Practical work 6

DENSITY, VISCOSITY AND SURFACE TENSION

A. Density of biological liquids.

B. Viscosity of biological liquids. Theoretical data.
C. Surface tension of biological liquids. Theoretical data

A. Density of biological liquids. Principle of the method

If a sample of a substance has a mass m and volume V, the density is given by the ratio:

The absolute density:

mass m kg
ρ= = , ρ SI 
volume V m3
The relative density is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to that of standard
substance, usually water at 0 °C.
 kg m 3
d= =
 w kg m 3
d- Relative density
- Absolute density for the substance
w- Absolute density for standard substance (water)
FA
Principle of the method
Hydrometers are instruments that measure the specific gravity or relative
density of liquids. The construction of an hydrometer (areometer) is Scale
based on Archimedes’ principle. Archimedes’ principle: a body
immersed in a fluid is buoyed (push) up by a force (FA) equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid.
Float

URINOMETER Reservoir
(Measuring the density of urine)
HYDROMETER spheriqu
(areometer) LACTOMETER
(Measuring the density of milk)

G
ALCOHOLOMETER
(Measuring the concentration of alcohol in vol. %)

Fig.1 Urinometer
For an immersed object:
FA = mliquid replaced g = liquid Vreplaced g
and G = mob g =ob Vob g

Whenever the relative density of a liquid and the absolute density of water are known, we can
calculate:
Liquid = dr x water

Urine normal density is between 1.015-1.018 g/cm3. Urine density varies:

Normaly: due to the quantity of liquid ingested.

Pathological: increases in diabetes and decreases in kidney disease.

A medical hydrometer designed for urinalysis is the urinometer (fig.1). It is made of glass and
consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb that has in the lower part a reservoir weighted with lead
shots that helps the urinometer float upright. The stem has inside a scale divided in density units
(g/cm3).

Experimental technique:
In a graduated cylinder filled with 3 / 4 with the liquid for which we want to measure its
density, the urinometer is gently lowered in the liquid held by the stem until it floats freely. The
value indicated on the scale where the surface of the liquid touches the stem correlates to
absolute density. Precautions must be taken for the possibility that the urinometer is touching the
walls of the cylinder.
Errors in readings are due to:
- The layer of foam on the surface of the liquid;
- Friction forces (if urinometer touches the walls of the cylinder);
- The urinometer is not vertical;
- The urinometer reaches the bottom of the cylinder.

Your Attention Please!

The elements of the device you will use are very FRAGILES, handle with care.
Thank you!

B. Viscosity of biological liquids

Theoretical data - the motion of a particle in a fluid

The displacement of a particle or molecule in a fluid is under the action of:
- The thermal agitation (diffusion)
- The gravity field (centrifugation)
- An electric field (electrophoresis)
It is constrained by:
 collisions with other molecules (solvent, solute)
 the resistance due to molecular interactions (Van der Waals, Hydrogen bridge).
The effect of shocks and the interactions between moving molecules has as a result a slowdown
in their movement. The effect of is a continuous force tending to oppose the move. This is what
is called force of friction or viscosity.
The cause of this friction is that the intermolecular forces of attraction or Van der Walls forces.
It deals with:
o Solids called rigid, the interactions are very strong,
o Liquids, interactions are weak
o Gas, where interactions are very weak.

Laminar and turbulent flow for liquids

At low velocities, fluids flow in a streamlined pattern called laminar motion that is in
parallel monomolecular layers, as shown in figure 2. Laminar motion can be described
mathematically by equations derived by Claude Navier and Sir George Stokes in the mid-1800s.
At high velocities, fluids flow in a complex pattern called turbulent motion. For fluids flowing in
pipes, the transition from laminar to turbulent motion depends on the diameter of the pipe and on
the velocity, density, and viscosity of the fluid. The larger the diameter of the pipe, the higher the
velocity and density of the fluid, and the lower its viscosity, the more likely the flow is to be
turbulent.

laminar

turbulent

Fig.2 Types of liquid flowing

Laminar flow, type of fluid flow (gas or liquid) in which the molecules of fluid travels
smoothly or in regular paths, in contrast to turbulent flow, in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations and mixing. In laminar flow, sometimes called streamline flow, the
velocity, pressure, and other flow properties at each point in the fluid remain constant. Laminar
flow over a horizontal surface may be thought of as consisting of thin layers, or lamina, all
parallel to each other. The fluid in contact with the horizontal surface is stationary, but all the
other layers slide over each other, with different velocities, according to the frictional forces
exerted. Laminar flow in a straight pipe may be considered as the relative motion of a set of
concentric cylinders of fluid, the outside one fixed at the pipe wall and the others moving at
increasing speeds as the center of the pipe is approached. We use here, the Stokes law, which
reflects the strength of resistance to motion of a spherical solid in liquid:
Stokes friction: Ff = 6 π r η v

r - the radius of the spherical solid; v - velocity of the body in the fluid
η - fluid viscosity.
The viscosity measurement is an important and easy way to study structure of
macromolecules or assemblies (colloids, micelles). This is a property that is intimately and
directly connected to the shape and size of particles in the solution.

Determination of the viscosity of liquids

Due to the effect of interaction forces between fluid molecules and interaction forces
between fluid molecules and the wall, each molecule of fluid does not flow at the same speed. It
is said that there is a velocity profile. We can represent by a vector, the velocity of each
monomolecular layer in a section perpendicular to the flow obtaining the speed profile (fig.3)

Fig. 3 Laminar flowing

The velocity of each layer is a function of the distance z:

v = f (z)
If we consider two adjacent layers at a distance variation dz, the friction force F exerted
on the surface of separation of these two layers opposes the sliding of one layer to another. It is
proportional to the speed layers difference dv at the surface S and inversely proportional to dz:
The proportionality factor η is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Newton's
law):
F  ηS dv
dz
Measuring unit: In the International System (SI) unit for viscosity is [Pa s]
Experimental facts led us to classify the fluids as follows:
-Newtonian fluids that satisfy Newton's law. These fluids have a viscosity coefficient that is
independent of the velocity gradient. This is the case of gases, vapors, pure liquids of low
molecular weight;
- non-Newtonian fluids. These are the solutions of polymers, gels, blood, most of the paints, etc.
These types of liquids are studied by rheology.

Medical application

Blood - The Rheology of Blood

 Blood is a suspension of cellular components in an aqueous solution called plasma. The
elements are globular cell and occupy about 50% of total volume. The globular elements are
dominated by red blood cells or erythrocytes. Plasma is an aqueous solution containing inorganic
salts and organic proteins. Red blood cells are biconcave disc-shaped cells that measure 7 – 8
micrometers (μm) in diameter. The deformability of red blood cells leads to the conclusion that
blood can be considered Newtonian as also non - Newtonian liquid.
Newtonian behavior of blood: blood viscosity
The blood is Newtonian when the viscous stresses are strong enough, thus the diameter of
the blood vessels must be much smaller than that of blood cell.
Factors influencing blood viscosity are:
 Hematocrit, (Ht or Hct) is a blood test that measures the percentage of the volume of
whole blood that is made up of red blood cells.
 Temperature,
 Deformability of red blood cells.
On measuring the hematocrit, we consider the blood as a suspension of particles in a
Newtonian liquid (plasma); more hematocrit increases, more the viscosity is higher.
Temperature: between 23 and 37 ºC the apparent viscosity of blood does not change with
temperature when the velocity gradient is high (above 80 cm / s) but increases when it is low
(less than 1 cm / s).
The deformability of red blood cells: independent of their concentration (hematocrit) and
their tend to aggregate, deformability and internal viscosity of red blood cells play an important
role in the overall blood viscosity. In the normal state, blood viscosity is 3 times bigger than that
of plasma.
But stiffening red blood cells using drugs such as glutaraldehyde, we notice that the
apparent viscosity of the medium increases considerably. Blood does not behave like a
suspension of solid particles, but rather as a suspension of deformable liquid drops. This
deformability depends on the mechanical properties of the membrane of the liquid drops and its
internal viscosity (hemoglobin). It is remarkable that even with a hematocrit of 95 %, blood
continued to behave like a liquid.

How aspirin can it protect the heart?

A low-dose of aspirin prevents blood platelets in the blood from sticking together and
forming dangerous clots in the vessels: the effect is called anti-platelet aggregation. So the use of
aspirin on a daily basis in some people at risk would thin the blood or make normal its viscosity
coefficient. This therapeutic procedure prevents heart attacks and strokes. In this indication, a
dose of 80 to 325 mg / day (on medical advice) brings, according to several studies, a real
protection to persons over 50 years old, who have at least a factor of cardiovascular risk like
hypertension or obesity.

EXPERIMENT
Principle of the method
Generally, viscosities are measured with Ostwald viscosimeter. Ostwald viscosimeter is made of
glass, it is a U-shape device, containing two reservoirs: one upper and one lower situated, as
shown in figure 4. In an Ostwald viscosimeter a known volume of solution is used and
practically, we record the time taken for this volume to flow through a capillary tube situated
under the upper reservoir. This method is a relative method (comparative method) because it
uses two different liquids: a standard liquid (distilled water) for which we know the value of the
viscosity coefficient and a liquid for which we want to measure its viscosity coefficient.
The principle of the method is based on Poiseuille law that states that the liquid flow is
proportional to pressure.

Poiseuille law: O O’

V   p r4 
Q    a
t 8  η  l 
A
b-
Q - the liquid flow
V - volume of liquid
Δt – time interval
p – hydrostatic pressure p=ρ g h
r, l - tube sizes
η - viscosity coefficient
B

c-

Fig. 4 Ostwald viscosimeter

This method is indirect and relative (indirect means that the value must be calculate,
relative that is, the value is calculated based on a standard liquid - distilled water)
We will write Poiseuille law for standard liquid:
Vdw   Pdw  r 4 
Qwd    
tdw 8  ηdw  l 

For unknown liquid:

Vx   Px  r 4 
Qx    
t x 8  η x  l 

The ratio between the two equations gives the calculation formula:
tx  
 x  dw
t dw  dw  x

The values for tx and tdw will be measured with Ostwald viscosimeter; ρx was previously
measured with urodensimeter, and ηdw and ρdw will be obtained from the specific tables.
The goal is to calculate ηx.
 Your Attention Please!
The device you will be using is fragile, must be handled with care.
Thank you!
C. The surface tension of the biological liquids.

Theoretical data - the meaning and the

origin of surface tension:

The study of surfaces is of a particular

importance because any body, fluid or
solid, interacts with the environment,
through the surface that delimits. Surface
tension is a phenomenon in which the
surface of a liquid, where the liquid is in
contact with gas, acts like a thin elastic
sheet. This term is typically used only when
the liquid surface is in contact with gas
(such as the air). If the surface separates two
liquids (such as water and oil), it is called
“interface tension”.
In figure 5 it is presented the classification of
the matter according to the mean free path. Fig. 5 The three status of the matter
In figure 6 there are presented the interaction between molecules placed at a specific
distance from the separation layer. We consider molecule A inside the liquid and molecule C a
molecule of air. The forces exerted on the molecules A and C are due to neighboring molecules.
The density of water molecules in the liquid state is higher compared to the vapor state.
Whenever they are surrounded by the same type of molecules the sum of the interaction forces
will be zero. The molecule B, which belongs to the surface is subjected to attraction of molecules
located under the surface (liquid) and those outer the surface (air – which has a lower density):
the result is pointed downward. It is the same for all surface molecules that form a sort of tense
film that compresses the inside of the liquid. The surface layer will therefore tend to compress
the molecules located below (the liquid).

Air/liquid
interface

Liquid
 Fig. 6 Intermolecular forces
For moving the molecule A (which is in equilibrium within the liquid), to the surface, it is
necessary to provide work to defeat the forces of cohesion which links molecule A to other
neighboring molecules. Molecules inside the liquid state experience strong intermolecular
attractive forces. When those forces are between alike molecules, they are referred to as cohesive
forces.
Extending the surface of a liquid costs energy. Thus a fluid will adopt a form that
minimizes its surface and thus its energy is into a stable equilibrium. This explains why soap
bubbles and liquid drops are spherical. This happens because the spherical shape has the smallest
surface compared to the other volumes (cylindrical, parallelepiped). The role of surface tension
is to oppose to the increasing of the surface of a liquid. It follows that the surface of the liquid
molecules has more energy than those located inside. This surface energy is defined as a surface
tension that opposes any attempt to increase the liquid surface and the coefficient of the surface
tension is defined as work or energy required (at constant temperature and pressure) to increase
the liquid surface by an amount dS, as follows:

𝑑𝑊 = −𝜎 𝑑𝑆, and
𝑑𝑊
𝜎=
𝑑𝑆

dW– amount of energy

dS – surface increasing
σ – surface tension coefficient

The coefficient of the surface tension (σ) is the energy of 1 joule used to create an area
extension of 1 m2.
Measuring units for surface tension: surface tension is measured in SI units of N/m (newton
per meter), although a more conventional unit used is the dyne/cm (dyne per centimeter). In
order to consider the thermodynamics of the situation, it is sometimes useful to consider it in
terms of work per unit area. The SI unit in that case is the J/m2 (joules per meter squared). The
conventional unit is erg/cm2.

Experimental technique

Measuring the surface tension coefficient

For measuring the surface tension coefficient we will use a method based on Tate's law:
a drop of liquid falls from the bottom of a vertical capillary tube when its weight is equal to its
surface tension. An illustration of this law is presented in figure 7.
 Fs

W
Fig.7 Graphical presentation of Tate’s law

In figure 7 we have noted: W = weight and Fs = surface tension

According to Tate law:
Fs = W (1) or
2r=mg (2)
( - the surface tension coefficient,  - the liquid density, r- the radius of a drop and g is gravity)

For a single drop the mass can be expressed as: m = V;

Where V- the volume of a drop,
Now, the equation is:
2 r  =V  g (3)

The device that helps us measuring the coefficient of surface tension based on Tate law is
Traube’s stalagmometer (see figure 8).
The device is made of glass and it has two areas divided in arbitrary units above and below the
reservoir. The principle of the method consists mainly in counting the number of drops of two
different liquids contained in the same volume VR of the stalagmometer tank:
𝑉
𝑉=
𝑛

n –number of drops

1
0

1
 Fig. 8 Traube stalagmometer
Equation (3) is now :
𝑉
2𝜋 𝑟 𝜎 = 𝜌𝑔
𝑛

As we already mentioned, the method uses two different liquids:

• a standard liquid (distilled water) and
• the liquid to be studied (with a surface tension coefficient unknown)

We write the above equation for these two liquids

For distilled water:
𝑉
2𝜋 𝑟 𝜎 = 𝜌 𝑔
𝑛

For the liquid studied:

𝑉
2𝜋 𝑟 𝜎 = 𝜌 𝑔
𝑛

The ratio of the above two equations gives the calculation formula:
𝜌 𝑛
𝜎 =𝜎
𝜌 𝑛

1. We need to relate the number of divisions and a single drop of liquid. To do so, we aspire
the liquid by the help of a syringe that is attached to the upper end of the stalagmometer.
We will aspire the liquid until the liquid level is in the upper region that contains
divisions, close to the division 0. Slowly pushing the piston we let a drop falls and after
the drop falling we notice the corresponding number of divisions. The number
representing the difference between the final number of divisions and the initial one
represents the number of divisions that contain a drop of liquid.
2. We will proceed counting the number of the drops contained in the volume VR of the
stalagmometer. For that we will disconnect the syringe and we will count the drops
falling just until the liquid level is under the tank, when we stop the flow reconnecting the
syringe
3. Those stages must be repeated for both liquids
4. Calculation
𝑋+𝑌
𝑛=𝐷−
𝐴

Where: A is the number of divisions corresponding to a single drop;

X is the number of divisions from where the liquid start to flow (above the tank);
D is the total number of drops counted;
Y is the number of divisions when we stop the flow (under the tank).