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The Role of Traditions, Culture and History in the Development of Malaysian

Garden Identity

Conference Paper · December 2012

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National Research & Innovation Conference for Graduate Students in Social Sciences (GS-NRIC 2012)
December 07-09, 2012, Mahkota Hotel, Melaka
ISBN 978 983 2408 086

The Role of Traditions, Culture and History in the Development of Malaysian

Garden Identity
MINA KARBODARAHANGI, MUSTAFA KAMAL, M.S AND OSMAN MOHD TAHIR
Department of Landscape Architecture
Faculty of Design and Architecture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
[Link]@[Link]

ABSTRACT
Globalization is fast transforming our world into one uniform and featureless
place. Accordingly, the problem of national identity is a critical involving many
developing nations. In this relation, Malaysia has recognized a clear vision for
creating an exclusive national identity through the development of its landscapes
and gardens. The country has always been proud of her natural environment and
cultural heritage. However, the identity of its own Malaysian gardens is still
unclear. This study aimed at identifying the importance of creating such an
identity for Malaysia as a nation with unique traditions, culture, and history. The
research employed the analysis of existing literatures on the subject as well as
conducting interviews and supported by site observations. These lead to the
recommendation of a framework for the design and creation of Malaysian
gardens.
Keywords: Identity, culture, Malaysian Garden, Garden Design

INTRODUCTION
Malaysia has undergone a rapid development since its independence in 1957. It is her vision to
be a fully developed nation by the year 2020. To achieve this vision, Malaysia needs to have its
own identity in different aspects of development such as environments and landscapes (Osman,
2005). The Malaysian National Landscape Department was tasked by the government to turn the
country into the most beautiful garden nation (MARDI, 2005). Hence, it is important for
Malaysia to create her own landscape and garden identity to portray to the world her unique
characters especially in this era of globalization. Furthermore, the country with her multi-racial
and multi-cultural population is facing several challenges in this development.
However, there are numerous well-known historical gardens in the world that already have
their own identities such as the Persian, Chinese, and Balinese gardens. A study of their
development and evolution processes would be assist in identifying the main issues in garden
development. Moreover, seeking the opinion of Malaysian landscape experts, in addition to site
observations had clarified the issues and potentials in such a development. Consequently, a
framework for the development of a garden identity is suggested. This framework is based on the
main issues in garden development and specific challenges, potentials, culture and values

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peculiar to Malaysia, This framework can be used by landscape designers as the basis for the
development of gardens with a Malaysian identity.

MALAYSIA AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF GARDEN IDENTITY

The problem of identity and the development of national identity is one of the gravest and most
world-threatening problems in this globalization age. Moreover, the process of developing an
identity is controlled and directed with different principles according to culture, and within a
culture. These principles will vary over time and in different situations (Lappegard, 2006). From
a cultural aspect, therefore, localization and the development of identity are vital for all nations
(Hylland, 1999; Cha, 2003; Perrons & Posocco, 2009).
Furthermore, one of the most important aspects of locality is the attempt to establish
centrality and locality in the environment (Yuen, 2005). However, every developed society has
its symbolic landscape, which is a part and parcel of their common ideas, memories and feelings
which link them together (Bell, 1999; Kucan, 1999; Nogue & Vicente, 2004;Osborne, 2007). In
addition, the garden was reputed as a symbol of national identity throughout historysince the
garden delights emotions and engages the sense of imagination (Ross, 1998; Helmreich, 2002).
Consequently, garden is not just a physical phenomenon but has been a medium for creating
national identity as well as providing visual beauty.
According to the above-mentioned statement, establishing a garden identity could assist in
the development of a national and cultural identity. Moreover, Malaysia as a developing country,
with a great potential in the development of gardens and landscapes, still lacks an exclusive
landscape identity. The country is interested in the development of its landscape identity in order
to achieve recognition as the “The Most Beautiful Garden Nation” by the year 2020 (Osman,
2005; MARDI, 2005). This development has been encouraged by the Malaysian government
(Aziz & Osman, 2007). Therefore, creating a garden identity for Malaysia is an issue that needs
to be urgently addressed in the quest for a national identity.

CHALLENGES IN DEVELOPMENT OF GARDEN IDENTITY FOR MALAYSIA

Watson and Bentley (2007) indicated that historically the economic, political and cultural
transformations started in Malaysia after its independence in 1957. They noted that the socio-
cultural aspect of Malaysian society is the most important challenge for creating an overall
Malaysian identity. Osman (2005) suggested that Malaysia should develop its environments and
landscapes in line with the vision set by the Malaysian government. In conclusion, the
development of a garden identity is one of the most important and challenging component in the
development of national identity for Malaysia.
These challenges could be discussed from the following aspects:

Economic Aspect
Connell (2005) revealed that a large number of tourists annually visits the gardens of Great
Britain. He also discusses about the economic value of garden visits for both the government and
public. Malaysia benefits from its geographic position and plays an important role in global
economy (Watson & Bentley, 2007). Tourists visit the country mainly for her unique physical
landscapes such as the beautiful beaches and islands, diverse cultures, as well as beautiful parks

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and gardens. Sternberg (1977) claims that most of tourists arrange to visit a place because of the
images that they collect and because they are interested in taking photographs of landmarks and
sceneries. Therefore, garden as a pictorial phenomenon can be recognized as an important aspect
for tourist attraction to Malaysia and provide economical benefits for the country.

Political Aspect

Malaysia’s fourth Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohammad, set up a vision for Malaysia’s
development (Osman, 2005). Accordingly, the country should be a developed nation in all
aspects including her landscapes and environment by the year 2020. The government plans to
execute landscape policies and supervise activities for the development of landscapes and
gardens (MARDI, 2005). The establishment of the National Landscape Department in 1996 as a
federal government agency tasked with spearheading and coordinating all landscape
development, including parks and gardens has contributed to the landscape development in
Malaysia better than other developing countries (Bunnell, 2004; Osman, 2005).Thus, landscape
development in Malaysia received strong support by the government and a lot of efforts has been
made to improve landscape in the country (Osman & Suhardi, 2007).

Cultural Aspect

Malaysia has a rich and unique multi-cultural heritage. There is a great potential for the
development of gardens in the country based on her rich legacy including her traditions, cultures
and beliefs, through which she could identify herself (MARDI, 2005). Development of
landscapes in Malaysia could be interpreted by considering the background history of the
country (Bunnell, 2004; Kamariyah 1989 in Aziz & Osman, 2007). In the early stages, during the
period of the Malay sultanates, there were royal gardens in the then urban centers. However,
these have been lost through time by colonization and modernization(Jamil, 2002). Nevertheless,
descriptions of such ancient traditional gardens do exist in folklore and some historical texts
(MARDI, 2005).
Currently, gardens and other landscapes in the country have been much influenced and
shaped based by foreign ideas (Aziz & Osman, 2007). However, the Malaysian National
Landscape Department has started a quest for a Malaysian garden by defining the garden as ”
….a garden with a Malaysian identity that projects the images of tropical environment, utilize
spaces that satisfy the socio cultural life and strengthened by artistic
achievement.”(JLN,2008).However, despite her rich heritage, the diverse culture and social
context of Malaysia present a challenging aspect in developing a common garden identity for the
nation.

Social Aspect

Malaysia has a complex multiracial population, including people of Malay, Chinese, Indian
origin as well as various other ethnic groups such as the Orang Asli, Kadazan, Iban, etc.. These
different races have different religious beliefs such as Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Christianity (Jamil, 2002; Richmond, Cambon, & Harper, 2004). In addition, development of
landscapes and gardens should be relevant to people’s culture and daily lives (Watson &
Bentley, 2007). As Osman and Suhardi (2007) argue, different groups of the Malaysian public

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follow diverse practices and perhaps tastes and viewpoints.. Watson and Bentley (2007) identify
the differences among these diverse social and cultural groups as the most challenging issue for
creating a single Malaysian identity.

HISTORY AND THEORY OF GARDEN DEVELOPMENT

Turner (2005) attributes the history of garden making to West Asia. According to Ross (1998),
this history even dates back to the in Neolithic times. Moreover, gardens had long association
with gods and were religious symbolisms. They were mainly established for fruit production, and
they have planted according to irrigation techniques (Olonetzky, 2007; McIntosh, 2005; Carroll,
2003). Greeks, Romans and Arabs have admired and replicate the royal gardens of Persian
kings. In Islamic world Persian gardens had been the inspiration for creating Islamic gardens
(Carroll, 2003; King, 1979). In many places gardens have been created to provide pleasure for
their owner and guests. In addition, they have been reflections of power and opulence of their
owners. Gardening has been responded to the artistic and cultural changes over time and these
are embedded in historical events (Thacker, 1979; Ross, 1998; Helmreich, 2002; Connell, 2005;
Pudup, 2008).
Miller (1993) mentioned three main principles for the development of a garden. Firstly, the
garden should contain some natural items. Secondly, it should be faced to open air or sky, and
finally it should be the excess of form, while it provides a sense of meaning or significance.
Turner (2005), believes that the theory for garden design should make clear the ‘what, where,
why and how’ of creating gardens. In addition, it should be able to answer the questions of ‘when
and who’. Accordingly, garden objectives have to answer ‘why gardens are made’, ‘where to
make garden’ and ‘what kinds of garden to make’. The last one is dependent on aesthetics and
aims at ‘how to shape gardens’.
In addition, gardens created to provide a place for sensual practice. In addition, it poses
symbolic, political, and religious ideas and exhibits power more than physical elements (Brace,
1999). The ancient gardens are different because they have created in different nature, period and
situation (Carroll , 2003). Consequently, the garden design theory could be simplified as creating
an aesthetically designed place, including natural and manmade elements, and created to fulfill
according to specific culture and social needs.

POTENTIALS FOR GARDEN DEVELOPMENT IN MALAYSIA

Malaysia with her unique nature and c multi culture population has a great potential for
development of a garden identity. Based on the above statements, gardens of the past have
created according to specific needs and based on cultural background. Moreover, climate and
nature had significant role in such development. In order to identify a guideline for creating
Malaysian gardens, it was crucial to know expert’s opinion regarding to the subject.
Furthermore, rural landscapes of Malaysia, which can still be regarded as the depository of local
culture and heritage could provide some clue for this development. Furthermore, local expert
opinions on the identity of the Malaysian garden need to be sought.

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METHODOLOGY
Seven interviews were performed with landscape architects, selected from ILAM association in
Malaysia between June and July 2010. Obviously, they were some of the most potentiated people
for the subject and executives in landscape of Malaysia. Interviews were semi construction
interviews including seven open ended close ended questions and they were conducted in the
interviewees offices.

DATA ANALYSIS
Interviews were recorded using digital sound recorder. After recording, findings converted to the
text and analyzed using content analysis and tabulation methods. Moreover, photos collected
during site visit and observations were contently analyzed at this stage. The most important
findings of the face-to-face interviews and site observations are presented in section 7.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Analysis of data collected during the interview and supported by site observations on several
traditional Malay villages in Port Dickson, Negri Sembilan revealed the following information.
The interviewees responded in the following way to questions regarding the definitions of a
garden and issues and challenges in developing a Malaysian garden.

Result From Interview

Definition of Garden

Based on the expert’s opinion, a garden can be defined as a setting with manmade and natural
elements, which is created to fulfill specific recreational needs such as to provide pleasure and
comfort as well as to provide some economic values such as fruits and medicinal plants. Most
expert interviewed agreed that the development of a garden identity for Malaysia can enhance
the country’s national identity and can act as a symbol of its civilization achievement and
power. It also can portray the cultural achievement and high values of the Malaysian people and
society.

Issues and Challenges in Garden Development

Interviewees also agreed that local climate, culture, nature, form (geometry) and manmade
elements are important considerations in forming identities for established gardens such as
Chinese and Japanese gardens and must be taken into account in the development of a Malaysian
garden. Further considerations should also be made on the nature of the local people, philosophy,
history and cross-cultural influences among the diverse cultures of Malaysia. The interviewees
further suggested that a Malaysian garden should be sustainable, easy to maintain, and suits user
activities.

Result from Site Observation

Site observations in several selected traditional Malay villages revealed the following:

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Architectural Features
Most traditional houses in the selected villages still retain the traditional architectural styles with
little modern modifications (See Plates in appendix) These houses are made of timber, are above
ground on pillars and still retain the reddish or brownish wood coloring. Building houses on
pillars improve ventilation, avoid contact with moist ground, and also help protect the timber
structure against pest such as termites. Furthermore, they also help prevent dangerous creatures
such as snakes from reaching the occupants. The houses also have specific roof design which is
suitable in channeling away water from heavy tropical downpour. Walls are fitted with large
windows to allow in sufficient sunlight, fresh air as well as ample views to the surrounding.
These are important to keep the interior of the houses dry and prevent molds from growing. Roof
edges, window and door frames and stair railings are also embellished with local wood carvings
that depict local nature, flora and fauna. These architectural styles seem to fit well into
Malaysian climate and lifestyles.
Outdoor landscape structures include Wakafs or Malay pavilions. These are structures
found in a number of houses and they provide spaces for social interactions. The wakafs
normally follow the design and ornamentations found on the main house. Some wakafs provide
places for hanging potted plants and reveal the love for ornamental plants of their owners.
Swings and water containers are also some outdoor furniture seen in these villages. The
swings are either stand alone or hanging from tree branches. They are mainly used by children
but also some adults in the evening as a structure to rest and chat with one another. Water
containers or locally known as batil or tempayan contain water for washing the feet before
stepping into the main house or into the wakafs. This is necessary as wearing shoes are frowned
upon by most sub-cultures in Malaysia.
Besides the above furniture, a number of houses also possess flower pavilion or sheds for
growing ornamental plants such as Bougainvilleas (Bougaivillea spp., Crotons (Codeaum spp.)
and various species of orchids. These provide bright colors to otherwise green rural
surroundings.

Vegetation
Plants such as fruit trees, vegetables, and medicinal herb and spices are a part and parcel of
traditional Malaysian villages. All houses in the villages possess various types of fruit trees.
These include Mango (Mangiferaindica), Rambutans (Nephelliumlappaceum), Mangosteen
(Garciniamangostana), Jackfruit (Artocarpusheterophyllus) and Cempedak (Artocarpus integer).
Some houses have Coconut palms (Cocosnucifera) and Banana (Musa spp.)
Some of the houses in the villages observed are planted with vegetables in clay pots and
other containers or on raised beds at the side and back of these houses. Some favorite vegetables
include CekurManis (Sauropus androgynous), Bittergourd (Momordicacharantia), Kangkong
(Ipomeaaquatic), and others. Organically grown and fresh vegetables have been part of an
important diet for traditional people in this region and growing vegetables for local consumption
helps in domestic economy. Most of the houses observed also have herbs and spices growing in
their courtyard or laman. Herbs and spices are important ingredient in local cooking recipes as
well as used in medicinal concoctionfor various ailments. Based on the previous studies by
Jamil (2002), some trees and other plants do carry symbolic importance for the people and they
are planted to bring happiness and wealth as well as protect the occupants from evil beings.

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Hence, belief, shade, medication and beauty have been important factors for selection of trees in
traditional villages in Malaysia (Yusof, 1994; as cited in Jamil 2002).

User Activities

Literature on local traditional Malays culture are abound describing village activities. These
range from playing sports such as Sepak Raga Bulat (a traditional game where friends form a
circle and kick rattan ball to one another) to having weddings and other traditional and religious
activities (Jamil,2002). All these activities require open spaces close to home and most houses in
the observed villages have sufficient front yard that can cater for such activities.
Hence, these observations even though is limited in scope to just a particular locality in
Malaysia, does throw some light on local characteristics that need to be studied in the future and
incorporated in the development of a Malaysian garden.

CONCLUSION

Today, newly developed nations might be interested in developing their own identity through the
development of their landscape identities. Developing garden identities through iconographic
development would be an initial step in creating the landscape identities. In Malaysia the
development of a national garden identity has come to the forefront through its government
initiative. However they will face many challenges in doing so mainly from the economic,
political, social and cultural viewpoints. such as Malaysian, who are enthusiastic to develop a
garden identity, face many challenges. This is mainly because they are following the path from
the opposite direction of creating garden identity for a nation developed into its present shape
prior to its aspiration for garden identity. On one hand, they are going to design a phenomenon in
such a form, quality and appearance which can reflect their specific identity. On the other hand,
this developing garden should be acceptable, suitable and useful for their people. Therefore, they
will face challenges which must be dealt with from economical, political, social and cultural
viewpoints. In addition, issues like identity, culture, philosophy, nature, architecture and
technology have considered in garden development in past. Therefore, these issues should be
under considerations in Malaysian gardens too. Though Malaysia is facing challenges in
development of its own gardens, there are specific potentials related to the unique architectural
features, plants and people’s activities which could be considered.
Based on the theory of garden design, a Malaysian garden should reflect specific nature and
climate of Malaysia. In addition, the design should also take into account public preferences and
their unique cultural and historical background.

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REFERENCES

Aziz, M. A., & Osman, M. T. (2007) Landscape architecture in malaysia in search of identity. IFLA
2007. Kualalumpur.
Bell, J. (1999) Redefining national identity In uzbekistan : symbolic Tensions in tashkent ’s Official
public landscape. Cultural Geographies, 6, 183-236.
Brace, C. (1999) Gardenesque imagery in the representation of regional and national identity: the
Cotswold garden of stone. Journal of Rural Studies, 15 (4), 365-376.
Bunnell, T. (2004) Malaysia, modernity and the multimedia super corridor: a critical geography of
intelligent landscapes. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
Carroll, M. (2003) Earthy paradises; ancient gardens in history and archaeology. London: The British
Museum Press.
Cha, I.-S. (2003) Globalization, Mundialization and the Development of the Self. Seoul: Seoul National
University.
Connell, J. (2005) Managing gardens for visitors in Great Britain: a story of continuity and change.
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Helmreich, A. (2002) English garden and national identity:the competing styles of garden design.
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Jamil, A. B. (2002) A design guide of public parks in Malaysia. Johor: University Technology Malaysia.
King, R. (1979) The Quest for Paradise; a history of the world gardens. New York: Mayflower Books.
Kucan, A. (1999) Cultural landscapes as symbols of national identity-protection or change? Agriculture
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Lappegard, H. A. (2006). Identity and Place. University of Trondheim.
MARDI. (2005) Landscape gardens of Malaysia . Kualalumpur: Malaysian Agricultural Research and
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Miller, M. (1993) The Garden as an Art. Albany: State of University of new york press.
Mohd Tahir, O., & Maulan, S. (2007) Sustaining Malaysia Garden Nation development. IFLA.
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Nogue, & Vicente. (2004) Landscape and national identity in Catalonia. Political Geography, 23, 113–
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Osborne, B. S. (2007) The iconography of nationhood in Canadian art. In D. Cosgrove, & S. Daniels, The
iconography of landscape (pp. 162-179). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Osman, T. M. (2005) Urban Landscape Management in Malaysia:In search of a Sustainable Management
System. Unpublished PhD , 67-69. NewCastle, United Kingdom: University of NewCastle.
Perrons, D., & Posocco, S. (2009) Globalizing failures. Geoforum, 40, 131–135.
Pudup, M. B. (2008) It takes a garden: Cultivating citizen-subjects in organized garden projects.
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Richmond, S., Cambon, M., & Harper, D. (2004) Malaysia, Singapore & Brunei. Melbourne: Lonely
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Ross, S. (1998) What Gardens Mean. University of Chicago Press.
Sternberg, E. (1977). The iconography of the tourism experience. Annals ofTourism Research, 24 (4),
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Thacker, C. (1979) The history of gardens. London: Croom Helm.
Turner, T. (2005) Garden history. New York: Spon Press.
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APPENDIX

Plate 1 Timber walls

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Plate 2 Stilts

Plate 3 Ventilation

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Plate 4 Windows

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Plate 5 Vegetation

Plate 6 Wakaf

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