The Marlowe's

Theology of

Doctor Faustus

MICHAEL HATTAWAY

Oh menmostbraine-sick thatendevourto be worsethanthey

and miserable,
can!
Montaigne, Essays,ILxii
([Link])
since Eliot describedThe Jewof Malta as a "tragicfarce,"critics
Ever have been tryinghard to definetheparticularconjunctions of con-
tradictory impulses in Marlowe'sworks. It is difficult
now to regardDoc-
tor Faustus simplyas a great soul strugglingto freehimselffromthe
fettersof his age, an interpretation
incidentally thatdatesonlyfromabout
the timeof Byron'sManfred,nor do mostof us want to followthe se-
verelymoralisticinterpretations of the play thatdestroyit as a tragedy.
Yet the more one reads the writingsof Marlowe's contemporaries, the
more one is forcedto the opinion that his audiencesadopted a more
stringent attitudetowardshis heroesthanmostmoderncriticshave done
and thatthe plays work in large partby irony,by invokingtraditional
ideas or icons and usingthemas formative principlesof [Link] we
know some orthodoxanswersto the problemsraisedby the play,we are
farmorelikelyto understandits fullsignificance, forthereis a continual
interplaytakingplace in the minds of the audience betweenicon and
scene.1Even thoughour involvement with the heroand the intensity of
"Marloweand Brecht,"
i. See MichaelHattaway, in Christopher
Marlowe, ed.
BrianMorris(London,1968),[Link],
"LibidoSpeculandi,"

51

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 52 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

the versemay threatentheorthodoxreference of the presentedimage,it

is hardto believethatMarlowewas skepticalof itsvalidityas a summary
ofhumanexperience.
ProfessorBradbrookhas suggestedsome icons for Tamburlaine,and
ProfessorHunter has interpretedBarabas' life as "a parody of Job's
2
spiritualOdyssey." As a pointof departureforthischronicleof Faustus'
pursuitof wisdom,I should like to put forwardthe figureof Solomon,
kingof Israel,who in sixteenth-century literaturewas frequently referred
to as "the wise man." As an emblemof wisdom,however,Solomon pre-
senteda paradox,forafterbeing preeminentamong men for his God-
given wisdom,he had turnedfromhis learning,fame,and wealth to
writethe Book of Ecclesiastes,thebook thatbegins"Vanityof vanities;
all is vanity."(No Renaissancescholarsquestionedhis authorshipof this
work.) Some commentators read Ecclesiastesas a lamentforman's state,
some as a plea forthewise follyof Christthattheyopposedto ratiocina-
tionand vain speculation, and some as a testimony of repentancewritten
by Solomon after he had been seduced by strange women or afterhe had
renouncedhis magic.8We rememberthat he had appeared to Robert
Greenein his Visionto admonishhim forhis vain [Link] Solomon's
sképticismled him to humilityand a strongerfaith:Faustus,afterfar
less intellectual,agony,came to this same conclusionof the vanityof
worldlylearningin the firstsceneof theplay,but insteadof formulating
a skepticalphilosophyand erectinghis faithupon it as did Montaigne,
Ralegh,and Greville,he gave himselfto his lust and was unable to re-
pent.Ecclesiastes1:13 describeshis,chlemma:"And I haue giuen mine
heartto searcheand findeout wisedomebyall thingesthatare done vnder
the heauen." But he would not accept the conclusiondrawn fromthis
ofElizabethan
inReinterpretations Drama, [Link] Rabkin(NewYork,1969),
whichcontains a bibliography of Faustuscriticism.
In "The Philosophyof Dr.
Faustus/' Essaysin Criticism,
XX (1970),123-142, A. L. Frencharguesthatthe
irony oftheplaydestroysitstragic
potential.
2. M. C. Bradbrook,EnglishDramatic Form(London,1965),pp. 41-59;G. K.
Hunter, "TheTheology of Marlowe's The JewofMalta,"JWCI,XXVII (1964),
[Link], TheHerculeanHero(London,1962).
3. See Michael Hattaway, "Paradoxesof Solomon: Learningin the English
Renaissance,"JHI,XXIX (1968),[Link] Solomonthemagician, see J.P.
Migne,Troisième et dernièreencyclopédie
théologique(Paris,1854-1867),
XXIV,
cols.839ff.

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 The T heology of Marlowe s Doctor Faustus 53

chapterthatwe findin a glossin the 1578Geneva Bible: "Man of nature

hath a desireto know,and yetis not able to come to the perfection of
knowledge, which is the of
punishment sinne, to humble man, and to
teachhim to depend only vpon God." Faustus would overleapthe ob-
staclesplaced beforeMan as a consequenceof his sin, trya shortcut to
wisdomand power- witchcraft.
There is evidencethatconnectsFaustus [Link] has
been noticed,Solomon was oftenlistedamong the greatmagicians,and
it is not surprisingto findMarlowe's source,"PJF.'s"translationof the
Faustbîich,reporting:
Belial . . . deceiuedKing Salomonthatworshipped theGods oftheheathen:
andtherearesuchSpiritsinnumerable thatcan comebymenand temptthem,
driuethemto sinne,weakentheirbeliefe. . . and to thisintentdoe wee
spreadour seluesthroughout all theworld,as thevtterenemiesof God, and
hisSonneChrist, yea& all thosethatworshipthem:and thatthouknowest by
thyselfeFaustus , howwe hauedealtwiththee.4
Second,when Faustus asks forbooks of conjuringand for"one booke
more . . . whereinI might see al plants,hearbesand treesthat grow
5
vpontheearth," it mightbe thathe is askingforSolomon's"lostbooks"
of naturalphilosophy.6 Third, Mephostophilisoffersto bringFaustus a
courtesan"as wise as Saba '- the Queen of Sheba (B.456), and Faustus'
offerto burnhis books may be connectedwith the legendthatSolomon
buriedhis magic book afterusing it to make the devils servehim in
buildingthe temple.7In any case Faustus turnsfromskepticismto the
pursuitof knowledge,power,and richesas Solomon turnedfromthese
vanitiesto skepticism and repentance.
However much the criticadmiresFaustus,he must,as I shall attempt
4. Sources oftheFaustTradition , ed. P. M. PalmerandR. P. More(New York,
1936),pp.152-153-
"Doctor
5. 1604Quarto(A), 11.622-623;quotations are takenfromMarlowe's
"
Faustus 1604-1616 : ParallelTexts
, ed. W. W. Greg(Oxford, 1950).
6. See i Kings4:33: And he spakeof trees,fromthecedartreethatis m
Lebanoneuenvntothehyssope thatspringeth outofthewall."Baconseveral times
lamentsthe "loss"of thisbook: New Atlantis, p. 145; De augmentis,VIILi
( Wor's, ed. [Link],R. L. Ellis,andD. D. Heath[London,1857-1874]); and
GestaGrayorum, ed.W. W. Greg(Oxford, 1914),p. 34.
7. See M. D. Conway, Solomonana Solomonic Literature(London,1899),p.
236.

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 54 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

to do, place thewisdomFaustuscravesagainsttheknowledgehe attains,

weigh omniscienceagainstman's possibleknowledge,considerwhether
Faustusconfoundstwo kindsof knowledge,the contemplation of divine
mysteries with the active of
investigation the world. I shall also seek to
show how closelythe end of the play,Faustus' denial of Christ (those
scenesthatreceivemostattentionfromthe moralists),is relatedto the
scenesthatshow the scholarat the heightof his fame (those that the
romanticslike), forit is Faustus'obduratedenial of the highestwisdom,
symbolizedin the figureof Christ,thatdamnsFaustus as a scholarand
as a man.

The play opens on Faustus seatedin his studyreviewingthe divisions

of [Link] speech is a short treatiseon a familiarRenaissance
theme,the vanityof human knowledge,and lies in the traditionthat
runsfromSolomon'sEcclesiastesto Agrippa'sDe vanitateand beyond.
The settingrecallscountlesspicturesof St. Jeromein his studywhich,
because of the legend thatthe saint turnedfrompagan learning,were
oftenregardedas [Link] be a specificecho
of Lyly'sEuphues,Faustus' debate with himselffollowsthe patternof
the De vanitate - but Faustus, who would be "as cunningas Agrippa
was" (B.139), does not come to Agrippa'[Link] famousGer-
man magicianHenry CorneliusAgrippa was certainlyknown to Mar-
lowe. He had writtenhis De vanitatepartlyas a retraction
of his unpub-
lishedbut notoriousbook on magic,the De occultaphtlosophia,but as
theDe vanitatewas a rhetoricalset piece,a declamatioinvectiva,he in-
cluded in it a reviewof all the sciences.(How sincerehe was about
magicis in doubt,forhe laterpublishedtheDe occultaphtlosophiawith
the retractionsperfunctorilyappended.8)His purpose,he claimed,was
not to condemnall learningbut to reformthe abusesthathad "creptin,
throughtheperuersedoingsof men."He inveighsagainstthe deification
8. See D. P. Walker, and DemonicMagicfromFicinoto Campanella
Spiritual
(London,1958),p. 190;compare withFaustus'speechtheinvectivein Nashe's
Summer's LastWilland Testament,11. fi.
, 1394 (Wor'st ed. R. B. McKerrow[Ox-
ford,1958],[Link]).

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 55
of the schoolmenand says that knowledgemust begin with pious hu-
mility,mustbe lodged in good men,and mustbe used forthe good of
the commonweal. Knowledge will bringno happinessof itself,but as
we have been possessedsincetheFall of theknowledgeof good and evil,
we shall be made happyonly by knowingthat we are leading a good
lifein accordancewith Goďs Word. "For not the good vnderstanding,
but the good wyll,ioynethmen vnto God." 9
Such sentiments were thebasis of practicallyall humanistwritingson
knowledge, and the of Euphues and Faustus on the vanityof
reflections
worldlylearning would be familiar to an Elizabethan audience. But
whereasAgrippa"retracted" his magic and Euphues afterten years'un-
profitablestudy turned from "al learningewhichis not sprongefromthe
bowels of the holy Bible,"10Faustus dismissesdivinityand embraces
necromancy. To have recourseto thedeviland theforbiddenartsinstead
of to God and His Word,to devotehis energiesto his own good instead
of thegood of thecommonweal, would be a shockingcourseof action,
directedagainstthepious traditionof [Link] scholarly
sainthas turnedsorcererbeforeour [Link] it is necessaryto look at the
speechin moredetail.
The firstsubjectFaustus surveysis [Link] would "leuell at the end
of eueryArt,"would "Hue and die in Aristotlesworkes."This line might
be an ironicjibe at thescholasticlogicians,but when Faustus definesthe
end of logic he deriveshis formulation not fromAristotlebut fromRa-
mus: "Bene disserereest finislogices."11It had been Ramus' ambitionto
sweepaway thestudyof analyticsforitsown sake and to applyit instead
to all formsof discourse,the materialof history,antiquity,oratory,and
poetry,and in Faustus' one line Marlowe shows a succinctappreciation
of Ramus' [Link] is well known, moreover,he portrayedthe

9. Agrippa, Of theVanitieand vncertaintieof Artesand Sciences

, [Link]
Sanford (London,1575),Sig.f iiir,fols.2*-3r.
[Link],Wor's, ed.R. W. Bond(Oxford, 1902),I, 289;thiswasfirstquotedby
PaulH. Kocher, Marlowe
Christopher (ChapelHill,N. C.,1946).
Ii. This was firstpointedout in A. W. Ward'seditionof theplay(Oxford,
1901),p. 130;in WilliamTemple'seditionofRamus'Dialecticae libriduo (Cam-
bridge,Eng.,1584),we findthetext"Benedisserere estfinisdialecticae,"
p. 4.
The endof "analytics"was thusdefined byAristotle:"Versaturautemin demon-
ac dedemonstrandi
stratione, estinstituta,"
scientia Logica(Paris,1567),p. 100.

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 56 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

slaughterof Ramus by the Guise in The Massacreat Paris. There before

he dies Ramus asks his murderer, "WhereinhathRamus been so ofien-
cious?" to whichtheGuise replies:

Marrysir,in hauinga smackin all,

And yetdidstneuersoundanything to thedepth.
Was itnotthouthatscoftes theOrganon,
Andsaiditwasa heapeofvanities?
He thatwillbe a flatdicotamest,
Andseeninnothing butEpitomies:
Is in youriudgment thoughta learnedman.12
Now thesewerecommonchargesagainstRamus and Ramists: thatseek-
ing to be scholars"in shew" theyused theirknowledgeonlyfordisplay
and masteredno disciplinethoroughly. Most university
men who had
spentyearsmastering Aristotelianlogic would have no truckwith the
[Link] an attackon Ramismin The Anatomie
of Absurditie(1589) Nashe had censuredthosewho, "out of looue with
the obscuritiewhereinthey Hue," sought to shine by parading new-
fangledand slapdashopinionsquicklylearned,"becommingtheMaisters
of the ignorantbeforetheybe the Schollersof the learned."And five
yearslaterHooker sarcasticallydefinedRamismas "an Art whichteach-
eth the way of speedydiscourse,and restraineththe mind of man thatit
13
maynot wax over-wise." It is probable,therefore,thata university
man
would detectan elementof criticismof Faustus in thisline: insteadof
being as learnedas he could claim,Marlowe is suggestingthatFaustus,
havinggivenhis allegianceto Ramus,was swollenwitha "selfeconceit,"
thathe stillhad muchto learnin logicalone.
Faustus' sweepingdismissalsof medicineand law containironiesthat
are as importantas [Link] lamentthathe cannotraise
[Link], Wor's,ed. C. F. TuckerBrooke(Oxford, 1910),[Link] the
playRamus counters bysaying thathe had reduced theconfusionof theOrganon
andthathe hadbeenreviled because"theblockish Sorbonests"
regarded Aristotle's
worksas [Link] of logic,
butas I shallsuggest
he,likeFraunce, whosupported Ramus,dislikedtheuniversal
dissemination of half-digested
[Link] theprefaceto The LawiersLogi'e
(London,1588).
[Link],Worlds, I, [Link] also ThomasLodge: "In his hoodand habit
[thedevil]willprooueramusto be a deeperPhilosopher thenaristotle,"Wits
Miserie(London,1596),p. 5; Hooker, Laws,[Link].4.

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 The T heology of Marlowe s Doctor Faustus 57
thedead to lifeis bitterlyechoedin thelastspeech,whenhe sayshe would
ratherbe buried under mountainsand hills than live in hell for ever.
Similarlyhis signingof thedeed of gift,a "paltrylegacy,"bringshim into
confrontation with the eternallaw at the end of the play. But when he
turnsto divinity,the highestlearning,he propoundsquestionsso well
knownto the audiencethathis unorthodoxconclusionmusthave cast a
shadow of condemnationover his actionsfromthe [Link] picks up
Jerome's Bibleand withseemingskillprovessyllogistically fromscriptural
texts(Rom. 6:23 and I John1:8) thatall men are condemnedto ever-
[Link] audiencewould have been thoroughlyfamiliarwith
thisargument, forit is foundin theHomiliesthatby law were read each
Sunday everychurchin the land. In "The FirstPart of the Sermon
in
Of themiserieof man" thesame textsare clearlyexpoundedto conclude:
"Wherforethe wyse man in the booke called Ecclesiastes,makeththis
true& [Link] is not one iust man vppon the earth
thatdothgood & sinnethnot."14The firstreactionof theaudiencewould
have been thatFaustus'deductionfromSolomon's"confession"was false,
for,havingcometo theaboveconclusion,thehomilycontinues :

It hathbenemanifestly declaredvntoyou,thatno man can fulfill thelaw of

God,and therfore bythelaweall menare condemned, whereupon it folowed
that
necessarilye, some other thinge should be required for our saluatiõ,then
thelawe: and thatis,a trueand liuelyfaythin Chryst, bringinge foorth good
workes,and a lyfeaccordinge to Gods commaundementes . . . For theright
and trueChristian faythis, notonelyto beleuethatholyscripture, & al the
foresaidarticlesof our faithare true,but also to haue a suretrustand cõfi-
dencein godsmercifull promises,to be sauedfromeuerlasting damnation by
Christ:wherof dothfolowa louinghart,toobeyhiscommaundements.15

At the end of the play Mephostophilisboasts that he led Faustus' eye

passagesthatcausedhim to despair,and we findthatthe
to thescriptural
logicalproof universaldamnationwas a favoritefigureof Luther's
of -
16
he regardedit as the "devil's syllogism." So althoughMarlowe could

[Link] (London,1587),Sig.B2r_T.
[Link].,Sigs.C3r,[Link] Merchant of Venice:"in thecourseof justice,
noneof us/Shouldsee salvation" V.i.
(I 194-195),and MeasureforMeasure : "all
thesoulsthatwerewereforfeit once"([Link].73).
[Link] was also used by Spenser'sDespaireagainstRedcrosse ( FaerieQueen,
[Link].28 ; see SusanSnyder,
£F.) 'The LeftHand of God: Despairin Medievaland

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 58 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

hardlyhave been expectedto demonstrate his hero'slearningconclusively

in one shortscene,it does seem thatFaustusis paradingtheimperfection
ratherthan the perfection of his learning,17 since his logic and divinity
would ring hollow to anyone who had been to universityor even to
[Link] has not undergonethatpurification by dialecticand moral
philosophy thatPico said gave observation of thingsdivineby the light
oftheology.18
Yet one shouldnot be too [Link] otheraccomplishments -
he is "groundedin Astrologie,Inrichtwith tongues,well seene in Min-
erals" (B.160-161)- althoughhe means to turnthemto an evil end. He
has heardthe musicof Homer and Amphion,his far-ranging mind con-
temnsfiddlingdetail,and thereis a hintthathe would put his learning
to practicaluse. So too he is loyal to his profession- in Tudor England
scholarsenjoyednone of the prestigeand influenceof theircounterparts
in [Link] would clothehis fellowstudentsin silk; he knew how

... to thisdayis eueriescholler

poore,
Grossegoldfromthemrunsheadlongto theboore.19

These linesfromHero and LeanderoccurwhenMarloweis narrating the

struggle between the Destiniesand Mercury,one of the of
patrons learn-
ing, and are quoted by Burton,who listspoverty,too much study,and
social ostracismamong the causes of melancholyand madness.20 Faustus

Renaissance Tradition," Studiesin theRenaissance, XII (1965),pp. 18-59;andcf.

Calvin,Institutes,[Link].9:"Man being condemned of sin by thelaw,theeffect
thereofin thegoodis thecrauing ofhelpefromGod,in thebadtheirdespairing of
themselues without aspiring toanyhelper" T. Norton[London,
(trans. 1599]
).
17. Two morality plays,Redford's WitandScience(before1547)anditsderiva-
tive,theanonymous The Marriage of WitandScience(ca. 1570),aredevotedto
thisargument - thattruewisdomcomesonlyafterlongand assiduous [Link]
orthodox stepsto wisdomarealsosetoutin An interlude of theFourElements,
ed. J.O. Halliwell(London,1848),pp. 5-6. Another parallelcan be foundin
Donne'sThirdSatyre, wherethepoet(possibly as earlyas 1593)urgeshis con-
temporaries to resistthetemptations of theworld,theflesh, and thedevil,the
temptations to whichFaustussuccumbs, and urgesthemto be, unlikeFaustus,
busytoseektruth, to"doubt wisely."
[Link], 16.
[Link], I. 471-472.
20. TheAnatomy ofMelancholy,I.Ü.[Link].

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustas 59
is determined to breakfromthetediumand unprofitability of scholarship;
he longs foran act of self-affirmation - and spends the restof the play
to
coming grips with his freedom.
intellectual
Afterhe has committedhimselfto magic,Faustus embarkseagerlyon
conjecturesas to what his power will [Link] are two problems
here:whatis Marlowe'sattitudeto Faustus'"speculations," and whatsort
-ofmagicianis Faustus? The play was writtenat a boom timeforEliza-
bethan capitalists,and a time when conspicuousexpenditureand con-
sumptionwere not only symptomsof indulgencebut the means of at-
tractingthesovereign'sfavor,theprerequisites of [Link]
has drawnup revealingaccountsfortheenormousamountsspenton dis-
play and prodigalliving,the extravagancethat naturallyprovokedthe
satiristsof thetime.21Althoughthereis littledirectsatirein DoctorFaus-
tus,it is continuallyimpliedthatlearningis beingsubsumedin the pur-
suitofwealthand [Link] themeof Prodigality is notnew to drama:
Thomas Lupton'smoralityAll forMoney (printed1578) has characters
thatanticipatethe themesof Marlowe'[Link] well as Sin, Damna-
tion,and Pleasure,thereis a Satan whose delightit is to excludeman
fromsalvationand a set called LearningwithMoney,Learningwithout
Money,MoneywithoutLearning,and [Link]
conclusionis thathe who is contentwith what he has has the greatest
riches.22
Anotherplay thatdeals in largepartwiththe prostitution of learning
and thepursuitofmagnificence is Nashe's Summer'sLast Will and Testa-
[Link] was writtenin 1592,probablythesame yearas Faustus,23 an ex-
ceptionallybad yearforthe plague. The values of societyare crumbling,
thereis greatstoresetby materialthings,and Summer,rackedwith dis-
ease, calls his servantsto accountand findsthemall guiltyof extortion,

21. The Crisisof theAristocracy, 1558-1641(Oxford,1965),pp. 184-186,

547-
586.
22. The playis reprintedin Sf, XL (1904),129-186.
Cf.W. Wager'sEnoughis
as Good as a Feast (printedca. 1565),whereContentation argueswiththe
Worldly Man,and Dekker'sOld Fortunatus, theheroof whichchoosesriches
before wisdom.
ofW. W. Greg,Marlowe's "DoctorFaustus
23. I accepttheopinions pp. vii,
5-11, that the caseforthelater in is
dating 1592 stronger; Kocher,Christopher
Marlowe , putsthecasefor1588-1589.

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 6o MICHAEL HATTAWAY

Knowledgehas bred pride,pridediscontent,

arrogance,and self-interest.
"Consciencebutfewrespect, all huntforgaine":

andconference,
Familiaritie
Thatwerethesinewesofsocieties,
Arenowforvnderminings onelyvsde,
Andnouellwits,thatlouenonebutthemselues,
Thinkewisedomes heightas falshoodslilycouch't,
Seekingeachotherto o'rethrowhismate.
(Hi 157,1193-1198)
This is theworldof thedespisedcomicscenesofFaustus,wheretheschol-
arssitdown to a greatfeast,wherePridewill "notspeakean otherworde,
except the ground were perfumdeand couered with cloth of arras"
(A.788-780), and where Faustus expends his energieson cozening a
horsecourser. "Wisdome withouthonesty,"said Jonsonquoting from
Vives, "is meere craft,and [Link] thereforethe reputationof
Honestymustfirstbe gotten;whichcannotbe,butby livingwell. A good
lifeis a maineArgument." 24
Faustus' adventuresmoreoverare not to be read as just the diversions
of a man gluttedwithpleasure,fortheyserveto modifyour admiration
of his Prometheanvision. His Epicure Mammonishtrancesconfound
his desireforknowledgewithhis desireforwealth:

ShallI makespirits
fetchmewhatI please,
Resoluemeofall ambiguities?
Performe whatdesperate I will?
enterprise
Fie hauethemflietoIndiaforgold,
RansacketheOceanforOrientPearle,
Andsearchall cornersofthenew-found-world
Forpleasantfruités
andPrincelydelicates.
Tie haue themreadme strangePhilosophy .. .
(B.106-113)
The worldwill be desperatelyransackedforitsriches,and knowledgehas
become anothercommodity,dissociatedfromwonder which,as Bacon
said, is the"seed of knowledge."Faustus' mind,"steepedand infusedin

Timber
24. Jonson, , in Wor's,ed. C. H. Herfordand P. and E. Simpson
(Oxford, VIII,566.
1925-1952),

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 TheT heology of Marlowe s Doctor Faustus 61

the humoursof the affections," 25can neverriseto the of

contemplation
thehighestmysteries.
The evidenceMarlowe suppliesin the play foran evaluationof Faus-
and our judgmentmustdependon our widest
tus' magicis inconclusive,
conceptionof theplay'[Link] was usual in theRenaissanceto define
carefullydifferentkinds of magic,since some,like Ficino's and Pico's,
wereseriousphilosophicsystems, extensionsof theologyand naturalphi-
losophy,while otherswere the hocus-pocusof sorcerersand conjurors.
Many treatisescould be cited; theDe vantiateis [Link]-
ginsbydividingmagic into natural and ceremonial magic:
NaturallMagickéthenis that,whichehauingintentiuely beheldethe forces
and withcurioussearchsoughtouttheyr
and celestiali,
of all naturallthings,
order,dothin suchesortpublishabroadethe hiddenand secretpowersof
nature:couplingtheinferiour thingswyththequalityesof thesuperiour as
if it werecertaineenticements by a naturallioyningof themtogither,that
thereofoftentymes doe arisemaruellousmiracles:not so much by Art as
naturewhereunto thisArte doethproffer when shee
hir selfea seruaunt,
worketh thesethings.28
Naturalmagicincludesmathematicalmagic,whichis thebringingforth
of "thingslyketo the Woorkesof nature"(as one examplehe mentions
thebrazen head thatspoke forgedby Albertthe Great- like the one in
FriarBacon and FriarBungay), and "witchingmagic,"whichhas to do
withpotionsand transformations and thecontrolof naturalphenomena.
One of theexampleshe givesis Orpheus,who withhis "Hymne" could,
like Prospero,"assuage the stormietempest."Controlof the elementsis
one of the thingsFaustus dreamsof. Agrippa'sattitudeto all thisis ex-

25. Advancement , [Link] alsoJames Smith, 'Marlowe's Dr. Faustus Scrutiny,

VIII (1939),36-55,forsomeilluminating with
comparisons Augustine's strictures
againstthe unbounded for
appetite experience and Marlowe
learning. oftenknow-
inglyconfuses themotives in thiswayto pointa [Link]
of his characters
obviousexample is thespeechin / Tamburlaine, "Naturethatfram'dvs offoure
Elements . . . Dothteachvs all to haueaspyring minds"(11.869-880).Thisis the
highestcommon factor in all romanticinterpretationsofMarlowe, butitinvokesin
thereadera measure of detachment whenTamburlaine revealsthatthe"perfect
blisseand solefelicitie" is "Thesweetfruition of an earthly
crowne." The speech
hasbecomea blasphemous fora mystic
prescription [Link]'s
ecstasy. Selimus
(1594),in Wor's,[Link] (n.p.,1881-1886),XIV,11.281-285.
26. OftheVanitie, fol.55*.

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 62 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

[Link] Scot,27he gives as much information as con-

futationand says that "this naturaliMagiche sometymesenclinethto
Geocie and [sometimesto] Theurgie" He notes that Solomon con-
demnednaturalmagic,claimsthattheproductsof naturalmagic cannot
partakeof "the veritie,& diuinitie,"and expressesincredulitythat "the
secretesof hiddenverity"can be discoveredby magic.
What distinguishesnatural magic from ceremonialmagic is that,
whereasthe formeris concernedwithphenomenaand the harnessingof
thepowersor "virtues"of naturalobjectslike the stars,the latteris con-
cernedwith the investigation of otherworlds and the employmentof
supernatural [Link] angelsor demonsdetermines
whetherceremonialmagic is whiteor black,theurgyor [Link]
saysthattheurgy is ideally"gouernedbygood Angelíes,and bythediuine
power"but thatin effectit is "bounde withwickeddeceytesof the Diu-
els." Goecy is "groundedvpon the entereoursof wicked spritesmade
withtheritesof detestablecuriositie, withvnlefulconiurations,
and with
defensiueprayers, bannished& accursedby the decreesof al lawes."28
Now Faustus wanted to prophesy,to controlthe elementsand bring
forthwonders:"make a bridgethroughthe mouingAire,To passe the
Ocean witha band of men" (B.330-331). He is versedin astrologyand
mineralogy and would make "thesubiectsof eueryelement"29servehim.
He asks Mephostophilisfor a book containingthe "characters"of the
planets (such figuresare given in Agrippa and Scot30) that he might
draw down theirvirtues,and also one containing"al plants,hearbesand
treesthatgrow vpon the earth"(A.623-624). This last is interesting,for
it suggeststhatFaustuswould wield poweroverthingsby knowingtheir
names,an idea thatwas commonlyheld.81Plato suggestedthat"a power
morethanhumangave thingstheirfirstnames,and thatthenameswhich

27. ReginaldScot,TheDiscouerieofWitchcraft (London,1584).

28. OftheVanitie,fols.55T-~59T.
29. A.155;B reads"spiritsof eueryelement."
30. Agrippa,De occulta passim;and Scot,Discouerie
philosophia, of Witchcraft,
pp.397ff .
31. E. R. Curtius,
European Literatureand theLatinMiddleAges(New York,
Ï953),pp. 495íí., has pointedout how ancientand medieval writers(especially
IsidoreofSevillein hisEtymologiarum libri)feltthattheessence
ofa thingcould
befound initsdesignation.

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 ThcT heology oj Marlowe s Doctor Faustus 63
are thusgivenare necessarily 82
theirtruenames" - thesimilaritybetween
nomen and numen also suggesteda [Link] the Bible
it is reportedthatAdam beforetheFall gave namesto thewholeof Crea-
tion(Genesis2:19-20). These sourcesstimulatedmanyRenaissancethink-
ers. Agrippadevoteda chapterof the De occultaphilosophia(Llxx) to
thesubject:
Foras thegreatoperator dothproducediversspecies,and particular
thingsby
theinfluenciesoftheHeavens,and bytheElements, together withthevertues
of Planets;so accordingto theproperties
of theinfluenciespropernamesre-
sultto things,and are put upon themby him who numbersthe multitude
oftheStars,callingthemall bytheirnames.33
Bacon wrote:
And thereforeit is notthepleasureof curiosity, nor thequiet of resolution,
nor theraisingof the spirit,nor victory of wit,nor facultyof speech,nor
lucreof profession, nor ambitionof honouror fame,nor inablement for
business,thatare the trueends of knowledge;some of thesebeingmore
worthy thanother,thoughall inferior and degenerate: butit is a restitution
and reinvesting(in greatpart) of man to the sovereigntyand power(for
whensoever he shallbe able to call thecreaturesby theirtruenameshe shall
againcommand them)whichhe hadin hisfirst stateofcreation.34
Beforehis rebellionCaliban had been taughtwords thatmade his pur-
posesknown,85 and GrevillewrotethatAdam's sin dimmed"thatpiercing
light,Which from theirinwardnatures,gave the name,To euerycrea-
ture,and describ'dthe same."86So Faustus is tryingto regainprelapsar-
ian knowledge(in vain,of course,forMephostophilis fobshim offwith
and
commonplaces), although we are aware thatimmoderate knowledge
can lead to thedeadlysin of pride,Faustus'desirescould pass fortheurgic
naturalmagic and be interpreted as quasi-seriousand nonblameworthy
activities.
But otherpassagesin the play make it impossiblefor us to condone

32. Cratylus,
438(trans. Jowett).
33. ThreeBoo's ofOccult , trans.
Philosophy J.F. (London,1651),p. 153.
34. Valerius
terminus, in Wor's,III, 222.
35. TheTempest , [Link].357.
36. "A TreatieofHumaneLearning," st.50,PoemsandDramas, ed.G. Bullough
(Edinburgh,1939);[Link], ed.W. W. Skeat(Oxford, 1886),[Link].
206-211.

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 64 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

Faustus' magic. The conjuringscene in which Alleyn wore a surplice

and cross37and used Psaltersand New Testaments,Faustus' journeys
throughtheair,his employment of diabolicagents,and thepact withthe
devil thatmakeshim specifically a witch38involvepracticesthatall seri-
ous magicianswould [Link] have read a Baconian opti-
misminto the play have overlookedthe impressionthatthe elementsof
witchcraft made upon contemporaries, the horrificseriousnessthat un-
derliesthecomicantics.
Yet thisis not theend of thematter,forit can be arguedthatFaustus
does not attaineven the statureof a sorcereror divinerbut is merelyan
illusionistor juggler,duped by the [Link] would not be pos-
sible to performon stage the miraclesFaustus planned,those that he
does perform,the trickswith the horsecorser and soldiers,and the illu-
sionswroughtat court,are thelowestformof [Link],said
Agrippa,are thestockin tradeofstageplayersand
areonelydoneaccording to theoutwardeapparance:wyththesetheMagitiens
do shewevainevisions,and withIuglingcastsdo playmanymyracles, and
causedreams,whichthingis notso muchedoneby Geoticallinchauntments,
and deceytes
and prayers, of theDiuell,as also withcertainevapoursof per-
fumes,lightes,medicines,colleries,bindings,and hangings,moreouerwith
rings,Images,glasses& otherlike receytsand instrumentsof Magické,and
witha naturalandcelestial
vertue.89
We are remindedof how Marlowe,as the Baines notereports, sneeredat
Moses, who was held to have wrought his miraclesby means of the
cabala he had receivedfromGod: "He affirmeth thatMoyseswas but a
Jugler & thatone Heriots being Sir W. Raleighsman Can do morethan
he." It would seem,therefore, thatFaustus can be seen not as a mighty
magicianbut only as an illusionistand [Link] even his
conjuringis ineffective because Mephostophilistells him that he came
to Faustus of his own accordand thenonly because he heard the blas-
phemiesin the spells- Pico quotes Plotinus'opinion that only he who
has the spiritsin his power and not vice versa can be graced with the

37. SeeSamuelRowlands, TheKnaveofClubbs(London,1615?),Sig.D2T.

As
38. opposed to a sorcererwhomerely conjured [Link]
othersmadethisdistinction.
39. Of theVanitie, foi.Ó[Link]. Lodge,The Divil Coniured,
in Worlds
(New
York,1963),p. 25.

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 The T heology of Marlowe s Doctor Faustus 65
40
name of "magus." The devil'sbook may have the power to summon
MephostophilisfromConstantinople, but he and his companionscarry
offthemagicianat theend of [Link], like Scot,Marlowewas show-
ing thata witchwas powerlessexceptto unleash the forcesof evil. He
could counton the terrorthesewould arouse in the audienceas the re-
portsof the visibleappearanceof the devil on the stage testify, and he
knew thathis hero'sblack magic would be regardedas both crimeand
sin.
Althoughthe stateof the textmakes any firmdecisionimpossible,L
ielieve with Greg that most of the comic scenes were planned,if not
written, by Marlowe.41Insteadof gainingthe wisdomand powerhe had
hoped for from magic,Faustus is fobbedoffby diabolic fraudwith a
seriesof tricksand illusions,fun to watchon the stage,but terrifyingly
ominousin the foretaste theyprovidewith theirfalselegs and heads of
the devilstearingFaustus apart at the end of the play. Even the Pope's
feast,so obviousan occasionforknockaboutfarce,has moralovertonesas
a banquetof [Link] productionitsstagingcould well allude visuallyto
the firstscene where Faustus devoursthe "courses"of learningbefore
theyare snatchedaway.42Certainlythe Wagner scenes cannot be dis-
[Link] like "the Villaines ... so hungry,thatI know he
would giue his soule to the deuill,fora shoulderof Mutton,tho it were
bloud raw"43place Faustus' blind appetitegrotesquelyin the tradition
thatCurtiushas called"kitchenhumor."44And it is significant thatMar-
lowe does not follow The Damnable Life which makes Wagner one

40. Oration,[Link], OftheVanitie, fol.58': "Forthediuelsalsobeeing

do
constreynedalwayes lie in wayte to theendethattheymaydeceyue vs going
astray.'*
41. [Link] H. Kocher,"Nashe'sAuthorship of theProseScenesin Faustus,"
MLQ,III (1942),17-40.
42. See M. C. Bradbrook, "Marlowe's DoctorFaustusand theEldritch Tradi-
tion,"in Essaysin Honourof HardinCraig(London,1963),pp. 83-90;J. F.
Kermode, "The Banquetof Sense,"Bulletinof theJohnRylandsLibrary, XLIV
(1961),pp.68-99.
43. B.346-348;imagesconnected withappetite arefrequent in theplay:"How
amI glutted withconceipt ofthis?"(B.105);"TheGodthouseru'st is thineowne
aooetite"([Link]ü): "O thisfeedesmvsoule"(A.7Q7); alsoB.2S-26,B.1864, B.1032.
44. See E. R. Curtius, "Jestand Earnestin MedievalLiterature," in European
Literatureand theLatinMiddleAges(New York,1953),pp. 417-435.

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 66 MICHAEL HATTAWAY
"
"whichhad studiedalso at theVniversitie of Wittenberg(chap. 56). He
is insteada servant,fromwhichwe mayinferthatMarlowehad in mind
a burlesqueof elementsin themain plot,playedby characters of inferior
[Link] otherjugglingscenes,besidesdramatizingthe failureof Faus-
tas' aspirations,have a thematicrelationshipto the [Link]
whereasthe great scenes displaythe connectionbetweenwisdom and
faith,thecomicscenesdisplaytheconnection betweenwisdomand works.
Marlowe's attitudeto them is ambiguous for they not only suggest
a fallingofffromhumanistideals but also, with theirantipapistsatire,
evoke the audience'[Link] to believe,Faustas "embraces
45
magic rituals,theyare somethinghe can do." But horrificritualsand
comicanticscontribute in no way to Faustas' [Link] comesbe-
cause Faustas ignorestruewisdom,what Calvin called "certaineknowl-
edge,"thatfeelingofgodheadthatevena reprobateexperiences.46 Faustas
mustbe justified byhisfaithalone.
Faustas signs the deed with the devil,ignoresthe warningsof both
Mephostophilisand the Good Angel, and proceedsto his diaboliccate-
chism,a scenethatechoesNature'sspeechto Humanytein An Interlude
of theFour 'Elementsand foreshadowsLear's questioningof Edgar.47If
Faustas hopesto plumbthe secretsof the cosmos,he is [Link] his
questionsabouthell,Mephostophilis pointsout thatit is notonlya place,
but a condition,a [Link] a place it is circum-
scribedby local limits,but its existenceis coextensivewith its essence.
Faustas' reasonrejectsthis seemingsophistry:"I thinkeHel's a fable"
(B.519), he says,just as he had disprovedby reasonthe possibility of sal-
vationin [Link] will providematerialforhis ra-
tionaldeductions, but his rejoinderto Faustas' conclusion("I, thinkeso
still,tillexperiencechangethyminde") suggeststhatMarloweis affirm-
ing theProtestant and skepticalconvictionthatsavingwisdomcomesnot
fromreasonbut [Link] passage recallsMontaigne,who wrote
againstrationalatheists :

45. QuotedfromC. L. Barber, 'The FormofFaustus'Fortunes Goodor Bad,"

TDR, VIII (1964),[Link] notesthat"DoctorFaustusreflects the
tension in theProtestanti
involved world'sdenyingitself in a central
miracle area
ofexperience."
46. Institutes,
[Link].11,
14.
47. SeeMuir'simportant [Link].159
intheArdenedition
ofKingLear.

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 67

Theyestablish... by thereasonof theirjudgement, thatwhatsoever is re-

of
ported hell,or ofafter-comming is
paines, buta but
fiction; theoccasions to
it selfe,at whattimeage or sickenesdothsommon
maketriallof it,offering
themto death:the[terrour] of thesame,through thehorrour of theirfuture
doththenreplenish
condition, withanother kindeofbeleefe.48
Faustus is replenishedwith"anotherkinde of beleefe"at the end of the
play,but it is not the faithwhichhe has repeatedlyabjured and which
alonecouldhaveenlightened and savedhim.
Mephostophilis' refusal to propoundCopernicantheorieshas bothered
many critics.
But we can reasonablyconjecturethatMarlowe,who dis-
playeda farmoreexpertknowledgeof astronomy thantheauthorof the
Faustbuch, was awareof Copernicanthoughtand thathe eitherdismissed
the theoryas falseor, whichis moreprobable,chose to rejectit fordra-
[Link] althoughJohnston pointedout thatno textbookwidely
used in Marlowe'syouthcontaineda detaileddescription of the Coperni-
can system,49 it would be surprisingif he had not heard of the writings
of Thomas Digges in the 1570's,Bruno'sadvocacyof Copernicusduring
his visitto England,or the Copernicanideas discussedby RichardHar-
vey,50Dr Dee, and Thomas [Link] yearsafterMarlowe's death
Nashe, his fellowstudentat Cambridgeand coauthorof Dido, wroteof
GabrielHarvey's"hatchingsuch anotherParadoxe as thatof Nicholaus
Copernicuswas, who held thatthe Sun remainsimmoueablein the cen-
terof the World,& thatthe Earth is moou'd about the Sunne."51
Yet if Marlowe did in factknow of Copernicusthereis not a traceof
the new cosmologyin Faustus' dialogue with Mephostophilis(or in the
restofhiswork):
ComeMephostophilisletvsdisputeagaine,
AndreasonofdiuineAstrology.
Speake,aretheremanySphearesabouetheMoone?
48. Montaigne, Apologie, Everyman's Library(New York,1923-1928), II, 134.
[Link]
[Link],Institutes, of theLutheran heretic
JohnBrenz,
seeD. C. Allen,"ParadiseLostI, 254-255,"MLN,LXXI (1956),324-326.
49. F. R. Johnston,"Marlowe's Astronomy and RenaissanceSkepticism,"ELH,
XIII (1946), [Link]. Kocher:"eitherMarlowedid not knowCopernican
thought, or,ifhe did,he hadalready to thesystem
givenhisallegiance
irrevocably
ofAristotleandPtolemy," Marlowe, p. 214.
[Link](London,1590),p. 176.
51. Wor's,111,94.

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 68 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

Areall Celestiali
bodiesbutoneGlobe,
As is thesubstanceofthiscentricke
earth?
MEPHOSTOPHILIS
As aretheelements, sucharetheheauens,
EuenfromtheMoonevntotheEmperiallOrbe,
Mutually foldedineachothersSpheares,
AndiondymouevpononeAxle-tree,
Whoseterminem, is tearmedtheworldswidePole.
(B.602-611)
52
ObviouslyMephostophilisis repeating Ptolemaic commonplaces and
dismissesFaustus' probingsas offhandedly as does the simplecarterin
one ofthelaterscenes:
FAUSTUS
Nay,hearkeyou,can youtellme whereyouare?
CARTER
canI, we arevnderheauen.
I marry
(B.1708-1709)
The debateproceedswithFaustus tryingto make Mephostophilis reveal
whetherGod made theworld,but the onlypronouncement he can draw
fromhim is a denial of theexistenceof thecrystalline sphere(whichhad
been introduced to account for the phenomenon trepidation)and of
of
the elementary sphereof [Link] crystalline spherehad been discarded
by Augustinus Ricius in his De motu octauae sphaerae,whichJohnston
have been known to Marlowe 63- it was also to be dis-
suggestsmight
carded by Ralegh.54Johnstonmakes the point that Mephostophilisis
therefore propoundingan unorthodoxmodification of Ptolemaiccosmol-
ogy that was notable for its on
stress empiricalobservation,sincethe two
spheresit rejectedwere unfurnished with [Link] to have let
Mephostophilisimpart more revolutionary theoriesto Faustus would
have been to destroyťheargumentof [Link] knowledgeis not
wisdom.
It is notable,moreover,thatthroughoutthe play Faustus does not be-
lieveanythingthathe does notexperiencewithhis senses.(In fact,Coper-
[Link] strongly placedwordcentriche Faustusis expecting
suggests something
morerevolutionary.
53. But Ricius'theory had beenmentionedby ThomasDiggesin 1576(see
Marlowe
Kocher, , p. 218n), andbyAgrippa, fol.42*.
Vaniúe,
54. Wor's(Oxford, 1829),II, 23.

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 69
nicancosmology,whichwas at thattimebased not on empiricalobserva-
tion but on mathematicalconvenience,would have been beyond his
comprehension). Mephostophilis leads Faustus' eyesto therelevantscrip-
turesand afterwards is carefulto keep his sensesgratified
and his mind
[Link] disregardsall counseland the promptingsof his own
[Link] could notsee as Anselmdid thatbeliefmightcomebefore
comprehension - credout [Link] pointis developedby Thomas
Lodge in The Div el Coniured(1596), an admirablediscourseon magic
and witchcraft:

worldliemensdelightis tied to theirknowledge, and what theysee, they

commend, & whattheyheare,theysuspect:Theyonliethatknowtheworld
trulie,trustit notin wellknowingit,byfaiththeyapprehendthingsvnséene,
and by the profitare assuredof theirvncertainties:
Christby becomming
man, prooueththatnothingis vnpossibleto God: by partakinginfirmity,
nourisheth our faiths:& we thatknowhis sufferance excéedeth our senses,
mustcõclude,thatoneliefaithmustapprehendhis Deitie. To themthat
beléeue,he makethall thingspossible;the holie Ghosthelpeththem,who
breedethcharitie;theircharitieinflameth
them,whichnorisheth faith;their
faithassureth thembeinggroundedin charitie.
To themthatbeléeuenotthat
whichtheysée not,he giuethouerto trustin thatwhichtheyshouldnot:in
blindness theyHue,in obstinacie
theycontinue,& desperat
theydie.
(p. 18)
Faustus'deathstandsforthedeathof theintellectenclosedby thesenses;
his "friuolousdemaunds,"his proud and obtuserefusalto concedethe
existenceof the truththat is apprehendedby faith,strikein us as in
Mephostophilishimselfthe terribleimpulseto retreatfroma man with
whom we mightotherwisebe in sympathy. As Heilman pointsout in a
penetrating Faustus
article, neitherbringsself-knowledge to theplay,nor,
whichis moreterrifying, doeshe attainitat theend.55
From academicdisputation Faustusis easilydiverted,firstby his desire
fora wife,thenby theshowof [Link] has alreadysuc-
cumbed to the medieval temptationsof the world and the devil; his
temptation of thefleshculminateswitha secondbanquetof senseand in
his visionof Helen. His sexualappetitemustbe titillated
withtheexotic;
he mustsleepwhereParis [Link] coursehis visionof Helen does redeem
"
55. R. B. Heilman, Twere BestnotKnowMyself:Othello,
Lear,Macbeth"in
Shakespeare 400,ed. J.G. McManaway
(New York,1964),pp. 89-98.

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 70 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

the bathosof the precedingscenes,and the qualityand intensity of the

versecelebratesomethingthatis remarkably absentfromthecold-hearted
bargainingthatpasses on both sides for the processesof [Link]
mustconcedea positivehere,but it is a positivethattransmutes various
'[Link] we mustrememberthatHelen has been an
ambiguousfigurefromthetimesof Stesichorus and Euripides,56
and that
in manysixteenth-century poems she was often,if not a whore, leasta
at
symbolof fickleness and mutabilityas well as being the destroyerof the
home of the mythicalancestorof Elizabeth.57And, as W. W. Greg
pointedout,"in making[Helen] his paramour,Faustus commitsthe sin
of demoniality,that is, bodily intercoursewith demons."58 By seeing
Helen as a succuba,thelines
SweetHellenmakemeimmortali witha kisse:
mysoule, whereit flies
Her lipssuckeforth see
(B.1876-1877)
have an ominous ring,since it was commonlybelieved that "a witch
could notdie untilhis familiarwas passedon by a breathor kissto some-
one living";and therewas a more rarelyexpressedbelief"thatthe gift
mustbe froma man to a woman and froma woman to a man."59Al-
thoughFaustus was already"a spiritin formeand substance,"the pres-
enceon thestageof realactorsprobablysuggesteda demonictrystto the
[Link] theHelen scenehas a deepersymbolicvalue,forit is here
thatFaustusdefinitively renouncesthehonorablelivesof actionand con-
templationfor the dishonorableone of voluptuousness."He that pre-
ferredHelena,quittedthegiftsofJunoand Pallas."60
56. See A. W. Ward'seditionof Faustus For thefalseHelenin
, pp. 122-124.
seeT. The
Spenser, Roche, Kindly Flame N.
(Princeton,J.,1964),pp.152-162.
57. See Proctor's "The Rewardof whoredome by the fall of Helen,"in A
Gorgeous Galleryof,GallantInventions [1578],ed. H. E. Rollins(Cambridge,
Mass.,1926),p. [Link],p. 187n.
58. "The Damnationof Faustus,"MLR, XLI (1946), 97-107;Greg'sarticle
mustbe readin conjunction withT. W. Craik's"Faustus' Damnation Reconsid-
ered,"RenD, N.S. II (1969),189-196, whichdoubtsGreg'sliteralinterpretation
of thetextand rightly doubtswhether it is herethat"thenicebalancebetween
possible andimminent
salvation damnationisupset."
59. K. M. Pede
Briggs, Hecate's Team (London,1962),p. 37.
60. Bacon,Essays , "Of Love,"Worlds, p. 398.W. S. Hecksher, "Was thisthe
face. . .?", JWCI,I (1937),295-297, suggests thatthereis an echoof Lucian's

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 TheT heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 71

II

Doctor Faustus opens on to social and intellectualreality,but its theo-

logicaland philosophicalmeaningis, I believe,bestexaminedwithrefer-
ence to the medievalplaysfromwhichit is [Link] hero,
unlike Edward II and Tamburlaine,who are monarchs,is Everyman
whosefamedependson his [Link] is confronted by powersof good
and evil,clownagealternateswithgraverscenes,and the play worksby
tableauand set debatein a way thatlooksback to [Link] be-
side thestructuraldebt,certaindoctrinesthatappearin earlierplayshelp
the understanding of the themesof Marlowe'splay. It is not possibleto
point to directborrowing - the ideas were too commonplace - but these
didacticplays projectan orthodoxythatmay elude a modernaudience.
The "Macro" moralityplay Wisdom Who Is Christ , subtitled"How
Lucifertemptsthe Mind, Will, and Understandingof Man to sin" (ca.
1460), is a debateon the veryissuesof Doctor Faustus. The play opens
withthe entryof Wisdom clad in purpleclothof gold, wearingan im-
perialcrownset with preciousstones,and carryingan orb and scepter.
He proclaimshimselfas "EuerlastyngeWysdom"and as Christexplains
whythisnameis especiallygivento theSon:
All-thow
echepersoneofJ?e be wysdameternali,
trinyte
Andall thre,on euerlastynge
wysdometo-gedyr
present,
for-as-moche
Neuer-J?e-les, as wysdomys propyrly
Applyede toJ?esunebyresune,
Andalsytfallyt tohymspecyally,
By-causeofhyshyegeneración,
TherforJ?ebelowyde sonehatheJ?is
sygnyficacion
Custummaly Wysdom',noweGode,nowman,
SpowsofJ?e chyrche,& werypatrone,
Wyfïeofechechosesowie:thusWysdombe-gane.61

18thDialogueof theDead on thethememorsomniaaequat,in whichthecynic

Menippus withHermes
discourses overHelen'sskull.
61. The MacroPlays , ed. F. [Link]
and A. W. Pollard(London,1904),
[Link] ideaof sophia,theactivewisdomthatPaul contrasted withthein-
wisdomof theGreeks,
tellectual from1 Cor. 1:[Link] a history
derives of the
toposof Christas Wisdomand itsiconography, see M. T. d'Alverny,
"La Sainte
TheBodleian
Sagesseetle Christ," LibraryRecord, V (1956),232-244.
[Link]'s

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 72 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

and asks
Anima entersaccompaniedby Mind, Will, and Understanding,
Wisdomwhat she maygive Him; He desiresher to give Him her heart.
When she asks Him to "Teche me J?escholysof yowurdyvynyte,"
he re-
plies:
Dysyernottosauourin cunnynge toexcellent,
Butdredeandconforme yowurwylltome,
For ytys J?eheelfulldyscyplyne in Wysdommaybe,
J?at
The dredeofGod,J?at ys begynnynge;
The wedisofsynne,J?atmakyttoflee,
Andswetewertuus herbysin J?e
sowllsprynge.
(H. 87-92)
And when Anima asks Wisdom how she may know God, He replies:

By knowyngeofyowursylfï,
yemayhaue felynge
WatGod ysis yowursowiesensyble;
The moreknowyngeofyowurselfipassyble,
J?emoreveryly
yexallGod knowe.
(11.95-98)
Wisdom goes out, and in His absenceLuciferenters"in a dewyllys
[a] ray,with-owt & with-in,as a prowdegalonte"and boastsof his knowl-
edge of "all compleccionsof a man" (1. 343). He dupes the three
"mights,"urgingMind to leave his studies,to dresswell,do manydeeds,
get riches,see the world,seek a mistress, and [Link] Faus-
tas, Mind is turnedfromtheWisdom of God to knowledgeof the flesh.
Understanding and Will cheerfully join Mind, and Luciferplans to steer
themto threeof the deadly sins,Pride,Lechery,and Covetousness,the
perversionsof the virtueswith which they are respectively associated.
They glory in theirmisdeeds, but when Wisdom returnslike the Old
Man in Faustus and bids Mind thinkon his end, Anima aftersome
hesitationrepentsand callson [Link] comesto "Salomonys
conclusyon":"Timordominiiniciumsapiencie"(11.1157-1158).

of de Mornay's
translation A Woorkeconcerning, thetrewnesse of theChristian
Religion[1587]:"In theTrinitiewe call theSonne,theWord,or theSpeech;
namely,thelivelyandperfect
imageandwisedome oftheFather," (Sidney,
Wor's,
ed. Feuillerat
[Cambridge,Eng.,1912-1926],III, 325). For further in
examples
medievaldrama,seeM. F. Smith, Wisdom andPersonification of Wisdom(Wash-
D. C.,1935),pp.i45-ró3.
ington,

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 73
The parallelsto the eventsin the Faustus storyare apparent,and the
parallelsin doctrine,althoughperhapsonlypresentby implicationin the
laterplay,are [Link]' denial of Christ,"the power of God
and the wisdomof God" (I Cor. 1:24), is a finaldenial of [Link]
the last scene we see Faustus obtuselyrefusingthe highestwisdom and
power he had dreamedof. He has cut himselfofffromthe Christian
traditionof learning,the traditionestablishedby Luther and Colet, for
whom wisdomwas above all Christ,and can findno otherto replaceit.
He has soughtinfiniteknowledgebut does not realize thatthisis built
upon the saving wisdom of repentanceand contrition, the Knowledge
personified in [Link] "selfeconceit"has supplantedhis fearof
the Lord.62Unable because of this pride to comprehend"J?escholysof
dyvynyte," he triesa shortcut to wisdom- sorcery.
His lack of self-knowl-
edge, dramatizedby his failureto measurehis achievements againsthis
aspirations, prevents him from [Link]
himselfproducespride,ignoranceof God, [Link] by lettinghis
sensualitytriumphover his reason,by giving himselfto Helen rather
than heeding the Old Man's counsel,he depriveshimselfof heavenly
graceand is unable to [Link], his proud daringand thebreadthof
his visionsurpassthe simpledelightsof themoralityplay and turntheir
jinglesinto feltdesires,but the agonyof the finalscene is so much the
greater.
WisdomWho Is Christcontainsmoredoctrinerelevantto DoctorFaus-
tusthantheotherMacro plays,but thesedo providesome usefulinsights.
The CastleofPerseverance containselementsthatparallelthehighscenes
in Faustus. It is a playabouttheartof [Link]
good and an evil angel; the Good Angel urgeshim to thinkon his end
so thathe will notsin,but Mankindacceptsthecounselof theBad Angel
- therewill be timeenoughforrepentancewhen he is old and his
fleshly
fireshaveburnedlow. As Pleasuresayslater:
WithJ?is
werldhe schalhaue lond& house;
J>is wysdomgeuethnota louse
werldys
ofGod,nynofhyeheuene.
(11.489-492)
62. Likethecharacters
in The WhiteDevil,Faustus'worldfinishes
beneaththe
moon:he refusesto contemplate
thehighestwisdomwhichis spiritualand not
toconfound
terrestrial, knowledgewithknowledge,
as Flamineosays.

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 74 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

The playcontinueswitha long seriesof debates,in whichthe following,

spokenby Humilitasto Pride,theprimalsin,is important. Pride was the
bar
insuperable to salvationuntil Christ's -
death since His death it has
becomethewayto hell:
for,whannLucyfer tohellefyl,
Pride,J?er-ofJ?ouwerechesun;
& J?ou,deuyl,withwyckyd wyl,
In paradystrappyd us withtresun,
So J?ouus bondin balysIlle;
mayI preuebe rythresun.
J?is
Duke j?atdyedon hylle,
tylJ?is
in heuenemanmythneuerehansesun;
'>tgospelj?usdeclaryt.
forwho-solowehym,schalbenhy;
perfore J?ouschaltnotcomenus ny;
& j?ouJ?oube neuereso sly,
I schalfelleal J?i
fare.
qui se exaltat,humiliabitur,
& cetera.
(11.2096-2109)
For althoughthe devil's power is great,man can be saved by Christ's
- ifhe repents
sacrifice :

Lord,j?ouJ?atmanhathedonmoremysseJ?annegood,
ifhedeyin verycontricioun,
Lord,J?elestdropeofJ?i
blod,
For hyssynnemakyth satisfaccioun.
(11.3367-3370)
Despite his apostasyFaustus could have called on Christuntil the last
[Link] he succumbsto Lucifer'sthreatsand temptations, and by
calling on Luciferto spare him,insteadof on Christto save him,he is
damned:

See seewhereChristsbloodstreamesinthefirmament,
One dropwouldsaue mysoule,hälfea drop,ah myChrist.
Ah rendnotmyheartfornamingofmyChrist,
YetwilI callon him,oh sparemeLucifer!
Whereis itnow?tisgone:
AndseewhereGod stretcheth outhisarme,
Andbendshisirefullbrowes.
(A.1463-1469)

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 75
88
Faustus'"Knowledgeof Good boughtdear by knowingill" comestoo
latetosavehim.
The thirdof theMacro moralities,Mankind (ca. 1470),helpsus to un-
derstandthe comic scenes of Faustus and the hero's relationshipwith
[Link] worldlythantheothertwo plays,Mankinddemon-
strateshow, afterthe Fall, Man can be saved only by Christ'smercy.
Mercyappearsto Mankind at the beginningof the play and is greeted
ofsavingknowledge:
as theincarnation
All hey11,semelyfather!
yebe welcometo J?is
house!
Of J?e
verywysdamye hauepartycypacyon.
(11.202-203)
Mankind takescounselfromMercyand resolvesto live by the sweat of
his browand delvewithhis spade. In thisway he is surehe can resistthe
blandishments of Titivillusthe devil. But his resolution64
does not save
him fromthe wily Titivillusand his fellowsNew Guise, Nought,and
Nowadays, and he acceptsthe fleshlydelightstheyofferhim. Mercy,
however,expostulateswith Mankind,who at firstrefusesto listen,and
[Link] goes to hang himself,and Mischieflike Meph-
ostophilisis promptlyat hand with a rope just when he would despair
and die.
The egalljustyseofGod wyllnotpermytte sucha synfull
wrech
To be rewyvyd & restoryd
a-geyn;ytwereImpossibyll
he [Link] Mercy,like theOld Man showshow God does not work
merelyaccordingto His law:
The justiceofGod wyllas I wyll,as hymselfedothprecyse:
Nolo mortem inquit,& yffhe wyllbe reducyble.65
peccatoris,
(11.824-827)
Here Mercytriumphsover despair,and the play ends witha sermonDe
contemptumundi. But althoughtheplay ends happilyand althoughthe

[Link], IV,222.
64. NicholasBrookehas arguedthatDoctorFaustusis a perversion of the
moralitypatternin thatFaustusresolvesto be damnedand succeedsdespitethe
ofMephostophilis: "TheMoralTragedy " The
ofDr. Faustus
warnings Cambridge
V
Journal,(1952),662-687.
65. [Link], I, ix.39.

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 y6 MICHAEL HATTAWAY

devilsappear as a crew of merryfellows,good companionsas Mepho-

betweenthe cheerful
stophilisis to Faustus,thereis an awful difference
viceand theimplacableenemyof mankind,betweentheirfamiliarappear-
anceand [Link] audience'slaughterat Mankind'spitifulat-
temptsto resistthemfloatson a deep senseof unease,and like thecomic
scenesof Faustus the play is a parableof the pettinessof man without
God.

Ill

But whatwas Faustus'sin,and did he bringhis punishment upon him-

self,or was it inflicted a
by vengeful God, a symbolof all the beliefshe
had outraged?It is possibleto show that it was not the conjuring(or
ratherjuggling), nor even the diabolicpact thatcost Faustus his salva-
[Link] the merepresenceof the Old Man and Good Angel would be
ridiculousif Faustus had been damnedfromthe beginningof the play,
or if therewereno possibility of his repentance.66
His fellowscholarsre-
gretfully leave him in the penultimatescene for embracinggoecy,but
evenafterhe has excluded"thegraceof heauen"fromhis soul by taking
Helen as his paramour,thereis no reasonto believethatthisloss of grace
has made salvationimpossible,sincehe is grantedthe visionof Christ's
blood in his last [Link] Faustus is damnednot forhis works-Mar-
lowe could indulgeFaustus in the comic sceneswithoutcausing us to
worryabout his salvation - but forhis loss of [Link] termsof the in-
formingallegoryof the play,Faustus has blindlyignoredChrist,the in-
comprehensible mysteriesof the [Link] this act he has at
once damnedhimselfas a scholarand been made to realizethat,as at the
66. Scot,Discouerie
(1584),notes(pp.40fï.) thatbargains betweenwitches and
devilsarenotbinding. Norwouldorthodox theologiansallowthatthedevilbyhis
strengthalonewouldovercome a penitent
Christian:[Link], iťDe
DiaboloTentatore": "Unumigiturhoc primůmdidicimus, eum [Link] aut
necessitatem non vincere,"HomiliaeLXXVII (Paris,1609),p. 319D; also his
Sermon thatno manis hurted butofhymself e, trans.
T. Lupset(London,1542).
Chrysostom's sermons containseveralspecific
pointsthatMarloweincluded in his
D.
play(see J. Jump's edition 21
[London,1962],p. n). For Faustus'despair,see
Chrysostom's Treatisetouching therestoringagaine of him thatis fallen,trans.
[Link] (London,1609),[Link].6,139.

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 The T heology of Marlowe's Doctor Faustus 77

beginningof the play,he is "stillbut Faustus,and a man." We fearhis

punishment, but we pityhis fateand realizethathuman comprehension
will rise no higherthan his. Specifically, however,in sixteenth-century
terms, Faustus is a man who has fallen away fromGod, who has com-
mittedthe sin of sins,the sin against the Holy Ghost,by his repeated
abjurationsof Christ,and who [Link] Lutherknew,
despaircould lead to salvation,but he also knewtheotherdespair,thesin
againsthope,the denialof Christ,therepudiationof savingwisdom.
Until the last momentsof the play we are in suspenseover whether
Faustus will recoverhis [Link] the beginningof the play he had
plannedto

. . . makea bridgethroughthemoouingayre,
To passetheOceanwitha bandofmen,
lie ioynethehillsthatbindetheAffricheshore,
Andmakethatlandcontinent toSpaine.
(A.350-353)

These are parodiesof miraclesthatcould be wroughtonlyby thosewho

faith67- Faustus' aspirationsare in factsimilarto
possessedthe strongest
thepowersof Fidelia in The Faerie Queene. She alone could teachRed-
crossethe mysteriesof heavenlylearning,and she alone had the cosmic
powerFaustuscraved:

Andwhenshelistpoureoutherlargerspright,
Shewouldcommaund thehastieSunnetostay,
Or backwardturnehiscoursefromheauenshight;
Sometimesgreathostesofmenshecoulddismay,
Dry-shodtopasse,shepartsthefloudsin tway;
Andekehugemountains fromtheirnatiueseat
Shecouldcommaund, themseluestobeareaway,
Andthrowin ragingseawithroaring threat.
God
Almightie he gaue such and
powre, puissancegreat.
(I.X.20)
These are also like the miraclesthat the magician Antichristin the
Chesterplayboastsof butcan neverperformand forwhichhe is damned
67. See Matt.7:20: "if ye hauefayťh... ye shallsayevntothismountaine,
Remouehencetoyonder place,andit shallremoue:
andnothingshalbevnpossible
vntoyou."

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 yS MICHAEL HATTAWAY

and borneaway by devils.68 But Faustus succumbs,and his last call for
themountainsand hillsto fall on him,an image takenfromLuke 23:3o
and Revelation6:15-16,has a special [Link] could not
perform miracles;withoutfaithhe couldnotbe saved.
The movementof The TragicallHistorieof Doctor Faustus is there-
fore inevitablytowardsorthodoxyratherthan [Link] great
scenesre-enactand reassert theemblemsof Christianlearning,thesaintin
his study,Solomon'sconvictionof vanity,themoralizationsof the Helen
story,thesavingwisdomof Christ,and the apocalypsethatwill destroy
all monumentsto man's [Link] when pointingthe moral of
thisplay we mustnot let the weightof censurefall too heavilyon the
hero,forhe is the representative of a traditionof learningwhich was
essentially Until
self-destructive. men could findconvictionin theirstudy
of theworldforitsown sake,whichimpliesa retreatfromdivinewisdom
as well as a retreatfromthehumanistidealsof wisdomas a moralvirtue
and of the priorityof self-knowledge, Faustus' attemptto resolvethe
predicament of Solomon had to end in [Link] the intensityof
Faustus' visionthatculminatesin his conjuringof Helen and his whole
grand temerity affectsus far more deeplythan Bacon's rationalizations
or a critic'[Link] Faustus,like all greattragedies,defies
philosophy.

68. See The Playof AntichristfromtheChester , ed. W. W. Greg(Ox-

Cycle
ford,1935).Faustus'death sceneis similar
to that
of in Woodes'sThe
Philologus
"DoctorFaustus
ConflictofConscience.
See alsoLilyB. Campbell, : A CaseofCon-
PMLA,LXVII (1952),219-239.
science,"

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