Chapter 1: Lesson 1

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Abstraction

Quantitative Research:
 The purpose of any scientific inquiry is to add to a body of knowledge that helps explain, predict, or control events of interest
in the domain.
 Quantitative approach designs and examines social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often relies on a statistical
analysis of many causes to create valid and reliable general claims.
 The overall goal of quantitative research is to convey numerically what is being seen in the research and to arrive at specific
and observable conditions.

CHARACTER OF QUANTITATIVE
1. The data are usually gathered using a more structured instrument.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before the data are collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
7. Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationship.

Quantitative Research:
 A variable is something that can take on different values for different subjects in a given research.
TYPES OF VARIABLES

I. According to Values
1.1. Qualitative Variable or Categorical Variable
- These are variables whose data are non-numeric and whose observations vary in kind but not in degree.
Examples: sex- male or female religion- Roman Catholic, Isla, etc civil status- single, married
1.2. Quantitative Variable or Continuous Variable
- Variables whose data are counts or numerical measurements and whose observations vary in magnitude
Examples: age, income, number of children, height, weight
1.2.1. Discrete Variables
-Quantitative variables whose observations can assume only a countable numbers values cannot take
the decimal form
Example: number of children in the family, number of students in the class,Number of houses in the
city
1. 2. 2. Continuous Variables
-Quantitative variables whose observations can assume any one of the countless number of values
in a line interval
Example: height- 5 feet, 4.6 inches weight- 115 lbs 68 kgs time- 1 hour, 46 minutes

II. According to Scale of Measurement

2.1. Nominal Variable
-Variable whose data are non-numeric labels that do not reflect quantitative information.
Examples: sex- male or female civil status- single, married
2.2. Ordinal Variable
-Variables where there is a meaningful order or categories but there is no measurable distance between categories.
- An ordinal variable is a nominal variable, but its different states are ordered in a meaningful sequence.
- Ordinal data has order but the intervals between scale points may be uneven.
- Because of lack of equal distances, arithmetic operations are impossible, but logical operations can be performed
on the ordinal data.
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 2.3. Interval Variable
-Variable whose data values are ranged in a real interval and can be as large as from negative infinity to positive
infinity.
Examples: temperature, IQ level
2.4. Ratio Variable
- The highest level of measurement that has all the characteristics of the interval plus a true zero point.
- Both the differences and the ration of two values are meaningful and there is always an absolute zero that is
meaningful.

III. According to Relationship

3.1 Independent Variable
- Manipulated variable that cause change in
another variable
3.2 Dependent Variable
- Those that are affected by independent
variables
3.3 Intervening Variable
- These are called test or control variables that either increase or decrease the effect of IV to DV.

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 Lesson 2:
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND VARIABLES IN RESEARCH

Abstraction

I. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

RANDOMIZATION

EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN

CONTROL MANIPULATION

 Randomization: Participants being assigned to either receive (experimental group) or not receive (control
group), the treatment condition or intervention (IV).
Method of Randomization
 Lottery method
 Tossing a coin
 Random number table
 Computer

 Manipulation: Manipulation is the process of maneuvering the IV, so that its effect on the dependent variable
(D.V) canbe observed/measured.
Method of Manipulation
 Researcher gives intervention to experimental group and withholds it to the control group or administers some
other treatment. E.g. Gentle message is effective as a pain relief measures for elderly.

 Control: Control is for elimination of bias. Control group refers to a group of subjects, whose performance is
used to evaluate the performance of experimental group on same D.V.
:The type of experimental design is determined by the amount of control the researcher is able to exercise over the
research condition.
Example: Effect of nutrient diet on the weight of premature infant in two weeks.
(Comparison of post intervention weight with pre-intervention weight determines the effectiveness of nutrient diet.)

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1. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Example of True Experimental Study: Sneha, “Effectiveness of massage on the selected physiological variables of low birth
weight infants”. In NICU of Bharati Hospital, Pune, 2010.

1.1. Classic experimental design/pretest-post test control Example of Pre test – Post test Design.
group design
R O1 x O2 R O1 O2
(Experimental group) (Control group)

1.2. Post test only control group design Example of Post-Test only Control Group Design
R X O1 R O1
(Experimental group) Control group)

Example of Post-Test only Control Group Design:

Vijayakumari G: A study to assess the effectiveness of
structured teaching program regarding nature and
prevention of accidents among mothers of toddlers in
selected areas of Raichur (2004).

2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS: A quasi experimental design is one in which experimental and control (comparison) are
present & randomization is not there.
Example of Quasi-Experimental design: Effect of primary Nursing education on staff morale.

2.1. Nonequivalent control group design- A researcher might choose a Nonequivalent control group design
group of patients with diabetes on one hospital floor for the
experimental group and a group of patients with diabetes on another floor
for the comparison group. The experimental treatment would be
administered to the experimental group; the comparison group would
receive no treatment or some alternative treatment.
Example of Nonequivalent control group design: A non-equivalent
control group design was used by Valliammal Sudhakar (2008) to study
the knowledge, attitude and practice towards physical well being of a
group of IV, V, VIth grade students in two different schools.

2.2. The time series design: The time series design, a single group experiment comprises of series of observation in the before-
time period to establish a baseline: The experimental independent variable is then introduced, Followed by another series of
observation to examine the effect of the independent variable.
2.2.1. Time series Design (single group) 2.2.2. The multiple time series design time series
non equivalent control group design

A researcher might assess the pain levels of a group of patients with low back pain.
After 3 weeks of pain assessment, intervention will be introduced
(O1 O2 O3 x O4 O5 O6)
The results of this study would help the researcher to determine if a specific exercise is effective in reducing low back pain.

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3. PRE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: are discussed to provide examples of how not to do research.
3.1. The one-shot case study or single case study- In single case study, that studies at once,
following a treatment or an agent presumed to cause change. Because the study design
has a total absence of control; it is considered to be little value as an experiment.
Example of one-shot case study or single case study: Lalitha, Premila & Balu (2006)
conducted a study on nursing personnel registered for a day workshop on life skill education at MTIHS, Pondicherry.

3.2. One group pre-test and post-test design- Here only one group is observed before and after the independent variable is
introduced.
-Loss of the control group decreases the usefulness of the study but may be necessary in cases where it is not possible or
feasible to have control groups
Example of one group pre-test and post-test design: Sailaxmi Gandhi(2006) conducted a pre-experimental study to assess
the effectiveness of stress management programme on the selected variables of nurses working in psychiatric wards at
NIMHANS, Bangalore.

II. NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A Continuum of Quantitive Research Design

Experiment Pre-experimental
Quasi-experimental Non-experimental

1. SURVEY STUDIES: To survey means, “to look at or examine” it invloves “an observation or an overview”
2. CORRELATIONAL STUDIES: Examines if variables relate to each other; Quantifies strength or relationship betweek the
variables (not cause and effect); +ve or -ve direction relationship is determined
3. EX-POST FACTO STUDIES- Literally means “from after the fact”; Data are collected “after the fact”, i.e examine the
effect and look back in time to determine the cause (dietaryhabits and hypertension)
4. COMPARATIVE STUDIES- examine the differences betweek two groups on some dependent variable of interest
5. EVALUATE STUDIES- descriptive; Evaluate study with pre-existing criteria in the sounder study
6. METHODOLOGICAL STUDIES- are concerned with the development, testing and evaluation of research instruments and
meathods

CONCLUSION
• Quantitative research approach is the commonest
• Replication is possible
• Data analysis is easy
• Researcher’s subjectivity is min

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 Lesson 3:
WRITING OF REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE & STUDIES, MATERIALS & METHODS,
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Abstraction

I. RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

 Research literature and related studies refer to sources of readings that are significant contributions to the
present research.
 Research literature consists of the articles, and books written by previous authorities giving theories, ideas,
opinions and experiences of what is good and bad, desirable and undesirable within the research problem
 Related studies refer to published reports on researches, and unpublished manuscripts such as theses or actual
research studies done previously on the topic.
 The organization of the information via conceptual, methodological, theoretical or philosophical differences or
similarities in the literature that you noted during the review of the literature can be made clearly visible by
presenting those concepts in paragraph beginnings, making them obvious to the reader:
 notice this organizational signposting example where previous research is grouped according to studies
differentiated by methodology.
 In making decisions about organizations, you will sometimes need to choose a focus on what has been found in
previous research or on who has carried out previous but always make sure you have a sound rationale for
focusing on one rather the other

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 Literature shows the works a researcher consulted in order to understand and investigate the research problem.
 A critical review of the literature acquaints the researcher with the current state of knowledge on the topic, and
helps refine the research problem.
 Reading about previous research enables one to learn from the mistakes of other researchers.
 Materials to be reviewed are: books, journal articles, conference proceedings, government or corporate reports,
theses, dissertations, internet materials, CD-ROMS and magazines.

Main Reasons for Reviewing the Literature

 To gain a full and in-depth understanding of a subject;
 To see if intended research subject has been done before and avoid duplication; To avoid any errors made in
similar research;
 To enable to place the study within its context (ie so that the researcher can show how the research will add to
the existing sum of knowledge);
 To provide ideas to help you define or amend one’s own research topic;
 To provide information with which to compare and contrast one’s findings

Writing of Review of related Literature

 A literature review is a critical review of literature relevant to your field of study. It’s NOT a summary of the
whole field or of everything you have read in the field.
 It is an organized and critical discussion that you let your reader see what you have made of the literature
relevant to the topic of your thesis and your research question.
 It functions to contextualize your research within that research field by identifying where there are gaps in
previous research that your own research will help to fill.
 To see how a literature review can be organized so that it provides a critical review of the field relevant to the
research topic.
 It shows how previous research both informs and provides a rationale for the suggested research.

III. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

 Related studies refer to published reports on researches, and unpublished manuscripts such as theses or actual
research studies done previously on the topic.
 Related Studies are sometimes mistakenly written up as just summarizes of previous research instead of
critical pieces of writing that contextualize or provide background to a new piece of research.
 It focuses on ‘who’ did the research instead of more appropriately on “what had been done or found; and it
doesn’t indicate how that research relates to the writer’s own research.

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  RRS serves as benchmark on how much has been done on the same field of research;
 It differentiates the present study from previous studies to show that the present study has novel ideas and
variables

Writing of Review of Related Studies

 It is a poor review if it simply enumerates the results of the previous studies and fails to provide analysis of the
results and its relationship to the present study.

IV. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

 CF expresses the relationship among the variables that are raised in the study.
 It discusses the framework by which the variables work in the research.
 Basically, the researcher has to go back to the statement of the problem because the specific problems shall
serve as the framework by which the study proceeds

V. WRITING MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Answers “what did I do?”
 Requirements (understandable and repeatable; conform to the objective; confine to methods actually done.)
 Details to include

For technical Research

 S – statistical Design
 M – Model of specialized equipment
 A – Analysis Used
 R – Replications
 T –Time of year when research was conducted
 P – plots or basic experimental unit
 I – indices
 C – Conditions of Experiments
 S – samples used – breeds, species, etc

Social Science/Educational - Survey

 S – Statistical and Research Design
 P – profile of the respondents
 E - Evaluation criteria
 N – number and distribution of respondents
 D – Data collection procedure

VI. WRITING RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

 Answers the questions (What did I do – results: and what does it mean – discussion)
 Select the format: (Results and Discussion presented together or discussion is presented separately from
results)
 Discussion is presented separately from results if – (there is no need to interrelate data, there is repetition of
explanation or confirmation of results by the works of others)

Writing a Separate Discussion

 Start with s short introduction of the subject
 integrate the results obtained
 find the connection among the data
 explain the meaning of the integrated data as one
 make your conclusion

Presenting the data

 Tables
 Graphs and other graphics
 All tables and graphs presents should be discussed.

Writing numbers in text

 Use numerals (1, 2, 3 etc) with units , date, time, % and statistical expression
 Use words from one to nine and numerals 10 and above

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  Use a word in writing a very long figure
 Use abbreviations when writing a very small figure
 Do not use numerals after writing a number in word/s

VII. CITING LITERATURE

 Literature cited in text should support statements made or explain results.
 If there are several papers from one author mentioned in the same statement, cite the later works about two or
three.
 use factual information, not opinion
 use own words
 Use quotation marks if you use sentence or paragraph from literature
 If information is taken from secondary source, cite also the first paper or you may check the original and cite it
 No need to cite well-known authors
 Make sure all cited references are listed in the bibliography and vice versa
 Minimized the use of stated, reported, showed, revealed, and according to
 cite only from reliable sources (journals, books)
 use new publications (5-10 years)
 cite only online journal articles from the internet

Interpreting Results from a Table or Graph

 General Technique
 Look at the most striking aspect of the results
 State what it means and make it as the topic sentence
 Expand the idea
 Give reasons or support findings with literature citations
 Relate succeeding paragraphs to the main Idea
 Keep in mind your objective as you discuss
 Take note of trends and patterns
 State what your data means instead of stating the data
 Be consistent in the use of terms

Using Statistical Analysis as a Guide in Discussing

 If the data is significant, state the effect or influence of the treatment or that of the hypothesis is right.
 If insignificant, do not discuss if it is insignificant (state the reason why it could be so, if there is a trend but
results are insignificant, state why it is so, make sure the that assumptions of ANNOVA are met, explore the
possibility of transforming data to make it normal when variability curved is skewed)
 Discuss interactions if insignificant
 use significant and insignificant sparingly or not at all
 explain high coefficient of variations

Other Reminders
 If not stated in the introduction, point out limitations and relevant assumptions
 Check again if results match the objectives
 Use Chemical Names ( do not use trade or brand names unless necessary)
 Plant/ animal name (indicate the scientific name with authority on the first citations, use international codes for
accepted scientific names and accepted english names

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 Lesson 3:
CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESEARCH

Abstraction

RESEARCH
 systematic process of solving a problem or finding answers to an inquiry.
 a process of collecting and logically analyzing data to gain new knowledge or to complement an existing one.
 a method of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method of inquiry to enrich the system of objective knowledge.
Basic Research
 Desire to expand knowledge.
 Curiosity driven.
 Intended to answer why, what or how questions.
 Increase understanding of fundamental principles.
 Does not have immediate commercial objectives.
 It may not necessarily result in an invention or solution to a practical problem.
 Answer fundamental questions:
 How do things work?

Applied Research
 New knowledge acquired has specific commercial objectives, products, procedures or services.
 Answer specific questions aimed at solving practical problems.
 Creates new products, technologies and processes

Possible Sources of Knowledge

 sensation, reflection and intuition (John
Locke);
 Experience – actual and vicarious
 Astrology and astronomy
 Traditions and customs – oral and written
(literature)
 Historical records
 Realia, artifacts, flora and fauna
 Authorities – bible, experts
 Research

Important terms in Research

 Research Proposal – a skeletal framework or plan that is proposed as a guide of the researcher in gathering the
data, interpretation and analysis. It contains three chapters: introduction, Review of Related Literature and Studies
and Methods and Procedures.
▪ If done well, a proposal is 50% parts of a thesis or research.
 Thesis – a formal and lengthy research paper especially written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a
master’s degree. In general, it is focused on theory verification.
 Dissertation – a more sophisticated research paper especially written in partial fulfillment of the requirements in
doctoral degree. It is focused on theory generation.
 Variable – a characteristics or attribute of persons or objects which can take different values (age, income, rating)
▪ Independent variable – existing variables manipulated by the researcher which are the perceived causes of a
phenomenon.
▪ Dependent variable – measured responses which are the effects of other variables.

WRITING A THESIS OR ANY RESEARCH

How to select a Topic?
 identify an issue that concerns you or your work;
 the best topics are the ones you have a natural interest;
 avoid overly familiar topics;
 Have a thorough readings concerning the topic you are interested with focusing on the review of the related
literatures and studies and try to identify the gaps in previous research that your own research will help to fill.

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 Hints in Research Writing
 Focus on your research;
 Conduct an extensive literature review;
 Review well organized researches in the institution where you are enrolled;
 Begin writing those parts you can handle – Begin writing those parts that you are most comfortable with, then
move to the other sections that you could readily fill. Set off with what interests you, start writing and keep on the
fire while it is burning;
 Research writing should be clear and unambiguous – prepare a list of key words that you will use in your research
and then in writing your paper you should use this set of key words throughout.

How to write your Introduction

 Make your outline – what are you going to do before starting the first draft. It will be easier for you to fill the
outline than to think of the whole paper;
 Stay focused – start straight away with your variable. Do not open with broad topics or general ideas;
 Use noteworthy statements – each sentence should contribute to the development of your concepts. Give the
readers an idea of where you are going so they can follow along;
 Use quotations that lend authority to your work- quote values figures to establish background information in a
paper for the readers perceive the information as reliable;
 Revise – revise your introduction once you have completed the paper. Reread the introduction to check whether
the complete research is consistent with it;
 How to check your draft – ask a peer or senior to read your introduction and tell you what he expects the paper
will discuss and what kind of evidence the paper will use. If he is able to predict the rest of your paper accurately,
you probably have a good introduction.

Introduction should present:

 comprehensive representation of the broad problem(s) or research question(s) under investigation;
 background information about the topic: international picture (mega level), the local level (macro level), the
context for the research by setting the scene (micro level)
 details of any related theories;
 reasons why research is conducted to justify it: why the study warranted, its potential value; to whom are the
results of the study important and in what way and how they are to be used.

Rules of Thumb in writing an Introduction

 First paragraph. Try to respond to obvious questions in the minds of the readers:
▪ What is the study about?
▪ What need is being responded in the study?
▪ Who benefit from the study?
 Second & third paragraph. Cite some relevant past attempts on the same study and quote from these authors to
establish the need for the study.
 Fourth paragraph. Underscore the losses that will accrue on the discipline if the study is not conducted. What will
happen if the study is not done.
 Final paragraph. Repeat exactly what your main objectives in conducting the study.
 In order to make your introduction attractive, use the active voice rather than the passive voice.

Statement of the Problem

 Gives the problems to be answered;
 It should be stated precisely, accurately and clearly;
 can be stated either in the declarative or interrogative form;
 Can be either one main statement/question, or any combination of these form;
 Should be defined in terms of the data that can be obtained;
Example:
o Is there a relationship between the admission examination score in Mathematics and final examination
score in College Algebra?
o To what extent do the students’ score in admission examination and final examination score in Algebra
relate with each other?

Objectives of the Study

 the aims of the study stated in congruence with the specific problems.
Example: (based from the given problem)
 To determine if there is significant relationship between the admission examination score in Mathematics and
final examination score in College Algebra?

Hypothesis

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  should be stated if the research problem indicating or looking for a relationship, effect or comparison .;
Two types of hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis Ho (commonly, that the observation s is the result of pure chance). E.g., There is no
relationship between the admission examination score in Mathematics and final examination score in
college algebra.
 Alternative hypothesis Ha (commonly, that the observations show a real effect combined with a
component of chance variation). E.g., There is a relationship between the admission examination score
in Mathematics and final score in college.

Importance of the Study

 reveals intellectual merit of the proposed study;
 how the study shall advance knowledge and understanding, pressing reason why this study needs to be conducted;
 indicate broader impacts;
 dissemination of the study to the broadest possible audience and the benefit of the bigger society from the study.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Scope
 defines the limits of the study in terms of the area or locality, population or sample, sampling design and the
duration or period of the study;
 the nature of the variables as they are declared in the statement of the findings and the treatments they received
should be stated.
Delimitation
 provide the conditions beyond control of the researcher;
 they are made known because they may place restraint in writing conclusions and applications to other situations;
 these could be on the definition of terms, selection and maturation of the respondents, policies, etc.
 Limitations are shortcomings, conditions or influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher. Any limitation
that might influence the results should be mentioned (Drake, 2005)
Definition of Terms
It serves two essential functions
 establishes the rules and procedures the investigator will use to measure the variables
 provides unambiguous meaning to terms that can be otherwise can be interpreted in different ways.
Two major types:
 conceptual - the dictionary, which a reference book of everyday language; e.g. middle class: category
of persons within society
 operational – the meaning of the concept or term as used in particular study; e.g. middle class: a group
of persons whose average monthly income is Php 20,000-34,000....
 clearer definition includes conceptual and operational.

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 Lesson 4:
CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF STUDY AND SOURCES OF DATA

Abstraction

What should be included in the Chapter 3 in research writing?

 Research Design;
 Respondents or Subjects of the Study;
 Tools or basic instrumentation procedures;
 Statistical treatment used to process the data collected
Research Design
 is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and analysis of data in a manner that is relevant to and will best
address the research purpose and with the minimum expenditure of effort, money and time.
 it provides the glue that holds the research project together;
 used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project: the samples or groups,
measures, treatments, and methods of assignment.
 trying to address the central research questions

Basic Research Design

 Exploratory Studies
 Descriptive Studies
 Experimental Studies
 Quasi-Experimental Studies
 Time Series/Longitudinal Studies
Basic Elements of Research Design
 Design of the Study and Data Collection
 Instruments and Their Characteristics
 The Description of the Sample
 The Data Analysis Scheme

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