Isabela State University – Main Campus

Science, Technology, and Society

First Semester 2019-2020

Chapter 2.1. The NANOWORLD of Science and Technology

A revolution is occurring in science and technology, based on the recently developed ability to
measure, manipulate and organize matter on the nanoscale — 1 to 100 billionths of a meter. At the
nanoscale, physics, chemistry, biology, materials science, and engineering converge toward the same
principles and tools. As a result, progress in nanoscience will have very far-reaching impact.

❖ NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

The prefix “nano” denotes sizes of the order of one billionth of a meter. “Nanostructure science
and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development activity that has been
growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It has the potential for revolutionizing the way in
which materials and products are created and the range and nature of functionalities that can be
accessed” (Siegel, 1999, p. xvii).

Nano materials denote “divided matter.” As Rao (1999) said, “if you take a piece of solid matter
(say a metal) containing an Avogadro number of atoms and go on dividing it to smaller bits, you will
ultimately end up with an atom of the substance. Before that, you will reach a stage of very tiny particles
containing 100 to 10,000 atoms. Such particles with diameters of 1-50nm (10-500 Ao) are referred to
as nanoparticles.

Nanoscience refers to the scientific study of materials of nanometer size, i.e., one billionth of a
meter (The Royal Society, 1994). It is a combination of developments in solid state chemistry, synthetic
chemistry, molecular biology, solid state physics and engineering, and scanning tunneling microscopy.

Nanotechnology refers to various technologies to produce materials of extra high precision and
dimensions on the scale of one-billionth of a meter. (Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo Science University is
credited with coining the term “nanotechnology” in 1974.). Nanotechnology “implies the ability to
generate and utilize structures, components, and devices with a size range from about 0.1nm (atomic
and molecular scale) to about 100nm (or larger in some situations) by control at atomic, molecular, and
macromolecular levels”.

NANOWORLD TIMELINE

Ancient Egyptians
-Fermentation process on nanoscale (making bread, wine, beer, cheese and other foods)
-Nanoparticles of galenite (lead sulfide) were formed in hair dyeing process
Ancient Rome
-The Lycurgus Cup (Rome) is an example of dichroic glass; colloidal gold and silver in the glass
allow it to look opaque green when lit from outside but translucent red when light shines through the
inside.
Middle Ages
-Vibrant stained-glass windows in European cathedrals owed their rich colors to nanoparticles
of gold chloride and other metal oxides and chlorides; gold nanoparticles also acted as photocatalytic
air purifiers.

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 Stained-glass windows commonly
found in churches.

Consumer products that use

nanotechnology.

Lycurgus cup, illuminated from

(right) inside and (left) outside.

1947: John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs discovered the semiconductor
transistor and greatly expanded scientific knowledge of semiconductor interfaces, laying the
foundation for electronic devices and the Information Age.
1956: Arthur von Hippel at MIT introduced many concepts of—and coined the term— “molecular
engineering” as applied to dielectrics, ferroelectrics, and piezoelectrics.
1958: Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments originated the concept of, designed, and built the first integrated
circuit, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 2000.
1974: Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology to describe
precision machining of materials to within atomic-scale dimensional tolerances.
1981: Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer at IBM’s Zurich lab invented the scanning tunneling microscope,
allowing scientists to "see" (create direct spatial images of) individual atoms for the first time.
1991: Sumio Iijima of NEC is credited with discovering the carbon nanotube (CNT).
2006: James Tour and colleagues at Rice University built a nanoscale car made of oligo (phenylene
ethynylene) with alkynyl axles and four spherical C60 fullerene (buckyball) wheels. At temperatures
above 300°C it moved around too fast for the chemists to keep track of it! (Image at left.)
2007: Angela Belcher and colleagues at MIT built a lithium-ion battery with a common type of virus that
is nonharmful to humans, using a low-cost and environmentally benign process. The batteries have the
same energy capacity and power performance as state-of-the-art rechargeable batteries being
considered to power plug-in hybrid cars, and they could also be used to power personal electronic
devices.

Nanotechnology Examples:
Cell Pharmacology: Use of nanomachines for site-specific delivery of drugs, and useful in chemotherapy
of targeted cancer cells.
Cell Surgery: Use of medical nanomachines to manipulate cellular structures in genetic engineering.
Molecular Electronics: Use of atomically precise molecular parts for molecular switches, circuits and
nanocells for creating miniaturized nano computers.
Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (Carraher, Jr., 1995): Useful for imaging conducting surfaces.
Nanocrystals: Formed by combining two or more molecules of inorganic substances, i.e., silica and
aluminum to form commercial grade heat and rust resistant coatings.
Nanotubes: Carbon atom aggregates in various forms at nanoscale, for example in the shape of
cylinders which are electrical conductors, can be mixed with special polymers to make nanofibers and
painted on rooftops as part of solar cells.
Quantum Dots: Size and arrangement of nanocrystals impact physical properties such as color
(Carraher, Jr., 1994c). For example, nanogold appears orange (<1nm) or red (3- 30nm) depending on
the size and arrangement of gold aggregates.
Source: [Link]

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Chapter 2.2. BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY contributes to many aspects of human well-being, for instance by providing raw
materials and contributing to health. Human actions, however, often lead to irreversible losses in terms
of diversity of life on Earth and these losses have been more rapid in the past 50 years than ever before
in human history. What factors are responsible for this rapid loss of biodiversity? What would need to
be done to significantly slow this trend?

Review on the Basic Concepts of Ecology

Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and the environment they live in,
which brings us to another important term that's used frequently in ecology: the environment, which
is the set of conditions that surround an organism.
Environmental factors include temperature, light, water, air, soil and nutrients that surround an
organism.
• Biotic factors- all living organisms inhabiting the Earth
• Abiotic factors- nonliving parts of the environment (i.e. temperature, soil, light,
moisture)

Ecological Levels of Organization:

• Organism- any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting all of the characteristics of life, an
individual.
• Population- a group of organisms of one species living in the same place at the same time that
interbreed and compete with each other for resources (ex. food, mates, shelter)
• Community- several interacting populations that inhabit a common environment and are
interdependent.
• Ecosystem- populations in a community and the abiotic factors with which they interact (ex.
marine, terrestrial)
• Biomes – distinct biological communities characterized by the dominant forms of life and the
prevailing climate
• Biosphere- life supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh water, and salt water.

Organism Population Community Ecosystem

Feeding Relationships:

Producer- all autotrophs (plants), they obtain energy directly from the environment and use an
inorganic form of carbon to build sugars
Consumer- all heterotrophs: they ingest and obtain energy from primary producers
Herbivores – Eat plants (Primary consumers, preys) Omnivores -eat both
Carnivores- eat meat (Predators – Hunt prey animals for food) plants and animals
Scavengers – Feed on carrion, dead animals
Detritivores - such as earthworms and some insects eat detritus: small bits of decaying organic matter

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Decomposers - breakdown the complex compounds of dead and decaying plants and animals into
simpler molecules that can be absorbed (fungi, bacteria)

Food chain is a sequence of steps by which some energy captured by primary producers is transferred
to higher trophic levels. An organism
that participates in one food chain
usually has a role in many others as
well. All of the food chains of an
ecosystem cross-connect as a food
web.

BIODIVERSITY: WHAT IS IT, WHERE IS

IT, AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

Biodiversity is the measure of the

number, variety and variability of
living organisms. It includes diversity
within species, between species, and
among ecosystems. The concept also
covers how this diversity changes
from one location to another and over
time. Indicators such as the number
of species in a given area can help in Food chain
monitoring certain aspects of
biodiversity. Biodiversity is
everywhere, both on land and in
water. It includes all organisms, from
microscopic bacteria to more
complex plants and animals. Current
inventories of species, though
useful, remain incomplete and
insufficient for providing an accurate
picture of the extent and

Levels of Biodiversity:

Genetic Diversity - the diversity of

genes within a species. Genetic
variability is essential for maintaining
a healthy breeding population.
Species Diversity – the number of
species of plants and animals that
are present in a region.
Ecosystem Diversity - the amount of
distinctive natural ecosystems
described for a particular
geographical location.

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Why is biodiversity important?
Species and ecosystems provide essential goods and services upon which human well-being depends. They
support our health, our environment and our economies.
Ecosystem goods include:
Ecosystem services include: • More than 7000 species of plants are
• Water purification - plants, animals and cultivated or harvested from the wild.
microorganisms in wetlands act as sponges to • Fish and other marine animals provide 20% of
filter sediments and toxins from waters. animal protein consumed, at a value of $50-
• Pollination - insects pollinate crops worth $6- $100 billion annually.
12 billion a year in the USA. • Medicines - 118 of the top 150 prescription
• Disease control - natural enemies (predators drugs in America contain chemicals derived
and parasites) of mosquitoes) control diseases from plants, fungi and other species.
such as malaria, Lyme disease, hantavirus and
cholera.

Importance of Biodiversity:
Maintains soil quality: healthy bacteria, algae, Pest control: most crop pests can be controlled
fungi, mites, millipedes and worms help cycle by other organisms for a longer period of time –
nutrients helpful because many pests become resistant to
Maintains air quality: plants purify the air and synthetic pesticides
filter harmful particles out of the air Pollination and crop production: More than 1/3
Maintains water quality: variety of vegetation of world’s crops rely on healthy pollinators
reduces erosion and purifies water by removing Medicines: many current and possible future
(using or absorbing) nutrients and pollution medications found in areas with high biodiversity

Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat destruction/fragmentation – Changing Pollution - Pollution can alter the habitat to the
and displacing a habitat to suit human needs. point where some plants and animals cannot
Invasive species – organisms that has been adapt.
relocated and introduced to a region, these out- Global Climate Change - many species are
compete native species resulting in disruption of intolerant to changes in temperature--affects
the ecosystem and food chain feeding relationships and breeding patterns.
Population growth - Increasing population means Overconsumption - Individuals consuming way
greater demand for food, shelter, fuel and water; more resources than needed to survive –
this often leads to habitat loss, pollution, sometimes more than is needed to satisfy a high
resource scarcity and overconsumption standard of life.

Key terms in Biodiversity:

• An endangered species faces threats that may cause it to become extinct within a short period.
• A threatened species is a species whose population has declined to the point that it may be at risk of
extinction.
• An endemic species is an organism exclusively native to a place or biota.
• Biodiversity hotspots are regions that continue to experience an alarming rate of destruction of
important natural resources that harbor biodiverse organisms.
• Conservation biology is the scientific study of how humans impact organisms and of the development
of ways to protect biological diversity.
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STATUS OF PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

The Philippines belongs among the countries that are gifted with rich biological diversity, classified
as a megadiverse country. Its archipelagic composition, geographic location (i.e. its proximity to the
equator), and tropical climate enable various forms of life and entire ecosystems to flourish across its 7,000-
plus islands and hundreds of reefs, further enriching the locales’ natural beauty. Because of this, the
country is recognized as one of the most biologically and ecologically diverse in the world – and one with
the highest concentration of species per square kilometer. The Philippines, in fact, ranks second only to
Madagascar in terms of having the highest number of endemic species per unit area of habitat.

What is it about the Philippines that enables it to

support 70-80% of the entire world’s species?

Here are the geographic and ecological

characteristics of the country that allow it to
support such a varied and well-distributed
diversity of species of wild fauna and flora.

• The Philippines is found in the tropics, where

DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2004-15 establishes the the climate supports a high level of organic
national list of threatened faunal species that includes 34 species of productivity to provide the resources needed
by interdependent organisms to survive.
mammals, 80 species of birds, 18 species of reptiles and 14 species of
• The Philippines has a highly heterogeneous
amphibians (Table 1). Among the critically endangered are the and complex topography. Philippine
Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) which is endemic to Mindoro and the ecological locations vary from mountain
Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi). This list, however, includes ranges to coral reefs, providing multitudes of
plant and animal species more than adequate
some non-forest dependent species of birds, a marine mammal space to occupy.
(Dugong dugon) and 4 species of marine turtles. • The isolation created by separate islands, as
well as peaks of mountain ranges support
Threats: Forest/ Habitat Fragmentation – deforestation & kaingin genes-level and species-level diversity.
• Elevation has an influence on biodiversity. In
Anthropogenic Activities/Pressure– as of 2017, PH has a the Philippines’s rugged topography, one may
population of 104.7 million find a generous offering of biological
Introduction of invasive species – invasive species diversity, especially in the highlands.
dramatically alter ecosystem.
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Chapter 2.3. GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

Human activities release a variety of gaseous waste products. People once thought that the vast
atmosphere could absorb these materials indefinitely, but we now know that such additions can lead to
climate change, a directional change to the global climate that lasts for three decades or more (as opposed
to short-term changes in the weather).
Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time. The earth
has six main climate zones. Weather, on the other hand, refers to the day-to-day conditions of earth’s
atmosphere at a particular place and time. The climate has changed many times in the long history of earth,
but always in response to a global force. The strongest force driving climate change right now is the
increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the burning of fossil fuels, which is trapping more heat from leaving
earth’s atmosphere.
Energy from the sun is the main driver for our climate system. When the energy from the sun
reaches the atmosphere, some is absorbed and some is reflected, mainly by clouds. The earth’s surface
then loses its heat again through rising air currents, radiation, and the evaporation of water. Some of this
heat passes straight through the atmosphere and back to space, but some is absorbed by greenhouse gases
like carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and ozone. The atmosphere reemits the absorbed heat. Some
escapes to space, but some heats the earth’s surface again. Eventually, all the heat escapes into space, but
not before the temperature of the planet has been raised enough to allow us to live comfortably on earth.
If the greenhouse gases didn’t absorb and reemit heat, we wouldn’t be able to live on earth. This
phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect.
Albedo is the percent of incident sunlight that is reflected. Earth’s albedo affects how much sunlight
is reflected back to space, rather than absorbed at the surface. Changes in the albedo of our planet can
lead to global heating.
For 2.5 million years the
earth’s climate has fluctuated
cycling from ice ages to warmer
periods, but in the last century
the planet’s temperature has
risen unusually about 1.2 to 1.4
degrees Celcius. Scientists now
know that it is human activity
that is driving temperatures up.
escape into space, leaving the
planet cold and lifeless.
Given the greenhouse
effect, increases in the
atmospheric concentration of
carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases would be expected to raise the temperature of Earth’s surface. Since the mid-1800s, the
concentration of atmospheric CO2 has risen from 280 parts per million (ppm) to more than 400 ppm. The
result is global climate change, a trend toward rising temperature and shifts in climate patterns worldwide.
A process known as global warming.

Effects of Global Warming:

Ocean acidification – carbon dioxide reacts with ocean water to produce acid (H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
(carbonic acid)) lowering the pH of the ocean (making it more acidic). When conditions are too acidic corals
cannot absorb the calcium carbonate, they need to maintain their skeletons and they dissolve. This is
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known as coral bleaching and results in the loss of vital reef habitats home to thousands of species of
marine life.
Sea level rise – 3.2mm each year – due to melting ice sheets and thermal expansion of water
Ice sheet mass – Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets decreasing by 413 gigtonnes each year. Arctic
ice - decreasing by 13% each decade
Glacier retreat – glaciers are retreating around the world particularly in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes,
Rockies, Alaska and Africa

A carbon footprint is the amount of CO2 that is released into the air because of one individuals’ energy
needs including transportation, electricity, food, and clothing.
How to Reduce Your “Carbon Footprint”
o Turn off lights, TVs, computers when you are no longer using them!
o Unplug any electronic device that you can turn on with a remote. These devices use power even
when they are “off.”
o Adjust the thermostat. When it is hot, turn up the thermostat and use fans, which use less energy.
When it is cold, turn down the heat and wear warm clothing to conserve energy.
o Carpool, walk, or ride your bike instead of taking a car everywhere.

DEPLETION OF THE OZONE LAYER

In the upper layers of the atmosphere, between 17 and 27
kilometers (10.5 and 17 miles) above sea level, the ozone (O3)
concentration is so great that scientists refer to this region as the
ozone layer. The ozone layer benefits living organisms by
absorbing most ultraviolet (UV) radiation from incoming sunlight.
UV radiation, remember, damages DNA and causes mutations.
In the 1980s, compounds called chlorofluorocarbons, or
CFCs, were the main ozone destroyers. These odorless gases were
widely used as propellants in aerosol cans, as coolants, and in
solvents and plastic foam. In response to the potential threat
posed by the thinning ozone layer, countries worldwide agreed in
1987 to phase out the production of CFCs and other ozone-
destroying chemicals. As a result of that agreement, known as the
Montreal Protocol, the concentrations of CFCs in the atmosphere
are no longer rising dramatically. However, CFCs break down quite
slowly, so they are expected to remain at a level that significantly
thins the ozone layer for several decades. Today, the main ozone-
depleting pollutant entering the atmosphere is nitrous oxide
(N2O). This gas is released when people burn fossil fuels and when
bacteria feed on fertilizers and animal waste.

Chapter 2.4. ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES

Alternative Energy Resources are energy resources that can be used instead of nonrenewable
resources or fossil fuels. They produce energy without the consequence of the burning of fossil fuels (coal,
oil, natural gas) to provide electricity, heat, and run cars.
Renewable Energy Resource is an essentially inexhaustible energy resource on a human time scale.
Renewable energy is crucial for being able to reduce the amount of CO 2 we are pumping into the
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atmosphere and oceans to be able to mitigate dangerous levels of climate change. Climate change
mitigation is a huge concern for governments around the world and with an ever-increasing energy
demand, especially in newly industrialized countries, we need to look for different ways of producing
energy that is sustainable for future generations.
Solar power is generated directly from sunlight (photons). Solar thermal
panels are filled with water which heats up in the sunlight. Solar energy
will not run out, and does not pollute. However, it takes a lot of space,
and is expensive to buy and install. It also needs bright light to work.
Wind turbines are built to harness wind energy (kinetic energy). When
the wind blows the blades move and spin a turbine connected to a
generator which produces electricity. Wind turbines essentially work in
the opposite way to a fan, instead of using electricity to make wind, they
use wind to make electricity. Wind energy does not pollute, but wind turbines are expensive, and the
strength of the wind isn't constant (intermittent). Some areas are not windy enough to use wind power.
Electrical energy produced by wind is more expensive than from other sources.
Hydroelectric power harnesses kinetic energy from running water.
Hydroelectric dams are built to store large amounts of water in
reservoirs made from flooding river valleys. When electricity is
needed, water is let out through pipes in the dam. The water flows
downwards under the influence of gravity and turns turbines linked to generators to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric power is more reliable than wind and solar power, although hydroelectric dams are expensive
and depends on a suitable valley site to build. This in turn effects the people and animals li as well as
impacting on the migration patterns of fish.
Biofuels are fuels produced from biomass either directly from plants
or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic and/or industrial
waste. They similar to fossil fuels but they are made from plants grown
today rather than plants that grew millions of years ago. They can be
made quickly so they are renewable. The two main types of biofuel are bioethanol and biodiesel.
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation of crops such as corn, sugarcane and sweet sorghum. It is
used as a petrol additive to increase octane and lower carbon emissions or can be used directly as a fuel.
Biodiesel is an oil-based biofuel produced from vegetable fats such as rapeseed, sunflower seed, soya bean
and palm oil. It is used to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-
powered vehicles or directly to fuel vehicles.
Ideally biofuels should be carbon neutral because they absorb as much carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere whilst they are growing as they give off when they are burnt. However, at present, because
fossil fuels are used in the production of biofuels, for example in making fertilizers and in fueling farm
equipment. they are not currently carbon neutral, although they do still release less CO2 than burning fossil
fuels directly.
Geothermal energy is heat energy from the Earth generated by the
decay of radioactive elements and residual heat from the Earth’s
formation 4.5 billion years ago.
To use geothermal energy water is pumped down into hot rocks through
pipes where is it heated. When this water and steam comes back up to the surface it can be used directly
to heat people’s homes, buildings, greenhouses etc., or the steam can be used to generate electricity
through spinning turbine connected to a generator.
Geothermal energy can only be harnessed where the rocks are hot enough. This is generally around plate
boundaries like in Iceland, New Zealand and Italy, where heated rocks tend to be much closer to the surface.

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