CHAPTER 9

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM TOPIC OUTLINE

9.1. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE FUNCTION - AN OVERVIEW

9.1.A. THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES
9.1.B. HORMONE ACTION
MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION
1. Direct Gene Activation
2. Second Messenger System
9.1.C. STIMULI FOR CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE
9.2. THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
9.2.A. Pituitary Gland
1. Posterior Pituitary - Oxytocin, Anti diuretic Hormone / Vasopressin
2. Anterior Pituitary
Growth Hormone ( GH)
Prolactin ( PRL )
Gonadotropic Hormone - Follicle Stimulating Hormone , Luteinizing Hormone ( LH )
Thyrotropic hormone / Thyroid Stimulating Hormone ( TSH )
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ( ACTH )
9.2.B. Pineal Gland - Melatonin
9.2.C. Thyroid Gland
1. T4 ( thyroxine )
2. T3 ( triiodothyronine )
3. Calcitonin
9.2.D. Parathyroid Gland - Parathyroid Hormone
9.2.E. Thymus - Thymosin
9.2.F. Adrenal Glands
1. Adrenal Cortex Hormones
MINERALOCORTICOIDS/ ALDOSTERONE
GLUCOCORTICOIDS : Cortisone and Cortisol
SEX HORMONES
[Link] Medulla Hormones
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine ( Catecholamines )
9.2.G. PANCREATIC ISLETS - Insulin and Glucagon
9.2.H. Gonads
Ovaries - Estrogen and Progesterone
Testes - Androgen ( Testosterone )

9.3. OTHER HORMONE - PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS

9.4. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 CHAPTER 9
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
( Outlined by Algerico F. Baiño, Jr., RN )

9.1. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND HORMONE FUNCTION - AN OVERVIEW

 Hormone comes from the greek word meaning “to arouse” - they arouse or bring about their effects on
the body’s cells primarily b altering cellular activity - that is, by increasing or decreasing the the rate of the
normal metabolic processes rather than by stimulating performance of a new one
 Uses chemical messages ( hormones ) that are released into the blood
 Hormones control several major processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism.

9.1.A. THE CHEMISTRY OF HORMONES

 Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids
that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body
 Hormones can be classified chemically as
 Amino Acid Base Molecules - Proteins, Peptides and amines
 Steroids ( made from cholesterol ) - sex hormones made by gonads ( ovaries and testes ),
and the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
 Prostaglandins - hormones that act locally and are made from highly active lipids
released from nearly all cell membranes

9.1.B. HORMONE ACTION

 A given hormone affects only certain tissue cells or organs referred to as TARGET CELLS or
TARGET ORGANS.
 Thus, SPECIFIC PROTEIN RECEPTORS must be present on the cell’s plasma membrane or in its
interior in order for a target cell to respond to a hormone
 If there is “BINDING” of the hormone and the receptor, only then the hormone can influence
the workings of a cell
 Effects caused by hormones
 Change plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential ( electrical state ) by
opening or closing ion channels
 Activate or inactivate enzymes
 Stimulate or inhibit cell division
 Promote or inhibit cell division
 Promote or inhibit secretion of a product
 Turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION

3. Direct Gene Activation

 Utilized by the Steroid hormones because they are lipid soluble molecules, thus
They can diffuse through the plasma membranes of their target cells

Sequence

1. Once inside, the steroid hormone enters

the nucleus
2. Binds to specific hormone receptor
3. Hormone receptor complex bonds to
specific sites on the cell’s DNA
4. Activates certain genes to transcribe
messenger RNA ( mRNA )
5. mRNA is translated into the cytoplasm
 4. Second Messenger System
 Utilized by the Protein and peptide hormones, and because they are usually water
soluble and unable to enter target cells directly, they bind to hormone receptors situated
on the target cell’s plasma membrane

Sequence

1. Hormone ( first messenger ) binds to the

receptor protein on the membrane
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reaction
that activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes reactions that produces
second messenger molecules
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes to
promote a specific response

9.1.C. STIMULI FOR CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

 Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative feedback
 A stimulus of low hormone level in the blood triggers the release of more hormone
 Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached
 THERE ARE 3 MAJOR CATEGORIES :

CATEGORY OF STIMULUS DESCRIPTION IMAGE

HORMONAL STIMULI  Most common
 Endocrine glands are activated
by other hormones
 As the hormones produced by
the by the final target glands
increased in the blood, they
“feedback” to inhibit the
release of Anterior Pituitary
hormones and thus their own
release
 Hormone released by this
mechanism tends to be
rythmic with hormone blood
levels rising and falling again
and again
HUMORAL STIMULUS  Stimulation of hormone
release is brought about by
Changing blood levels of ions
and nutrients
 Ex. Low Calcium prompts the
release of Parathyroid
Hormone ( PTH ), Blood
Calcium rises and ending PTH
stimulation
NEURAL STIMULUS  Nerve Impulses that stimulate
hormone release
 Ex. Is sympathetic Nervous
system stimulation of the
adrenal medulla to release the
catecholamines
Norepinephrine and
Epinephrine during periods of
stress

9.2. THE MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS

 It includes the : PITUITARY , PINEAL, THYROID, PARATHYROID, THYUS, ADRENAL, PANCREAS AND
GONADS ( OVARIES AND TESTES )
 HYPOTHALAMUS - is considered a a major endocrine organ because It produces several hormones
 PURE ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS : Anterior Pituitary Gland, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenals
 ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE FUNCTIONS : Pancreas and Gonads ( Mixed Glands )

9.2.A. Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

 Size of a grape
 Has 2 functional lobes : Anterior Pituitary ( Glandular Tissue ) and Posterior Pituitary ( Nervous Tissue )
PITUITARY - HYPOTHALAMUS RELATIONSHIPS
 Anterior Pituitary : Master Gland
 The hypothalamus produces the “releasing hormones” and “ inhibiting hormones” which controls the
hormones Of the Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Hypothalamus also makes Oxytocin and Antidiuretic Hormone
POSTERIOR PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
 Posterior Pituitary is not an endocrine gland but it acts as a storage for hormones made by hypothalamic
neurons
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
produced
OXYTOCIN  Released in Childbirth and Nursing  NONE
 Stimulates Powerful contractions of the
uterine muscle during sexual relations, during
labor and during breastfeeding
 Causes milk ejection
 To induce labor or hasten that is progressing
at a slow pace
 Used to stop postpartum bleeding ( causing
constriction of the ruptured blood vessels at
the placental site )
 Stimulates let down reflex
ANTIDIURETIC  Is a chemical that prevents urine production  Diabetes Insipidus -
HORMONE  ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more hyposecretion of the ADH leading
water from the forming urine, thus urine to an excessive urine output
volume decreases and blood volume increases characterized by continually
 ADH also increases increases blood pressure being thirsty
by causing constriction of the arterioles ( small
arteries ) thus sometimes called as
VASOPRESSIN
 Alcohol inhibits ADH release thus results in
large amount of urine, thereby, reflecting
dehydrating effect
 Diuretics , drugs used to manage edema,
antagonize the effects of ADH
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
 There are Six ( 6 ) hormones produced by the Anterior Pituitary
 Two ( 2 ) hormones - GROWTH and PROLACTIN - affects NON ENDOCRINE TARGETS
 Four ( 4 ) - are all TROPIC HORMONES : FOLLICLE STIMULATING , LUTEINIZING HORMONE,
THYROTROPIC HORMONE and ADRECORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
produced
GROWTH  Directed to growth of skeletal muscles and  Pituitary Dwarfism -
HORMONE long bones of the body, thus, it plays an Hyposecretion of GH but body
important role in determining final body size. proportions are fairly normal
 Is a protein sparing and anabolic hormone that  Gigantism - Hypersecretion
causes the building of amino acids into during childhood but body
proteins and stimulates most target cells to proportions are fairly normal
grow in size and divide  Acromegaly - if hypersecretion
 Causes the fats to be broken down and used occurs after long bone growth
for energy while it spares glucose, helping to leading to tremendous
maintain blood sugar homeostasis enlargement of the facial bones
particularly the lower jaw and the
bony ridges underlying the
eyebrows. Thickening of soft
tissues leads to coarse or
malformed facial features. Causes
of hypersecretion is due to
tumors of the affected gland
PROLACTIN  A Protein hormone structurally similar to  None described
growth hormone but its target is humans is
the breast
 It also stimulates and maintains milk
production by the mother’s breasts
GONADOTROPIC  Regulates the hormonal activity of the gonads  Hyposecretion leads to Sterility
HORMONES ( ovaries and testes )
( GH ) :  In women, FSH Stimulates follicle
development in the ovaries
FOLLICLE
 In men, FSH stimulates sperm development
STIMULATING
by the testes
HORMONE
( FSH )  In women, LH Triggers ovulation of an egg
from the ovary and causes ruptured follicle to
produce progesterone and estrogen
LUTEINIZING  In men, LH stimulates testosterone
HORMONE ( LH ) production by the interstitial cells of the testes
THYROTROPIC  Influences growth and activity of the thyroid  None described
HORMONE ( TH ) gland
/ THYROID
STIMULATING
HORMONE
( TSH )
ADRENOCORTICO  Regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex  None described
TROPIC portion of the adrenal gland
HORMONE
( ACTH )
 9.2.B. PINEAL GLAND
 Small, cone-shaped that hangs from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain
 Melatonin is secreted in substantial amounts and is believed to be a “Sleep Trigger” that plays an
important role in body’s sleep wake cycle
9.2.C. THYROID GLAND
 Located At the base of the throat Just inferior to the Adam’s Apple and is easily palpated during a physical examination
 Fairly large gland consisting of two lobes joined a central mass or isthmus
 Follicles internal to the thyroid gland, stores a sticky colloid material wherein the thyroid hormone is
derived
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
produced
T4 ( thyroxine ),  Major’s metabolic hormone  Goiter - is an enlargement of the
and T3  two active iodine - containing hormones thyrid gland that results when
( triiodothyronine )
 T3 is the major hormone diet is deficient with iodine
 Controls the rate at which glucose is burned or  Cretinism - Hyposecretion of the
oxidized and converted to body heat and thyroxine brought about by lack
chemical energy ( ATP ) of stimulation of the TSH.
 Also important for normal tissue growth and Characterized by dwrafism
development especially in the reproductive wherein adult body proportions
and nervous systems remain childlike, with a
proportionaly longer torso and
shorter legs compared to normal
adults. Hair is scanty, skin is dry.
May lead to Intellectual problems
if left untreated. Hormone
replacement is suggested
 Myxedema - Hypothyroidism
occurring in adults characterized
by both physical and mental
sluggishness but no mental
impairment. Puffiness of the face,
fatigue, poor muscle tone, low
body temp, obesity and dry skin.
Can be treated with Thyroxine
 Hyperthyroidism - results from a
tumor on the thyroid gland and it
causes extreme overproduction
of thyroxine resulting in high
basal metabolic rate, intolerance
of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight
loss, nervous and agitated
behavior and inability to relax.
Can be treated surgically to
remove part of the thyroid if
tumor is present or with thyroid
blocking drugs or radioactive
iodine
 Grave’s Disease - one form of
hypothyroidism wherein in
addition to the above signs and
symptoms, thyroid gland enlarges
and the eyes will bulge and may
protrude anteriorly leading to
Exopthalmos
CALCITONIN  Decreases the blood calcium ion level by  Ceases entirely in adults leading
- is made by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones, to progressive decalcification of
parafollicular thus called Hypocalcemic Hormone bones that accompanies aging
cells found in  It is released directly to the blood in response
the Connective to an increasing level of blood calcium ions
tissue between
the follicles
 9.2.D. PARATHYROID GLANDS
 Are tiny masses of glandular tissue most often found on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
produced
PARATHYROID  An important regulator of calcium ion  Tetany - characterized by
HORMONE( PTH homeostasis of the blood uncontrollable spams caused by
)  When Blood calcium is low, PTH is secreted calcium ions level falls too low
stimulating the osteoclasts to break down and the resulting neurons
bone matrix and release Ca ions into the blood become extremely irritable and
thus also called Hypercalcemic Hormone overactive delivering impulses to
 The Skeleton is the major PTH target the muscles so rapidly which is
 It also stimulates the kidneys and intestines to sometimes fatal.
absorb more calcium ions

9.2.E. THYMUS
 Is located in the upper thorax, posterior to the sternum
 Large in infants and children but decreases in adulthood
 Secretes THYMOSIN - which is essential for the normal development of T lymphocytes and the immune
response

9.2.F. ADRENAL GLANDS

 They curve over the top of the kidney like triangular hats
 It has parts made of glandular ( cortex ) and neural tissue ( medulla )
ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES
 Adrenal cortex encloses the central medulla region which contains three separate layers of cells that
produce different hormones
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
(3)
MINERALOCORTIC  Important in regulating the mineral ( salt )  ADDISON’S DISEASE
OIDS/ content of the blood ( particularly the  Hyposecretion of Aldosterone
ALDOSTERONE
concentrations of Na and K )  Characteristics
(outermost
 Help regulate both water and electrolyte  Bronze tone of skin
adrenal cortex
balance in body fluids ( Suntan )
cell layer )
 Targets the kidney tubules that selectively  Water and Electrolyte
reabsorb the minerals or allow them to be Imbalance = weak
flushed out of the body in urine muscles and possible
 If aldosterone level rises in the blood = Na shock
Reabsorption , water reabsorption and K  Hypoglycemia
excretion in urine  Burnout - lessened ability
 How is it stimulated? to cope with stress
 Humoral factors ( low Na and and more K )  Immunosuppresed
and ACTH
 Renin : a hormone produced by the kidney,  HYPERALDOSTERONISM
causes a reaction that forms the  Hypersecretion of Aldosterone
Angiotensin II ( potent stimulator of ( pssibly due to ACTH
Alfosterone release ) releasing tumor of the
 ACTH pituitary or from adrenal
cortex tumors )
 How is Aldosterone Inhibited ?  Characteristics
 By the Atrial Natriuretic Peptide ( ANP ) =  High BP and Edema :
lowers blood volume and blood pressure retained Na and Water
 Potassium Loss : heart
and nervous system
disruption

GLUCOCORTICOIDS Promotes normal cell metabolism  CUSHING’S SYNDROME

(outermost  Helps the body to resist long term stressors  Excessive glucocorticoids
adrenal cortex ( high glucose levels )  Characteristics
cell layer ) :  Also called as “ Hyperglycemic Hormones”.  “Moon Face” and “Bump
Cortisone and Why? When blood levels Glucocorticoids are Hump” of fat on the
Cortisol high, fats and proteins are broken down by upper back
body cells and converted to glucose.  High BP
 Glucocorticoids are often Prescribed as drugs.  Steroid diabetes
Why ? Because of their anti inflammatory  Weakened Bones
properties ( reduce edema, and inhibits ( protein converted to
prostaglandins / pain receptors ) especially glucose )
with rheumatoid arthritis  Immunosuppresion
 How is Glucocorticoid stimulated? In
response to a rising blood level of ACTH
SEX HORMONES  Produces male and female sex hormones in  MASCULINIZATION
( Innermost small amounts  Hyposecretion of sex
adrenal cortex  Adrogens ( Male Sex Hormones ) hormones
cell layer )  Estrogens ( Female Sex Hormones )  Characteristics
 Males : masked
 Females : beard
develops, masculine
pattern of body hair
distribution occurs

ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONES ( NEURAL )

 Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system neurons
 Often thought as “Misplaced Sympathetic Nervous System Ganglion”
 Releases 2 Catecholamines : Epinephrine ( Adrenaline ) and Norepinephrine ( Noradrenaline )
HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Epinephrine  “Alarm stage” of the stress response - cope  Hypersecretion of
Norepinephrine with short term stress situations Catecholamines
( Catecholamines )  “Flight or Flight response” to cope with Short  Rapid Heartbeat
term stress response  High Blood Pressure
 Increased HR  Tendency to perspire and
 Increased BP irritable
 Increased Blood Glucose
 Dilation of Bronchioles
 Faster circulation of Blood to the body organs
( Brain, Muscles and Heart )
 Increased metabolic rate

9.2.G. PANCREATIC ISLETS

 Part of the Pancreas ( mixed gland )
 Also called as Islets of Langerhans - are little masses of endocrine ( hormone - producing ) tissue scattered
among the exocrine ( Enzyme producing ) tissue of the pancreas
 Act as fuel sensors secreting insulin and Glucagon appropriately during fed and fasting states
 2 important hormones produced : Insulin and GLucagon

HORMONES PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

Insulin  Stimulated by high levels of glucose in the  DIABETES MELLITUS
blood ( In the Beta Cells )  Rise of Blood Glucose because
 Is absolutely necessary for the use of glucose of the lack on insulin
by body cells secretion leading to spilling of
 It increases the ability to import glucose across glucose in the urine because
their plasma membranes kidney cannot reabsorb it fast
 It is the only hormone that decreases the enough, and then water
blood glucose level. follows, leading to
 Has also negative feedback control - when low dehydration
blood glucose, stimulus for insulin release  Could either be Type 2 Adult
ends Onset or Insulin Resistance
 Characteristics
 Body weight declines -
fats and proteins are
broken down because
cells does not have
access to glucose
  Decreased ability to fight
infections - because of
loss of body proteins
 Ketosis - A condition
wherein the blood
becomes very acidic
because of ketones, a
product of fat
breakdown. If untreated
could lead to coma or
death
 3 cardinal signs :
1. Polyuria - excessive
urination to flush out the
excess glucose and ketones
2. Polydipsia - excessive thirst
due to water loss
3. Polyohagia - hunger due to
inability to use sugars and the
loss of fat and proteins from
the body
GLucagon  Acts as an antagonist of insulin, thus, it helps  No known disorders resulting
to regulate glucose opposite that of insulin from hypo pr hypersecretion of
 Released by Alpha Cells Glucagon
 Primary target is the Liver - in response to low
blood glucose, GLycogen in the liver is broken
down to glucose and release it into the blood
9.2.H. GONADS
 Female and Male Gonads produce sex cells ( Exocrine Function )

HORMONES of PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

the Ovaries
Estrogens  Responsible for the development of sex  Hyposecretion of the Ovarian
characteristics of women - growth and Hormones severely hampers a
maturation of the reproductive organs woman’s ability to conceive and
 Responsible also for the appearance of bear children
secondary sex characteristics ( pubic and
axillary hairs )
 Promotes breast development
 Cyclic changes in the uterine lining
 Regulated by FSH and LH
Progesterone  Brings about menstruation
 During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of the
uterus so that the embryo will not be aborted
 It also prepares the breast for lactation
 Regulated by FSH and LH
HORMONES of PURPOSE HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
the Testes
Androgen  At puberty  Hyposecretion causes sterility
( Testosterone )  At puberty, testosterone promotes the
growth and maturation of the
is stimulated by reproductive system organs to prepare
LH the young man for reproduction
 It causes the secondary sex characteristics
to appear ( facial hair, heavy bones and
muscles and lowering of the voice
 In adults
 It is necessary for continuous production of
sperm
9.3. OTHER HORMONE - PRODUCING TISSUES AND ORGANS

HORMONE FUNCTION
1. Placenta  Respiratory, Excretory and nutrition delivery system s for the fetus
 Also produces several protein and steroid hormones that help to maintain
pregnancy and pave the way for the delivery of the baby
2. Human Chorionic  Stimulates the ovaries to continue producing estrogen and progesterone so that
Gonadotropin ( HCG ) the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in menses
3. Human Placental  Works cooperatively with and progesterone in preparing the breasts for
Lactogen ( hPL ) lactation
4. Relaxin  A placental hormone that causes the mother’s Pelvic Ligaments and the Pubic
Symphysis to relax and become more Flexible which eases birth passage

9.4. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

STAGE DESCRIPTION
Middle Age  Efficiency of the ovaries began to decline causing menopause and the ability to
bear children ends
 Estrogen Deficiency
 Arteriosclerosis
 Osteoporosis
 Decreased skin elasticity
 Hot Flashes
Elderly  Less able to resist stress and infection
 Type 2 Diabetes is common