Republic of the Philippines

Commission on Higher Education,

NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering and Architecture
Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City

EE 230
BASIC ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING

HAMILI, GENE ROSE B.

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN GEOTHERMAL ENGINEERING
2ND YEAR,
SECTION: A
AY: 2021-2022

i | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION  

Electrical Terminologies ……………..…………………………………. 1

II. ELECTRICAL CURRENT FLOW

Effects of Current Flow.………………,………………………………… 2

Magnetic effect of Electricity …………………………………………… 3

Causes Electric Current to Flow ………………………………………… 4

Electromagnetism ………………………………………………………… 5

Field Strength ……………………………………………………………… 6

III. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS

Electronics Components and Devices ………………………………………..7

IV. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

Electrical Test Instruments and Measuring Devices ……………………….... 21

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V. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

Ohm’s Law ………………………………………………………… 26

Electrical Power and Energy ……………………………………… 33

Sources of EMF …………………………………………………… 37

VI. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Factors Controlling Resistance ……………………………………… 42

Types of Resistors ……………………………………………………. 46

Connections of Resistors ……………………………………………... 50

Network Reduction of Resistors ……………………………………… 53

VII. LAWS, THEOREMS, AND METHODS USED IN NETWORK ANALYSIS

Kirchhoff’s Laws ……………………………………………………. 54

Maxwell’s Loop (Mesh) Method …………………………………… 56

The Superposition Theorem …………………………………………. 57

Nodal Method ……………………………………………………… 59

Thevenin’s Theorem ………………………………………………. 61

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 Norton’s Theorem …………………………………………………. 62

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ………………………………. 62

VIII. INDUCTANCE AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Inductance ……………………………………………………….. 64

Closing and Opening of Electric Circuits ………………………… 65

Current Growth in Inductive Circuits ……………………………. 65

Magnetic Field Energy …………………………………………… 66

Mutual Induction and Transformer Action ………………………. 67

Mutual Inductance and Coefficient of Coupling …………………. 68

IX. CAPACITANCE

Static Electricity ………………………………………………….. 71

Capacitance and Capacitor ……………………………………….. 71

Types of Capacitors and Main Parts of Capacitor ……………….. 75

The Electric Field ………………………………………………… 80

Dielectric and Multiple – Dielectric Capacitor ……………………… 81

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 Series and Parallel connections of Capacitors and Interconnection …….. 83

X. ALTERNATING CURRENT

Elementary AC Generator …………………………………………………….. 91

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents …………………………………………… 92

Summation of In-Phase Sinusoidal Waves …………………………………. 96

Summation of Out – of – Phase Sinusoidal Waves …………………………. 97

Vectors and Phasors ………………………………………………………… 97

Voltages and Currents as Phasors ………………………………………….. 98

XI. FUNDAMENTAL ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUIT THEORY

Basic Types of Circuits and Behaviors ……………………………….. 100

The R, L, and C Circuits ……………………………………………….. 103

Energy in an Inductive Circuit ……………………………………….. 106

Energy in a Capacitive Circuit …………………………………………109

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6 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
 I. INTRODUCTIONS
As an introduction of this subject, you research the definitions and concepts of the following
Electrical terminologies.
1. What is Electricity?
Electricity is a property of matter that results from the presence or movement of electric
charge.
Together with magnetism, it constitutes the fundamental interaction known as
electromagnetism.
Electricity is responsible for many well-known physical phenomena such as lightning,
electric fields and electric currents, and is put to use in industrial applications such as
electronics and electric power.
2. Electron Theory?
Electron Theory is the atomic structure of matter dictates the means for the production
and transmission of electrical power. All matter contains microscopic particles made of
electrons and protons. The forces that bind these particles together to create matter are the
same forces that create electrical current flow and produce electrical power.
3. Structure of the Molecule?
Molecular structure the location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one another in a
molecule, as well as the number and location of chemical bonds. A molecule is a
chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical
bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are macromolecules, large
molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule that
is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than
macromolecules).
4. Structure of an Atom?
Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus
(center) of the atom contains the protons (positively charged) and the neutrons (no
charge). The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and contain the
electrons (negatively charged). Atoms have different properties based on the arrangement
and number of their basic particles.
atom: The smallest possible amount of matter which still retains its identity as a chemical
element, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons.

 proton: Positively charged subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus

of an atom and determining the atomic number of an element. It weighs 1
AMU
 neutron: A subatomic particle forming part of the nucleus of an atom. It
has no charge. It is equal in mass to a proton or it weighs 1 AMU.

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II. ELECTRICAL CURRENT FLOW
1. What is Electrical Current Flow?
Electric Current is the flow of electrons through a wire or solution. In a solid the electrons are
passed from one positively charged metallic atom to next but in solution the electron is carried
by the ions present in the solution. A solution capable of carrying charge is called an electrolyte.
Electrolyte solutions are found in batteries as well as in all living things.
Is measured according to how many electrons pass a given point each second. The symbol for
current is I. The unit of measurement is the amperes (A) or amp (1coloumb/second or 6.24 x 106
electrons). The net charge on the wire carrying the current is zero.

2. What are the Effects of Current Flow?

When current flows in a circuit it exhibits various effects. The main effects are heating,
chemical and magnetic effects.

 Heating effect

When the flow of current is ‘resisted’.

Generally, heat is produced is because the
electrons while moving in the wire or
resistor or resistance. Work has to be
done to overcome the resistance which is
converted in to heat energy. Is conversion
of electrical energy in to heating energy is
called ‘Joule heating’ as this effect was
extensively studied by the scientist Joule. Is forms the principle of all electric heating
appliances like iron box, water heater, toaster etc. Even when connecting wires or small
resistance to the flow of current. That is why almost all electrical appliances including the
connecting wires feel warm when used in an electric circuit.

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  Chemical Effect
So far we have come across the cases in which only the electrons can
conduct electricity. But, here when current passes through electrolyte like
copper sulphate solution, both the electron and the positive copper ion
conduct electricity. The process of conduction of electric current through
solutions is called ‘electrolysis’. The solution through which the electricity
passes is called ‘electrolyte’. The positive terminal inserted in to the
solution is called ‘anode’ and the negative terminal ‘cathode’. In the above
experiment, copper wire is anode and carbon rod is cathode.

• Magnetic effect of Electricity

A wire or a conductor carrying current
develops a magnetic field perpendicular
to the direction of the flow of current is
called magnetic effect of current.
The discovery of the scientist Oersted and
the ‘right hand thumb rule’ are detailed in
the chapter on Magnetism and Electromagnetism in this book.
Direction of current is shown by the righthand thumb and the direction of magnetic field is
shown by other fingers of the same right hand (Fig. 2.18).

3. What are the two (2) directions of Current Flow?

The direction of an electric current is by convention the direction in which a positive
charge would move. Thus, the current in the external circuit is directed away from the
positive terminal and toward the negative terminal of the battery. Electrons would
actually move through the wires in the opposite direction. Knowing that the actual charge
carriers in wires are negatively charged electrons may make this convention seem a bit
odd and outdated. Nonetheless, it is the convention that is used worldwide and one that a
student of physics can easily become accustomed to.

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 4. What causes Electric Current to Flow?
Electrical current occurs on the particle level among the atoms of a conducting material
—in a household circuit, this is the copper wiring. In each atom there are three types of
particles: neutrons, protons (which carry a positive electromagnetic charge) and electrons
(which carry a negative charge). The important particle here is the electron, since it has
the unique characteristic of being able to separate from its atom and move to an adjacent
atom. This flow of electrons is what creates electrical current—the jump of negatively-
charged electrons from atom to atom.

5. What is Electromotive Force (EMF)?

Electromotive force (EMF) is equal to the terminal potential difference when no current
flows. EMF and terminal potential difference (V) are both measured in volts, however
they are not the same thing. EMF (ϵ) is the amount of energy (E) provided by the battery
to each coulomb of charge (Q) passing through. The EMF of the cell can be determined
by measuring the voltage across the cell using a voltmeter and the current in the circuit
using an ammeter for various resistances. We can then set up a circuit to determine EMF
as shown below.

6. Define briefly the following:

A. Electromagnetism
B. Electromagnetic Field
C. Magnetic Field of a Loop or Coil
D. Field Strength
E. Electromagnetic Fields of Permanent Magnets

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 A. Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that involves the study of the
electromagnetic force. It is a type of interaction that occurs between
electrically charged particles.

B. Electromagnetic field, a property of space caused by the motion of an

electric charge. A stationary charge will produce only an electric field in
the surrounding space. If the charge is moving, a magnetic field is also
produced.

C. Magnetic Field of a Loop or Coil - Examining the direction of the

magnetic field produced by a current-carrying segment of wire shows
that all parts of the loop contribute magnetic field in the same direction
inside the loop. Electric current in a circular loop creates a magnetic
field which is more concentrated in the center of the loop than outside
the loop. Stacking multiple loops concentrates the field even more into
what is called a solenoid.

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 D. magnetic field strength, also called magnetic intensity or magnetic
field intensity, the part of the magnetic field in a material that arises
from an external current and is not intrinsic to the material itself. It is
expressed as the vector H and is measured in units of amperes per metre.

E. Electromagnetic Fields of Permanent Magnets Permanent magnets

are materials where the magnetic field is generated by the internal
structure of the material itself. Inside atoms and crystals you have both
electrons and the nucleus of the atom. Both the nucleus and the electrons
themselves act like little magnets, like little spinning chunks of electric
charge, and they have magnetic fields inherent in the particles
themselves. There's also a magnetic field that's generated by the orbits of
the electrons as they move about the nucleus. So, the magnetic fields of
permanent magnets are the sums of the nuclear spins, the electron spins
and the orbits of the electrons themselves.

In many materials, the magnetic fields are pointing in all sorts of random directions and
cancel each other out and there's no permanent magnetism. But in certain materials, called
ferromagnets, all the spins and the orbits of the electrons will line up, causing the materials to
become magnetic. This would be your normal iron, cobalt, nickel. Permanent magnets are
limited by the structure of the material. And the strongest magnetic field of a permanent magnet
is about 8,000 gauss. The strongest magnets here at the Magnet Lab are 450,000 gauss, which
would be almost 50 times stronger than that.

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III. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS SYMBOL
Research at least 120 Electrical and Electronics Components and Devices that includes Symbols,
Definition and Illustration/Figure.

SYMBOLS DEFINITIONS
1.
WIRES - Represents a conductor that conducts electrical current.
Also called a power line or electric line or wire.

2.
Connected Wires - Represents the connection of two conductors.
Dot shows the junction point.

3.
Unconnected Wires - Represents two unconnected wires/conductors.

4.
Input Bus Line- Represents a bus for input or incoming data.

5.
Output Bus Line- Represents a bus for output or outgoing data

6.
Terminal - Represents start or end point.

7.
Bus Line - Represents a number of conductors joined together to
form a bus wire.

SWITCHES

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 9.
Push Button (Normally Open)- This switch is in ON state when the
button is pressed otherwise it is in OFF state.

10.
Push Button (Normally Closed) - This switch is initially in ON state.
This goes to OFF state when it is released.

11.
SPST Switch- Single pole single throw is abbreviated as SPST. This
acts as ON/OFF switch. Poles define the number of circuits it can be
connected to and throws defines the number of positions that a pole
connects.
12.
SPDT Switch - Single pole double throw is abbreviated as SPDT. This
switch allows the current to flow in any one of the two directions by
adjusting its position.

13.
Relay Switch - This represents the relay switch. This can control the AC
Loads using the DC voltage applied to the coil.

14.
DPST Switch - Double pole single throw is abbreviated as DPST. This
switch can drive two circuits at a time.

15.
DPDT Switch - Double pole double throw is the full form of DPDT.
This can connect the four circuits by changing the position.

16.
DIP Switch - It is the symbol of the DIP switch which is used for
onboard configuration.

Sources

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 17.
AC Supply- This represents AC supply in the circuit

18.
Controlled current Source - It is a dependent current source. Usually
depends on other sources (voltage or current).

19.
Constant Current Source - The symbol represents an independent
current source which delivers constant current.

20.
DC Supply - This represents the DC power supply. It applies DC supply
to the circuit.

21.
Controlled Voltage Source - It is a dependent voltage source. Usually
depends on other sources (voltage or current).

Wave Generators
22.
Single Cell Battery - This provides supply to the circuit.

23.
Multi Cell Battery- Combination of multiple single cell batteries or a
single large cell battery. The voltage is usually higher.

24.
Sinusoidal Generator - Represents sine wave generator.

25.
Triangular Wave - Represents triangular wave generator.

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 26.
Pulse Generator- Represents pulse or square wave generator.

GROUND SYMBOLS
27.
Ground - It is equivalent to theoretical 0V and is used as zero potential
reference. It is the potential of perfectly conducting earth.

28.
Signal Ground - It is a reference point from which the signal is
measured. There may be several signal grounds in a circuit due to the
voltage drops in a circuit.
29.
Chassis Ground - It acts as a barrier between user and the circuit and
prevents electric shock.

I
RESISTOR SYMBOLS
30.
Fixed Resistor - It is a device that opposes the flow of current in a
circuit. These two symbols are used to represent fixed resistor.

31.
Magneto Resistor - They are also called as Magnetic Dependent
Resistors (MDR). The resistance of magneto resistor varies according to
the external magnetic field strength. They are used in electronic
compass, ferrous material detection, position sensors etc.
32.
Rheostat - It is a two terminal variable resistor. They are generally used
to control the current in the circuit. Generally used in tuning circuits and
power control applications like heaters, ovens.

33.
Preset- It is a mini variable resistor. It is also called Trimmer Resistor or
Trim Pot. The resistance is adjusted with rotary control present on top of
it with the help of a screw driver. They are used to adjust the sensitivity
of the circuit like temperature or light.

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 34.
LDR - They are also called as Photo Resistors. The resistance of
LDR varies with the intensity of the light incident on it. They are
generally used in light sensing applications.
35.
Thermistor - It is a temperature sensitive resistor. They are used in
temperature sensing, current limiting circuits, over-current protection
circuits etc.

36.
Varistor - It is a Voltage Dependent Resistor. It has non-linear
current-voltage characteristics. Generally used in circuit protection
from voltage surges and excessive transient voltages.

37.
Tapped resistor - A wire-wound type fixed resistor with one or
more terminals along its length. Generally used in voltage divider
applications.

38.
Attenuator - It is a device used to lower the power of a signal. They
are made from simple voltage dividers and hence can be classified in
the family of the resistors.
39.
Memristor - The resistance of memristor is varied according to the
direction of flow of charge. Memristors can be used in signal
processing, logic/computation, non-volatile memory etc.
40.
Non -Polarized Capacitor - Capacitor stores the charge in the form
of electrical energy. These two symbols are used for non-polarized
capacitor. Non-polarized capacitors are big in size with small
capacitance. They can be used in both AC and DC circuits.
41.
Variable Capacitor - The capacitance of the variable capacitor can
be adjusted by turning the knob. They are widely used to adjust the
frequency, that is for tuning.

42.
Polarized Capacitor - Polarized capacitors are small in size but have
high capacitance. They are used in DC circuits. They can be used as
filters, for bypassing or passing low frequency signals.

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 43.
Electrolytic Capacitor - Almost all electrolytic capacitors are
polarized and hence used in DC circuits

44.
Feed through Capacitor - They provide low impedance path to
ground for high frequency signals

INDUCTORS
45.
Iron Core Inductor - These are used as substitutes to ferrite core
inductors. Ferrite core or Ferromagnetic inductors have high
permeability and require air gap to reduce it. Iron powdered core
inductors have this air gap integrated.
46.
Ferrite Core Inductors- Core material, in this type of inductors is
made of ferrite material. These are mostly used to suppress the
interference of electromagnetic waves.

47.
Center Tapped Inductors - These are used in coupling of signals,

48.
Variable Inductors - Movable ferrite magnetic core variable
inductors are most common. The inductance is varied by sliding the
core in or out of the coil.

DIODES
49.
Pn Junction Diode - A PN junction diode allows the current to flow
only in forward bias condition. These diodes can be used in clipping
and clamping circuits, as rectifiers in dc circuits etc.
50.
Zener Diode - In forward bias condition, it acts as normal diode and
allows current. It also allows current to flow in reverse bias condition
when the voltage reaches a certain break-down point. Generally used
in voltage regulator and over voltage protection circuits.

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 51.
Photodiode - Photodiode detects the light energy and converts it into
current or voltage by a mechanism called photoelectric effect. These
are used in CD players, Cameras etc.
52.
Led - Light emitting diode is similar to PN junction diode but they
emit energy in the form of light instead of heat. These are mostly
used indication, lightening applications.
53.
Varactor Diode - Varactor diode is called varicap or variable
capacitance diode. The capacitance of this diode varies according to
the applied input voltage. This is used in frequency, controlled
oscillators, frequency multipliers etc.
54.
Shockley Diode - This is a 4 layer diode. This had fast switching
operation and hence is used in switching applications.

55.
Schottky Diode - It represents Schottky diode. It has low forward
voltage drop and it can switch rapidly. Used in voltage clamping,
rectifiers, reverse current and discharge protection
56.
Tunnel Diode - This is also known as Esaki diode. It can switch very
fast and can perform well in micro wave frequency range. This is
used in oscillator circuits and micro wave circuits.
57.
Thyristor - It consists of four layers of alternating P and N materials.
They act as best able switches and are used in circuits where high
voltages and currents are involved.

58.
Constant Current Diode - Also called as Current Limiting Diode or
Current Regulating Diode. It limits the current to a specified
maximum value.

59.
Laser Diode - The laser diode is similar to light emitting diode. The
active region is formed in intrinsic region in PIN structure. Laser
diodes find its applications in laser printing, laser scanning etc.
TRANSISTOR SYMBOLS

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 60.
NPN - It is made of combination of P-type semiconductor between
two N-type semiconductors. It is switched ON when the base-emitter
junction is forward biased. They are commonly used for amplifying
and switching applications.

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 61.
PNP - It is made of combination of N-type semiconductor between
two P-type semiconductors. It is switched ON when the base-emitter
junction is reverse biased. These are used for amplifying and
switching applications

62.
N- Channel JFET - N-channel JFET is made by n-type silicon bars
which form two PN junctions at the side. Majority charge carriers here
are electrons.
63.
P-Channel JFET - P-Channel JFET is made by p-type silicon bar
which forms two PN junctions at the side. Majority charge carriers
here are holes.
64.
Enhancement MOSFET - The enhancement mode MOSFET has
positive gate operation. It induces negative charges into the n-channel
and thus number of negative charges increases, enhancing the channel
conductivity.

65.
Depletion MOSFET - The depletion mode has negative gate
operation. This decreases the width of the depletion layer.

66.
Phototransistor - The photo transistor converts the light energy
falling on it to its corresponding electrical energy. This can be used in
light sensing applications. Base is left disconnected as light is used to
enable the flow of current.

67.
Photo Darlington - Photo Darlington Transistor is similar to
phototransistor with very high gain and sensitivity

68.
Darlington Transistor - This configuration produces high current
gain. They are used in power regulators, output stages of audio
amplifiers, display drivers etc.
Logic Gates
69.
And Gate - This is the basic gate and it implements logical
conjunction. The output of the AND gate is high, only if both the
inputs are high otherwise both are low.

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 70.
Or Gate - The OR gate implements logical disjunction. The output is
high if any one of the inputs is high.

71.
N and Gate - It is complement of AND gate. The output is low only
when both the inputs are high, otherwise it is high.

72. Nor Gate - NOR gate is a not OR gate. Output of this gate is high, if
both the inputs are Low, otherwise it is High.

73.
Not Gate - Inverter or NOT gate implements logical negation. This
gate inverts the input.

74.
Exor- This gate implements exclusive OR logic. The output of this
gate is high, if both the inputs are different.

75.
Exnor - This gate implements negation of EXOR logic. The output of
this gate is high, only if the two inputs are identical.

76.
Buffer - It is an audio signaling device. Generally used in alarms,
timers and for confirmation messages.

77. Tri-State Buffer - Similar to a normal buffer but with a control

signal. In case of active high buffer, it operates normally only when
control signal is 1. In case of active low buffer, it operates normally
only when control signal is 0.
78.
Flip Flop - Flip flop is the also
a memory element but this is a synchronous device. The figure below
shows the basic D-flip-flop.
Amplifiers

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 79.
Operational Amplifier - Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) is a
voltage amplifier with very high gain. The input is differential. They
are used in instrumentation devices, signal processing, control
systems.

80.
Basic Amplifier - An amplifier is a device that amplifies a relatively
small input signal i.e. it increases the power of the signal. They are
used in communication systems, audio devices etc.

ANTENNA
81.
Antenna - This symbol belongs to Aerial or Antenna. It converts
electrical power into radio waves. It is used in wireless
communication to transmit or receive the signals.

82.
Loop Antenna - Loop antenna is named after its loop like shape of
wire or other electrical conductor. They are used as receiving
antennas in low frequency range.
83.
Dipole Antenna - It is most widely used antenna. Generally used in
set-top TV, shortwave transmission and FM receivers.

TRANSFORMER
84.
Transformer - Transformer is the basic element that transfers energy
in one circuit to the other circuit through electromagnetic induction.
They are generally used in electric power applications to increase or
decrease the voltage of AC current.
85.
Iron Core - Uses a piece of magnetic material as core. Generally
Ferro magnetic metals like iron are used. The core has high
permeability and is used to confine the magnetic field.

86.
Center Tapped -The center tapped transformer has its secondary
winding divided into two parts with same number of turns in each
part. This results in two individual output voltages across two line
ends. Used in rectifier circuits.

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 87.
Step Up Transformer -The no. of turns in secondary winding is
more than that of primary winding. The output voltage is higher than
input voltage. Significantly used in inverters.

88.
Step Down Transformer -The no. of turns in secondary winding is
less than that of primary winding. The output voltage is lesser than
input voltage. It is widely used in low power applications.

MISCELLANEOUS
89.
Buzzer- This is sound producing device. This produces buzz sound
when the voltage is applied.

90.
Loud speaker - This is also an audio device. The electrical signal is
converted into sound signal here.

91.
Light bulb - The symbol represents the light bulb. The bulb glows
when required voltage is applied.

92.
Motor - This converts the electric energy to mechanical energy.

93.
Fuse - Symbol represents the fuse that protects the circuit from over
current.

94.
Crystal Oscillator - Used to generate clock signal of very precise
frequency.

95.
ADC - Analog to Digital converter is used convert analog signals
(usually voltage) to digital values.

96.
DAC - Digital to Analog converter is used to convert digital code to
analog signals.

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 97.
Thermocouple - It is used to measure temperature.

Meter Symbols
98.
Voltmeter - It is the symbol that shows Voltmeter which is used to
measure the voltage.
99.
Ammeter - It represents the ammeter whose work is to measure the
current in the circuit.

100.
Ohmmeter - It is the symbol of the ohmmeter which is needed to
measure the value of a resistor.

101.
Wattmeter- This represents the power meter which shows the power
consumption.

Utility Symbols
102.
Electric Bell- This is the symbol of Bell which Rings when activated.

103.
Microphone - Microphone Converts sound waves to the electrical
signal.
104.
Multiplexer- Symbol of the multiplexer. Connect the output to the
selected input line.
105.
DE multiplexer - This shows DE multiplexer. Connect selected
output to the input line.

106.
Optocoupler- This shows Optocoupler. Optocoupler isolates
connection to other board.

107.
Analog to Digital Converter -This is the symbol of ATD converts
analog signal to digital numbers.

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 108.
Digital to Analog Converter -This is the symbol of DTA converts
digital numbers to analog signals.

109.
7-segment Display - A 7-segment display used common cathode
(CC) or common anode (CA) for displaying single numbers and
letters
110.
Solar Cell- P–N junction photovoltaic cell transducer which converts
light intensity directly into electrical energy
111.
Photoresistor- Light dependent resistor (LDR) which changes its
resistive value with changes in light intensity
112.
Indicator Lamp or Light Bulb - A filament lamp, indicator or other
which emits visible light when a current flow’s through it
113.
Opto-isolator or Optocoupler - An Opto-isolator or Optocoupler
which uses photo-sensitive devices to isolate its input and output
connections
114.
Controlled Voltage Source -It is the symbol of a constant voltage
Source that gives controllable voltage at the output.
115. NMOS Transistor -This is a symbol of Mosfet N-channel MOSFET
transistor.

116. PMOS Transistor This is a symbol of Mosfet P-channel

MOSFET transistor.

117.
Bus - The bus symbol contains several wires. usually for data /
address.
118.
Tetrode - Tetrode, vacuum-type electron tube with four electrodes.
In addition to the cathode filament, anode plate, and control grid, as
in the triode, an additional grid, the screen grid, is placed between the
control grid and the anode plate.

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 119.
Thyratron - is a type of gas-filled tube used as a high-power
electrical switch and controlled rectifier.

120.
Cathode - This is the electrode that is heated and emits the electrons.

121. Suppressor grid- In the pentode valve / vacuum tube, the

suppressor grid is generally maintained at a low voltage, often
connected directly to the cathode.

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 IV. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENTS

A. Electrical Materials and Equipment

List of common Electrical Materials and Equipment and Identify their functions.
1. CONVENIENCE OUTLET - is a device that acts as a convenient source of
electrical energy for current consuming appliances. It is where the male plug of an
appliance is inserted and usually fastened on the wall or connected in an extension
cord. It maybe single, duplex, triplex or multiplex and could be surface type or flush
type.

2. Lamp Holder – This is an electrical device that is used to hold and protect
incandescent or compact fluorescent lamp. It is also called as “Lamp
Socket/Receptacle”

3. SWITCH - is a device that connects and disconnects the flow of electric current in a
circuit. Switches are classified as hanging, flush and surface types.

4. Fuse - a circuit protective device that automatically blows and cuts the current when
overload or short circuit happens.

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 5. Circuit Breaker - a protective device used to cut or interrupt automatically the
current when trouble in the circuit such as short circuit or overload occurs.

6. Utility Box - a rectangular shaped metallic or plastic (PVC) material in which flush
type convenience outlet and switch are attached.

7. Flat Cord - a duplex stranded wire used for temporary wiring installation and
commonly used in extension cord assembly.

8. Male Plug - is a device inserted to a convenience outlet to conduct electric current. A

flat cord is attached to it on one end and the other end is connected to a current
consuming instrument or appliance.

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 9. Electrical Wire/Conductor- electrical material that could be: Stranded wire which is
made of multiple strands joined together to make a single wire. Solid wire is made of
a single strand of copper or aluminum wire. These are used in wiring installation
inside and outside the buildings.

10. Electrical Conduits/Pipes - electrical materials used as the passage of wires for
protection and insulation. These could be rigid metallic, flexible metallic conduit
(FMC), rigid non-metallic (PVC), and flexible non-metallic or corrugated plastic
conduit (CPC).

A. Electrical Test Instruments and Measuring Devices.

1. The Basic Meter Movement - The action of the most commonly dc meter is
based on the fundamental principle of the motor. The motor action is produced by
the flow of a small current through a moving coil, which is positioned in the field
of a permanent magnet.

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 2. An Ammeter - is a measuring device that is used to measure the flow of
electricity in the form of current in a circuit. Electrical currents are then measured
in the form of amperes, hence the name, "ammeter".

3. Voltmeter - is a measuring instrument used to find the voltage levels around an

electrical circuit when connected in parallel with the part of the circuit being
measured.

4. Ohmmeter - is to measure the resistance placed between its leads. This resistance
reading is indicated through a mechanical meter movement which operates on
electric current. The ohmmeter must then have an internal source of voltage to
create the necessary current to operate the movement, and also have appropriate
ranging resistors to allow just the right amount of current through the movement
at any given resistance.

5. Multitester /multimeter - also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an

electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in
one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure
voltage, current and resistance.

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 6. Clamp-meter - r is an electrical test tool that combines a basic digital multimeter
with a current sensor. Clamps measure current. Probes measure voltage. Having a
hinged jaw integrated into an electrical meter allows technicians to clamp the jaws
around a wire, cable or other conductor at any point in an electrical system, then
measure current in that circuit without disconnecting/deenergizing it.

7. Galvanometer - It is a device used to detect the strength and direction of small

current present in the circuit.

8. Oscilloscope - a device that allows you to see how voltage changes over time by
displaying a waveform of electronic signals.

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 V. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUIT
A. Ohm’s Law 
- Ohm’s law states the relationship between electric current and potential difference.
The current that flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage
applied to it.
- Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperature remain
constant.

Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,

In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R is the resistance and has units of ohms,
with symbol Ω.
The same formula can be written in order to calculate the current and resistance
respectively as follows.

1. Electrical Effects and Energy Transformations

Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of negative charges of the

conductor. For an electric current to occur, it has to be conducted through a
material. When the flow of electrons provided by electricity finds a resistance, it
results in a dissipation of energy in the form of heat. If there is an excessive
amount of heat generated, the tissue may be burnt. Physiologically, the difference
between a normal burn and burn a caused by electricity is that electricity has the
ability to burn tissue beneath the skin, even burning internal organs without
apparent external evidence of it.

The contact with electric current can have various effects on the human body such
as pain, burns or even death. There are many factors with affect the way the body
interacts with current, such as the skin resistance, the voltage, the length of time of
contact, the amount of electric current and its intensity. The body is extremely
sensitive to the effects of electric current., that’s why this scenario can lead to a
variety of outcomes. Firstly, it disrupts normal operation of our nervous and
muscular systems. The other reason when current passes through your body, it is
transformed into thermal energy. This can cause serious burns, both inside your
body and your skin. Currents of about 10mA can cause a very painful shock. The
longer the current continues to pass through you, the worse it gets. More heat is

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 generated and the damage to your body increases, so the inability to let go can
cause some serious problems. Currents above about 100 mA are almost always
fatal unless immediate attention is provided.

The amount of current passing through a human depends on two things: the
voltage supplied by the source and the electrical resistance of your body. The
amount of electric current that flow through the body determines various effects of
an electric shock. Most current-related effects result from heating of tissues and
stimulation of muscles and nerves.

Energy transformations 

Transform means to change. 

 Energy can be changed from one type to another. For example, as water falls
over a waterfall, its gravitational potential energy is first transformed into
kinetic energy are processes that convert energy from one type (e.g., kinetic,
gravitational potential, chemical energy) into another. Any type of energy use
must involve some sort of energy transformation. 

a. Chemical Energy 

Chemical energy is the energy stored in matter. Matter releases this energy during
chemical reactions. For example, fuels like coal, petrol, diesel, kerosene oil all have
chemical energy stored in them. However, they release this chemical energy only during
the combustion reaction in the form of heat. The chemical energy released by petrol or
diesel helps to run a car or a truck. Some more examples of chemical energy are: 

 When we eat food, our body processes the food particles to release chemical
energy. This energy helps us to do work and keep us warm. 

 In chemical batteries, we convert chemical energy to electrical energy to

perform various kinds of works. 

 By combustion of various fuels in the presence of oxygen, we convert

chemical energy to produce heat and light energy. 

 In a thermal powerplant, we convert the chemical energy of coal into electrical

energy.

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 b. Mechanical Energy

Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of rest or state
of motion. The mechanical energy is of two forms–potential and kinetic. The total
mechanical energy of a body is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies. The
form of energy possessed by a body due to the virtue of its state of motion is called
kinetic energy. Whereas, the potential energy is the stored up energy of a body due to
virtue of its state of rest or position which has the ability to do work. Some examples
of these two forms of energy are as follows: 

 A fast-moving stone thrown towards a glass window has the capacity of

breaking a windowpane when its trikes the pane. Thus, the stone in motion
has kinetic energy. Some more examples of kinetic energy are–a bullet fire
from a gun, a rolling ball, an orange falling from a tree, flowing water, a boy
playing football, swinging pendulum, wind blowing, flying bird, etc. 

 Water stored in a dam has potential energy stored in it. The water has energy
due to position at a height. When we open the gates of the dam, the
waterflows through the turbine and produces electrical energy. 

 A wound-up watch spring has the potential energy because of the wound-up
state of its coil. As the spring unwinds itself, it does work to move the arms of
the watch. 

b. Light Energy 

Light is a form of energy in the presence of which we can see objects. Under normal
circumstances light always travels in a straight line i.e. it has a rectilinear propagation
which also leads to the formation of the shadow of opaque objects. Most importantly,
light is also a very good source for starting chemical reactions. Some examples for
usage of light as energy are:

29 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

  In the process of photosynthesis, plants produce food (glucose) from carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. 

 Light consists of very small packets of energy called photons. These photons
travel at very high speed in fact, nothing in the universe travels faster than
photons. These photons have the capability to move small particles.
Although we do not feel the light energy because the ordinary light does not
move the objects around us. But a strong beam of light can move small
particles like electrons.
 
 When light travels from an object to our eye, we can see the object. It helps
us to identify colors.

 By using photovoltaic cells, we can convert light energy from the Sun to
electrical energy.

c. Heat or Thermal Energy 

Most forms of energy get converted into heat energy before they are used. So, it is
one of the most important forms of energy. The energy released when we burn coal,
oil, wood, or gas is called heat or thermal energy. Like other forms of energy, we can
use heat energy for carrying out the work. Let’s understand the same with an
example: 

Steam possess heat energy those, it is capable to do work. It is our common

experience that if we heat some water in a kettle with a lid on it, we notice that as the
water begins to boil’s and the steam makes the lid lift. This is actually due to the heat
energy stored in the steam. Based on this, James Watt in the year 1765 invented the
steam engine. In the steam engine, James Watt used heat energy to drive the train. 

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 d. Sound Energy 

When any object vibrates it produces sound energy. When sound produced by a
vibrating body reaches our eardrum, it makes the drum vibrates and we hear the
sound of the vibrating body. Remember, all vibrations are not audible to human ears.
A very high amount of vibrations (more than 20,000 vibrations per second) or very
low vibration (less than 20 vibrations per second) produce such sound that is
inaudible to human beings. However, animals like bats, rats, and moths can hear
vibrations of more than 20,000 per second. Since vibrating or moving have kinetic
energy so sound is a kind of energy. However, unlike other forms of energy, it needs
the presence of a medium to propagate. This is the reason why two astronauts fail to
hear each other on the moon surface due to the absence of any medium. Some
examples of sound energy are-an airplane taking off, a buzzing of a bee, a speech by
a woman, the ringing of a bell, the popping of a balloon, etc. 

e. MAGNETIC ENERGY 

Magnetic energy is the energy possessed by a magnet. A magnet can attract iron nails
from a distance and thus the force exerted by the magnet makes the nail move
towards the magnet. Therefore, magnetic energy can work from a distance. Since a
magnet can move the particles, so it possess one of the forms of energy. Some
examples of magnetic energy in daily life are:

 In factories, to separate iron scrap from the heap of waste material we use the
big electromagnets fixed in the cranes. 

 An electric motor used in a fan or other machines has magnets in it, thus it
utilizes magnetic energy. 

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  We can produce electrical energy by rotating a coil made of copper or any
other conductor inside a magnetic field. This is the principle behind the
working of generators. 

f. Electrical Energy 

When we rub two bodies together, they produce opposite charges (positive and
negative) carrying electrical energy. This is static electrical energy. However, if we
connect these two bodies with opposite charges via conductor, an electric current
flow’s through the conductor. We call this electricity. Out of all other forms of
energy we study in physics, electrical energy is of tremendous use in our daily life.
We use electricity at home to run our domestic appliances, at offices, in factories, for
transportation, etc. Today electricity is a basic necessity of life. Life will come to a
standstill if electricity fails to exist for quite sometimes. Examples of appliances in
which we use electrical energy are lightning purpose, fan, televisions, computers, air
conditioners, doorbell, geysers, microwave oven, etc. 

g. Atomic or Nuclear Energy 

Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms is nuclear or atomic energy. A large amount of
energy is produced when the nucleus of an atom splits (nuclear fission) or two nuclei
of different atoms combine (nuclear fusion). During nuclear fission, atoms or nuclei
of some of the heavy elements like uranium, thorium, or polonium split to form other
stable elements. Whereas in nuclear fission, atoms or nuclei of small atoms like

32 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 hydrogen and helium combine to form bigger atoms. During these processes,
elements change into another element by releasing a large amount of energy in the
form of heat along with radiation. We can use atomic energy for peaceful as well as
destructive purposes. Some of the examples for usage of atomic or nuclear energy
are: 

 During nuclear fission or nuclear fission large amount of energy is released in

the form of heat. We can use this energy to generate electricity in nuclear
reactors. 

 The radiations emitted in the form of nuclear energy helps in the medical
treatment of diseases such as cancer. 

 For destructive purposes, we use atom bombs for destroying the enemy in the
war.

2. Electric Circuit 
An electric circuit is a closed path in which electrons 
move to produce electric currents. Indeed, all the simple modern
marvels area consequence of this scientific principle. 
Electrical circuit is an interconnection of electrical components.
An electrical circuit consists of batteries, resistors,
inductors, capacitors, switches or transistors. An
electrical network consists of a closed loop. A circuit is a closed
path where electrons flow in a wire. As long as the copper wire
is allowed to itself, the electrons drift between the atoms but
never leave the copper. 

3. Measurement of Amperes and Volts 

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 Volts and amperes are measures of electricity. 

A volt is the unit of electric potential difference, or the size of the force that sends
the electrons through a circuit. 

An ampere is the unit used to measure electric current. Current is a count of the
number of electrons flowing through a circuit. One amp is the amount of current
produced by a force of one volt acting through the resistance of one ohm. 

(An ohm is a way of measuring resistance. A certain length of copper wire, which
is a good conductor, has a resistance of .0000017 ohms, while the same length of
Sulfur which is a very poor conductor, is much more resistant. It has a resistance
of 200,000,000,000,000,000 ohms!) 

 The standard units of electrical measurement used for the expression of

voltage, current and resistance are the Volt [V], Ampere [A] and Ohm[Ω]
respectively. 

 These electrical units of measurement are based on the International

(metric) System, also known as the SI System with other commonly used
electrical units being derived from SI base units.

B. Electrical Power and Energy 

Electric Power – It is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed in an

electrical circuit. Simply put, it is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of
time. In physics, the rate of transfer of electrical energy by an electrical circuit per unit
34 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
 time is called electrical power. Here electrical energy can be either kinetic energy or
potential energy. In most of the cases, potential energy is considered, which is the energy
stored due to the relative positions of charged particles or electric fields. Electrical power
is denoted by P and measured using Watt.

 Electrical energy is the energy derived from electric potential energy or kinetic
energy of the charged particles. In general, it is referred to as the energy that has
been converted from electric potential energy. We can define electrical energy as
the energy generated by the movement of electrons from one point to another. The
movement of charged particles along/through a medium (say wire) constitutes
current or electricity. 

1. Electric and Heat Energy 

The result of the movement of minute particles known as atoms, molecules, or ions in
liquids, solids, and gases is nothing but heat energy. Heat energy can be transferred by
one substance to another and the flow because of the temperature difference between two
objects is known as heat. 

Electric or Electrical energy is the power an atom's charged particles have to cause an
action or move an object. The movement of electrons from one atom to another is what
results in electrical energy.

Heat energy is the movement of energy from one object to another. It is also called
thermal energy. It can move in three ways: through conduction, convection, or radiation.
Conduction occurs when heat moves directly from one object to another. 

What happens when you leave your car parked in a sunny parking lot on a hot day? The
heat of the sun passes directly through the metal of the car and heats the air (and seats) on
the inside. Heat energy is the movement of energy from one object to another. It is also
called thermal energy. It can move in three ways: through conduction, convection, or
radiation. Conduction occurs when heat moves directly from one object to another.

Convection is the movement of hot liquids or gases. For example, When you boil water
the liquid nearest the flame heats up first. As it gets hot, it rises, and the cooler water goes
to the bottom where it gets heated. This continues until the water is boiled. 

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 2. Cost of Electrical Service 

Applied Load (AL) Bracket  Residential Use  Business Use

AL<=1.00 KW  Php 810.00  Php1,360.00

1.00 KW<AL<=1.50 KW  Php 1,220.00  Php 2,110.00

1.50 KW<AL<=2.00KW  Php 1,620.00  Php 2,910.00

2.00 KW<AL<=3.00 KW  Php 2,510.00  Php 4,610.00

3.00 KW<AL<=4.00 KW  Php 3,450.00  Php 6,140.00

4.00 KW<AL<=5.00 KW  Php 4,580.00  Php 7,670.00

What are the fees that I need to settle for a new electric service? 

The following are the fees for a new residential and business electric service: 

a. Bill Deposit 

The bill deposit is an amount required from all customers of all distribution
utilities as a guarantee for the payment of electric bills. It may be likened to
the advance deposit made by a tenant for the rental of residence or office
space. The bill deposit amount corresponds to an estimated average 1-month
bill, which is computed based on the electric load requirement submitted
during services application. The following table summarizes the bill deposit
amounts for residential and small commercial use: 

*Applications with more than 5 KW of applied load need to be computed and formalized by a
Meralco representative. 

Please note that the bill deposit amount may be adjusted yearly to reflect the close
average monthly bill of the customer. The adjustment mechanism is covered by
Meralco’s Annual Update of Bill Deposit (AUBD) program. Lastly, the bill deposit
earns an interest of 0.25% as approved by the Energy Regulatory Commission
(ERC). It may also be refunded after the completion of are quest for service
termination.
b. Cash Advance (as Required) 
  
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 Cash Advance Fee is based on the additional Meralco facilities that are required to be
installed to energize the premises. This includes the cost of primary powerlines, poles,
transformers, and other accessories that support the installation. The fee will be computed
based on the customer’s required fac facilities following Meralco’s inspection and initial
design of the electric service installation. Meralco officially provides the computation
through a Cash Advance letter to the customer. Similar to bill deposit, the cash advance fee is
refundable.

c. Installation & Removal (IR) Costs (for Temporary Connections, as Required)

Installation & Removal (IR) Costs, which are unique to temporary connections, are based on
the temporary facilities that are required to be installed and eventually removed upon
energization of a permanent service. This includes the partial cost of poles, primary power
lines, transformers, and other accessories that will be installed, as well as the cost of
retirement of these facilities. Meralco officially provides the computation through an
Installation & Removal (IR) Cost letter to the customer.

Unlike bill deposit and cash advance, the IR cost is non-refundable. 

Disclaimer 
This document is proprietary and confidential. No part of this document may
be disclosed in any manner to a third party without a prior written consent
from MERALCO. 

C. Sources of EMF 

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 Electromotive force (EMF) is equal to the terminal potential difference when
no current flows. EMF and terminal potential difference (V) are both measured
in volts. However, they are not the same thing. EMF (ℰ) is the amount of
energy (E) provided by the battery to each coulomb of charge (Q) passing
through. 

1. General Aspects of Cells and Batteries 

Cell refers to a single power generating unit that tends to store chemical
energy and later converts it to electrical energy. It consists of two electrodes
which are anode and cathode. The cell consists of an electrolyte, which is a
chemical substance which tends to react with the electrodes to produce an
electric current. Redox reactions tend to occur between the electrodes and the
electrolyte. Because of this reaction, the electric current flows via an external
circuit. A cell is generally classified into four different kinds. These dry cells
make use of a powder electrolyte.

Battery is a device that contains two or more units of the electrochemical

cell. The cathode is the positive terminal of the battery and the anode is
known as the negative terminal of the battery. There are two different types
of batteries which are the primary and the secondary battery. The primary
battery cannot be reused and is irreversible, whereas, on the other hand, the
secondary battery can be recharged again and again. The chemical energy in
a primary cell is present inherently. In the secondary cell, electrical energy is
induced with the help of an external source. 

2. Battery Connections 

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 Connecting Batteries in Series 
Connecting a battery in series is when you connect two or more
batteries together to increase the battery system's overall
voltage, connecting batteries in series does not increase the
capacity, only the voltage. 

For example, if you connect four 12 Volt 26 Ah batteries you will

have a battery voltage of 48 Volts and battery capacity of 26 Ah. To
configure batteries with a series connection each battery must have
the same voltage and capacity rating, or you can potentially damage
the batteries. For example, you can connect two 6Volt 10 Ah
batteries together in series but you cannot connect one 6V 10 Ah
with one 12V 10 Ah battery. 

To connect a group of batteries in series you connect the negative

terminal of one battery to the positive terminal of another and so on
until all batteries are connected, you would then connect a link /cable
to the negative terminal of the first battery in your string of batteries to
your application, then another cable to the positive terminal of the last
battery in your string to your application. When charging batteries in
series, you need to use a charger that matches the battery system
voltage. We recommend you charge each battery individually to avoid
battery imbalance. 

Sealed lead acid batteries have been the battery of choice for long
string, high voltage battery systems for many years, although lithium
batteries can be configured in series it requires attention to the BMS
or PCM.

Connecting Batteries in Parallel 

Connecting batteries in parallel is when you connect two or more batteries

together to increase the amp-hour capacity, with a parallel battery
connection the capacity will increase, however the battery voltage will
remain the same. 

For example, if you connect four 112V 100 Ah batteries you would get a
12V400 Ah battery system. When connecting batteries in parallel the
negative terminal of one battery is connected to the negative terminal of
the next and soon through the string of batteries, the same is done with
positive terminals, is positive terminal of one battery to the positive
terminal of the next. For example, if you needed a 12V300 Ah battery
system you would need to connect three 12V100 Ah batteries together in
parallel. 

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 Parallel battery configuration helps increase the duration in which
batteries can power equipment, but due to the increase damp-hour
capacity they can take longer to charge than series connected batteries. 

Series-Parallel Connected Batteries 

Series-parallel connection is when you connect a string of batteries to

increase both the voltage and capacity of the battery system. For example,
you can connect six 6V100 Ah batteries together to give you a 24V 200Ah
battery, this is achieved by configuring two strings of four batteries. 

In this connection you will have two or more sets of batteries which will be
configured in both series and parallel to increase the system capacity.

3. Dry Cells 

A dry cell is a type of electric battery, commonly used for portable electrical devices.

4. Lead-Acid Batteries 
Lead acid batteries are the most commonly used type of battery in
photovoltaic systems. Although lead acid batteries have a low energy
density, only moderate efficiency and high maintenance requirements,
they also have along lifetime and low costs compared to other battery
types. One of the singular advantages of lead acid batteries is that they

40 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 are the most commonly used form of battery for most rechargeable battery
applications (for example, in starting car engines), and therefore have a
well-established, mature technology base. 

5. The Edison (Alkaline Type) Battery 

An alkaline battery (IEC code: L) is a type of primary battery that derives its energy
from the reaction between zinc metal and manganese dioxide. Compared with zinc –
carbon batteries of the Leclanché cell or zinc chloride types, alkaline batteries have a
higher energy density and longer shelf life yet provide the same voltage.

XII. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

A. What is resistance? 

Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Electrical

resistance is opposition to the flow of current in an electric circuit: resistance converts

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 electrical energy to thermal energy, and in this regard is similar to mechanical friction.
Resistances are said to dissipate electrical energy as heat. 

Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). Ohm’s are
named after Georg Simon Ohm (1784-1854), a German physicist who studied the
relationship between voltage, current and resistance. He is credited for formulating
Ohm’s Law.

B. Factors Controlling Resistance 

Resistance is the property of the material that restricts the flow of electrons. There are
four factors affecting resistance which are Temperature, Length of wire, Area of the
cross-section of the wire, and nature of the material. 

When there is current in a conductive material, the free electrons move through the
material and occasionally collide with atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to lose
some of their energy, and thus their movement is restricted. This restriction varies and is
determined by the type of material. The property of a material that restricts the flow of
electrons is called resistance. When there is current through any material that has
resistance, heat is produced by the collisions of free electrons and atoms. Therefore,
wire, which typically has a very small resistance, becomes warm when there is sufficient
current through it. 

List of Factors affecting resistance 

Resistance decreases with an increase in temperature. The thermistor is a temperature-

dependent resistor and its resistance decreases as temperature rises. The thermistor is
used in a circuit that senses temperature change. There are four factors on which
resistance depends.

1) Length(L) 
2) It’s cross-sectional area(A) 
3) the type of material 
4) nature of material 

The resistance of a wire depends both on the cross-sectional area and length of the
wire and on the nature of the material of the wire. Thick wires have less resistance
42 | BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
 than thin wires. Longer wires have more resistance than short wires. Copper wire has
less resistance than thin steel wire of the same size. Electrical resistance also depends
on temperature. At a certain temperature and for a particular substance.

C. Types of Resistors 
What is an Electrical Resistor? 

A resistor is a passive component in a circuit which provides resistance to the flow of

current. There are many different types of resistors. These resistors vary in their
construction, power dissipation capacities, and tolerance to various parameters (such as
temperature and light). 

These types of resistors include: 

 ∙Carbon Composition Resistor 

 ∙Thermistor 
 ∙Wire Wound Resistor 
 ∙Metal Film Resistor 
 ∙Carbon Film Resistor 
 ∙Variable Resistor 
 ∙Varistor 
 ∙Light Dependent Resistor

 Carbon Composition Resistor 

-A carbon composition resistor (also known as a carbon resistor) is a

commonly used resistor. These resistors are low cost and are easy to
construct. Carbon resistors are mainly made of carbon clay composition
covered with a plastic case. The lead of the resistor is made of tinned
copper. The main advantages of these resistors are that they are readily
available, low cost, and they are very durable. 

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 These resistors are also available in a wide range of values from as low as1 to
as high as 22 Mega. For these reasons, carbon composition resistors are
often included in many of the best Arduino starter kits. The main
disadvantage of carbon composition resistors is that they are very
temperature sensitive. The tolerance range in resistance of carbon
composition resistor is of ±5 to ±20%.  Although this is not a concern for
the majority of electronics projects one would experiment with at home.
This type of resistor has a tendency to produce some electric noise due to
the passage of electrical current form one carbon particle to
others. Where low cost is the main criterion for designing a circuit rather
than its perfection of performance, these resistors are normally used.
Carbon resistors are provided with a different colored band on their
cylindrical body. These color bands are code for the resistance values of
resistors along with their tolerance range. 

 Thermistor 

The word “thermistor” means a thermal resistor. Its resistance value changes with the
change in the temperature. Most thermistor have a negative temperature coefficient
which means its resistance will fall down when the temperature increases. These are
normally made of semiconductor materials. Resistance up to a few mega ohms can be
obtained from thermistors. 

They are used to detect small temperature changes, when there is a temperature change,
however small, there will be a large change in the value of the resistance.

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  Wire Wound Resistor 

In wire wound resistor a wire of manganin or constantan is wound around a cylinder of

insulating material. The temperature coefficient of resistance of manganin and
constantan is almost zero. So, resistance variation with temperature of these resistors is
negligible. The wounded wire is covered with an insulating cover such as baked enamel.
This cover of insulating heat resistible material resists the effect of ambient temperature
variation. 

Different sizes and ratings of wire wound resistors can easily achieved by using different
lengths and diameters of the wire. These resistors are easily available for a wide range of
ratings. The range of resistance values varies from 1 to1M . The typical tolerance limit of
these resistors varies from 0.01% to 1%.They can be used for highp ower applications of
5 to 200 W dissipation ratings. 

The cost of these resistors is much higher than carbon resistor. Normally a wire wound
resistor is used where a carbon composition resistor cannot meet the purpose because of
its limitations. The main disadvantage of this resistor is the inductance that arises because
of its coil-like structure. At high frequency, the behavior of the circuit may be change due
to its reaction. 
This problem can be solved if one half of the wire is wound in one direction and another
half in the opposite direction so that the inductance due to these two halves cancels each
other hence the net inductive effect of the resistor becomes nil. The non-inductive wire
wound resistor is ideal for the high-frequency circuit but it is costlier than an ordinary
one. 

 Metal Film Resistor and Carbon Film Resistor 

The resistor is constructed by means of deposition a thin film of a conductive material
such as pure carbon or metal on to an insulating core. The desired value of resistance of

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 metal film resistor or carbon film resistor can easily be obtained by either trimming the
layer of the thickness or by cutting helical grooves of suitable pitch along its length.
Metallic contact cap is fitted at both ends of the resistor. The caps are in contact with the
conductive film or helical grooves. The lead wire is welded to the end caps. Metal Film
Resistor or Carbon Film Resistor can be made up to a value of 10,000M and the size of
this type of resistor is much smaller than a wire wound resistor. Because of their
constructional features, these resistors are fully non inductive. The accuracy level of
metal film resistors can be order ±1% and they are suitable for high-grade applications.
Carbon film resistors give lower tolerances and smaller values of electrical resistance
than those available with a metal film. However, the carbon film possess a mildly
negative temperature coefficient of resistance which is very useful for certain electronic
circuits. 

 Variable Resistor

The variable resistor means its resistance value can be

adjusted (similar to a potentiometer). There are a rotating
shaft and wiping contact. Basically, there is a resistive
semi-circular bar or coil and by wiping the contact we
change the effective length of the resistive element and
hence the resistance gets changed. One example of such
resistors is a rheostat. The variable resistor or rheostat can
also be a linear sliding. Type where the sliding contact
moves on the resistive element linearly for adjustment of
the effective resistance of the resistor. 

 Varistor 

Non-linear Resistor or Varistor, The’y also known as varistors. They are popular for
having the non-linear V-I characteristics curve. That is its resistance is not uniform and it

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 does not obey Ohm’s law. They are made of materials such as silicon carbides, zinc
oxide. 

There are three types of varistors:

o Silicon carbide disc type varistor

o Silicon carbide rod type varistor
o Zinc oxide type varistor

 Light Dependent Resistor 

A Light Dependent Resistor (or LDR) will vary in resistance depending on the intensity
of light falling on it. This is made of cadmium sulfide which contains a small number of
electrons when it is not illuminated. When a light ray falls on it, electrons get ejected
and hence the conductivity of it increases. Hence, it offers low resistance when light on
it and offers high resistance in the dark. 

D. CONNECTIONS OF RESISTORS 

1. Resistors of Series 

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Resistors are in series whenever the flow of charge, or the current, must flow through
components sequentially.

Shows resistors in series connected to a voltage source. The total resistance in the
circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances, since the current has to pass
through each resistor in sequence through the circuit. 

Using Ohm’s Law to Calculate Voltage Changes in Resistors in Series

According to Ohm’s law, the voltage drop V across a resistor when a current flows
through it is calculated by Using the equation, V=IR 

Where:

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 V=is the Voltage

I=is current in amps (A)

R=is the resistance in ohm’s(Ω)

So, the voltage drop across R1 is V1 = IR1, across R2 is V2 = IR2, and across R3 is V3 = [Link] sum
of the voltages would equal: V = V1 + V2 + V3, based on the conservation energy and charge. If
we substitute the values for individual voltages, we get: 

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Or

V = I (R1 + R2 + R3)

This implies that the total resistance in a series is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
Therefore, for every circuit with N number of resistors connected in series:

RN (series) = R1 + R2 +R3 +……+ RN 

Since all of the current must pass through each resistor, it experiences the resistance of each,
and resistances in series imply add up. 

Since voltage and resistance have an inverse relationship, individual resistors in series do not
get the total source voltage but divide it. This is indicated in an example of when two lightbulbs
are connected together in a series circuit with a battery. In a simple circuit consisting of one 1.5
V battery and one light bulb, the lightbulb would have a voltage drop of 1.5 V across it. If two
lightbulbs were connected in series with the same battery, however, theywouldeachhave1.5V/2,
or 0.75Vdropacross them. This would be evident in the brightness of the lights: each of the two
lightbulbs connected in series would be half as dim as the single lightbulb. Therefore, resistors
connected in series use up the same amount of energy as a single resistor, but that energy is
divided up between the resistors depending on their resistances.

2. Resistors in Parallel 

The total resistance in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the inverse of each individual
resistance. Resistors are in parallel when each resistor is connected directly to the voltage

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source by connecting wires having negligible resistance. Each resistor thus has the full
voltage of the source applied to it. 

Each resistor draws the same current it would if it were the only resistor connected to
the voltage source. This is true of the circuitry in the house or apartment. Each outlet
that is connected to appliance (the “resistor”) can operate independently, and the current
does not have to pass through each appliance sequentially. 

Ohm’s Law and Parallel Resistors 

-Each resistor in the circuit has the full voltage. According to Ohm’s law, the currents flowing
through the individual resistors are Conservation of charge implies that the

V V V
I1 = , I 2= ∧I 3= total current is the sum of these currents:  
R1 R2 R3

I = I1 + I2 + I3.

Substituting the expressions for individual currents gives:

This implies that the total resistance in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the inverse of
each individual resistance. Therefore, for every circuit the number or resistors connected in
parallel,

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 This relationship results in a total resistance that is less than the smallest of the
individual resistances. When resistors are connected in parallel, more current flows
from the source than would flow for any of them individually, so the total resistance is
lower. 
Each resistor in parallel has the same full voltage of the source applied to it but divide
the total current amongst them. This is exemplified by connecting two lightbulbs in a
parallel circuit with a 1.5V battery. In a series circuit, the two lightbulbs would be half
dim when connected to a single battery source. However, if the two lightbulbs were
connected in parallel, they would be equally as bright as if they were connected
individually to the battery. Because the same full voltage is being applied to both
lightbulbs, the battery would also die more quickly, since it is essentially supplying full
energy to both lightbulbs. In a series circuit, the battery would last just as long a set
would with a single lightbulb, only the brightness is then divided amongst the bulbs. 

3. Resistors in Series and Parallel 

More complex connections of resistor are sometimes just combinations of series

and parallel. These are commonly encountered, especially when wire resistance is
considered. In that
case, wire resistance is in series with other resistances that are in parallel.
Combinations of series and parallel can be reduced to a single equivalent resistance
using the technique illustrated in the figure 4. Various parts are identified as either
series or parallel, 
reduced to their equivalents, and further reduced until a single resistance is left. The
process is more time consuming than difficult.

The simplest combination of series and parallel resistance, shown in Figure4, is also the most
instructive, since it is found in many applications. For example, R1 could be the resistance of
wires from a car battery to its electrical devices, which are in parallel. R2 and R3 could be the
starter motor and a passenger compartment light. We have previously assumed that wire

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resistance is negligible, but, when it is not, it has important effects, as the next example
indicates.

E. Network Reduction of Resistors 

1. Delta to Wye Transformation 

DELTA to WYE T RANSFORMATION 

If a circuit contains a delta (∆,) configuration, it is more convenient to work with

wye network. In short, transform it to Wye(Y) to find its equivalent resistance. 

In layman’s term, so that you can easily remember Delta to Wye conversion, the
word “Wye” always implies a number just like in algebra. And the resistor
values are given already labeled as, Ra , Rb , Rc .Therefore, since you are to
transform it to wye, the equivalent to be looked for is R1, R2, R3 . In this case, let n
be the number of resistor to be looked for as you transform delta to wye network.
It does not follow a direction or a pattern. What you have to remember is our
layman’s general formula for this conversion since we have noticed that it is only

applicable for delta to wye conversion.

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 1. Wye to Delta Transformation 

One of the most confusing factors in circuit analysis is the

resistors. Instances are often introduced in circuit analysis
when you find a hard time in determining if the resistors are
connected in series or parallel. 

2. Wye to Delta Transformation 

One of the most confusing factors in circuit analysis is the resistors. Instances are often
introduced in circuit analysis when you find a hard time in determining if the resistors
are connected in series or parallel. 

As you can see, there’s a

bridge circuit in Fig2.1. How
are you going to combine R1
through R6 when the
resistors are neither in series nor parallel?
This problem can be simplified by using three-terminal
equivalent networks. These are the wye (Y) or tee(T) network

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 shown in Figure 2.2 and the delta (∆) or pi () shown in Figure 2.3. These networks
occur by themselves as part of a larger network.

The main goal here is how to identify them when they occur as part of the network and how
to apply wye - delta transformation or vice versa to analyze the given network.

XIII. LAWS, THEOREMS, AND METHODS USED IN

NETWORK ANALYSIS
1. Kirchhoff’s Laws  

Ohm’s Law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled
with Kirchhoff’s two laws. We have sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a
large variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the

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 German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff’s (1824-1887). These laws are formally
known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL). 

 ∙ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (1st Law) 

This states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
  
 ∙ Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place
to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the nod’’. In other word’s the algebraic
sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) +
I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as the Conservation of
Charge. 

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two
currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite
the equation as; 
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or
more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also, for current to
flow either in or out of a node a closed, circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current
law when analyzing parallel circuits. 

 ∙ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) (2nd Law) 

This states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is  

zero.  

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  Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total
voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same
loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages
within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the
Conservation of Energy. 

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is important to
maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not
be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analyzing series circuits.
When analyzing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws a number
of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts of the circuit being analyzed
such as: node, paths, branches, loops and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit
analysis so it is important to understand them. 

2. Maxwell’s Loop (Mesh) Method  

This method employs a system a loop or mesh currents instead of branch currents. 
Here, the currents in different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do
not split at a junction into branch currents. If a network has a large number of voltage
sources, it is useful to use mesh analysis. This method consists of writing loop
voltage equations by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown loop currents. 

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 The network has two batteries (voltage sources) and five resistors. There are three
meshes traversed by mesh currents I1, I2, I3 respectively. Current through R4 (when
considered as a part of the first loop) is (I1 – I2) and that through R5 is (I2 – I3). 
Similarly, when R5 is considered part of the third loop, current through it is (I3 – I2).
By applying KV to the three loops, the equations may be written as follows: 

Loop 1. E1 – I1R – R4 (I1 – I2) = 0 

 Or  
 I1 (R1 + R4) – I2R4 – E1 = 0 

Loop 2. - I2R2 – R5 (I2 – I3) – R4 (I2 – I1) = 0 

 Or 
 I1R4 – I2 (R2 + R4 + R5) + I3R5 = 0 

Loop 3. - I3R3 – E2 – R5 (I3 – I2) = 0 

 Or  
 I2R5 – I3 (R3 + R5) – E2 = 0 

Above is the three equations can be solved not only to find loop currents but
branch currents as well.

1. The Superposition Theorem 

 Superposition theorem states that in any linear, bilateral network where more than one
source is present, the response across any element in the circuit, Is the sum of the
responses obtained from each source considered separately while all other sources are
replaced by their internal resistance. Superposition theorem is a circuit analysis
theorem that is used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and
connected. 

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 The Explanation of Superposition Theorem  
Let us understand how to use the superposition theorem to analyze circuits with the
help of an example. 

Example 1: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω using the superposition theorem. 

Solution: 

Step 1: First, let us find the current flowing through a circuit by considering only the 20 V
voltage source. The current source can be open-circuited; hence, the modified circuit diagram
is shown in the following figure. 

Step 2: The nodal voltage V1 can be determined using the nodal analysis
method.

The nodal equation at node 1 is written as follows: 

V1−205+V110+V110+20=0V1−205+V110+V110+20=0 
6V1−120+3V1+V130=06V1−120+3V1+V130=0 
10V1=12010V1=120 
V1=12VV1=12V 

The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistors can be found out using the following equation: 
I1=V110+20I1=V110+20 

Substituting the value of the V1 in the above equation, we get 

I1 = 0.4 A 

Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor to due 20 V voltage source is 0.4 A.

Step 3: Now let us find out the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor considering only
the 4 A current source. We eliminate the 20 V voltage source by short-circuiting it. The
modified circuit, therefore, is given as follows: 

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In the above circuit, the resistors 5 Ω and 10 Ω are parallel to each other and this parallel
combination of resistors is in series with the 10 Ω resistors. Therefore, the equivalent
resistance will be: 
RAB=5×105+10+10=403ΩRAB=5×105+10+10=403Ω 
Now, the simplified circuit is shown as follows: 

Now the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistors

can be determined using the current division principle. 
I2=IsR1R1+R2 I2=IsR1R1+R2 
Substituting the values, we get 
I2=1.6AI2=1.6A 
Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit when only 4 A current source is 1.6 A. 
Step 4: The summation of currents I1 and I2 will give us the current flowing through the 20 Ω
resistor.  Mathematically, this is represented as follows: 
I = I1 + I2 
Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation, we get 
I = 0.4+1.6 = 2 A 
Therefore, the current flowing through the resistor is 2 A. 

Limitations of Superposition Theorem 

∙ The theorem does not apply to non-linear circuits. The requisite of linearity indicates that
the Superposition Theorem is only applicable to determine voltage and current, but not
power. 
Power dissipation is a nonlinear function that does not algebraically add to an accurate
total when only one source is considered at a time. 
∙ The application of the superposition theorem requires two or more sources in the circuit.

2. Nodal Method

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 Nodal analysis is one kind of method used in electrical networks to analyze
circuits through node voltages like the circuit variables. An alternate name of this
method is Node-Voltage Method. 

Nodal Analysis Circuit 

In the following circuit, the nodal analysis method is generally used to determine the voltage
through KCL at a node. In this circuit, extraordinary nodes are V1, V2, V3 & V3 is in
reference to GND. 
In the following circuit, voltages like V1, V2 &V3are
extraordinary nodes whereas V3 is

Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at nodes 1 & 2 to the above circuit

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 Simultaneous equation solution

From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have

looked at so far, this is the simplest method of solving this
particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage analysis is more
appropriate when there are a larger number of current
sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ]  =
[ Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are the driving current sources, [ V ]
are the nodal voltages to be found  and [ Y ] is the
admittance matrix of the network which operates on [ V ]
to give [ I ].

Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary 

The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows: 

▪ Write down the current vectors, assuming currents into a node are positive. i.e, a (N x matrices
for “N” independent nodes. 
▪ Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where: 

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 = the total admittance of the first node. 
= the total admittance of the second node. 
RJK = the total admittance joining node J to node K. 
▪ For a network with “N” independent nodes, *Y] will be an (N x N) matrix and that Ynn will be
positive and Yjk will be negative or zero value. 

3. Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected
to a load. The qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem,
where all the underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots). If we’re dealing with
passive components (such as resistors, and later, inductors and capacitors), this is true.
However, there are some components (especially certain gas-discharge and semiconductor
components) which are nonlinear: that is, their opposition to current changes with voltage and/or
current. As such, we would call circuits containing these types of components, nonlinear
circuits. 

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 4. Norton’s Theorem  

Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and parallel resistance
connected to a load. Just as with Thevenin’s Theorem, the qualification of “linear” is
identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem: all underlying equations must be
linear (no exponents or roots). 

∙ Any collection of batteries and resistances with two terminals is electrically

equivalent to an ideal current source i in parallel with a single resistor r. The
value of r is the same as that in the Thevenin’s equivalent and the current i can be
found by dividing the open circuit voltage by r. 
∙ The value i for the current used in Norton's Theorem is found by
determining the open circuit voltage at the terminals AB and
dividing it by the Norton resistance r.

5. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem  

❖ In electrical engineering, the maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain
maximum external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the resistance of
the load must equal the resistance of the source as viewed from its output terminals.
Moritz von Jacobi published the maximum power (transfer) theorem around 1840; it is
also referred to as "Jacobi's law".

❖ The theorem results in

maximum power transfer

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 across the circuit, and not maximum efficiency. If the resistance of the load is made larger
than the resistance of the source then efficiency is higher, since a higher percentage of the
source power is transferred to the load, but the magnitude of the load power is lower since
the total circuit resistance increases.

XIV. INDUCTANCE AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

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 1. What is an Inductance? 

● Inductance is a key parameter in electrical and electronic circuits. Like resistance

and capacitance, it is a basic electrical measurement that affects all circuits to
some degree. 

● Inductance is used in many areas of electrical and electronic systems and circuits.
Components can be in a variety of forms and may be called by a variety of
names: coils, inductors, chokes, transformers, etc. Each of these may also have a
variety of different variants: with and without cores and the core materials may be
of different types. 

● Understanding inductance and the different forms and formats for inductors and
transformers helps provide an understanding of what is happening within the
electrical and electronic circuits. 

● The term inductance was coined by Oliver Heaviside in 1886. It is customary to

use the symbol L for inductors shown on circuit diagrams and inductance in
equations after the physicist Heinrich Lenz.

1. Closing and Opening of Electric Circuits 

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 ● An open circuit is defined to be basically a circuit where the energy is not flowing
through it. A closed-circuit is defined to be the one where the energy is allowed to
flow through it by turning it on.

A circuit is made closed if the electricity is flowing from an energy source to the
desired endpoint of the circuit. A complete circuit, which will be not having any
original work, can still be a closed circuit. A circuit, which is connected to a dead
battery, cannot do any work but also it is still a closed circuit.

Any circuit which is not complete can be assumed to be an open circuit. Electricity
will not flow from an active energy source to the required endpoint of the circuit
as the path is not closed or as the path is open. Circuits, which are disconnected or
switched off manually and circuits which are having blown fuses, missing
components, or faulty wiring are all assumed to be open circuits. We will be
having potential differences with a closed circuit. But there will be no potential
Difference with an open circuit. 

2. Current Growth in Inductive Circuits 

● It will have occurred to you that if the growth of current in a coil results in a back
EMF which opposes the increase of current, current cannot change 
instantaneously in a circuit that contains inductance. This is correct. (Recall
also that the potential difference in a circuit cannot change instantaneously in
a circuit containing capacitance. Come to think of it, it is hardly possible for
the capacitance or inductance of any circuit to be exactly zero; any real circuit
must have some capacitance and inductance, even if very small.) 

● Consider the circuit of Figure X.9. A battery of EMF EE is in series with a

resistance and an inductance. (A coil or solenoid or any inductor in general will
have both inductance and resistance, so the RR and the LL in the Figure may
belong to one single item.) We have to be very careful about signs in
what
follows. 

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 3. Magnetic Field Energy 

● Magnetic field, a vector field in the neighborhood of a magnet, electric current, or

changing electric field, in which magnetic forces are observable. Magnetic fields
such as that of Earth cause magnetic compass needles and other permanent
magnets to line up in the direction of the field. Magnetic fields force moving
electrically charged particles in a circular or helical path. This force—exerted on
electric currents in wires in a magnetic field—underlies the operation of electric
motors.

4. Mutual Induction and Transformer Action 

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 ● Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a
voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that
transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the
fact that they “transform” one voltage or current level into
another. 
● Voltage can be induced on a conductor with motion and a magnetic field.
● With a coil, motion, and a magnetic field, an EMF is produced.

The
transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits
using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the
transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principles of
“electromagnetic induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction. 

Transformers are capable of either

increasing or decreasing the voltage
and current levels of their supply,
without modifying its frequency, or
the amount of electrical power being
transferred from one winding to
another via the magnetic circuit.

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 5. Mutual Inductance and Coefficient of Coupling

● Mutual Inductance between the two coils is defined as the property of the coil due to
which it opposes the change of current in the other coil, or you can say in the
neighboring coil. When the current in the neighboring coil changes, the flux sets
up in the coil and because of this, changing flux in the coil is called Mutually
Induced EMF and the phenomenon is known as Mutual Inductance. 

● Coefficient of Coupling 

The coefficient of coupling (k) between two coils is defined as the fraction of
magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links the other. When
the entire flux of one coil links the other, coefficient of coupling is 1 (i.e.,
100%). If only half the flux set up in one coil links the other, then coefficient
of coupling is 0·5 (or 50%). If two coils have self-inductances L1and L2, then
mutual inductance M between them is given by; 

where 

k = coefficient of coupling. Clearly, the mutual inductance M between the

coils will be maximum when k = 1. If flux of one coil does not at all link with
the other coil, then k = 0. Under such condition, mutual inductance (M)
between the coils will be zero. Proof. Consider two
magnetically coupled coils 1 and 2 having N 1 and N 2 and turns respectively (See Fig. 9.14).
The current I 2 flowing in coil 1 produces a magnetic flux φ1. Suppose the coefficient of coupling
between the two coils is k. It means that flux kφ1 links with coil 2. Then, by definition,

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where M 21 represents mutual inductance of coil 1 to coil 2. The current I 2 flowing in coil 2 will
produce flux φ2. Since the coefficient of coupling between the coils is k, it means that flux kφ2
will link with coil 1. Then,

where M 21 represents mutual inductance of coil 2 to coil 1. Mutual inductance between the two
coils is exactly the same i.e., M 21=M 21 =M .

...(iii)

Expression (iii) gives the relation between the mutual inductance of the two coils and their
self, inductances. The reader may note that mutual inductance between the two coils will be
maximum when k =1. Obviously the maximum value of mutual inductance between the two
coils is √ L1 L2.

Hence, coefficient of coupling can also be defined as the ratio of the actual mutual
inductance (M) between the two coils to the maximum possible value is √ L1 L2 . When two
coils are wound on a single ferromagnetic core as shown in Fig. (i), Effectively all of the
magnetic flux produced by one coil links with the other. The coils are then said to be tightly
coupled. Another way to ensure tight coupling is shown in Fig. (ii) where each turn of the
secondary winding is side by side with one turn of primary winding. Coils wound in this
fashion are said to be bifilar and It is called bifilar winding. 

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 When the two coils are air-cored as shown in Fig. 9.15 (iii), then
only a fraction of magnetic flux produced by one coil may link
the other coil. The coils are then said to be loosely couple.

XV. CAPACITANCE

1. Static Electricity

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 ➢ The result of an imbalance of this “fluid” (electrons) between objects is called
static electricity. It is called “static” because the displaced electrons tend to
remain stationary after being moved from one insulating material to another.

➢ In the case of wax and wool, it was determined through further

experimentation that electrons in the wool actually transferred to the atoms
in the wax, which is exactly opposite of Franklin’s conjecture! In honor of
Franklin’s designation of the wax’s charge being “negative” and the
wool’s charge being “positive,” electrons are said to have a “negative”
charging influence. Thus, an object whose atoms have received a surplus
of electrons is said to be negatively charged, while an object whose atoms
are lacking electrons is said to be positively charged, as confusing as these
designations may seem. By the time the true nature of electric “fluid” was
discovered, Franklin’s nomenclature of electric charge was too well
established to be easily changed, and so it remains to this day.
Michael Faraday proved (1832) that static electricity was the same as that
produced by a battery or a generator. Static electricity is, for the most part, a
nuisance. Black powder and smokeless powder have graphite added to prevent
ignition due to static electricity. It causes damage to sensitive semiconductor
circuitry. While it is possible to produce motors powered by high voltage and low
current characteristics of static electricity, this is not economic. The few practical
applications of static electricity include xerographic printing, the electrostatic air
filter, and the high voltage Van de Graaff generator.

2. Capacitance and Capacitor

➢ The capacitance C of a capacitor is

defined as the ratio of the
maximum charge Q that can be
stored in a capacitor to the
applied voltage V across its
plates. In other words,
capacitance is the largest amount of
charge per volt that can be stored
on the device:
Q
C=
V
Where,

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 ● Q is the electric charge in coulombs
● C is the capacitance in farad
● V is the voltage between the plates in volts

The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), named after Michael Faraday (1791–1867). Since
capacitance is the charge per unit voltage, one farad is one coulomb per one volt, or
1C
1 F=
1V

By definition, a 1.0 -F capacitor is able to store 1.0 C of charge (a very large amount of charge)
when the potential difference between its plates is only 1.O V. One farad is therefore a very large
capacitance. Typical capacitance values range from picofarads (1 pF = 10−12❑ F ) to millifarads (1
mF = 10−3❑ F ), which also includes microfarads (1 μF = 10−6❑F). Capacitors can be produced in
various shapes and sizes (Figure 4.1.3).
Figure 4.1.3 These are some typical capacitors used in electronic devices. A capacitor’s size is
not necessarily related to its capacitance value.

➢ A capacitor is a device used to store electrical charge and electrical energy. It

consists of at least two electrical conductors separated by a distance. (Note that
such electrical conductors are sometimes referred to as “electrodes,” but more
correctly, they are “capacitor plates.”) The space between capacitors may simply
be a vacuum, and, in that case, a capacitor is then known as a “vacuum capacitor.”
However, the space is usually filled with an insulating material known as a
dielectric. (You will learn more about dielectrics in the sections on dielectrics
later in this chapter.) The amount of storage in a capacitor is determined by a
property called capacitance, which you will learn more about a bit later in this
section.
Capacitors have applications ranging from filtering static from radio reception to
energy storage in heart defibrillators. Typically, commercial capacitors have two
conducting parts close to one another but not touching, such as those in Figure

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 4.1.1. Most of the time, a dielectric is used between the two plates. When battery
terminals are connected to an initially uncharged capacitor, the battery potential
moves a small amount of charge of magnitude Q from the positive plate to the
negative plate. The capacitor remains neutral overall, but with charges +Q and -Q
residing on opposite plates.

Figure 4.1.1 Both capacitors shown here were initially uncharged before being connected to a
battery. They now have charges of + Q and -Q (respectively) on their plates. (a) A parallel-
plate capacitor consists of two plates of opposite charge with area A separated by distance d. (b)
A rolled capacitor has a dielectric material between its two conducting sheets (plates).

A system composed of two identical parallel-conducting plates separated by a

distance is called a parallel-plate capacitor (Figure 4.1.2). The magnitude of the
electrical field in the space between the parallel plates is , where denotes
the surface charge density on one plate (recall that is the charge Q per the surface
area A ). Thus, the magnitude of the field is directly proportional to Q.
Figure 4.1.2 The charge separation in a capacitor shows that the charges remain on
the surfaces of the capacitor plates. Electrical field lines in a parallel-plate capacitor
begin with positive charges and end with negative charges. The magnitude of the
electrical field in the space between the plates is in direct proportion to the amount of
charge on the capacitor.

Capacitors with different physical characteristics (such as shape and size of their
plates) store different amounts of charge for the same applied voltage V across their
plates.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating Capacitance

1. Assume that the capacitor has a charge Q.

2. Determine the electrical field between the conductors. If symmetry is present in the
arrangement of conductors, you may be able to use Gauss’s law for this calculation.
3. Find the potential difference between the conductors from

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 (4.1.2)

where the path of integration leads from one conductor to the other. The magnitude of the
potential difference is then .

4. With V known, obtain the capacitance directly from Equation 4.1.1.

EXAMPLE 4.1.1
Capacitance and Charge Stored in a Parallel-Plate Capacitor
(a) What is the capacitance of an empty parallel-plate capacitor with metal plates that each have
an area of 1.00 m2, separated by 1.00 mm? (b) How much charge is stored in this capacitor if a
voltage of 3.00 × 103 V is applied to it?
Strategy
Finding the capacitance C is a straightforward application of Equation 4.1.3. Once we find ,
we can find the charge stored by using Equation 4.1.1.
Solution
a. Entering the given values into Equation 4.1.3 yields

This small capacitance value indicates how difficult it is to make a device with a large
capacitance.
b. Inverting Equation 4.1.1 and entering the known values into this equation gives

Q = CV = (8.85 × 10−9 F ¿ ¿ 103V = 26.6 μC .

Significance
This charge is only slightly greater than those found in typical static electricity applications.
Since air break’s down (becomes conductive) at an electrical field strength of about 3.0 MV/ m,
no more charge can be stored on this capacitor by increasing the voltage.

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 3. Types of Capacitors and Main Parts of Capacitor

The different types of capacitors are as follows:

1. Electrolytic Capacitor

o Generally, the electrolyte capacitors are used when the large capacitor values are
required. The thin metal film layer is used for one electrode and for the second
electrode (cathode) a semi-liquid electrolyte solution which is in jelly or paste is
used. The dielectric plate is a thin layer of oxide, it is developed electrochemically
in production with the thickness of the film and it is less than the ten microns.

This insulating layer is very thin, it is

possible to make capacitors with a large value of capacitance for a physical size,
which is in small and the distance between the two plates is very small. The types
of capacitors in the majority of electrolytic are polarized, which is DC voltage is
applied to the capacitor terminal and they must be correct polarity.

If the positive to the positive terminal and the negative to the negative terminal as an incorrect
polarization will break the insulating oxide layer and there will be permanent damage. All the
polarized electrolytic capacitors have polarity clearly with the negative sign to show the negative
terminal and the polarity should be followed.

The uses of electrolytic capacitors are generally in the DC power supply circuit because they are
large in capacitance and small in reducing the ripple voltage. The applications of this electrolytic
capacitors are coupling and decoupling. The disadvantage of the electrolytic capacitors is their
relatively low voltage rating because of the polarization of electrolytic capacitor.

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 2. Mica Capacitor

o This capacitor is a group of natural minerals and the silver mica capacitors use the
dielectric. There are two types of mica capacitors which are clamped capacitors
& silver mica capacitor. Clamped mica capacitors are considered as an obsolete
because of their inferior characteristic. The silver mica capacitors are prepared by
sandwiching mica sheet coated with metal on both sides and this assembly is then
encased in epoxy to protect the environment. The mica capacitors are used in the
design calls for stable, reliable capacitor of relatively small.

Mica Capacitor

The mica capacitors are the low loss capacitors, used at high frequencies and this
capacitor is very stable chemically, electrically, and mechanically, because of its
specific crystalline structure binding & it is a typically layered structure. The most
common used are Muscovite and phlogopite mica. The Muscovite mica is better
in the electrical properties and the other Mica has a high-temperature resistance.

3. Paper Capacitor

o The construction of paper capacitor is between the two tin foil sheet and they
are separated from the paper, or, oiled paper & thin waxed. The sandwich of the
thin foils and papers then rolled into the cylindrical shape and then it is enclosed
into the plastic capsule. The two thin foils of the paper capacitors attach to the
external load.

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 Paper Capacitor

In the initial stage if the capacitors the paper was used in between the two foils of
the capacitor, but these days the other materials like plastics are used, therefore it
is called as a paper capacitor. The capacitance range of the paper capacitor is from
0.001 to 2.000micro farad and the voltage is very high which is up to 2000V.

4. Film Capacitor

o The film capacitors are also capacitors and they use a thin
plastic as the dielectric. The film capacitor is prepared
extremely thin using the sophisticated film drawing process.
If the film is manufactured, it may be metalized depend on
the properties of a capacitor. To protect from the
environmental factor the electrodes are added and they are
assembled.

Film Capacitor

There are different types of film capacitors are available like polyester film, metallized film,
polypropylene film, PTE film and polystyrene film. The core difference between these capacitors
types is the material used as a dielectric and dielectric should be chosen properly according to
their properties. The applications of the film capacitors are stability, low inductance, and low
cost.

The PTE film capacitance is a heat resistance and it is used in the aerospace and military
technology. The metalized polyester film capacitor is used in the applications are it requires long
stability at a relatively low.

5. Non-Polarized Capacitor

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 o The nonpolarized capacitors are classified into two types plastic foil capacitor and
the other one is the electrolytic nonpolarized capacitor.

Non-Polarized Capacitor

The plastic foil capacitor is non-polarized by nature and the electrolytic capacitors are generally
two capacitors in the series, which are in the back to back hence the result is in the non-polarized
with half capacitance. The nonpolarized capacitor requires the AC applications in the series or in
parallel with the signal or power supply.

The examples are the speaker crossover filters and power factor correction network. In these two
applications, a large AC voltage signal is applied across the capacitor.

6. Ceramic Capacitor

o The ceramic capacitors are the capacitors and use the ceramic material as a
dielectric. The ceramics are one of the first materials to use in the production of
capacitors as an insulator.

Ceramic Capacitor

There are many geometries are used in the ceramic capacitors and some of them are the ceramic
tubular capacitor, barrier layer capacitors are obsolete because of their size, parasitic effects or

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electrical characteristics. The two common types of ceramic capacitors are multilayer ceramic
capacitor (MLCC) and ceramic disc capacitor.

The multilayer ceramic capacitors are prepared by using the surface mounted (SMD) technology
and they are smaller in size, therefore, it is used widely. The values of the ceramic capacitors are
typically between the 1nF and 1µF and the values are up to 100µF are possible.

The ceramic disc capacitors are manufactured by coating a ceramic disc with silver contacts on
both sides and to achieve with the larger capacitance, these devices are made from multiple
layers. The ceramic capacitors will a have high-frequency responses due to the parasitic effects
like resistance and inductance.

Main Parts of Capacitor

The schematic symbol for a capacitor actually closely resembles how
it's made. A capacitor is created out of two metal plates and an
insulating material called a dielectric. The metal plates are placed very
close to each other, in parallel, but the dielectric sits between them to
make sure they don't touch.

Your standard capacitor sandwich: two metal plates separated by an

insulating dielectric.

The dielectric can be made out of all sorts of insulating materials: paper, glass, rubber, ceramic,
plastic, or anything that will impede the flow of current.
The plates are made of a conductive material: aluminum, tantalum, silver, or other metals.
They're each connected to a terminal wire, which is what eventually connects to the rest of the
circuit.
The capacitance of a capacitor -- how many farads it has -- depends on how it's constructed.
More capacitance requires a larger capacitor. Plates with more overlapping surface area provide
more capacitance, while more distance between the plates means less capacitance. The material
of the dielectric even has an effect on how many farads a cap has. The total capacitance of a
capacitor can be calculated with the equation:

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Where εr is the dielectric's relative permittivity (a constant value determined by the dielectric
material), A is the amount of area the plates overlap each other, and d is the distance between the
plates.
Basic Structure of Capacitor

4. The Electric Field

o Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is
taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric
field is radially outward from a positive charge and radially in toward a negative point
charge.

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 5. Dielectric and Multiple-Dielectric Capacitors

 Dielectric Capacitors
As well as the overall size of the conductive plates and their distance or spacing apart from each
other, another factor which affects the overall capacitance of the device is the type of dielectric
material being used. In other word’s the “Permittivity” (ε) of the dielectric. The conductive
plates of a capacitor are generally made of a metal foil or a metal film allowing for the flow of
electrons and charge, but the dielectric material used is always an insulator. The various
insulating materials used as the dielectric in a capacitor differ in their ability to block or pass an
electrical charge. This dielectric material can be made from a number of insulating materials or
combinations of these materials with the most common types used being: air, paper, polyester,
polypropylene, Mylar, ceramic, glass, oil, or a variety of other materials.
The factor by which the dielectric material, or insulator, increases the capacitance of the
capacitor compared to air is known as the Dielectric Constant, k and a dielectric material with a
high dielectric constant is a better insulator than a dielectric material with a lower dielectric
constant. Dielectric constant is a dimensionless quantity since it is relative to free space. The
actual permittivity or “complex permittivity” of the dielectric material between the plates is then
the product of the permittivity of free space (εo) and the relative permittivity (εr) of the material
being used as the dielectric and is given as:

 Complex Permittivity

In other words, if we take the permittivity of free space, εo as our base level and make it
equal to one, when the vacuum of free space is replaced by some other type of insulating
material, their permittivity of its dielectric is referenced to the base dielectric of free
space giving a multiplication factor known as “relative permittivity”, εr. So the value of
the complex permittivity, ε will always be equal to the relative permittivity times one.
Typical units of dielectric permittivity, ε or dielectric constant for common materials are:
Pure Vacuum = 1.0000, Air = 1.0006, Paper = 2.5 to 3.5, Glass = 3 to 10, Mica = 5 to 7,
Wood = 3 to 8 and Metal Oxide Powders = 6 to 20 etc. This then gives us a final equation
for the capacitance of a capacitor as:

One method used to increase the overall capacitance of a capacitor while keeping its size
small is to “interleave” more plates together within a single capacitor body. Instead of
just one set of parallel plates, a capacitor can have many individual plates connected
together thereby increasing the surface area, A of the plates.

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 For a standard parallel plate capacitor as shown above, the capacitor has two plates,
labelled A and B. Therefore, as the number of capacitor plates is two, we can say
that n = 2, where “n” represents the number of plates.
Then our equation above for a single parallel plate capacitor should really be:

However, the capacitor may have two parallel plates but only one side of each plate is in
contact with the dielectric in the middle as the other side of each plate forms the outside
of the capacitor. If we take the two halves of the plates and join them together, we
effectively only have “one” whole plate in contact with the dielectric. As for a single
parallel plate capacitor, n – 1 = 2 – 1 which equals 1 as C = (εo*εr x 1 x A)/d is exactly the
same as saying: C = (εo*εr*A)/d which is the standard equation above.
Now suppose we have a capacitor made up of 9 interleaved plates, then n = 9 as shown.

 Multiple Dielectric Capacitors

Now we have five plates connected to one lead (A) and four plates to the
other lead (B). Then BOTH sides of the four plates connected to lead B are
in contact with the dielectric, whereas only one side of each of the outer
plates connected to A is in contact with the dielectric. Then as above, the
useful surface area of each set of plates is only eight and its capacitance is
therefore given as:

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Modern capacitors can be classified according to the characteristics and properties of their
insulating dielectric:
 Low Loss, High Stability such as Mica, Low-K Ceramic, Polystyrene.
 Medium Loss, Medium Stability such as Paper, Plastic Film, High-K Ceramic.
 Polarized Capacitors such as Electrolytic’s, Tantalum’s.

6. Series and Parallel connections of Capacitors and Interconnection

 Capacitors in Series

When a number of capacitors are connected in series, the voltage applied across the capacitors is
‘V’. When the capacitor’s capacitance is C 1, C 2…C n, then corresponding capacitance of
capacitors when connected in series is ‘C’. The applied voltage across the capacitors is V 1, V 2,
V 3….+ V n, correspondingly.

Capacitors in Series

Thus, V = V 1+ V 2 ……..+ V n

The charge supplied from the source through these capacitors is ‘Q’ then

V= Q/C, V1= Q/C1, V2= Q/C2, V3=Q/C3 & Vn = [Link]

As the charge transferred in every capacitor and current in the whole series combination of
capacitors will be identical and it is considered like ‘Q’.

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Now, the above equation of ‘V’ can be written like the following.

Q/C = Q/C1+Q/C2+…Q/Cn

Q[1/C] = Q]1/C1+1/C2+…1/Cn]

1/C = 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3+…1/Cn
Example

Whenever capacitors are connected in series then calculate the capacitance of these capacitors.
The series connection of capacitors is shown below. Here the capacitors connected in series are
two.

The capacitors in the series formula are Ctotal = C1XC2/C1+C2

The values of the two capacitors are C 1= 5F and C 2=10F

C total = 5FX10F/5F+10F

50F/15F = 3.33F

 Capacitors in Parallel

When the capacitance of a capacitor increases, then the capacitors are connected in parallel when
two related plates care connected together. The efficient overlapping region can be added
through stable spacing among them and therefore their equal capacitance value turns into double
individual capacitance. The capacitor bank is used in different industries that use capacitors in
parallel. Once two capacitors are allied in parallel after that the voltage ‘V’ across every
capacitor is similar that is Veq = Va = Vb & current ‘ieq’ can be separated into two elements like
‘ ia’ & ‘ ib’.

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 Capacitors in Parallel

i = dq/dt

Substitute the value of ‘q’ in the above equation

= d (CV)/dt

i = C dV/dt + VdC/dt

When the capacitance of a capacitor is constant, then

i = C dV/dt

By applying KCL to the above circuit, then the equation will be

ieq = ia+ib

ieq = Ca dVa/dt + Cb dVb/dt

Veq = Va =Vb

ieq = Ca dVeq/dt + Cb dVeq/dt => (Ca+Cb) dVeq/dt

Finally, we can get the following equation

ieq =Ceq dVeq/dt, here Ceq = Ca+Cb

Therefore, once ‘n’ capacitors are allied in parallel the equal capacitance of the total connection
can be given through the below equation that looks like to the corresponding resistance of
resistors while connected in series.
Ceq = C1+C2+C3+…+Cn

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Example

Whenever capacitors are connected in parallel then calculate the capacitance of these capacitors.
The parallel connection of capacitors is shown below. Here the capacitors connected in parallel
are two.

The capacitors in the parallel formula are Ctotal = C1+C2+C3

The values of two capacitors are C1= 10F, C2=15F, C3=20F

Ctotal = 10F+15F+20F = 45F

The voltage drop across capacitors in series and parallel will be changed based on the individual
capacitance values of capacitors.

Examples

The capacitors in series and parallel examples are discussed below.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Examples

Find the capacitance value of three capacitors connected in the following circuit with the values
of C1=5 uF, C2= 5uF and C3 =10uF

The values of capacitors are C1=5 uF, C2= 5uF & C3 =10uF

The following circuit can be built with three capacitors namely C1, C2 & C3

When the capacitors C1 & C2 are connected in series, then the capacitance can be calculated as

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 1/C = 1/C1 +1/C2

1/C= 1/5 + 1/ 5

1/C= 2/5 => 5/2 = 2.5uF

When the above capacitor ‘C’ can be connected in parallel with capacitor ‘C3’, then the
capacitance can be calculated as

C (Total) = C+ C3 = 2.5 + 10 = 12.5 microfarads

Therefore the capacitance value can be calculated depending on the analysis of series as well as
parallel connections in the circuit. It can be observed when the capacitance value is reduced in
series connection. In parallel connection of the capacitor, the capacitance value can be increased.
However, while calculating resistance, it is quite reverse.

7. Charging and Discharging of Capacitors

The charge and discharge of a capacitor

It is important to study what happens while a capacitor is charging and discharging. It is the
ability to control and predict the rate at which a capacitor charges and discharges that makes
capacitors really useful in electronic timing circuits.

When a voltage is placed across the capacitor the potential cannot rise to the applied value
instantaneously. As the charge on the terminals builds up to its final value it tends to repel the
addition of further charge.

The rate at which a capacitor can be charged or discharged depends on:

(a) the capacitance of the capacitor) and
(b) the resistance of the circuit through which it is being charged or is discharging.
This fact makes the capacitor a very useful if not vital component in the timing circuits of many
devices from clocks to computers.

In the section headed Capacitors 1 we compared a charged capacitor to a bucket with water in it.
Now, if a hole is made in the bottom of the bucket the water will run out. Similarly, if the
capacitor plates are connected together via an external resistor, electrons will flow round the
circuit, neutralize some of the charge on the other plate and reduce the potential difference across
the plates. The same ideas also apply to charging the capacitor.

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During charging electrons flow from the negative terminal of the power
supply to one plate of the capacitor and from the other plate to the
positive terminal of the power supply.

When the switch is closed, and charging starts, the rate of flow of charge
is large (i.e. a big current) and this decreases as time goes by and the
plates become more charged so "resisting" any further charging. You
should realize that the addition of a resistor in the circuit in series with the
capacitor ONLY affects the TIME it takes for the capacitor to become fully charge
and NOT the EVENTUAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS IT – this is always the
same and equal to the potential difference across the supply. (Figure 1)

Those of you who have a flash lamp built into your camera will know that it takes a few seconds
to charge - this is because the energy for the flash is being transferred to, and stored in, the
capacitor inside the flash unit and this takes time to become fully charged.

If we consider the example of a capacitor connected to an indicator lamp you should realize that
if a capacitor was used to light it then the lamp would get slowly dimmer as the capacitor
discharges as the potential difference across it falls and the current flowing gets less.

 Charging

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As soon as the switch is closed in position 1 the battery is connected across the capacitor, current
flows and the potential difference across the capacitor begins to rise but, as more and more
charge builds up on the capacitor plates, the current and the rate of rise of potential difference
both fall. (See Figure 3). Finally, no further current will flow when the p.d. across the capacitor
equals that of the supply voltage Vo.
The capacitor is then fully charged.

 Discharging

As soon as the switch is put in position 2 a 'large' current starts to flow and the potential
difference across the capacitor drops. (Figure 4). As charge flows from one plate to the other
through the resistor the charge is neutralized and so the current falls and the rate of decrease of
potential difference also falls.

Eventually the charge on the plates is zero and the current and potential difference are also zero -
the capacitor is fully discharged. Note that the value of the resistor does not affect the final
potential difference across the capacitor – only the time that it takes to reach that value.

The bigger the resistor the longer the time taken.

8. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Energy stored in a capacitor is electrical potential energy, and it is thus related to the
charge Q and voltage V on the capacitor. We must be careful when applying the equation for
electrical potential energy ΔPE = qΔV to a capacitor. Remember that ΔPE is the potential energy
of a charge q going through a voltage ΔV. But the capacitor starts with zero voltage and
gradually comes up to its full voltage as it is charged. The first charge placed on a capacitor
experiences a change in voltage ΔV = 0, since the capacitor has zero voltage when uncharged.
The final charge placed on a capacitor experiences ΔV = V, since the capacitor now has its full
voltage V on it. The average voltage on the capacitor during the charging process is

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 , and so the average voltage experienced by the full charge q is 

Thus the energy stored in a capacitor, Ecap, is 

where Q is the charge on a capacitor with a voltage V applied. (Note that

the energy is not QV, but 

Charge and voltage are related to the capacitance C of a capacitor by Q = CV, and so the
expression for Ecap can be algebraically manipulated into three equivalent expressions:

where Q is the charge and V the voltage on a capacitor C. The energy is in joules for a charge in
coulombs, voltage in volts, and capacitance in farads.

ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS

The energy stored in a capacitor can be expressed in three ways:

where Q is the charge, V is the voltage, and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. The energy is
in joules for a charge in coulombs, voltage in volts, and capacitance in farads.

EXAMPLE 1. CAPACITANCE IN A HEART DEFIBRILLATOR

A heart defibrillator delivers 4.00 × 102 J of energy by discharging a capacitor initially at 1.00 ×
104 V. What is its capacitance?

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Strategy

We are given Ecap and V, and we are asked to find the capacitance C. Of the three expressions in
the equation for Ecap, the most convenient relationship is 

Solution

Solving this expression for C and entering the given values yields

Discussion

This is a fairly large, but manageable, capacitance at 1.00 × 104 V.

XVI. ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current that periodically reverses its direction,
in contrast to direct current (DC) which only flows in a single direction which cannot change
sporadically.
In an alternator, a loop of wire is spun rapidly inside of a magnetic field. This produces an
electric current along the wire. As the wire spins and periodically enters a different magnetic
polarity, the voltage and current alternate on the wire. This current can change direction
periodically, and the voltage in an AC circuit also periodically reverses because the current
changes direction.
AC comes in several forms, as long as the voltage and current are alternating. If an AC circuit is
hooked up to an oscilloscope and its voltage is plotted over time, you are likely to see several
different waveforms such as sine, square, and triangle – sine is the most common waveform and
the AC in most mains-wired buildings have an oscillating voltage in the sine wave form.

1. Elementary AC Generator

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 The simplest elementary generator that can be
built is an ac generator. Basic generating principles
are most easily explained through the use of the
elementary ac generator.
An elementary generator consists of a wire loop
placed so that it can be rotated in a stationary
magnetic field. This will produce an induced emf in
the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes)connect the loop
to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use
the induced emf.

2. Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

Commercial alternators produce sinusoidal alternating voltage i.e. alternating voltage is a

sine wave. A sinusoidal alternating voltage can be produced (For proof, refer to Art.) by
rotating a coil with a constant angular velocity (say co rad/sec) in a uniform magnetic
field. The sinusoidal alternating voltage can be *expressed by the equation
                     v = Vm sin ωt

where           v = Instantaneous value of alternating voltage

                   Vm= Max. value of alternating voltage
                    ω = Angular velocity of the coil

Sinusoidal voltages always produce sinusoidal currents, unless the circuit is non-linear.
Therefore, a sinusoidal current can be expressed in the same way as voltage i.e. i = I m sin ωt
Fig. a (i) shows the waveform of sinusoidal voltage whereas Fig. a (ii) shows the waveform
of sinusoidal current. Note that sinusoidal voltage or current not only changes direction at
regular intervals but the magnitude is also changing continuously.

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 figure (a)
Note. An alternating current can also be represented as a cosine funct on of time viz, i = I m cos ωt
.. Similarly, alternating voltage can be represented as  v = Vm cos ωt.

A. Generation of Alternating EMF's

We know that an alternating e.m.f. can be

generated either by rotating a coil within
stationary magnetic field or by rotating a
magnetic field within a stationary coil. The
magnitude of e.m.f. generated in the coil depends
upon the number of turns on coil, strength of
magnetic field and the speed at which the coil or
magnetic field rotates.

Consider a coil of N turns rotating with angular

velocity ω radians per second in a uniform
magnetic field, as shown it.

Let the time be measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the instant of
coincidence of the plane of the coil with the X-axis. At this instant maximum flux,
φmax  links with the coil. Let the coil assume the position as shown in after moving in
counterclockwise direction for t seconds.

The angle θ through which the coil has rotated in t seconds = ωt. In this position, the component
of flux along perpendicular to the plane of coil = φmax cos ωt.

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Hence flux linkage of the coil at this instant = Number of turns on coil x linking flux = φmax cos
ωt i.e. instantaneous flux linkage = N φmax cos ωt
Since e.m.f. induced in a coil equal to the rate of change of flux linkage with minus sing. so
e.m.f. induced at any instant,  e = - d  [ N φmax cos ωt ]
                                                       dt
                                                   =  φmax N d   ( - cos ωt ) =  φmax  Nω sin ωt
                                                                 dt

when ωt = 0, sin ωt = 0 therefore, induced e.m.f. is zero, when ωt = π , sin π  = 1,

                                                                                                  2        2
therefore induced e.m.f is maximum, which s denoted by Emax and is equal to Nω.

Substituting φmax Nω = Emax

Instantaneous e.m.f. e = Emax sin ωt

So the e.m.f. induced varies as the since function f the time angle ωt and if e.m.f. induced is
plotted against time, a curve of sine wave shape is obtained, as shown in . Such an e.m.f. is
called the sinusoidal e.m.f. The since curve is completed when the coil moves through an angel
of 2π radians.

B. Generation of a Sine Wave of Voltage

Generation of a Sine Wave

A fundamental concept behind the operation of alternating current systems is that

voltage and current waveforms will be sinusoidal – a Sine Wave. This is best
explained by considering how a coil of wire behaves when rotated in a magnetic
field.  

Faraday's Induction Law states that any change in the magnetic environment of a wire
will cause a voltage to be "induced" in the wire. This can be expressed
mathematically as:

where:

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 V - induced voltage, V (volts)
B - magnetic flux density, T (tesla)
l - length of conductor, m (metre)
v - velocity between conductor and magnetic field m.s-1 (metre per second)
θ - angle between conductor and magnetic field, radians (or degrees)
If the wire is moved parallel to the magnetic field, the resulting angle is zero and the induced
voltage with be zero. If the wire is moved perpendicular to the magnetic field (sin θ = 1) then the
maximum voltage will be induced (for a given field and velocity). At any other angle the voltage
will be proportional to the sine of the angle.

Generation of Voltage

In practice voltage is generated by rotating a

coil of wire through a magnetic field in a
generator. The illustration shows this process.
Initially the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field generating maximum voltage.
As the coil rotates the voltage decreases
according to the sine of the angle until the
conductor is parallel to the magnetic field.
Further rotation then increases the voltage until
once again it is at a maximum (but in the
opposite direction).
For each revolution a complete sine wave is generated. The number of sine wave cycles
generated per second (the frequency) depends on how quickly the generator is rotating.

In practice each generator coil will have several turns of wire. For 'n' turns, the total voltage will
be 'n' times that given by the above equation. Real generator winding are often more complex
than that of a single coil, however the basic goal of constructing machines to generate a sine
wave still apply.

C. Alternating-Current Ampere

Alternating current behaves differently, depending on

what components are in a circuit.

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Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that reverses direction cyclically – unlike direct
current (DC), which always travels the same way, as is the case with anything powered by a
battery, for example. AC is the current running through the electric wires and appliances in your
home. The magnitude of AC current varies, growing from zero to a positive maximum and then
reducing back to zero before the reversal of the current causes the current to gradually reach a
negative maximum and then return to zero once again. The number of times an alternating
current repeats a full cycle per second is the frequency and the maximum the current reaches in
either direction is its amplitude. The waveform of an alternating current power circuit is a sine
wave.

3. Summation of In-Phase Sinusoidal Waves

 Sine waves that are perfectly aligned peak to peak called phase
 If the two sine waves are in phase, there is constructive
interference.

4. Summation of Out-of-Phase Sinusoidal Waves

  If one wave is shifted by half a wavelength (relative to the other), the troughs of one
wave are aligned with peaks of the other and the waves are
called perfectly (or  completely) out of phase. 
 If two sine are perfectly out of phase, there is destructive interference.

5. Vectors and Phasors

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  Vectors are quantity that has both magnitude and direction. It is typically
represented by an arrow whose direction is the same as that of the quantity and
whose length is proportional to the quantity’s magnitude. Although a vector has
magnitude and direction, it does not have position. That is, as long as its length is
not changed, a vector is not altered if it is displaced parallel to itself. In contrast to
vectors, ordinary quantities that have a magnitude but not a direction are called
scalars. For example, displacement, velocity and acceleration are vector quantities,
while speed (the magnitude of velocity), time, and mass are scalars.

 Phasor (a portmanteau of phase vector), is a complex number representing

a sinusoidal function whose amplitude (A), angular frequency (ω), and initial
phase (θ) are time-invariant. It is related to a more general concept called analytic
representation, which decomposes a sinusoid into the product of a complex constant
and a factor depending on time and frequency. The complex constant, which
depends on amplitude and phase, is known as a phasor, or complex amplitude, and
(in older texts) sin or even complex or. A common situation in electrical
networks is the existence of multiple sinusoids all with the same frequency, but
different amplitudes and phases. The only difference in their analytic
representations is the complex amplitude (phasor). A linear combination of such
functions can be factored into the product of a linear combination of phasors
(known as phasor arithmetic) and the time/frequency dependent factor that they all
have in common.

6. Voltages and Currents as Phasors

When presented mathematically in this way it is sometimes difficult to visualize this angular or
phasor difference between two or more sinusoidal waveforms. One way to overcome this

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problem is to represent the sinusoids graphically within the special or phasor-domain form by
using Phasor Diagrams, and this is achieved by the rotating vector method.
Basically a rotating vector, simply called a “Phasor” is a scaled line whose length represents an
AC quantity that has both magnitude (“peak amplitude”) and direction (“phase”) which is
“frozen” at some point in time.
A phasor is a vector that has an arrow head at one end which signifies partly the maximum value
of the vector quantity (V or I) and partly the end of the vector that rotates.
Generally, vectors are assumed to pivot at one end around a fixed zero point known as the “point
of origin” while the arrowed end representing the quantity, freely rotates in an anti-
clockwise direction at an angular velocity, (ω) of one full revolution for every cycle. This anti-
clockwise rotation of the vector is considered to be a positive rotation. Likewise, a clockwise
rotation is considered to be a negative rotation.
Although the both the terms vectors and phasors are used to describe a rotating line that itself has
both magnitude and direction, the main difference between the two is that a vectors magnitude is
the “peak value” of the sinusoid while a phasors magnitude is the “rms value” of the sinusoid. In
both cases the phase angle and direction remain the same. The phase of an alternating quantity at
any instant in time can be represented by a phasor diagram, so phasor diagrams can be thought of
as “functions of time”. A complete sine wave can be constructed by a single vector rotating at an
angular velocity of ω = 2πƒ, where ƒ is the frequency of the waveform. Then a Phasor is a
quantity that has both “Magnitude” and “Direction”.
Generally, when constructing a phasor diagram, angular velocity of a sine wave is always
assumed to be: ω in rad/sec. Consider the phasor diagram below.

Phasor Diagram of a Sinusoidal Waveform

The phasor diagram is drawn corresponding to time zero

( t = 0 ) on the horizontal axis. The lengths of the phasors
are proportional to the values of the voltage, ( V ) and the
current, ( I ) at the instant in time that the phasor diagram is
drawn. The current phasor lags the voltage phasor by the
angle, Φ, as the two phasors rotate in
an anticlockwise direction as stated earlier, therefore the
angle, Φ is also measured in the same anticlockwise direction.

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 If however, the waveforms are frozen at time, t = 30o, the
corresponding phasor diagram would look like the one
shown on the right. Once again the current phasor lags
behind the voltage phasor as the two waveforms are of
the same frequency.
However, as the current waveform is now crossing the
horizontal zero axis line at this instant in time we can use
the current phasor as our new reference and correctly say that the voltage phasor is “leading” the
current phasor by angle, Φ. Either way, one phasor is designated as the reference phasor and all
the other phasors will be either leading or lagging with respect to this reference.

[Link] ALTERNATING
CURRENT (AC) CIRCUIT THEORY

Alternating current, (AC) theory is concerned with the mathematical analysis of the steady-state
behavior of electrical circuits in which the currents and voltages vary periodically with time. The
analysis is simplified by considering only sinusoidal variations, an approach which is not
restrictive since any general periodic waveform can be represented as a sum of such quantities,
i.e. a Fourier series. 

1. Basic Types of Circuits and Behaviors

Electric Circuit

- An Electric Circuit is the conductive path for flow of current or electricity is

called electric circuit or electrical circuit. A conductive wire is used to establish
relation among source of voltage and load. An ON/OFF switch and a fuse is
also used in between the source and load.
-

Types of Electric Circuit

There are 5 Main Types of Electric Circuit

(1) Close Circuit

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 When load works on its own in a circuit then it is called Close Circuit or Closed
Circuit. Under this situation, the value of current flow depends on load.

(2) Open Circuit

When there is a faulty electrical wire or electronic

component in a circuit or the switch is OFF, then it is
called Open Circuit. In the below diagram you can see that
the Bulb is Not glowing because either the switch is OFF
or there is fault is the electrical wire.

(3) Short Circuit

When both points (+ & –) of voltage source in a circuit gets joint

with each other for some reason then it is called Short Circuit.
Maximum current starts to flow under this situation. Short circuit
generally happens when the conducting electrical wires get joint
of even because of shorting in the load.

(4) Series Circuit

When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc) are

connected to each other in a series, then it is called a
Series Circuit. In a series circuit, if one load or bulb
gets fuse, then rest of the bulbs will not get power
supply and will not glow. 

(5) Parallel Circuit

When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc)
are connected to each other in parallel, then it is
called Parallel Circuit. In this type of circuit, the
voltage capacity of all loads must be equal to input
supply. Power of “load” can be different. In a
parallel circuit, if one load or bulb gets fuse, then
rest of the bulbs will still get power supply and
will glow. 

Circuits Behavior

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  In a closed circuit the electric current (or charged particles) flows from an
active energy source to the connected load or other components due to the
closed-loop path.
 For a closed circuit require, (a) conducting materials or a conductor path
(like copper), (b) the active voltage source devices (such as battery), and
(c) the complete path or circuit to flow the electric current.

EXAMPLE OF CLOSE CIRCUIT

Assume that the DC voltage supply battery is connected to the lamp (as a load) and the switch is
closed. The circuit creates a complete path for the electric current to pass due to the closed
switch. The bulb is glowing in the closed circuit, as shown in the diagram below.

An open circuit implies that the two terminals are points are externally disconnected, which is
equivalent to a resistance R=∞ . This means that zero current can flow between the two
terminals, regardless of any voltage difference. (Note that very high voltages can cause arcs of
current to flow even over large air or vacuum gaps!)

 The open circuit voltage is the voltage difference measured between two terminals when no
current is drawn or supplied.

A short circuit implies that the two terminals are externally connected with resistance R=0 , the
same as an ideal wire. This means there is zero voltage difference for any current value. (Note
that real wires have non-zero resistance!)

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 The short
circuit current is the current that flows when the terminals are forced to have zero voltage
difference.

2. The R, L and C Circuits

The whole of electronics components can be slip into

two broad categories, one being the Active components
and the other as Passive components. The Passive
components include the Resistor (R), Capacitor (C) and
the Inductor (L). These are the three most used
components in electronics circuit and you will find
them in almost every application circuit. These three
components together in different combinations will
form the RC, RL and RLC circuits and they have
many applications like from filtering circuits, Tube light chokes, multivibrators etc..

Resistor: Resistors are denoted by the letter “R”. A resistor is an element that dissipates energy
mostly in form of heat. It will have a Voltage drop across it which remains fixed for a fixed value
of current flowing through it.

Capacitor: Capacitors are denoted by the letter “C”. A capacitor is an element which stores
energy (temporarily) in form of electric field. Capacitor resists changes in voltage. There are
many types of capacitors, out of which the ceramic capacitor and the electrolytic capacitors are
mostly used. They charge in one direction and discharge in opposite direction.

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Inductor:  Inductors are denoted by the letter “L”. A Inductor is also similar to capacitor, it also
stores energy but is stored in form of magnetic field. Inductors resist changes current. Inductors
are normally a coil wound wire and is rarely used compared to the former two components.

When these Resistor, Capacitor and Inductors are put together we can form circuits like RC, RL
and RLC circuit which exhibits time and frequency dependent responses that will e useful in
many AC applications as mentioned already. A RC/RL/RLC circuit can be used as
a filter, oscillator and much more it is not possible to cover every aspect we will learn the basic
behaviour of them.

Let us understand how a Resistor, Capacitor and an Inductor behave in an electronic

circuit. For the purpose of understanding let us consider a simple circuit consisting of a
capacitor and resistor in series with a power supply (5V). In this case when the power
supply is connected to the RC pair, the voltage across the Resistor (Vr) increase to its
maximum value while the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) stays at zero, then slowly the
capacitor starts to build charge and thus the voltage across the resistor will decrease and
the voltage across the capacitor will increase until the resistor voltage (Vr) has reached
Zero and Capacitor voltage (Vc) has reached its maximum value. The circuit and the
wave form can be seen below

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 Let us analyze the wave form in the above image to understand what is actual happening
in the circuit is. A well-illustrated waveform is show in the image below.

When the switch is turned on the voltage across the resistor (red wave) reaches its maximum and
the voltage across capacitor (blue wave) remains at zero. Then the capacitor charges up and Vr
becomes zero and Vc becomes maximum. Similarly when the switch is turned off capacitor
discharges and hence the negative voltage appears across the Resistor and as the capacitor
discharges both the capacitor and resistor voltage becomes zero as shown above.

The same can be visualized for inductors as well.  Replace the capacitor with an inductor and the
waveform will just be mirrored, that is the voltage across the resistor (Vr) will be zero when the
switch is turned on since the whole voltage will appear across the Inductor (Vl). As the inductor
charges up the voltage across (Vl) it will reach zero and the voltage across the resistor (Vr) will
reach the maximum voltage.

RLC Circuit:
A RLC circuit as the name implies will consist of a Resistor, Capacitor and Inductor connected
in series or parallel. The circuit forms an Oscillator circuit which is very commonly used in
Radio receivers and televisions. It is also very commonly used as damper circuits in analog
applications. The resonance property of a first order RLC circuit is discussed below

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 The RLC circuit is also called as series resonance circuit, oscillating circuit or a tuned
circuit. These circuit has the ability to provide a resonant frequency signal as shown in
the below image

Here we have a capacitor C1 of 100u and an Inductor L1 of 10mH connected tin series through a
switch. Since the wire that is connecting the C and L will have some internal resistance, it is
assumed that a small amount of resistance is present due to the wire.

Initially, we keep the switch 2 as open and close the switch 1 to charge up the capacitor from the
battery source (9V). Then once the capacitor is charged the switch 1 is opened and then the
switch 2 is closed.

As soon as the switch is closed the charge stored in the capacitor will move towards the inductor
and charge it up. Once the capacitor is fully dis-charged, the inductor will start discharging back
into the capacitor this way charges will flow to and from between the inductor and the capacitor.
But since there will be some loss in charges during this process total charge will gradually
decrease until it reaches zero as shown in the graph above.

3. Energy in an Inductive Circuit

Suppose that an inductor of inductance   is connected to a variable DC voltage supply. The
supply is adjusted so as to increase the current   flowing through the inductor from zero to some

final value  . As the current through the inductor is ramped up, an emf   is
generated, which acts to oppose the increase in the current. Clearly, work must be done against
this emf by the voltage source in order to establish the current in the inductor. The work done by
the voltage source during a time interval   is
(Eq. 247)

Here,  

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 is the instantaneous rate at which the voltage source performs work. To find the total work   
done in establishing the final current   in the inductor, we must integrate the above expression.
Thus, (Eq. 248)

giving ( Eq. 249)

This energy is actually stored in the magnetic field generated by the current flowing through the
inductor. In a pure inductor, the energy is stored without loss, and is returned to the rest of the
circuit when the current through the inductor is ramped down, and its associated magnetic field
collapses.

Consider a simple solenoid. Equations  (244), (246), and (249) can be combined to give

Consider a solenoid of length   and cross-sectional area  . Suppose that the solenoid has   
turns. When a current   flows in the solenoid, a uniform axial field of magnitude

(Eq. 244)
Eq. 241

According to Eq. (241), the self inductance of the solenoid is given by , which
reduces to

(Eq. 246)

(Eq. 250)
which reduces to

(Eq. 251)

This represents the energy stored in the magnetic field of the solenoid. However, the volume of
the field-filled core of the solenoid is  , so the magnetic energy density (i.e., the energy per
unit volume) inside the solenoid is , or (Eq. 252)

It turns out that this result is quite general. Thus, we can calculate the energy content of any
magnetic field by dividing space into little cubes (in each of which the magnetic field is

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approximately uniform), applying the above formula to find the energy content of each cube, and
summing the energies thus obtained to find the total energy.

When electric and magnetic fields exist together in space, Eqs. (122) and (252) can be combined
to give an expression for the total energy stored in the combined fields per unit volume:

(Eq. 253)

4. Energy in a Capacitive Circuit

Capacitors are devices which store electrical energy in the form of electrical charge accumulated
on their plates. When a capacitor is connected to a power source, it accumulates energy which
can be released when the capacitor is disconnected from the charging source, and in this respect
they are similar to batteries. The difference is that a battery uses electrochemical processes to
store energy, while a capacitor simply stores charge. As such, capacitors are able to release the
stored energy at a much higher rate than batteries, since chemical processes need more time to
take place.
The amount of stored energy depends on the amount of charge that is stored on the capacitor’s
plates. Alternatively, the amount of energy stored can also be defined in regard’s to the voltage
across the capacitor. The formula that describes this relationship is:

Where:
W - is the energy stored on the capacitor, measured in joules,
Q - is the amount of charge stored on the capacitor,
C - is the capacitance ; and
V - is the voltage across the capacitor.

As seen from the above equation, the maximum amount of energy that can be stored on a
capacitor depends on the capacitance, as well as the maximum rated voltage of a capacitor.

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The stored energy can be quickly released from the capacitor due to the fact that capacitors have
low internal resistance. This property is often used in systems that generate large load spikes. In
such cases, batteries cannot provide enough current and capacitors are used to supplement
batteries. During off-peak working conditions, the capacitor is again recharged to a nominal
voltage.

ADDITIONAL:
 Capacitors store energy for later use. The instantaneous power of a capacitor is the
product of its instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current. To find the instantaneous
power of the capacitor, you need the following power definition, which applies to any
device:

 The subscript C denotes a capacitance device (surprise!). Substituting the current for a

capacitor into this equation gives you the following:

 Assuming zero initial voltage, the energy wC(t) stored per unit time is the power.
Integrating that equation gives you the energy stored in a capacitor:

 The energy equation implies that the energy stored in a capacitor is always positive. The
capacitor absorbs power from a circuit when storing energy. The capacitor releases the
stored energy when delivering energy to the circuit.

For a numerical example, look at the top-left diagram shown here, which shows how the voltage
changes across a 0.5-μF capacitor. Try calculating the capacitor’s energy and power.

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