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UNDERSTANDING CREATIVITY
Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.
Minnesota State University, Mankato
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Creativity is a trait that has helped to produce the most important innovations in human
history and solve some of our most complex and compelling problems. So what is it? Creativity
is a type of thinking that enables people to generate ideas, invent new ideas, improve old ideas,
and recombine existing ideas in a novel fashion (Gallagher & Gallagher, 1994). Creativity is an
encounter of the interestedly conscious human being with his or her world; the process of
bringing something new into being (May, 1975). Behaviorally creativity can be defined as the
ability to produce work that is novel, high in quality, and appropriate (Feldman,
Csikszentmihalyi, & Gardner, 1994; Sternberg & Lubart, 1999). Novel here means that the
work is original or unique, something nobody has thought of or done before. Appropriate in this
context means that the work is of some aesthetic or pragmatic value (Starko, 2005; Swartz &
Perkins, 1990). Torrance describes creativity as “the process of sensing difficulties, problems,
gaps in information, missing elements, something askew; making guesses and formulating
hypotheses about these deficiencies; evaluating and testing these guess and hypothesis; possibly
revising and retesting them; and last, communicating the results” (1993, p 233). This last
definition makes creativity sound a lot like science.
CREATIVITY AS PROBLEM SOLVING
Creativity is essentially a type of problem solving (Gardner, 1993). Problems can be
found in all areas including the arts, business, science, the military, and even education.
Examples: How can we design a car to run on electricity? How can this feeling or idea be
expressed through movement, dance, music, or visual art in a way that entertains? What kind of
a play will enable our team to score a goal? How can I make this relationship work? How can
this concept be explained so that people understand it? How can this skill be taught? How can I
keep my class actively engaged? How can I write an article so that readers can easily understand
important concepts related to creativity? These are all problems that require creative thinking for
their ultimate solution.
When looking at creativity as problem solving you will note that this definition sounds
similar to Gardner’s (1996) and Sternberg’s (2003) description of intelligence. Indeed, the line
between intelligence and creativity becomes blurred when both cognitive traits are seen as
having equal importance in solving problems and creating products (Sternberg, & Lubart, 1991).
A creative person is going to be better able to solve problems because the process of generating
ideas provides more alternatives from which to evaluate and ultimately choose.
But if you are not aware of a problem in the first place how are you going to be able to
solve it? You are not. Thus, being able to perceive problems is also an important part of
creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1994). Creative individuals are able to sense the difference
between current and ideal states (what is and what could be). Examples of perceiving problems:
Our current way of catching mice is not effective. Those old ways of explaining things
(theories) don’t account for this new information. There needs to be an article written about
creativity that readers without a great deal of background knowledge can read, understand, and
connect with their lives and experiences. I need to find a more effective way to study. The
carbon based fuel we use to power our cars and heat are homes is expensive and is leading to
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global warming. My students don’t seem to be getting the hang of double digit addition.
REDEFINING PROBLEMS
Another trait that enables highly creative people to solve problems is their ability to look
at them in different ways (Lipshitze & Waingortin, 1995; Sternberg & Williams, 2002). This is
called redefining the problem (Sternberg & Grigorenka, 2000). Creative problem solvers are
able to let go of the old ways of thinking, which in turn enables them to generate a variety of
novel solutions. This is the “thinking outside the box” cliché with which you are most likely
familiar. By freeing themselves from conventional ways of thinking and by examining problems
from a variety of angles, highly creative people open themselves up a variety of new
possibilities.
As an example of problem redefinition: Currently there is great debate in the United
States about how to stop illegal immigration along the Mexican border. Solutions being put forth
include fences, border patrols, and cracking down on employers who hire illegal workers. The
problem might be redefined as this: How can we create the economic situations so that illegal
immigration is not necessary? Many new teachers are faced with the problem of classroom
management. One way that is often used to define the problem is this: How can I control these
students? Solutions often include getting tough, offering rewards, looking for gimmicks or
programs. Instead, the problem might be redefined as this: How can I create a learning
experience that offers structure and choice and encourage students to learn in ways that are
natural to them?
OTHER TRAITS ASSOCIATED WITH CREATIVITY AND HIGHLY CREATIVE
PEOPLE
Most would agree that, from a practical point of view, creativity is a good thing. Think
of all the gadgets and innovations you enjoy today that are a result of creativity and creative
thinkers. It is also good from an emotional or intrapersonal point of view. Humanist
psychologists describe creativity as a trait the represents the highest degree of emotional health
and something found in all humans (May, 1975; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961). To be creative is
to be self-actualized and fully human (Maslow, 1971). So are healthy people more creative or
are creative people healthier?
So what are some of the traits of highly creative successful people? In a thirty year
longitudinal study Torrance (1992) found that they have the following characteristics: delight in
deep thinking, tolerance of mistakes, love of one’s work, clear purpose, feeling comfortable
being a minority of one, and comfortable being different. Other personal traits associated with
creativity, creative thinking, and creative people include the following:
• Self-confidence, independence, risk-taking, energy and enthusiasm, self-confidence
adventurousness, curiosity, playfulness, humor, idealism, reflection, sensitivity to problems,
ability to define problems, ability to resist premature closure, visualization, analogical thinking,
intuition, concentration, nonconformity, unconventionality, and logical thinking (Davis & Rimm,
1998).
• Tolerance for ambiguity, willingness to surmount obstacles, intrinsic motivation,
moderate risk-taking, desire for recognition, and willingness to work for recognition (Lynch &
Harris, 2001)
• Boldness, courage, freedom, spontaneity, perspicuity, integration, self-acceptance,
ability to embrace paradox, ability to put order to chaos, and playfulness (Maslow, 1968).
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CREATIVE DISPOSITIONS
Very much related to personal traits, Carl Rogers (1961) describes three inner conditions
necessary for creativity. These are not static attributes; rather, they are dispositions that can be
developed.
Openness to experience. You are free from psychological defenses. This allows
thoughts and memories to come into awareness without distorting them. This means also that
you are not inclined to see things in predetermined categories or through the lenses of your
cultural conditioning. Very much like the concept of right-mindedness found in the Buddhist
Nobel Eightfold Path, you are non-judgmental in your attitudes, able to accept without pre-
conceived judgment, and able to try on new ideas with which you may not always agree.
Internal locus of evaluation. You strive primarily to produce what you believe to be
good products and performance rather than what others to believe these to be. You are not trying
to please somebody else in your creation; rather, you are motivated internally, relying on your
own standard of evaluation, attempting to create what is of aesthetic and pragmatic value to you.
Ability to toy with elements and concepts. You have a certain child-like quality that
invites you to explore and play with ideas. What you believe to be true is not a limiting factor in
your exploration. You allow yourself to imagine a variety of possibilities regardless of their
likelihood or basis in reality.
CREATIVE THINKING
Think for a minute about the types of thinking specifically used in the creative process.
What qualities of thought produce work that is novel, high in quality, and appropriate? Torrance
(1992) identifies four: fluency, flexibility, elaboration, and originality
• Fluency is the ability to generate a great many ideas. This type of thinking can be used
when looking for possible solutions to problems. This is often known as brainstorming (see
Figure 1). The important thing with this type of thinking is not to evaluate ideas initially.
Evaluating ideas comes only after a great number have been generated.
• Flexibility is the ability to generate a variety of different ideas or to produce a number
of different approaches. For example, what are some other ways we might be able to get a
telescope into space? What are some other ways in which we could generate power for our cars
and homes? What are some other ways I might learn this material and pass the midterm exam?
• Elaboration is the ability to examine the original thing and generate ideas that can be
used to make the original thing better, more interesting, more detailed, or more complex, or more
refined. For example, what could I add to a bike, birthday part, or bathtub to make it better?
• Originality is the ability to design or create things that are totally new, unique, or
novel; things never before imagined. What are some new types of transportation that we have
not yet considered? How else might we prepare preservice teachers to meet the demands of the
classroom? How could this theme be expressed in a movie in a way that is unique, novel, and
interesting?
The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 1999), the most commonly
used creativity test, is designed to measure these four types of thinking. But can creativity really
be measured? The jury is still out on this one. While the ability to predict creative achievement
is questioned; the TTCT may predict creative potential (Corpley, 2000).
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Figure 1. Tips for brainstorming.
Students (and adults), do not naturally know how to brainstorm; thus, they must be taught the
process. Initially, this process should be modeled in large group with the teacher writing down the
ideas generated by the class. Later, students can move into small groups. Idea generation works best
in pairs or small groups, as students are able to hear a number of ideas. These initial ideas, in turn,
serve to generate more ideas. There are four rules for brainstorming. Put these rules in poster form to
assist your initial instruction, and then use this poster for quick review when needed:
1. All ideas must be accepted. No criticizing or evaluation is allowed. At this stage, bad ideas are just
as important as good ideas.
2. Freewheeling is celebrated. Creative, bizarre, unusual and silly ideas are welcomed along with
smart aleck comments and random associations. All of these can be used to stretch our thinking and
get us thinking more broadly.
3. The goal of brainstorming is quantity. The more ideas we have, the greater our choice is in finding
a solution.
4. Hitchhiking is welcome. Hitchhiking is when you add to an idea that has already been state or
combine two or more ideas. This is a technique that many creative problem solvers use. Encourage
your students to do this as well.
KNOWLEDGE, INTELLIGENCE, AND CREATIVITY
To be creative you must first have a body of knowledge (Feldhusen, 1995; Gallagher &
Gallagher, 1994; Gardner, 1994; Piirto, 1994). Creativity involves the manipulation of ideas
from a knowledge base. Without a body of knowledge there is nothing to manipulate. Without a
box there is not a box of which to step outside. This is one of the reasons why it is important to
have well-structured curriculums that lay out a plan for presenting students with a fair amount of
knowledge in an organized fashion. Among other things, a body of knowledge enhances
students’ ability to think creatively and to solve problems (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981; de
Groot, 1965).
There is also some relationship between creativity and intelligence (Good & Brophy,
1995). Intelligence is used to facilitate the development of a well-organized knowledge base,
thus making it easier to retrieve ideas, relate new information into existing schemas, and to
manipulate ideas in new and interesting ways (Feldhusen, 1995). However, while some amount
of intelligence is required for creative achievement, highly intelligent people are not necessarily
highly creative (Starko, 2005). And as pointed out earlier, the line between creativity and
intelligence can become blurred as both are instrumental in solving problems.
THE CREATIVE PROCESS
The last area examined here is the creative process. Creativity rarely happens by
accident. It does not just occur; rather, it is a purposeful act requiring preparation, hard work,
and discipline (Marzano et al., 1988). The sudden creative insight that inventors and artists
sometimes describe is usually the last step in a long thinking process that occurs over time.
Creativity is not a drive through experience. It is not an event, but a process. We can enhance
our creativity by attending to the process. The Wallas Model of Creativity (Wallas, 1926), one
of the most common models of creativity, proposes four stages of the creative process:
1. Preparation. This is the stage where the problem is first perceived and defined,
information about the problem is gathered, and ideas are generated. As examples, we will look
at two college students, Polly and Pat, who both attend Moosebutt University. Polly, an English
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Creative Writing major is assigned to write a piece of fiction for her creative writing course.
During the preparation stage she has a sense of her topic and she starts brainstorming or listing
ideas, and get’s background information to help her with her story. Pat, a sociology major, is
looking for a research project for his senior paper. During this stage he selects his topic and
begins to review the literature and takes notes. Both Polly and Pat have a sense of where they
are going at this stage, but it is still unclear what the final product is going to look like.
2. Incubation. Here, both the conscious and unconscious mind manipulate the problem
and think about possible solutions. New information is related to existing information and
existing schemata are reorganized to accommodate new information. Sometimes stages one and
two merge into each other slightly. At this stage Polly is creating outlines and initial drafts. Pat
also is creating outlines and initial drafts, but for both, the path they’ll take is still unclear. Their
writing may seem labored at this point. A lot of work at the incubation stage takes place
unconsciously. Polly and Pat, who are both good students, know the importance of starting their
projects early. This gives them lots of time to process information, to think about their projects
with the conscious part of their mind, and to percolate with the unconscious part.
3. Illumination. In this stage, the creator suddenly sees the idea, concept, or solution to
the problem. At some point, as Polly and Pat have been preparing, processing, incubating, and
percolating, they get a sudden insight about exactly how their story and research project should
go. Their projects appear to fall together instantly. At this point, their writing and researching
seems almost effortless. However, this “aha” moment would not have occurred had they not
prepared, processed, incubated, and percolated.
4. Verification. This is an evaluative stage where the creator verifies or tests the idea,
concept, or solution. At this stage, Polly and Pat have finished their initial drafts and are in the
process of revising and getting feedback on their projects. During this stage there may also be a
series of little illuminations. The “aha” moment occurs in varying degrees and dimensions. And
of course, the ultimate verification is the grade of A they received on their projects and the
recognition they received from Moosebutt University for their outstanding creative and scholarly
achievements.
Their grade of A also verifies the creative process. A bit of advice for undergraduate
students: It always pays to start your assignments and projects early. Some student claim they
work better under the pressure of a deadline at the last minute. While this may strengthen their
motivation, it does not result in a better product or performance. By starting early you will find
that you will spend less time and end up with a better product than by starting at the last minute.
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
Creativity is a trait that has lead to humanity’s greatest innovations, yet is given too little
attention in our schools. Perhaps this is because it is not as easily quantified as some traits.
Creativity is a form of problem solving and a process that occurs over time. Understanding
creativity will help teachers nurture it in themselves and their students. Creative teachers will
help bring about the innovations necessary to improve educations and their own classrooms.
And ultimately, our creative students will bring about the changes necessary to improve the
human condition and the world in which we live.
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VIDEO MINI-LECTURES
Creativity: Overview
The Wallace Model of Creativity
Four Types of Thinking Related to Creativity
RELATED BOOKS
Johnson, A. (2000). Up and out: Using thinking skills to enhance learning, Needham Heights,
MA: Allyn and Bacon.
© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.