should not have access to that data Service threats exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users Viruses and worms are two examples of software attacks inserted into the system by means of a disk or also across the network, The security mechanisms needed to cope with unwanted access fall into two broad categories. Some basic terminologies used ‘+ CIPHER TEXT - the coded message ‘+ cipHeR- algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext ‘* KEY - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver ‘+ ENCIPHER (ENCRYPT) - converting plaintext to ciphertext ‘© DECIPHER (DECRYPT) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext ‘+ cryprocRapny - study of encryption principles/methods ‘+ CRYPTANALYSIS (CODEBREAKING) - the study of principles/ methods of deciphering ciphertext without knowing key + cryproLocy- the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis, CRYPTOGRAPHY Cryptographic systems are generally classified along 3 independent dimensions: ‘Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text All the encryption algorithms are abased on two general principles: substitution, in which each element in the plaintext is mapped into another element, and transposition, in which elements in the plaintext are rearranged, The number of keys used If the sender and receiver uses same key then it is said to be symmetric key (or) single key (or) conventional encryption. If the sender and receiver use different keys then itis said to be public key encryption. ‘The way in which the plain text is processed A block cipher processes the input and block of elements at a time, producing output block for each input block. A stream cipher processes the input elements continuously, producing output element one at a time, as it goes along. CRYPTANALYSIS The process of attempting to discover X or K or both is known as cryptanalysis, The strategy used by the cryptanalysis depends on the nature of the encryption scheme and the information available to the cryptanalyst. There are various types of cryptanalytic attacks based on the amount of information known to the cryptanalyst. Cipher text only - A copy of cipher text alone is known to the cryptanalyst. Known plaintext - The cryptanalyst has a copy of the cipher text and the corresponding plaintext, Chosen plaintext - ‘The cryptanalysts gains temporary access to the encryption machine, They cannot open it to find the key, however; they can encrypt a large number of suitably chosen plaintexts and try to use the resulting cipher texts to deduce the key. Chosen cipher text - ‘The cryptanalyst obtains temporary access to the decryption machine, uses it to decrypt several string of symbols, and tries to use the results to deduce the key.CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES There are two basic building blocks of all encryption techniques: substitution and transposition. SUBSTITUTION TECHNIQUES A substitution technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by numbers or symbols. If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves replacing plaintext bit patterns with cipher text bit patterns. CAESAR CIPHER The earliest known use of a substitution cipher and the simplest was by Julius Caesar. The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing 3 places further down the alphabet. eg, plain text : pay more money Cipher text: SDB PRUH PRQHB Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that letter following .2" is w For each plaintext letter p, substitute the cipher text letter ¢ such that (p+3) mod 26 Ashift may be any amount, so that general Caesar algorithm is C = E (p) = (p+k) mod 26 Where k takes on a value in the range 1 to 25 The decryption algorithm is simply P = D(C) = (C-k) mod 26 MoNOALPHABETIC CIPHERS Here, Plaintext characters are substituted by a different alphabet stream of characters shifted to the right or left by n positions. When compared to the Caesar ciphers, these monoalphabetic ciphers are more secure as each letter of the ciphertext can be any permutation of the 26 alphabetic characters leading to 26! or greater than 4 x 102s possible keys. But it is still vulnerable to cryptanalysis, when a cryptanalyst is aware of the nature of the plaintext, he can find the regularities of the language. To overcome these attacks, multiple substitutions for a single letter are used, For example, a letter can be substituted by different numerical cipher symbols such as 17, 54, 69... etc. Even this method is not completely secure as each letter in the plain text affects on letter in the ciphertext. Or, using a common key which substitutes every letter of the plain text. ‘The key ABCDEFGHIIJ KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ QWERTYUIIOPAS DFGHY KLZXCV BNM Would encrypt the message II think therefore I am into OZIOFAZUTKTYGKTOQD But any attacker would simply break the cipher by using frequency analysis by observing the number of times each letter occurs in the cipher text and then looking upon the English letter frequency table. So, substitution cipher is completely ruined by these attacks. Monoalphabetic ciphers are easy to break as they reflect the frequency of the original alphabet. A countermeasure is to provide substitutes, known as homophones for a single letter. PLAYFAIR CIPHERS It is the best known multiple -letter encryption cipher which treats digrams in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into ciphertext digrams, The Playfair Cipher is a digram substitution cipher offering a relatively weak method of (p) =