)
dx 2
x L

Apply boundary condition (F-4) to (F-2).

a2  a4  0 (F-8)

a4   a2 (F-9)

Apply boundary condition (F-5) to (F-3).

a2  a4  0 (F-10)

a2  a4 (F-11)

Equations (F-8) and (F-10) can only be satisfied if

a2  0 (F-12)
and
a4  0 (F-13)

The spatial equations thus simplify to

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 3 sin x (F-14)

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 3 2 sin x (F-15)
dx 2

Apply boundary condition (F-6) to (F-14).

a1 sinh L  a 3 sin L  0 (F-16)

33
Apply boundary condition (F-7) to (F-15).

a1 2 sinh L  a 3 2 sin L  0 (F-17)

a1 sinh L  a 3 sin L  0 (F-18)

sinh L sin L   a 1  0

    
      (F-19)
sinh L  sin L  a 3  0


By inspection, equation (F-19) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a3 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.

 sin L sinh L  sin L sinh L  0 (F-20)

 2 sin L sinh L  0 (F-21)

sin L sinh L  0 (F-22)

Equation (F-22) is satisfied if

 n L  n, n  1, 2, 3,.... (F-23)

n
n  , n  1, 2, 3,.... (F-24)
L

The natural frequency term n is

EI
 n   n2 (F-25)


2
 n  EI
n    , n  1, 2, 3,... (F-26)
L 

2
 1   n  EI
fn      , n  1, 2, 3,... (F-27)
 2   L  

34
 2
 1   n  EI
fn      , n  1, 2, 3,... (F-28)
 2   L  

SDOF Approximation
Now calculate effective mass at the center of the beam for the fundamental frequency.

2 EI

1    (F-29)
 L 

Recall the natural frequency equation for a single-degree-of-freedom system.

k
1  (F-30)
m

Recall the beam stiffness at the center from equation (E-39).

48EI
k (F-31)
L3

Substitute equation (F-31) into (F-30).

48EI
1  (F-32)
mL3

Substitute (F-32) into (F-29).

2
48EI  EI
  (F-33)
mL3 L 

4
48EI    EI
   (F-34)
mL3  L  

4
48  1
   (F-35)
mL3  L  

1  4 
  (F-36)
m  48 L 

35
The effective mass at the center of the beam for the first mode is

48 L
m (SDOF Approximation) (F-37)
4

Normalized Eigenvectors
The eigenvector and its second derivative at this point are

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 3 sin x (F-38)

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x   a 3 2 sin x  (F-39)
dx 2

The eigenvector derivation requires some creativity. Recall

Y(L) = 0 (zero displacement) (F-40)

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (F-41)
dx 2
x L

Thus,
d 2Y
Y 0 for x=L and n L  n, n=1,2,3, … (F-42)
dx 2

  n  2   2
1     a sinh n  1   n   a sin  n  0 , n=1,2,3, …
  L  1   L  3
   
(F-43)

The sin(n) term is always zero. Thus a1 = 0.

The eigenvector for all n modes is

Yn (x)  a n sin nx / L (F-44)

36
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows

L
0 Yn
2 ( x ) dx  1 (F-45)

a n 2  sin 2 nx / L  dx  1
L
(F-46)
0

a n 2 L
1  cos(2 n x / L)  1
2 0
(F-47)

L
a n 2  1 
x  sin( 2nx / L)  1 (F-48)
2  2 n 0

a n 2 L
1 (F-49)
2

2
an2  (F-50)
L

2
an  (F-51)
L

sin n x / L 
2
Yn ( x )  (F-52)
L

37
Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
n   Yn ( x ) dx (F-53)
0

sin n x / L  dx
L 2
n   (F-53)
0 L

2 L
sin n x / L  dx
L 0
n  (F-54)

2 L
 n  cosn x / L  0
n   L (F-55)
L

1
n   2 L   cosn   1 , n=1, 2, 3, …. (F-56)
 n 

Effective Modal Mass

The effective modal mass is

2
 L  Y ( x )dx 
 0 n 
m eff , n  L (F-57)
  Yn (x ) dx
2
0

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

0  Yn (x) dx  1
L 2
(F-58)

38
Thus,
2
m eff , n  n      Yn ( x )dx 
2 L
(F-59)
 0 

2
 1 
m eff , n   2 L  n  cosn   1 (F-60)
 

m eff , n  2 L
1
 cosn   12 , n=1, 2, 3, …. (F-61)
n2

The bending phase speed cp is

EI n  EI
c p  n  , n  1,2,3,... (F-62)
 L 

39
 APPENDIX G

Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends III

Consider a simply-supported beam with a discrete mass located along the interior length.

EI, ρ
m

x1

Figure G-1.

Displacement function for pinned-pinned beam, fundamental mode.

πx
y(x) = yo sin ( ) (G-1)
L

dy π πx
= yo ( ) cos ( ) (G-2)
dx L L

2
d y π 2 πx
2 = − yo (L) sin ( L ) (G-3)
dx

The total potential energy P in the beam is

2 2
EI L d y
P= ∫ ( 2) dx (G-4)
2 0 dx

2
EI L π 2 πx
P= ∫ ( − y (
o L
) sin ( ) ) dx (G-5)
2 0 L

40
 2 2
EI π 2 L πx
P= [ yo ( ) ] ∫0 (sin ( )) dx (G-6)
2 L L

2
EI π 2 L 1 1 2πx
P = [ yo ( ) ] ∫0 [ − cos ( )] dx (G-7)
2 L 2 2 L

2
EI π 2 L 2πx
P = [ yo ( ) ] ∫0 [1 − cos ( )] dx (G-8)
4 L L

2
EI π 2 L 2πx L
P = [ yo ( ) ] [x − ( ) sin ( )]| (G-9)
4 L 2π L 0

2
EI L π 2
P= [ yo ( ) ] (G-10)
4 L

π4 EI
P= yo 2 (G-11)
4 L3

Let m be the point mass at position x1 referenced from the left end.

Let ρ be the beam mass/length.

The total kinetic energy T in the beam is

1 L
T = ωn 2 { m [y(x1 )]2 + ρ ∫0 (y)2 dx } (G-12)
2

1 π x1 2 L πx 2
T = ωn 2 { m [yo sin ( ) ] + ρ ∫0 [yo sin ( ) ] dx } (G-13)
2 L L

1 π x1 2 L πx 2
T = ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( ) ] + ρ ∫0 [sin ( ) ] dx } (G-14)
2 L L

1 π x1 2 L 1 2πx
T = ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( ) ] + ρ ∫0 [1 − cos ( )] dx } (G-15)
2 L 2 L

41
 1 πx 2 ρ L 2πx
T = ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( 1 ) ] + ∫ [1 − cos ( )] dx } (G-16)
2 L 2 0 L

1 πx 2 ρ L 2π x L
T = ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( 1) ] + [x − ( ) sin ( )]| } (G-17)
2 L 2 2π L 0

1 πx 2 ρL
T = ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( 1) ] + } (G-18)
2 L 2

Now equate the potential and the kinetic energy terms per the Rayleigh method.

1 πx 2 ρL π4 EI
ωn 2 yo 2 { m [sin ( 1)] + } = yo 2 (G-19)
2 L 2 4 L3

π x1 2 ρL π4 EI
ωn 2 { m [sin ( )] + }= (G-20)
L 2 2L3

π4 EI 1
ωn 2 = (G-21)
2L3 { m [sin(
π x1 2 ρ L
)] + }
L 2

π4 EI 1
ωn = √ 3 πx 2 ρL
(G-22)
2L { m [sin( 1 )] + }
L 2

EI 1
ωn = π2 (G-23)
√ 2L { m [sin( 1)]2 + ρ L }
3 π x
L 2

EI 1
ωn = π2 √ πx 2
(G-24)
L3 { 2m [sin( 1 )] + ρ L }
L

π EI 1
fn = √ πx 2
(G-25)
2 L3 { 2m [sin( 1 )] + ρ L }
L

42
For the special case of the point mass at the center of the beam, x1 = L/2 .

EI 1
ωn = π2 √ (G-26)
L3 (2m+ ρ L)

π EI 1
fn = √ (G-27)
2 L3 (2m+ ρ L)

43
 APPENDIX H

Free-Free Beam

Consider a uniform beam with free-free boundary conditions.

EI, 

Figure H-1.

The governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (H-1)
x 4 t 2

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.

The following equation is obtain using the method in Appendix D

d4 
Y( x)  c 2  Y( x)  0 (H-2)
dx 4  EI 

The proposed solution is

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x (H-3)

 a1 cosh x  a 2 sinh x  a 3 cos x  a 4 sin x

dY( x)
(H-4)
dx

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 2 2 cosh x  a 3 2 sin x  a 4 2 cos x (H-5)
dx 2

44
d 3 Y( x )
 a13 coshx   a 23 sinh x   a 33 cosx   a 43 sin x  (H-6)
dx 3

45
Apply the boundary conditions.

d 2Y
0 (zero bending moment) (H-7)
dx 2 x 0

a2  a4  0 (H-8)

a4  a2 (H-9)

d 3Y
0 (zero shear force) (H-10)
dx 3 x 0

a1  a 3  0 (H-11)

a 3  a1 (H-12)

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x   sin x   a 2 2 coshx   cosx  (H-13)
dx 2

d3 Y ( x )
 a13coshx   cosx   a 23sinh x   sin x  (H-14)
dx 3

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (H-15)
dx 2
x L

46
 a1sinh L  sin L  a 2coshL  cosL  0 (H-16)

d 3Y
 0 (zero shear force) (H-17)
dx 3
x L

a1coshL  cosL  a 2sinh L  sin L  0 (H-18)

Equation (H-16) and (H-18) can be arranged in matrix form.

 sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL   a1  0

      (H-19)
    
coshL   cosL  sinh L   sin L   a 2  0

Set the determinant equal to zero.

sinh L   sin L sinh L   sin L   cosh L   cosL 2  0 (H-20)

sinh 2 L   sin 2 L   cosh 2 L   2 cosh L cosL   cos 2 L   0 (H-21)

 2 coshLcosL  2  0 (H-22)

coshLcosL  1  0 (H-23)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1.

The free-free beam has a rigid-body mode with a frequency of zero, corresponding to
L  0.

47
The second root is

L  4.73004 (H-24)

EI
 n   n2 (H-25)


2
 4.73004  EI
 2  (H-26)
 L  

 22.373  EI
 2   (H-27)
 L2  

The third root is

L  7.85320 (H-28)

2 EI
 n  n (H-29)


2
 7.85320  EI
 3  (H-30)
 L  

 61.673 EI
 3   (H-31)
 L2  

 3 2.757 2 (H-32)

The fourth root is

L  10.9956 (H-33)

48
 2 EI
 n  n (H-34)


2
10.9956  EI
 4  (H-35)
 L  

120.903 EI
 4   (H-36)
 L2  

 4  5.404  2 (H-37)

Eigenvalues

n n L
1 0
2 4.73004
3 7.85320
4 10.9956

 1
 n L   n   for n  5 (H-38)
 2

The following mode shape and coefficient derivation applies only to the elastic modes
where L  0 .

Equation (H-18) can be expressed as

  coshL   cosL 
a 2  a1   (H-39)
 sinh L   sin L  

Recall

a4  a2 (H-40)

49
 a 3  a1 (H-41)

The displacement mode shape is thus

Y(x)  a1sinh x   sin x   a 2coshx   cosx  (H-42)

   coshL   cosL  
Y( x )  a 1 sinh x   sin x     coshx   cosx  (H-43)
  sinh L   sin L   

Modify the mode shapes as follows.

â 1    coshL   cosL  
Y( x )  sinh x   sin x     coshx   cosx 
L   sinh L   sin L   

(H-44)

Normalize the eigenvectors with respect to mass.

0  Yn (x) dx  1
L 2
(H-45)

The eigenvectors are mass-normalized for â 1 =1.

Thus

1    coshL   cosL  
Y( x )  sinh x   sin x     coshx   cosx 
L   sinh L   sin L   

(H-46)

50
The first derivative is

    coshL   cosL  
 coshx   cosx    sinh x   sin x 
dy
 
dx L   sinh L   sin L   

(H-47)

The second derivative is

d2y 2    coshL   cosL  

  sinh  x   sin  x    sinh L   sin L   cosh  x   cos x 
dx 2 L    

(H-48)

The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
n   Yn ( x ) dx (H-49)
0

The participation factors are calculated numerically.

As a result of the rigid-body mode,

n  0 for n > 1 (H-50)

Wave Speed

The bending phase speed cp is

EI
c p  n (H-51)


51
 Table H-3. Free-Free Beam Bending Phase Speed
n n L cp

1 0 0

4.73004
2 4.73004 EI 
L

7.85320
3 7.85320 EI 
L

10.9956
4 10.9956 EI 
L

 1   1
n>5  n    n  2  EI 
 2 L

Note: the root value formula for n > 5 is approximate.

52
 APPENDIX I

Pipe Example
Consider a steel pipe with an outer diameter of 2.2 inches and a wall thickness of 0.60
inches. The length is 20 feet. Find the natural frequency for two boundary condition
cases: simply-supported and fixed-fixed.

The area moment of inertia is

I

64

Do 4  D i 4  (I-1)

D o  2.2 in (I-2)

D i  2.2  2(0.6) in (I-3)

D i  2.2  1.2 in (I-4)

D i  1.0 in (I-5)

I

64

2.2 4  1.0 4  in 4 (I-6)

I  1.101 in 4 (I-7)

The elastic modulus is

 
E  30 10 6
lbf
in 2
(I-8)

The mass density is

  mass per unit length. (I-9)


  0.282

lbm   
3   4
in 
 

2.2 2  1.0 2 in 2 

(I-10)

53
 lbm
  0.850 (I-11)
in

 
30 10 6 lbf
2
1.101 in
 1 slug ft / sec2   12 in 


4
1 lbf
 
  1 ft 
EI

in  
 lbm  1 slug 
0.850  
in  32.2 lbm 

(I-12)

EI

 1.225 105  in 2
sec
(I-13)

The natural frequency for the simply-supported case is

2
 1   n  EI
fn      , n  1, 2, 3,... (I-14)
 2   L  

2
 
 
 1 
f1   
 2  

 12 in  
 
 1.225 105 in 2
sec
(I-15)
 20 ft   
  1ft  

f1  3.34 Hz (simply-supported) (I-16)

The natural frequency for the fixed-fixed case is

 1   22.37  EI
f1      (I-17)
 2   L2  

54
  
 
 1
f1    

 2   
22 .37
2

 
 1.225 10
5 in 2
(I-18)
 12 in   sec
 20 ft   
   1ft  

f1  7.58 Hz (fixed-fixed) (I-19)

55
 APPENDIX J

Suborbital Rocket Vehicle

Consider a rocket vehicle with the following properties.

mass = 14078.9 lbm (at time = 0 sec)

L = 372.0 inches.

14078.9 lbm

372.0 inches

lbm
  37.847
in

The average stiffness is

6
EI = 63034 (10 ) lbf in^2

The vehicle behaves as a free-free beam in flight. Thus

1  22.37  EI
f1    (J-1)
2  L2  

63034e  06 lbf in 2  slug ftlbf/ sec2  12ftin   32slugs
.2 lbm 

1  22.37    
f1   
2  372 in 2  lbm
  37.847
in

(J-2)

f1 = 20.64 Hz (at time = 0 sec) (J-3)

Note that the fundamental frequency decreases in flight as the vehicle expels propellant
mass.

56
 APPENDIX K

Fixed-Fixed Beam
Consider a fixed-fixed beam with a uniform mass density and a uniform cross-section.
The governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (K-1)
x 4 t 2

The spatial equation is

4 
Y( x )  c 2   Y( x )  0 (K-2)
x 4  EI 

The boundary conditions for the fixed-fixed beam are:

Y(0) = 0 (K-3)

dY( x )
0 (K-4)
dx x  0

Y(L)=0 (K-5)

dY( x )
0 (K-6)
dx x  L

The eigenvector has the form

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x (K-7)

 a1 cosh x  a 2 sinh x  a 3 cos x  a 4 sin x

dY( x)
(K-8)
dx

57
d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 2 2 cosh x  a 3 2 sin x  a 4 2 cos x (K-9)
dx 2

Y(0) = 0 (K-10)

a2+a4=0 (K-11)

-a2=a4 (K-12)

dY( x )
0 (K-13)
dx x  0

a1 + a3  = 0 (K-14)

a1 + a3 = 0 (K-15)

- a1 = a3 (K-16)

Y(x)  a1sinh x   sin x   a 2 coshx   cosx  (K-17)

 a1coshx   cosx   a 2sinh x   sin x 

dY( x )
(K-18)
dx

Y(L) = 0 (K-19)

a1sinh L  sin L  a 2 coshL  cosL  0 (K-20)

dY( x )
0 (K-21)
dx x  L

a1coshL  cosL  a 2sinh L  sin L  0 (K-22)

58
 a1coshL  cosL  a 2 sinh L  sin L  0 (K-23)

 sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL   a1  0

coshL   cosL  sinh L   sin L   a   0 (K-24)
  2  

 sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL 

det   0 (K-25)
coshL   cosL  sinh L   sin L  

[sinh L   sin L ][sinh L   sin L ]  [cosh L   cosL ]2  0 (K-26)

sinh 2 L   sin 2 L   cosh 2 L   2 cosL  cosh L   cos 2 L   0 (K-27)

2 cosLcoshL  2  0 (K-28)

cosLcoshL  1  0 (K-29)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1. The first root is

 L  4.73004 (K-30)

2 EI
n   n (K-31)


2
 4.73004  EI
1   (K-32)
 L  

 22.373  EI
1    (K-33)
 L2  

59
 1  22.373  EI
f1    (K-34)
2  L2  

a1coshL  cosL  a 2 sinh L  sin L (K-35)

Let a 2 = 1 (K-36)

a1coshL  cosL  sinh L  sin L (K-37)

 sinh L   sin L 

a1  (K-38)
coshL   cosL 

  sinh L   sin L 

Y( x )  coshx   cosx    sinh x   sin x  (K-39)
 coshL   cosL  

 sinh L   sin L  

Y( x )  coshx   cosx    sinh x   sin x  (K-40)
 coshL   cosL 

The un-normalized mode shape for a fixed-fixed beam is

Ŷn ( x )  cosh  n x   cos n x    n sinh  n x   sin  n x  (K-41)

where

 sinh L   sin L  

n    (K-42)
 coshL   cosL 

60
The eigenvalues are

n n L
1 4.73004
2 7.85321
3 10.9956
4 14.13717
5 17.27876

For n> 5

1 
n L     n (K-43)
2 

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows

L
0 Yn
2 ( x ) dx  1 (K-44)

The mass normalization is satisfied by

Yn ( x ) 
1
cosh n x   cos n x    n sinh  n x   sin  n x   (K-45)
L

where

 sinh L   sin L  

n    (K-46)
 coshL   cosL 

61
The first derivative is

d
Yn ( x ) 
1
 n sinh  n x   sin  n x    n  n cosh n x   cos n x  
dx L

(K-47)

The second derivative is

d2
dx 2
Yn ( x ) 
1
L
 n 2 cosh n x   cos n x    n  n 2 sinh  n x   sin  n x  

(K-48)

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
n   Yn ( x ) dx (K-49)
0


 cosh n x   cos n x    n sinh  n x   sin  n x dx
L
n  (K-50)
L 0


n 
1
sinh  n x   sin  n x    n cosh n x   cos n x   0L (K-51)
n L


n 
1
sinh  n L  sin  n L   n cosh n L  cos n L  2  n  (K-52)
n L


n 
1
sinh  n L  sin  n L   n 2  cosh n L  cos n L (K-53)
n L

62
The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1  0.8309 L (K-54)

2  0 (K-55)

3  0.3638 L (K-56)

4  0 (K-57)

5  0.2315 L (K-58)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

Wave Speed

The bending phase speed cp is

EI
c p  n (K-59)


Table K-3. Fixed-Fixed Beam Bending Phase Speed

n n L cp
4.73004
1 4.73004 EI 
L
7.85320
2 7.85320 EI 
L
10.9956
3 10.9956 EI 
L
14.13717
5 14.13717 EI 
L

 1   1
n>6  n    n  2  EI 
 2 L

Note: the root value formula for n > 6 is approximate.

63
 APPENDIX L

Beam Fixed – Pinned

Consider a fixed – pinned beam as shown in Figure L-1.

EI,

Figure L-1.

Recall that the governing differential equation is

4 y 2 y
 EI  (L-1)
x 4 t 2

The spatial solution is

Y( x)  a1 sinh x  a 2 cosh x  a 3 sin x  a 4 cos x (L-2)

 a1 cosh x  a 2 sinh x  a 3 cos x  a 4 sin x

dY( x)
(L-3)
dx

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x  a 2 2 cosh x  a 3 2 sin x  a 4 2 cos x (L-4)
dx 2

The boundary conditions at the left end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0 (zero displacement) (L-5)

64
 dY( x )
0 (zero slope) (L-6)
dx x  0

The boundary conditions at the right end x = L are

Y(L) = 0 (zero displacement) (L-7)

d 2Y
 0 (zero bending moment) (L-8)
dx 2
x L

Apply boundary condition (L-5).

a2  a4  0 (L-9)

a 4  a 2 (L-10)

Apply boundary condition (L-6).

a1  a 3  0 (L-11)

a 3  a1 (L-12)

Apply the left boundary results to the displacement function.

Y(x)  a1sinh x   sin x   a 2 coshx   cosx  (L-13)

Apply boundary condition (L-7).

a1sinh L  sin L  a 2 coshL  cosL  0 (L-14)

65
Apply the left boundary results to the second derivative of the displacement function.

d 2 Y( x )
 a1 2 sinh x   sin x   a 2 2 coshx   cosx  (L-15)
dx 2

Apply boundary condition (L-7).

a1 2 sinh L   sin L   a 2 2 cosh L   cosL   0 (L-16)

a1sinh L  sin L  a 2 coshL  cosL  0 (L-17)

sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL   a1  0

sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL  a   0 (L-18)
  2   

sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL 

det  0 (L-19)
sinh L   sin L  coshL   cosL 

sinh L  sin LcoshL  cosL  sinh L  sin LcoshL  cosL  0
(L-20)

sinh L  coshL   sinh L  cosL   sin L  coshL   sin L  cosL 
 sinh L  coshL   sinh L  cosL   sin L  coshL   sin L  cosL   0
(L-21)

2 sinh LcosL  2 sin LcoshL  0 (L-22)

66
 sinh LcosL  sin LcoshL  0 (L-23)

tanhL  tanL  0 (L-24)

The eigenvalues are

n n L
1 3.9266
2 7.0686
3 10.2102
4 13.3518
5 16.4934

 1
For n>5, n L    n   (L-25)
 4

a 2  a 1
sinh L  sin L (L-26)
coshL  cosL

The unscaled eigenvector is


Y( x )  a1 sinh x   sin x  
sinh L  sin L coshx   cosx 
 (L-27)
 coshL  cosL 

The mass-normalized eigenvector is

1  sinh L  sin L coshx   cosx 

Y( x )  sinh x   sin x    (L-28)
L  coshL  cosL 

67
Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
n   Yn ( x ) dx
0 (L-29)


 sinh  n x   sin  n x    n cosh n x   cos n x dx
L
n  (L-30)
L 0

n 
sinh L  sin L (L-31)
coshL  cosL


n 
1
cosh n x   cos n x    n sinh  n x   sin  n x   0L (L-32)
n L


n 
1
cosh n L  cos n L   n sinh  n L  sin  n L  2 (L-33)
n L


n 
1
 2  cosh n L  cos n L   n sinh  n L  sin  n L (L-34)
n L

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1  - 0.8593 L (L-35)

2  -0.0826 L (L-36)

3  - 0.3344 L (L-37)

4  - 0.2070 L (L-38)

5  - 0.0298 L (L-39)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

68
Wave Speed

The bending phase speed cp is

EI
c p  n (L-40)


Table L-2. Fixed-Pinned Beam Bending Phase Speed

n n L cp
3.9266
1 3.9266 EI 
L
7.0686
2 7.0686 EI 
L
10.2102
3 10.2102 EI 
L
13.3518
4 13.3518 EI 
L
16.4934
5 16.4934 EI 
L

 1  1
n>6  n    n   EI 
 4 L 4

Note: the root value formula for n > 6 is approximation.

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 APPENDIX M

Wavenumber and Phase Speed

The natural frequency ωn is

EI
n  n2 (M-1)



n2  n (M-2)
EI

The modal wavenumber βn is

1/4

n  n   (M-3)
 EI 

Let cp be the phase speed.

n
cp  (M-4)
n

n
cp  1/4 (M-5)

n  
 EI 

1/4
 EI 
cp  n   (M-6)


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An alternate form is

EI
n2
  EI
cp  n   n (M-7)
n n 

The modal wavelength is

2 2
n   (M-8)
n 
1/4
n  
 EI 

71