PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

LEARNING
MODULE 04:
Basic Helicopter
Aerodynamics
and Performance

AE 412 - BASIC HELICOPTER

AND PROPELLER DESIGN

Presented by:
ENGR. LYLE A. LIRASAN

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 1|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE Ref. No. Page No.

Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics 1,2 5

Forces Acting on Helicopter 1 7

Helicopter Flight Conditions 1 8

Momentum Theory in Forward Flight 1,3 16

Rotor Wake Analysis 1,2,4 21

Helicopter Performance 1,2 22

Helicopter Three-Views 5,6 31

Appendix A: RUBRICS 34

Appendix B: Technical Reports 35

TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE REFERENCE
4.1, FAA. Aerodynamics of Flight, Rotorcraft Flying Handbook (Chapter 3)
4-3-4.27
Popular Mechanics. Rotor Droop. Retrieved from
4.2 [Link]
still-selling-the-worlds-largest-helicopter-40-years-after-first-flight/
Aerodynamics for Students. Momentum Disk Analysis. Retrieved from
4.27-4.31 [Link]
performance/rotor_momentum_analysis.php
[Link]. Rotor Wake. Retrieved from
4.32-4.34
[Link]
FAA (2019). Aerodynamics of Flight, Helicopter Flying Handbook
4.35-4.39
(Chapter 7)
Rentless Aviation. How to read a Hover Chart. Retrieved from
4.40 [Link]
[Link]?resize=640%2C960&ssl=1
Jeppesen. Weight and Balance, A&P Technician General Textbook (cc. 6
4.41
pp 25)
Top View6.14, Side View6.15, Front View6.16 – Robinson Helicopter
Company. R66 Standard Three View Drawing. Retrieved from
4.42-4.44
[Link]
view_dwg/
Boeing AH64 Apache – [Link]. Boeing AH64D Apache
Longbow. Retrieved from [Link]
4.45
[Link]/blueprints/helicopters/boeing/63542/view/boeing_ah-
64d_apache_longbow/

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 2|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

TIME ALLOTMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Video Materials Time
[Link] 10 mins
JC1Owxc-MIWfRt_r900CNU7N0
Online Meeting, Pre-recorded videos, etc (60 mins/week) W9-W11 180 mins
Reading Materials
Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics 30 mins
Forces Acting on Helicopter 20 mins
Helicopter Flight Conditions 60 mins
Momentum Theory in Forward Flight 60 mins
Rotor Wake Analysis 20 mins
Helicopter Performance 60 mins
Helicopter Three-Views 30 mins
Activities
Mastery Check #1 20 mins
Mastery Check #2 30 mins
Mastery Check #3 20 mins
Mastery Check #4 30 mins
Technical Report
History and Development of Helicopters 60 mins
Helicopter Preliminary Specifications 60 mins
Helicopter Three-Views 60 mins

TABLE OF REFERENCES
REFERENCES No
Federal Aviation Administration (2019). Helicopter Flying Handbook. United
States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
Testing Branch, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125 1
[Link]
pter_flying_handbook/
Leishmann. Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics
2
[Link]
Aerodynamics4Students. Momentum Analysis. Retrieved from
[Link] 3
performance/rotor_momentum_analysis.php
Aerospaceweb. Rotor Wake. Retrieved from
4
[Link]
Flight Mechanic. Aircraft Drawings. Retrieved from
[Link] 5
drawings/
Jeppesen (2009). A&P Technician General Textbook. Jeppesen
[Link] 6
book-jeppesen

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 3|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

HONESTY CLAUSE

As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and

uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. PhilSCA assumes that as a basic and
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the students should be honest and that
they submit for credit the products only of their own effort.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

As an introductory activity, you are encouraged to watch a short video entitled

“Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics” playlist, using the following YouTube playlist link:
[Link]
MIWfRt_r900CNU7N0. This shows a discussion about the very basics when it comes
to understanding helicopter aerodynamics. Now, to get you acquainted with the terms
as well as concepts presented in the video, let us start our discussion with the basic
helicopter aerodynamics.

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 4|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Previous module discussed the history and developments of helicopter in

aviation industry, also helicopter configurations. In this module we will be describing
some of the basic helicopter aerodynamics. Helicopter performance will also be
tackled later in this module.

BASIC HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS

The rotor of a helicopter provides three basic functions:

1. Generation of vertical lifting force (thrust) in oppose to aircraft weight
2. Generation of horizontal propulsive force for forward flight; and
3. Means of generating forces and moments to control the altitude and position
of the helicopter.
Unlike a fixed wing aircraft where certain roles are divided, all three must be
supported by the helicopter rotor alone. To ensure that the rotor can perform these
challenging functions, the rotor designer needs significant knowledge both of the
aerodynamic environment in which the rotor works and of how the aerodynamic loads
influence the dynamic response of the blade and the overall rotor behavior.
Airfoil is any surface, such as
an airplane wing or a helicopter rotor
blade, which provides aerodynamic
force when it interacts with a moving
stream of air. Symmetrical blades are
very stable, which helps keep blade
twisting and flight control loads to a
minimum. Figure 4.1 Airfoil
First helicopters designed
relatively thick airfoils, since the rotor blades were very long and slender, greater
structural rigidity needed to be built into them. While in flight, this avoided excessive
blade drop while the rotor system was idle and reduced blade twisting. The airfoils
were also designed to be symmetrical, meaning both the upper and the lower surfaces
had the same camber (curvature).
Blade droop. When a helicopter is at
rest, the blades will droop because of a lack
of centrifugal stiffening. To prevent them
from hitting the fuselage when starting up or
shutting down (at this time, rotor RPM is low,
and so centrifugal stiffening is also low), we
need droop stops. These are used to limit
blade travel both up and down. The upwards
stops are utilized to restrict excessive blade
sailing when starting the helicopter up in a
wind. Figure 4.2 Blade droop

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 5|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Designers today use thinner airfoils and use composite materials to achieve the
necessary rigidity. Furthermore, airfoils are asymmetrical in shape, meaning that the
top and bottom surfaces do not have the same camber. These airfoils will usually not
be as stable, but this can be resolved by bending the trailing edge to create the same
features as symmetrical airfoils. This is called “reflexing.” With this type of rotor tip, the
rotor system can work at higher forward speeds.
Blade twist refers to a changing chord line from the blade root to the tip.
Twisting a rotor blade causes it to produce a more even amount of lift along its span.
This is necessary because rotational velocity increases toward the blade tip.
Leading edge is the first part of the
airfoil to meet the oncoming air.
Trailing edge is the aft portion where
the airflow over the upper surface joins the
airflow under the lower surface.
Chord line is an imaginary straight line
drawn from the leading to the trailing edge.
Camber is the curvature of the airfoil’s
upper and lower surfaces.
Span is the distance from the rotor hub to the blade tip. Figure 4.3 Airfoil Term
Angle of attack is the angle between the blade chord line and the direction of
the relative wind.
Relative wind is the wind moving past the airfoil, direction of this wind is relative
to the attitude, or position, of the airfoil and is always parallel, equal, and opposite in
direction to the flight path of the airfoil. Relative wind can be influenced by several
factors, including rotation of the rotor blades, helicopter horizontal motion, rotor blade
flapping, and wind speed and direction.
Blade pitch angle is the angle between
its chord line and the reference plane which
contains the hub of the rotor. The collective
pitch gives each rotor blade an equivalent
amount of pitch no matter where it is in the
plane of rotation (rotor disc) and is used to
adjust the thrust of the rotor. The control of
cyclic pitch shifts the pitch of each blade as a
function of where it is in the plane of rotation. Figure 4.4 Blade pitch angle
Do not confuse the axis of rotation with the rotor mast. The only time they
coincide is when the tip-path plane is perpendicular to the rotor mast.
Axis-of-Rotation. The imaginary line about which the rotor rotates. It is
represented by a line drawn through the center of, and perpendicular to, the tip-path
plane.
Tip-Path Plane. The imaginary circular plane outlined by the rotor blade tips as
they make a cycle of rotation.
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 6|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

FORCES ACTING ON HELICOPTER IN FORWARD FLIGHT

1. Lift
• It is the upward force created by the effect of
airflow as it passes around an airfoil.
• The production of lift is based upon the airfoil
creating circulation in the airstream (Magnus
Effect) and creating differential pressure on the
airfoil (Bernoulli’s Principle).
• To lift the helicopter off the ground vertically,
the rotor system must generate enough lift to
overcome or offset the total weight of the
helicopter and its occupants. This is
accomplished by increasing the pitch angle of
the main rotor blades. Figure 4.5 Forces in Helicopter
2. Weight
• It opposes lift and is caused by the downward pull of gravity.
• It can also be influenced by aerodynamic loads. When you bank a helicopter
while maintaining a constant altitude, the “G” load or load factor increases.
3. Thrust
• It is the force that propels the helicopter through the air.
• Like lift, it is generated by the rotation of the main rotor system.
• In a helicopter, thrust can be forward, rearward, sideward, or vertical. The
resultant of lift and thrust determines the direction of movement of the
helicopter.
• The helicopter gains altitude if the amount of thrust is greater than the actual
weight; if the thrust is less than the weight, the helicopter loses altitude.
• Also generates thrust from the tail rotor. The amount of thrust varies by using
the antitorque pedals, which is used to control the yaw of the helicopter.
Torque is a significant consequence of thrust production. As already
mentioned, there is an equal and opposite reaction for any action. Therefore, the
helicopter fuselage turns clockwise as the engine turns the main rotor system in a
counterclockwise direction. The amount of torque relates directly to the amount of
engine power used to rotate the main rotor mechanism. Remember, as power
changes, torque changes. To counter this torque-induced turning tendency, most
helicopter designs have an antitorque rotor or tail rotor. Adjust the amount of thrust the
tail rotor generates relative to the amount of torque the engine produces. The tail rotor
must produce more thrust, while the engine absorbs more power. This is done by
applying antitorque pedals.
4. Drag
• It is the retarding force created by development of lift and the movement of an
object through the air
• It is often caused by the induced drag experienced when the blades generate
lift. But there is some profile dragging on the blades as they move through the
air. The word "drag" covers both caused and profile drag during the remainder
of this discussion.

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 7|Page

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Steady-State Flight is a condition when an

aircraft is in straight-and-level, unaccelerated
flight, and all forces are in balance. The helicopter
has a load factor of one, which means the main
rotor system supports the helicopter 's actual total
weight. If you raise the bank angle to 60 ° while
holding a steady altitude, the load factor increases
to two. The main rotor system must in this case
sustain the helicopter 's weight and its contents
twice.
Figure 4.6 Load Factor Diagram
Load factor is the ratio of the load supported by the main rotor system to the
actual weight of the helicopter and its contents.
Disc loading is the weight ratio to the total main rotor disk area, which is
measured by dividing the total helicopter weight by the rotor disk area, which is the
area swept by a rotor blades. As the helicopter is maneuvered, disc loading changes.
As it increases, greater the power you need to control the speed of the rotor.
Solidity ratio is the ratio of the total rotor blade area to the total rotor disk area,
which is the total area of all the main rotor blades. This ratio provides a way of
calculating a rotor system's ability to produce thrust.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONDITIONS

Once a helicopter has left the ground, the four aerodynamic forces operate
upon it. We will discuss these forces in this module as they apply to flight maneuvers.
Powered Flight
In powered flight (hovering, vertical, forward, sideward, or rearward), a rotor 's
total lifting and thrust forces are perpendicular to the rotor 's tip-path plane or plane of
rotation of the rotor.

Hovering Flight
This topic assumes a stationary hover in a no-
wind state for standardization purposes. A helicopter
holds a constant location over a selected point during a
hovering flight, normally only a few feet above ground.
The lift and thrust generated by the rotor system act
straight up for a helicopter to hover and must be equal
to the weight and drag that act straight down. You may
adjust the amount of main rotor thrust when swinging to
maintain the desired hovering altitude. This is achieved
by adjusting the angle of attack of the main rotor blades,
as necessary, and by varying power. Thrust in this case
acts in the same vertical direction as the lift. Figure 4.7 Hovering Flight
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 8|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Translating Tendency or Drift

Translating tendency is the movement of the helicopter to the right due to the
combination of main rotor torque and tail-rotor anti-torque.
A single main rotor helicopter, during the hovering flight, appears to drift in the
same direction as the thrust of antitorque rotor. This drifting tendency is called
translating tendency. To counteract this drift:
1. The main transmission is mounted in such a
way that the rotor mast is rigged so that the
tip-path plane has an incorporated tilt
opposite the tail thrust, thus producing a small
sideward thrust.
2. Flight control rigging is designed so that the
rotor disc is tilted slightly opposite tail rotor
thrust when the cyclic is centered.
3. The cyclic pitch control system is designed so
that the rotor disc tilts slightly opposite tail
rotor thrust when in a hover. Figure 4.8 Drift
In a helicopter with a main rotor system in the counterclockwise direction,
counteracting the translating tendency causes the left skid to hang lower while
hovering. The opposite is true when viewed from above, for rotor systems turning
clockwise.

Pendular Action
Since the fuselage of the helicopter, with a
single main rotor, is suspended from a single point
and has considerable mass, it is free to oscillate
either longitudinally or laterally in the same way as
a pendulum. This pendular motion can be
exaggerated by over controlling; thus, control
movements should be smooth and not
exaggerated. Figure 4.9 Pendular Action

Coning
Coning is an upward sweeping angle of the rotor blades as a result of lift and
centrifugal force.
The rotor blades must be rotating in order for a helicopter to produce lift. This
generates a relative wind in opposite direction of rotation of the rotor system. The rotor
system rotation induces centrifugal force (inertia), which appears to pull the blades
from the hub of the main rotor straight outwards. The faster the rotation, the greater
the force of centrifugal force. This force gives the rotor blades their rigidity and, in turn,
the strength to support the weight of the helicopter. The centrifugal force generated
determines the maximum operating rotor rpm. due to structural limitations on the main
rotor system.
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 9|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Two main forces operate at

the same time as a vertical takeoff
— centrifugal force acting outwardly
and perpendicularly to the rotor tip,
and raising acting upward and
parallel to the pole. The effect of
these two forces is that the blades
take up a conical path rather than
being perpendicular to the mast and
in plane. Figure 4.10 Coning
Rotor blade coning occurs as the rotor blades begin to lift the weight of the
helicopter. In a semirigid and rigid rotor system, coning results in blade bending. In an
articulated rotor system, the blades assume an upward angle through movement
about the flapping hinges.

Coriolis Effect (Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum)

The Coriolis effect is when the rotor blades speed up or slow down as the center
of gravity moves closer or further away from the axis of rotation.
When a rotor blade flaps upward, the blade 's center of mass shifts closer to
the rotation axis and blade acceleration occurs to conserve angular momentum. By
comparison, as the blade flaps down, the center of mass shifts farther away from the
axis of rotation and blade deceleration. Bear in mind that a rotor blade cannot flap
underneath a plane passing through the rotor hub and perpendicular to the rotation
axis due to coning. Depending on the configuration of the rotor system, the
acceleration and deceleration actions of the rotor blades are absorbed by either
dampers or the blade structure itself.
Two-bladed rotor systems are
usually subject to Coriolis Effect to a
much lower degree than articulated
rotor systems because the blades are
typically "underslung" with respect to
the rotor hub, and the shift in the center
of mass distance from the rotation axis
is minimal. The hunting action is
absorbed by the blades through
bending. If a two-bladed rotor system is
not underslung, the Coriolis Effect
would be equivalent to that of a
completely articulated system.
The center of mass remains
approximately the same distance from
the mast after the rotor is rotated, due
to the underslung rotor.
Figure 4.11 Coriolis Effect
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 10 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Ground Effect
A phenomenon known as ground effect happens when it is hovering above the
ground. Typically, this effect occurs less than one diameter of rotor above the surface.
As surface friction decreases the induced airflow through the rotor disc, the lift vector
increases. This allows for the same amount of lift to have a lower rotor blade angle
which reduces induced drag. Due to the downward and outward airflow, a greater
portion of the blade generates lift, ground effect also limits the generation of blade tip
vortices. When the helicopter gains altitude vertically with no forward airspeed, the
induced airflow is no longer limited, and the vortices of the blade tips increase as the
outward airflow decreases. As a result, drag increases which means a higher pitch
angle, and more power is needed to move the air down through the rotor.
In a no-wind condition over a solid, smooth surface the ground effect is at its
maximum. High grass, rugged terrain, revetments, and water surfaces change the
pattern of airflow, resulting in increased vortices in the rotor tips.

Figure 4.12 Ground Effect

Gyroscopic Precession
It refers to a principle of gyroscopes that states when a force is applied to a
spinning object, the maximum reaction occurs approximately 90 degrees later in the
direction of rotation.
One helicopter's rotating main rotor functions like a gyroscope. As such it has
the gyroscopic action properties, one of which is precession. Gyroscopic precession
is the resulting movement or deflection of a rotating object when a force on this object
is applied. This action occurs roughly 90 ° in the direction of rotation from the point of
application of the force.

Figure 4.13 Gyroscopic Precession

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 11 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Let us look at a two-bladed rotor system to see how gyroscopic precession

affects the movement of the tip path plane. Moving the cyclic pitch control raises one
rotor blade's angle of attack, resulting in a greater lifting force being applied at that
point in the rotational plane. This same movement of motion simultaneously decreases
the angle of attack of the other blade the same amount, thereby reducing the lifting
force applied at that point in the rotation axis. The blade with increased attack angle
tends to flap up; the blade with reduced attack angle tends to flap down.
Retreating blade angle of attack is increased and the advancing blade angle of
attack is reduced resulting in the tip-path plane tipping forward, as maximum deflection
occurs 90 ° later when the blades are at the rear and front, respectively.
In a rotor system with three or more blades, the movement of the cyclic pitch
control adjusts an acceptable amount of the angle of attack of each blade, so that the
end result is the same.

Figure 4.14 Deflection and AOI

Vertical Flight
Hovering is essentially a vertical flight
element. Increasing the rotor blade (pitch) angle
of attack while their velocity remains constant
produces additional vertical lift and thrust and
the helicopter ascends. The pitch drop allows
the helicopter to descend. In a no-wind situation,
the helicopter descends vertically when lift and
thrust are less than weight and drag. The
helicopter ascends vertically if the lift and thrust
are greater than the weight and the drag.
Figure 4.15 Vertical Flight

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 12 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Forward Flight
The tip-path plane is tilted forward in or
during the forward flight and hence the total lift-
thrust force is tilted forward from the vertical. This
resulting lift-thrust force can be resolved into two
components — lift acting vertically upward, and
thrust acting horizontally in flight direction.
Besides lifting and thrusting, there is also weight
(the downward force) and drag (the rearward
acting or retarding force of inertia and wind
resistance).
Figure 4.16 Forward Flight
In straight-and-level, unaccelerated forward flight, lift equals weight and thrust
equals drag (straight-and-level flight is flight with a constant heading and at a constant
altitude). If lift exceeds weight, the helicopter climbs; if lift is less than weight, the
helicopter descends. If thrust exceeds drag, the helicopter speeds up; if thrust is less
than drag, it slows down.
As the helicopter moves forward, it begins to lose altitude because of the lift
that is lost as thrust is diverted forward. However, as the helicopter begins to
accelerate, the rotor system becomes more efficient due to the increased airflow. The
result is excess power over that which is required to hover. Continued acceleration
causes an even larger increase in airflow through rotor disc and more excess power.

Translational Lift
It is where the efficiency of the hovering rotor system is improved with each
knot of incoming wind gained by horizontal movement or surface wind.
There is a translational lift for every horizontal air flow over the rotor. This
increased flow is most apparent when the airspeed approaches 16 to 24 knots or so.
The rotor moves out of its vortices as the helicopter accelerates at this level and is in
relatively undisturbed air. Also the airflow is more horizontal now, which reduces
induced flow and drag with a corresponding increase in angle of attack and lift. The
additional lift available at this speed is referred to as “effective translational lift” (ETL).
When a single-rotor helicopter flies
through translational lift, the air flowing through
the main rotor and over the tail rotor becomes
less turbulent and more aerodynamically
efficient. As the tail rotor efficiency improves,
more thrust is produced causing the aircraft to
yaw left in a counterclockwise rotor system. It
will be necessary to use right torque pedal to
correct for this tendency on takeoff.
Figure 4.17 Translational Lift

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 13 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Also, if no corrections are made, the nose rises or pitches up, and rolls to the
right. This is caused by combined effects of dissymmetry of lift and transverse flow
effect and is corrected with cyclic control. Translational lift is also present in a
stationary hover if the wind speed is approximately 16 to 24 knots. In normal
operations, always utilize the benefit of translational lift, especially if maximum
performance is needed.

Induced Flow
As the rotor blades rotate, they generate what is called rotational relative wind.
This airflow is defined as flowing parallel, opposite the axis of rotation of the rotor and
distinctly perpendicular to the leading edge of the rotor blade. It uses this relative
rotational wind to produce lift. As the rotor blades generate lift, air over the foil is
accelerated and projected downward. This downwash or induced flow can significantly
change the efficiency of the rotor system. Rotational relative wind combines with
induced flow to form the resultant relative wind. As induced flow increases, resultant
relative wind becomes less horizontal. Since angle of attack is determined by
measuring the difference between the chord line and the resultant relative wind, as the
resultant relative wind becomes less horizontal, angle of attack decreases.

Figure 4.18 Induce Flow

Transverse Flow Effect
As the helicopter accelerates in forward flight, the induced flow decreases at
the forward disk area to near zero and rises at the aft disc area. This raises the front
disk angle of attack causing the rotor blade to flap up and decreases the angle of
attack in the aft disc area causing the rotor blade to flap down. Because the rotor acts
like a gyro, maximum displacement occurs 90° in the direction of rotation. The result
is a tendency for the helicopter to roll slightly to the right as it accelerates through
approximately 20 knots or if the headwind is approximately 20 knots.
You can recognize transverse flow effect because of increased vibrations of the
helicopter at airspeeds just below effective translational lift on takeoff and after passing
through effective translational lift during landing. To counteract transverse flow effect,
a cyclic input needs to be made.
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 14 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Dissymmetry of Lift
Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift that exists between the advancing half
of the rotor disk and the retreating half. It is caused by the fact that in directional flight
the aircraft relative wind is added to the rotational relative wind on the advancing blade
and subtracted on the retreating blade.
As the helicopter moves through the air, on the advancing side, the relative
airflow through the main rotor disc is different than on the retreating side. The relative
wind that the advancing blade experiences is boosted by the helicopter's forward
speed, while the relative wind speed that acts on the retreating blade is decreased by
the forward airspeed of the helicopter. Therefore, as a result of the relative wind speed,
advancing blade side of the rotor disc produces more lift than the retreating blade side.
The blade tip speed of this helicopter is
approximately 300 knots. If the helicopter is
moving forward at 100 knots, the relative wind
speed on the advancing side is 400 knots. On
the retreating side, it is only 200 knots. This
difference in speed causes a dissymmetry of lift.
Figure 4.19 Dissymmetry of Lift
If this condition was allowed to exist, a helicopter with a counterclockwise main
rotor blade rotation would roll to the left because of the difference in lift. In reality, the
main rotor blades flap and feather automatically to equalize lift across the rotor disc.
Articulated rotor systems, usually with three or more blades, incorporate a horizontal
hinge (flapping hinge) to allow the individual rotor blades to move, or flap up and down
as they rotate. A semirigid rotor system (two blades) utilizes a teetering hinge, which
allows the blades to flap as a unit. When one blade flaps up, the other flaps down.
As the rotor blade reaches the advancing side of the rotor disc (A), it reaches
its maximum upflap velocity. When the blade flaps upward, the angle between the
chord line and the resultant relative wind decreases. This decreases the angle of
attack, which reduces the amount of lift produced by the blade. At position (C) the rotor
blade is now at its maximum downflapping velocity. Due to downflapping, the angle
between the chord line and the resultant relative wind increases. This increases the
angle of attack and thus the amount of lift produced by the blade.

Figure 4.20 Flapping

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

The combination of blade flapping and slow relative wind acting on the
retreating blade normally limits the maximum forward speed of a helicopter. At a high
forward speed, the retreating blade stalls because of a high angle of attack and slow
relative wind speed. This situation is called retreating blade stall and is evidenced by
a nose pitch up, vibration, and a rolling tendency—usually to the left in helicopters with
counterclockwise blade rotation.
By not exceeding the never-exceeded speed, you will prevent retreating blade
stall. This velocity is called VNE and is usually shown on a placard and labelled with
a red line on the airspeed indicator.
During aerodynamic flapping of the rotor blades as they compensate for
dissymmetry of lift, the advancing blade achieves maximum upflapping displacement
over the nose and maximum downflapping displacement over the tail. This causes the
tip-path plane to tilt to the rear and is referred to as blowback. This figure shows how
the rotor disc was originally oriented with the front down following the initial cyclic input,
but as airspeed is gained and flapping eliminates dissymmetry of lift, the front of the
disc comes up, and the back of the disc goes down. This reorientation of the rotor disc
changes the direction in which total rotor thrust acts so that the helicopter’s forward
speed slows but can be corrected with cyclic input.
You need to shift the cyclic forward to
counteract the blowback. Blowback with
higher airspeeds is more pronounced.
Flap back or blowback is a
phenomenon affecting the rotor of a
helicopter as it overcomes dissymmetry of lift
through flapping
Figure 4.21 Blowback
Sideward Flight
During side flight, the tip-path plane is tilted in
the desired direction. This tilts sideways onto the total
lift-thrust vector. The vertical or lift component is still
straight up and weight straight down in this situation,
but the horizontal or thrust component is now acting
side-by - side with drag acting on the opposite side.

Figure 4.22 Sideward Flight

Rearward Flight
The tip-path plane is tilted rearward for
rearward travel, which in turn tilts backward
to the lift-thrust axis. Drag now acts straight
up and straight down, with the lift component.
Figure 4.23 Rearward Flight

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Turning flight
The rotor disc is tilted forward in forward flight
and also tilts the rotor disc 's total lift-thrust force
forward. The rotor disc is tilted sideward while the
helicopter is banked, resulting in the lift being divided
into two parts. The vertical component of the lift is called
the lift acting upward and opposing weight.
As the angle of bank increases, the total lift force
is tilted more toward the horizontal, thus causing the
rate of turn to increase because more lift is acting
horizontally. Since the resultant lifting force acts more
horizontally, the effect of lift acting vertically is
deceased. To compensate for this decreased vertical
lift, the angle of attack of the rotor blades must be
increased in order to maintain altitude. The steeper the
angle of bank, the greater the angle of attack of the rotor
blades required to maintain altitude. Thus, with an
increase in bank and a greater angle of attack, the
resultant lifting force increases and the rate of turn is
faster. Figure 4.24 Turning Flight

Autorotation
Autorotation is the flight stage, where the main rotor system is turned by relative
wind rather than engine power. It is the means of safely landing a helicopter in the
event of an engine failure. In this case, you use altitude as potential energy and during
the descent and landing, transforming it to kinetic energy. To be accredited all
helicopters must have this capability. Autorotation is mechanically permitted due to a
freewheeling unit which allows the main rotor to continue to turn even when the engine
is not running. Air is drawn from above into the main rotor system in normal powered
flight, and exhausted downward. Airflow reaches the rotor disc during autorotation
from below as the helicopter descends.

Figure 4.25 Airflow Comparison

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Autorotative force in forward flight is

produced in exactly the same manner as when
the helicopter is descending vertically in still
air. However, because forward speed
changes the inflow of air up through the rotor
disc, all three regions move outboard along
the blade span on the retreating side of the
disc where angle of attack is larger. With lower
angles of attack on the advancing side blade,
more of that blade falls in the driven region. On
the retreating side, more of the blade is in the
stall region. A small section near the root
experiences a reversed flow, therefore the
size on the retreating side is reduced.
Figure 4.26 Autorotation

MASTERY CHECK #1
Give at least 3 aerodynamic principles of flight/flight conditions in helicopter and
explain each.
In your notebook, entitled “Mastery Check #1”
Time allotment: 20 minutes
Rubrics: Appendix A
For Submission: Kindly attach the file on our Google Classroom with a file name “Module 4 –
Mastery Check 1 – (Surname)”.

MOMENTUM THEORY IN FORWARD FLIGHT

In fluid dynamics, the momentum theory or disk actuator theory is a theory

describing a mathematical model of an ideal actuator disk, such as a propeller or
helicopter rotor, by W.J.M. Rankine (1865), Alfred George Greenhill (1888) and Robert
Edmund Froude [Wikidata] (1889).
The rotor is modeled as an infinitely thin disc, inducing a constant velocity along
the axis of rotation. The basic state of a helicopter is hovering. This disc creates a flow
around the rotor. Under certain mathematical premises of the fluid, there can be
extracted a mathematical connection between power, radius of the rotor, torque, and
induced velocity. Friction is not included.
The helicopter rotor can be idealized as a “momentum disk”. It imparts a uniform
velocity (Vi) to the airflow creating a change in momentum which will result in an
upward thrust (T).

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Hover
For the hover case air is sucked in from all directions so the farfield inlet velocity
is effectively zero, accelerated to Vi at the disk and then propelled to a final slipstream
velocity of Vs below.
If area of the disk is A then mass
flow of air being accelerated is
𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖
The change in momentum of the
stream will be
∆𝑀 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑠
and this will be equal to the force
produced, the thrust.
𝑇 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑠
The change in Energy per unit
time of the stream will be
2
1
∆𝐸 = 𝑚̇𝑉𝑠
2
Figure 4.27 Hover
The work done per unit time on the air by the rotor thrust is

Hence,
Giving, 𝑉𝑠 = 2𝑉𝑖
Hence thrust of the ideal rotor in hover is

As the thrust is required to be equal to the weight of the vehicle, it is possible

to use this equation to predict the induced flow required to be produced by the rotor,

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Climb
For the case where the helicopter is climbing, the rotor will capture flow from a
fixed area above and accelerate this to a final slipstream velocity. The momentum
balance will be slightly different as the incoming air has an initial momentum due to
the helicopter climb speed and the rotor is just augmenting this.
The mass flow rate through the disk
will be,

The thrust due to momentum

change will be,

The variation of pressure will drop

below atmospheric above the disk,
increase due to the energy input of
the disk and then drop bad to
atmospheric in the slipstream.
Applying and Energy balance will
again lead to , so that,

Figure 4.28 Climb

Rearranging gives,

Solving this quadratic equation for Vi gives,

or
The required variation in induced velocity
for climb is shown in the following figure.

Less induced velocity is required for climb

as the momentum change applied to a
higher initial velocity is more effective.
Figure 4.29 Climb vs Hover Velocities

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Descent
Descent can be analyzed by using a negative value of Vc in the above
equations. However, there are physical limits on this approach due to the changing
flow pattern. As the capture area is now below, problems will arise as the rotor is now
capturing its own wake and recirculating it to create momentum change. Eventually at
a higher rate of descent the system will become closed and the rotor will simply recycle
its own wake ('ring state'). In this condition there is no momentum change and hence
no thrust.

A) slowly descending rotor. (Positive Thrust) B) moderate rate descent (Ring State, no thrust).

C) fast descent rate (windmilling)

If the above stable ring flow state can be avoided, a fast descent can be
achieved which puts the rotor in to a windmill state. Capture area is still
below but rotor is absorbing momentum from the stream and a divergent
slip stream appears above. This negative change in momentum will
again produce a thrust (a vertical drag). This flow state can be used for
autorotation of the blades.

Figure 4.30 Descent

Power Required
Engine power is required to be supplied to the disk in order to produce the
required thrust. There will be two components of power requirement in this simple
analysis. Power is required to produce the momentum change ( ) and power
is required to make the helicopter climb ( ). Neglecting power losses in
transmission, fuselage drag components, blade profile drag power, etc. The power
required for the operation of the rotor will be,

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Again assuming climb rates are small so thrust approximately equals weight,
the variation of power required for different climb rates is shown in the following figure.

Figure 4.31 Climb speed vs Power

SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A tilt-rotor aircraft has a gross weight of 60,500 lb. The rotor diameter is 38 ft.
On the basis of the momentum theory, estimate the power required for the aircraft to
hover at sea level on a standard day. Assume that the figure of merit of the rotors is
0.75 and the transmission losses amount to 5%.

A tilt rotor has two rotors, which are each assumed to carry half of the total
aircraft weight, that is T = 30,250 lb.
For each rotors, the disk area is A=π(38 ft/2)2 = 1134.12 ft2. The induced
velocity in the plane of the rotor is

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

𝑇 30,250 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑖 = √ = = 74.888
2𝜌𝐴 √ 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔𝑠 𝑠
2(0.002378 )(1134.12 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑓𝑡 3

The ideal power per rotor will be

𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑓𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖 = 30,250 𝑙𝑏 (74.888 ) = 2,265,362.155 = 4118.8403 ℎ𝑝 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑠 𝑠
Remember that the figure of merit accounts for the aerodynamic efficiency of
the rotor.
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
𝐹𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡 =
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
Therefore, the actual power required per rotor to overcome induced and profile
losses will be
4118.8403 ℎ𝑝
𝑃= = 5491.787 ℎ𝑝 𝑥 2 = 10,983.5741 ℎ𝑝 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
0.75
Transmission losses account for another 5%, so the total power required to
hover is
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟗𝟖𝟑. 𝟓𝟕𝟒𝟏 𝒉𝒑 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟓𝟑𝟐. 𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟖 𝒉𝒑

MASTERY CHECK #2
A tilt rotor has a gross weight of 25,500 kg. The rotor diameter is 12 m. On the basis
of the simple momentum theory, estimate the power required for the aircraft to hover
at sea-level on a standard day. Assume that the figure of merit of two rotors is 0.80
and transmission losses amount to 5%.
In your notebook, entitled “Mastery Check #2”
Time allotment: 30 minutes
For Submission: Kindly attach the file on our Google Classroom with a file name “Module 4 –
Mastery Check 2 – (Surname)”.

AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 23 | P a g e

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

ROTOR WAKE ANALYSIS

A final element of a helicopter rotor

that needs to be examined is the wake it
creates as it travels with a forward velocity.
In the simplest case, where no vorticity is
shed along the blade span, vortices would
only be shed at the blade tips and roots.
Immediately aft of the helicopter, the tip
vortices form helical lines on the surface of
the stream tube defined by the rotor. The
root vortices will coalesce, forming a single
vortex along the axis of the stream tube.
Figure 4.32 Rotor vortices at lowspeed
Soon after the vortices leave the rotor, they begin to roll up in a two-stage
process. First, the individual tip vortices combine into concentrated lines as they are
shed from the tips. Then, several rotor radii downstream of the rotor, the overlapping
spiral vortices combine to form two trailing vortices very similar to those found trailing
fixed wing aircraft.

Figure 4.33 Trailing vortices from downwind

While the trailing vortices depicted
above are very similar to those of a fixed
wing aircraft, it is important to note the
"tighter" vortex on the advancing side of the
rotor. These vortices exhibit such a
difference because of the variation of the
downwash distribution between the
advancing and retreating blades. As
discussed in the section on flapping hinges,
the advancing blades experience a higher
velocity and thus a greater downwash at the
tip, as demonstrated below.

Figure 4.34 Downwash Distribution

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE

A pilot’s ability to predict the performance of a helicopter is extremely important.

It helps to determine how much weight the helicopter can carry before takeoff, if the
helicopter can safely hover at a specific altitude and temperature, the distance
required to climb above obstacles, and what the maximum climb rate will be. A
helicopter’s performance is dependent on the power output of the engine and the lift
produced by the rotors, whether it is the main rotor(s) or tail rotor. Any factor that
affects engine and rotor efficiency affects performance.

Major Factors Affecting Performance

1. MOISTURE (Humidity)
Charts with 80 percent relative humidity columns appears to be an
approximately 3–4 percent reduction in performance compared to dry air at the
same altitude and temperature, so expect a decrease in hovering and takeoff
performance in high humidity conditions. Although 3–4 percent seems
insignificant, it can be the cause of a mishap when already operating at the
limits of the helicopter.
2. WEIGHT
Weight is one of the most important factors because the pilot can control
it. By reducing the weight of the helicopter, a pilot may be able to take off or
land safely at a location that otherwise would be impossible. If airborne, try to
land at a location that has more favorable conditions, or one where a landing
can be made that does not require a hover. In addition, at higher gross weights,
the increased power required to hover produces more torque, which means
more antitorque thrust is required.
3. WINDS
Translational lift occurs any time there is relative airflow over the rotor
disk. This occurs whether the relative airflow is caused by helicopter movement
or by the wind. Assuming a headwind, as wind speed increases, translational
lift increases, resulting in less power required to hover. Headwinds are the most
desirable as they contribute to the greatest increase in performance. Strong
crosswinds and tailwinds may require the use of more tail rotor thrust to
maintain directional control. This increased tail rotor thrust absorbs power from
the engine, which means there is less power available to the main rotor for the
production of lift. Operating the helicopter beyond a critical wind azimuth or
maximum safe relative wind chart limits could cause loss of tail rotor
effectiveness. Takeoff and climb performance is greatly affected by wind. When
taking off into a headwind, effective translational lift is achieved earlier, resulting
in more lift and a steeper climb angle. When taking off with a tailwind, more
distance is required to accelerate through translation lift.
AE 412 – BASIC HELICOPTER AND PROPELLER DESIGN 25 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Performance Charts

In developing performance charts, it is assumed by the aircraft manufacturers

that the helicopter is in good operating condition, calm wind, and the engine is
developing its rated power. The pilot is assumed to be following normal operating
procedures and to have average flying abilities.

HEIGHT/VELOCITY DIAGRAM

➢ Shows the combinations of airspeed and height above the ground, which will allow
an average pilot to successfully complete a landing after an engine failure.
➢ A pilot is able to avoid the combinations of altitude and airspeed that may not allow
sufficient time or altitude to enter a stabilized autorotative descent.
➢ It is a diagram in which the shaded areas should be avoided, as the pilot may be
unable to complete an autorotation landing without damage.

Grey portion on the left side of

the diagram marks a flight
profile that probably does not
allow the pilot to complete an
autorotation successfully,
primarily due to having
insufficient airspeed to enter
an autorotative profile in time
to avoid a crash.

Shaded area on the lower

right is dangerous due to the
airspeed and proximity to the
ground resulting in
dramatically reduced reaction
time for the pilot in the case of
mechanical failure, or other in-
flight emergencies. This
shaded area at the lower right
is not portrayed in H/V
diagrams for multiengine
helicopters capable of safely
hovering and flying with a
single engine failure.
Figure 4.35 Height/Velocity Diagram

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

GROSS WEIGHT VS. ALTITUDE CHART

➢ The time required, and therefore, altitude necessary to attain a steady state
autorotative descent, is dependent on the weight of the helicopter and the density
altitude. For this reason, the H/V diagram is valid only when the helicopter is
operated in accordance with the gross weight versus density altitude chart.
➢ It is not intended to provide a restriction to gross weight, but to be an advisory of
the autorotative capability of the helicopter during takeoff and climb
➢ Gross weights above those recommended by the
gross weight versus density altitude chart, the
values are unknown. Assuming a density altitude
of 8,500 feet, the height/velocity diagram in a
height/velocity diagram shown above would be
valid up to a gross weight of approximately 2,500
pounds. This is found by entering the graph at a
density altitude of 8,500 feet (point A), then
moving horizontally to the solid line (point B).
Moving vertically to the bottom of the graph (point
C), with the existing density altitude, the
maximum gross weight under which the
height/velocity diagram is applicable is 2,500
pounds. Figure 4.36 Weight vs Altitude Chart
AUTOROTATIONAL PERFORMANCE CHART
➢ It states that autorotational
descent performance is a function of
indicated airspeed (IAS) and is
essentially unaffected by density
altitude and gross weight.
➢ During autorotation, gravity
provides the source of energy
powering the rotor by causing up
flow up through the rotor during
descent. This is the same as saying
that potential energy is being traded
for kinetic energy to turn the rotor as
the aircraft descends.
Figure 4.37 Autorotational Performance Chart
An airspeed of 54 mph with vertical speed of 1,600 fpm will provide enough
kinetic energy to maintain the rotor at a 471 rpm. The rotor does not care if the air is
coming from the front or the bottom so long as the total is sufficient to maintain the
rpm. Any point on the curve will maintain rotor speed. However, the pilot does care
because if example, he glides at 30 knots, the corresponding rate of descent will be
over 2,200 fpm. Since there is little airspeed for a deceleration (or “flare”) to reduce
the rate of decent before touchdown, the collective pitch application (increasing blade
pitch and giving a final temporary increase in lift before the blades slow down) may be
insufficient to arrest the rate of descent.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

HOVERING PERFORMANCE CHART

➢ Provided for in ground effect (IGE)

hover and out of ground effect (OGE)
hover under various conditions of gross
weight, altitude, temperature, and
power.
➢ IGE hover ceiling is usually higher than
the OGE hover ceiling because of the
added lift benefit produced by ground
effect.
➢ A pilot should always plan an OGE
hover when landing in an area that is
uncertain or unverified. As density
altitude increases, more power is
required to hover. At some point, the
power required is equal to the power
available. This establishes the hovering
ceiling under the existing conditions.
Any adjustment to the gross weight by
varying fuel, payload, or both, affects
the hovering ceiling. The heavier the
gross weight, the lower the hovering
ceiling. As gross weight is decreased,
the hover ceiling increases.

Figure 4.38 Hovering Chart

Sample Problem:
You are to fly a photographer to a remote location to take pictures of the local
wildlife. Using hover chart, can you safely hover in ground effect at your departure
point with the following conditions?
A. Pressure Altitude = 8,000 feet
B. Temperature = +15 °C
C. Takeoff Gross Weight = 1,250 lb
D. Rpm = 104 percent
First enter the chart at 8,000 feet pressure altitude (point A), then move right
until reaching a point midway between the +10 °C and +20 °C lines (point B). From
that point, proceed down to find the maximum gross weight where a 2 foot hover can
be achieved. In this case, it is approximately 1,280 pounds (point C). Since the gross
weight of your helicopter is less than this, you can safely hover with these conditions.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

CLIMB PERFORMANCE CHART

➢ A helicopter flown at the best rate-of-

climb speed (VY) obtains the greatest
gain in altitude over a given period of
time. This speed is normally used
during the climb after all obstacles
have been cleared and is usually
maintained until reaching cruise
altitude.
➢ Rate of climb must not be confused
with angle of climb. Angle of climb is
a function of altitude gained over a
given distance. The VY results in the
highest climb rate, but not the
steepest climb angle, and may not be
sufficient to clear obstructions.
➢ The best angle of climb speed (VX)
depends upon the power available. If
there is a surplus of power available,
the helicopter can climb vertically, so
VX is zero.
Figure 4.39 Climb Performance Chart
➢ Wind direction and speed have an effect on climb performance, but it is often
misunderstood. Airspeed is the speed at which the helicopter is moving through
the atmosphere and is unaffected by wind. Atmospheric wind affects only the
groundspeed, or speed at which the helicopter is moving over the Earth’s surface.
Thus, the only climb performance affected by atmospheric wind is the angle of
climb and not the rate of climb. When planning for climb performance, it is first
important to plan for torque settings at level flight. Climb performance charts show
the change in torque, above or below torque, required for level flight under the
same gross weight and atmospheric conditions to obtain a given rate of climb or
descent.
MASTERY CHECK #3
You are to fly a photographer to a remote location to take pictures of the local wildlife.
Using the figure below, can you safely hover OGE for some pictures? Explain why.
Use the following conditions:
A. Pressure Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .9,000 feet
B. Outside Air Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. +15 °C
C. Gross Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1200 lb
D. rpm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 104%

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

Figure 4.40 OGE Hover Ceiling vs. Gross Weight

In your notebook, entitled “Mastery Check #3”
Time allotment: 20 minutes
For Submission: Kindly attach the file on our Google Classroom with a file name “Module 4 –
Mastery Check 3 – (Surname)”.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

THREE-VIEW DRAWING OF A HELICOPTER

The exchange of ideas is essential to everyone, regardless of his or her

vocation or position. This exchange is usually carried on by oral or written word; but
under some conditions, the use of these alone is impractical. The aviation industry
discovered that it could not depend entirely upon written or spoken words for the
exchange of ideas, because misunderstanding and misinterpretation arose frequently.
A written description of an object can be changed in meaning just by misplacing a
comma, and the meaning of an oral description can be completely changed by using
a wrong word. To avoid these possible errors, drawings are used to describe objects.
For this reason, drawing is the draftsman’s language.
Aircraft drawings in the aviation industry, is a method of conveying ideas
concerning the construction or assembly of objects. This is done with the help of lines,
notes, abbreviations, and symbols. It is important that the aviation mechanic who is to
make or assemble the object understands the meaning of the different lines, notes,
abbreviations, and symbols
that are used in a drawing. It
includes construction and
assembly of new aircraft and
components, during
modifications, and for
making repairs. A drawing
cannot be read all at once
any more than a whole page
of print can be read at a
glance. Both must be read a
line at a time. To read a
drawing effectively, follow a
systematic procedure.
In order to show the
exact size and shape of all
the parts of complex objects,
a number of views are
necessary. This is the
system used in orthographic
projection.
Figure 4.41 Orthographic Views
In orthographic projection, there are six possible views of an object, because
all objects have six sides—front, top, bottom, rear, right side, and left side. Figure (a)
shows an object placed in a transparent box, hinged at the edges. The projections on
the sides of the box are the views as seen looking straight at the object through each
side. If the outlines of the object are drawn on each surface and the box opened as
shown in (b), then laid flat as shown in (c), the result is a six-view orthographic
projection.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

It is seldom necessary to show all six views to portray an object clearly;

therefore, only those views necessary to illustrate the required characteristics of the
object are drawn. One-, two-, and three-view drawings are the most common.
Regardless of the number of views used, the arrangement is generally as shown in
Figure 2-12, with the front view as principal view. If the right-side view is shown, it will
be to the right of the front view. If the left side view is shown, it will be to the left of the
front view. The top and bottom views, if included, will be shown in their respective
positions relative to the front view.
Note: A poor three-view drawing and inboard profile can undo a good concept
or proposal.

Dimensioning 3-view drawing of a helicopter

TOP VIEW
• Includes the diameter of main rotor and maximum blade width of rotor blades.
• Also include the fuselage width, and total width of helicopter (if its more than
the distance of landing skids).

Figure 4.42 Top View

SIDE VIEW
• Includes the width of tail rotor, diameter of tail
rotor, and the length of the landing skids.
• Also include the length from fuselage to tail
rotor, and the total length of helicopter (tip of
main rotor to tip of tail rotor).

Figure 4.43 Side View

FRONT VIEW
• Includes the height of the height of the helicopter
from main rotor to ground.
• Also include the distance between landing skids
and fuselage height.

Figure 4.44 Front View

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

MASTERY CHECK #4
Research and place proper dimensions for the 3-views of Boeing AH-64 Apache
helicopter. Cite your references.

Figure 4.45 Boeing AH 64 Apache

Paper Size: A4 (Handwritten - You may print this page then add dimensions, or AutoCad -
copy image in AutoCad then add dimensions)
Time allotment: 30 minutes
Rubrics: Appendix A
For Submission: Kindly attach the file on our Google Classroom with a file name “Module 4 –
Mastery Check 4 – (Surname)”.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

APPENDIX A - RUBRICS
MODULE ACTIVITY (ESSAY)

MASTERY CHECK NO. 4

TECHNICAL REPORT

Grade = (Total Points/20)*100

HONESTY CLAUSE
As members of the academic community, students are expected to recognize and
uphold standards of intellectual and academic integrity. PhilSCA assumes that as a basic and
minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the students should be honest and that
they submit for credit the products only of their own efforts.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 04: Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics and Performance (Midterm)

APPENDIX B

TECHNICAL REPORTS
HELICOPTER DESIGN

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