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Lesson 2: Spiritual Beliefs of Early Filipinos & Early Philippine Society and Culture

Lesson Objectives:
1. Discuss the social and cultural system of the early Philippine society.
2. Compare the pre-Spanish Filipino society to the different timelines of the Philippine
History.

Spiritual Beliefs of Early Filipinos

The spiritual beliefs of ancient Filipinos can be gleaned from the

writings of Spanish conquistadores, historians, and missionaries. At the
time of colonization, the population of the Philippines was estimated to
be 700,000 based on the census of tributes implemented by Governor
Gomez Perez Dasmariñas whose term of office only lasted three years
from 1590-1593.

According to Fr. Pedro Chirino, Antonio de Morga and other

Spanish writers, the ancient Filipino believed in a supreme being
called Bathala, the creator of heaven and earth, and all living things.
Under this all-powerful god was a pantheon of lesser gods like the Visayan
goddess of harvest and fire Lalahort; the Bagobo god of war
Darago, and Apolaki, the Pangasinan god of war.
Pre-Spanish Filipinos also worshipped the spirits of their ancestors
called anitos. They carved wooden or stone idols to represent their gods
and anitos, which they kept in their homes and propitiated with food,
animals and other sacrifices to bring about success in war, a bountiful harvest, or a happy
marriage. However, not all anitos were benevolent. Bad anitos existed in the shapes of the
spirits of dead tribal enemies.

In A Short History of the Philippines, the Filipino historian Nicolas Zafra states:
“Besides the Supreme God, there were lesser gods or spirits. They were called anitos. There was an anito
of the forests and mountains. They prayed to him whenever they went out to those places to hunt or get
timber. There was an anito of the planted field who they invoked for good harvest. There was an anito
of the seas. They prayed to him for good luck in their fishing expeditions and in their voyages. There was
an anito of the house, too. They invoked him when someone was sick or when a child was born.”

Concerning the religious beliefs of early Filipinos another Filipino historian, Gregorio Zaide, in
his book History of the Filipino People, notes:
“During pre-Spanish times our people were either Muslims or Pagans. The Muslims were the “Moros” of
Mindanao and Sulu, Mindoro, and Manila Bay region. It should be remembered that at the time of the

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arrival of the Spaniards, Manila and Tondo were Islamic kingdoms. Being superstitious, they read omens
in the appearance of crows, crocodiles, and birds. Comets they believed to be a harbinger of bad luck
like famine, epidemic, or war. Likewise, the howling of a dog or the falling of a tree at night was an
omen of death. Sneezing before the start of a journey also foretold death or an accident along the
way.
Many of the superstitious beliefs of our forefathers still remain to the present day. Among them
are the following: (1) when a young girl sings before a stove, she will marry an old widower; (2) when a
hen cackles at midnight, an unmarried woman is giving birth to a child; (3) when a pregnant woman
cuts off her hair, she will give birth to a hairless baby; (4) when a cat wipes its face, a visitor is coming to
the house; and (5) when a person dreams that one of his teeth falls out, somebody in the family will die.
The pagan priests and priestesses were called katalonas and babaylanas, respectively. They officiated
in ritual sacrifices, aside from serving as physicians, soothsayers and prophets. The highest priest, akin to
a bishop, was called a sonat. It was he who appointed the priests and priestesses. The sacrificial ritual
was performed either inside or outside the house, and usually ended in feasting and merry-making.
Our ancestor subscribed to the concept of life after death. They believed that each individual
has an immortal soul that travels to the other world. The souls of good and brave men go to a heaven
called Kalualhatian, whereas the souls of evil men are flung into a hell known as Kasamaan.
To prepare the dead for his journey to the underworld, his relatives placed food, wine, gold,
weapons, and other personal effects and provisions in his grave. When a datu died, his slaves were
killed and buried with him, to serve his needs in the afterlife. In terms of burial practices, the corpse was
embalmed, placed in a coffin made of hard wood or a burial jar, and eventually buried in a grave or a
cave.
Miguel de Loarca, a conquistador, gives a graphic description of the supernatural beliefs and
religious practices of ancient Filipinos in Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas, a treatise on the Philippine islands
that was published in Arevalo, Spain, in June 1582. Fr. Juan de Plasencia, a Franciscan missionary who
came to the Philippines in 1577, also dwelt on the same matter extensively in Dos Relaciones, which saw
printing in 1589.”

Miguel de Loarca reports, regarding the belief of ancient Filipinos in the destiny of souls:
“They say that there is in the sky another god called Sidapa. This god possesses a very tall tree on
mount Mayas. There he measures the lives of all the newborn, and places a mark on the tree; when the
person’s stature equals this mark, he dies immediately.
It is believed that at death all souls go directly to the infernal regions but that, by means of the
manganitos, which are the sacrifices and offerings made to the god Pandaque in sight of the mount of
Mayas, they are redeemed from Simuran and Siguinarugan, gods of the lower regions.
It is said that, when the Yligueynes die, the god Maguayen carries them to inferno. When he has
carried them thither in his barangay, Sumpoy, another god, sallies forth, takes them away, and leads
them to Sisiburanen, the god mentioned before, who keeps them all. Good or bad alike, he takes them
all on equal terms, when they go to inferno. But the poor, who have no one to offer sacrifices for them,
remain forever, in the inferno, and the god of those regions eats them, or keeps them forever in prison.
From this it will be seen how little their being good or bad avails them, and how much reason they have
to hate poverty.”

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The occult ritual performed by babaylanas, Loarca vividly depicts:

“The priestesses dress very gaily, with garlands on their heads, and are resplendent with gold.
They bring to the place of sacrifice some pitarrillas (a kind of earthen jar) full of rice-wine, beside a live
hog and a quantity of prepared food. Then the priestess chants her songs and invokes the demon that
appears to her all glistening in gold. Then he enters her body and hurls her to the ground, foaming at
the mouth as one possessed. In this state she declares whether the sick person is to recover or not.
In regard to other matters, she foretells the future. All this takes place to the sound of bells and
kettledrums. Then she rises and taking a spear, she pierces the heart of the hog. They dress it and prepare
a dish for the demons. Upon an altar erected there, they place the dressed hog, rice, bananas, wine, and
all the other articles of food that they have brought. All this is done in behalf of sick persons, or to redeem
those who are confined in the infernal regions.”

It appears that witchcraft was a common practice among ancient Filipinos, as Loarca
describes with interest:
“In this land are sorcerers and witches–although there are also good physicians, who cure
diseases with medicinal herbs; especially they have a remedy for every kind of poison, for there are
most wonderful antidotal herbs. The natives of the islands are very superstitious, consequently, no native
will embark on any voyage in a vessel on which there may be a goat or a monkey, for they say that
they will surely be wrecked. They have a thousand omens of this sort.
For a few years past they have had among them one form of witchcraft that was invented by
the natives of Ybalon after the Spaniards had come here. This is the invocation of certain demons which
they call Naguined Arapayan and Macburubac. To these they offer sacrifices, consisting of coconut oil
and a crocodile’s tooth; and while they make these offerings, they invoke the demons. This oil they sell
to one another; and even when they sell it, they offer sacrifices and invoke the demon, beseeching him
that the power that he possesses may be transferred to the buyer of the oil.
They claim that the simple declaration that one will die within a certain time is sufficient to make
him die immediately at that time, unless they save him with another oil, which counteracts the former.
This witchery has done a great deal of harm among the Pintados, because the demon plays tricks on
them. The religious have tried to remedy this evil, by taking away from them the oil and chastising
them.”

Loarca also mentions a form of divination or fortune telling used by pre-Spanish Filipinos:
“These natives have a method of casting lots with the teeth of a crocodile or of a wild boar.
During the ceremony they invoke their gods and their ancestors, and inquire of them as to the result of
their wars and their journeys. By knots or loops, which they make with cords, they foretell what will happen
to them: and they resort to these practices for everything that they have to undertake.
Native beliefs concerning death are also included in Loarca’s writings. For example, pre-Spanish
Filipinos believed that those who are stabbed to death, eaten by crocodiles, or killed by arrows climb
on a rainbow to heaven and evolve into gods. Those who die by drowning are most unlucky. Their souls
are trapped in a watery grave forever. Those who die young are believed to be the victims of goblins
called mangalos who eat their bowels. For those who die in their old age, the wind comes and snatches
their souls.
When someone dies, his relatives’ light torches near his house. At night armed guards are posted
around the coffin to prevent sorcerers from touching it, for fear that it would burst open and a terrible
stench will issue from the corpse. When their father or mother dies, the children of adult age mourn by

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fasting and are forbidden to eat rice until they succeed in seizing a captive in battle. Occasionally, a
man, after a relative’s death, vows to eat nothing and eventually dies of hunger.”

Fr. Juan de Plasencia takes into account that the pre-Spanish Filipinos had a rudimentary
knowledge of astronomy and were staunch believers in omens:
“Some of them also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names, as the
Spaniards and other nations know the planets–with one exception of the morning star, which they
called Tala. They knew too, the “seven little goats” (the Pleiades)–as we call them–and, consequently,
the change of seasons, which they call Mapolom and Balatic, which is our Greater Bear.
They were, moreover, very liable to find auguries in things they witnessed. For example, if they
left their house and met on the way a serpent or rat, or a bird called Tigmamanuguin which was singing
in the tree, or if they chanced upon anyone who sneezed, they returned at once to their house,
considering the incident as an augury that some evil might befall them if they should continue their
journey–especially when the above-mentioned bird sang. This song had two different forms: in one case
it was considered as an evil omen; in the other, as a good omen, and then they, continue their journey.
They also practiced divination, to see whether weapons, such as a dagger or knife, were to be useful
and lucky for their possessor whenever occasion should offer.”

Judging pre-Spanish Filipinos through the eyes of a Christian, Fr. Plasencia categorically
branded all types of pagan practices as devil worship and divided their practitioners into
twelve categories:
“The distinctions made among the priests of the devil were as follows: The first, called katolonan,
was either a man or a woman. This office was an honorable one among the natives, and was held
ordinarily by people of rank, this rule being general in all the islands.
The second they called mangagauay or witches, who deceived by pretending to heal the sick.
These priests even induced maladies by their charms, which in proportion to the strength and efficacy
of the witchcraft are capable of causing death. In this way, if they wished to kill at once they did so: or
they could prolong life for a year by binding to the waist a live serpent which was believed to be the
devil, or at least his substitute.
The third they called manyisalat, which is the same as mangagauay. These priests had the
power of applying such remedies to lovers that they would abandon and despise their own wives, and
in fact could prevent them from having intercourse with the latter. If the woman, constrained by these
means, were abandoned, it would bring sickness upon her, and on account of the desertion she would
discharge blood and matter. This office was also general throughout the land.
The fourth was called mancocolam whose duty it was to emit fire from himself at night, once or
oftener each month. This fire could not be extinguished; nor could it be thus emitted except as the priest
wallowed in the ordure and filth that falls from the houses; and he who lived in the house where the
priest was wallowing in order to emit this fire from himself, fell ill and died. This office was general.
The fifth was called hocloban, which is another kind of witch of greater efficacy than
the mangagauay. Without the use of medicine and by simply saluting or raising the hand, they killed
whom they chose. But if they desired to heal those whom they had made ill by their charms, they did so
by using other charms. Moreover, if they wished to destroy the house of some Indian hostile to them,
they were able to do so without instruments. This was in Catanduanes, an island off the upper part of
Luzon.

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The sixth was called silagan, if they saw anyone clothed in white, to tear out his liver and eat it,
thus causing his death. This, like the preceding, was in the island of Catanduanes. Let no one, moreover,
consider this a fable: because, in Calavan, they tore out in this way through the anus all the intestine of
a Spanish notary, who was buried in Calilaya by father Fray de Merida.
The seventh was called magtatangal, and his purpose was to show himself at night to many
persons, without his head or entrails, in such way the devil walked about and carried, or pretended to
carry, his head to different places; and, in the morning, returned it to his body remaining, as before, alive.
This seems to me to be a fable, although the natives affirm that they have seen it, because the devil
probably caused them so to believe. This occurred in Catanduanes.
The eighth they called osuang, which is equivalent to “sorcerer”; they say that they have seen
him fly, and that he murdered men and ate their flesh. This was among the Visayas Island: among the
Tagalogs these did not exist.
The ninth was another class of witches called mangagayoma. They made charms for lovers out
of herbs, stones, and wood, which would infuse the heart with love. Thus, did they deceive the people,
although sometimes, through devils, they gained their ends.
The tenth was known as sonat, which is equivalent to, “preacher.” It was his duty to help one to
die, at which time he predicted the salvation or condemnation of the soul. It was not lawful for the
function of this office to be fulfilled by others than people of high standing, on account of the esteem in
which it was held. This office was general throughout the islands.
The eleventh, pangatahojan, was a soothsayer, and predicted the future. This office was
general in all the islands.
The twelfth, bayoguim, signified a cotquean, a man whose nature inclined toward that of a
woman.”

In Myths and Symbols Philippines, Fr. F.R. Demetrio, S.J., describes a kind of psychic initiation
ancient Filipino priestesses underwent before assuming their sacred roles:
“We have it on reliable sources that shortly after the coming of Christianity (Alcina 1668), the call
to the office of bailana or daetan (priestess) among the Bisayans began precisely with this madness,
or tiaw that the candidate underwent.”

Alzina has interesting stories telling of just this fact:

“The future bailanas were wont to be lost for quite some time. They were said to be brought into
the forest by the spirits. When finally found, they were seen sitting absentmindedly among the high
branches of trees, or seated under a tree, especially the balete.
Sometimes, too, these people were found stark naked, with disheveled hair, possessed with a
strength beyond the ordinary. Invariably they appeared to have forgotten their former selves. A power
that they were powerless to shake off had them under its total dominance. Only after these people had
been cured of their initial illness, did they begin to function as bailanas. This function made them the
specialists of the sacred in the community.”

In the aforementioned book, Fr. Demetrio recreates the belief of ancient Filipinos
regarding the nature of the soul, based on the observations of Don Isabelo de los Reyes in La
Antigua Religion de la Filipinas. To quote the Jesuit scholar: Juxtaposing the description of
Edward Taylor with passages from De los Reyes in Religion Antigua these points are clear:

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1. That the spirits of the dead of the early Filipinos was incorporeal but possessed of an
aerial body which resembled its corporeal owner, and appeared like a smoke or
shadow, for the souls are in the form of smoke or shadow; and though unseen, they
are audible.
2. The spirit independently of its corporeal owner possesses personal consciousness,
volition and love for its living relatives whom it visits either on the third or ninth day after
death, and for this purpose the windows of the house of the bereaved are always open,
the entrances are spread with ashes for the spirit to leave its imprint on them.
3. Though impalpable and invisible, still it manifests physical power in the noises it makes
to make its presence felt. The spirits can lure the spirits of the living to lose their spirits
and become insane.
4. That the spirit of the dead can incarnate itself in animals. Over three centuries of
Spanish colonization and Christianization wrought their impact in reshaping the
supernatural beliefs of Filipinos. From the ancient worship of Bathala, most Filipinos
have shifted their faith to Jesus Christ. From venerating diwatas or mountain
goddesses, many Filipinos have become devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. And from
wearing charms, local believers have switched to scapulars and religious medals. Yet
somehow the supernatural beliefs and practices of their ancestors still exert a major
influence in the daily lives of modern Filipinos. This is evident in the many rituals of folk
Catholicism that bear a strong resemblance to their pagan counterparts. This is
apparent in many Filipinos of today who still wear charms and amulets, and regularly
consult mediums, faith healers and even witches. Most of all, this conclusion is reinforced
by the groundswell of local cults that espouse a happy blend of Christian and pagan
beliefs, if not a complete return to the supernatural tradition of their ancestors.

Early Philippine Society and Culture

The cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines include those covered by
prehistory and early history of the Philippines archipelago and its inhabitants, which are the
indigenous forebears of today's Filipino people.
These early Filipinos possessed a culture and technology that were quite advanced
considering the timeline of history of science when it flourished. Waves of migrants who came
to settle in the islands contributed to the development of ancient Philippine civilization.
Prehistoric aborigines, a cross of Afro-Asiatic and Austro-Aborigines, now called Negritos
(Aeta, Agta, Ayta) reached the islands by way of land bridges around 15,000 to
30,000 BC, and they were excellent hunters and food gatherers. In its midst, other ancient
civilizations were also thriving and evolving. The Proto-Malays, a Mongol-Asiatic race,

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arrived around 2500 BC using oceanic vessels called balangays, and they brought with
them their knowledge in seafaring, farming, building of houses from trees and creation of
fire for cooking. The next to arrive were the Duetero-Malays, of India-Asiatic race (Indian,
Chinese, Siamese, Arabic), that prevailed with a more superior and advanced culture. They
possessed their own systems of writing, knowledge and skills in agriculture, metallurgy, jewelry-
making as well as boat-building. When the Spaniards came to the islands in the 15th century,
industries such as mining, agriculture, fishing and pottery were already in place and
contacts with other Asian nations had been long established.

Peopling of the Pre-Colonial Philippines

The Negritos were early settlers but their appearance in the
Philippines has not been reliably dated; and they were followed by
speakers of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, a branch of the
Austronesian languages, who began to arrive in successive waves
beginning about 4000 B.C.E, displacing the earlier arrivals.
By 1000 B.C. the inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago
had developed into four distinct kinds of peoples: tribal groups, such
as the Aetas, Hanunoo, Ilongots and the Mangyan who depended
on hunter-gathering and were concentrated in forests;
warrior societies, such as the Isneg and Kalingas who practiced social ranking and ritualized
warfare and roamed the plains; the petty plutocracy of the Ifugao Cordillera Highlanders,
who occupied the mountain ranges of Luzon; and the harbor principalities of the estuarine
civilizations that grew along rivers and seashores while participating in trans-island maritime
trade.

Pre- Colonial Culture

During the early period thousand years ago, the early

Filipinos were composed of different groups that came from
different part of Asia. With different groups they form their own
community, system of education and religious belief.
They group into different communities composed of 50 to
2,000 individuals and they construct their shelters in different
areas according to their lifestyle and source of living. Usually,
they were situated along the seashores, streams, rivers, forests,
fertile land areas and even in caves.
In water areas they look for fish, shells and pearls as their
source of living. They also used boat and craft as there means of

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transportation for an easier travel and carrying their goods for trade from one place to
another. For those people located in land areas they cultivate the land and plant rice,
bananas and crops. After the harvest they no longer use the area indeed they just move to
another place with less grass and fine soil and abundant of trees where they can start farming
again. Perhaps this gives an idea that the Philippines is very rich of resources for a bountiful
living.

These spirits are said to be the anito or diwata that they

believed to be good and bad. The good spirits were considered
as their relatives and the bad were believed to be their enemies.
Some worship specific deities like Bathala a supreme god for the
Tagalog, Laon or Abba for the Visayan, Ikasi of Zambal,
Gugurang for the people of Bicol and Kabunian of Ilocano and
Ifugao. Aside from those supreme deities they also worship other
gods like Idialao as god of farming, Lalaon of harvest, Balangay
god of rainbow and Sidapa god of death.
Others also worship the moon, stars, caves, mountains,
rivers, plants and trees. Some creatures are being worship too like
the bird, crow, tortoise, crocodile and other things they believed
has value and connected to their lives.
The variation of animistic practices occurs in different ethnic groups. Magic, chants and
prayers are often key features. Its practitioners were highly respected (and some feared)
in the community, as they were healers, midwife (hilot), shamans, witches and warlocks
(mangkukulam), babaylans, tribal historians and wizened elders that provided the spiritual
and traditional life of the community. In the Visayas region there is a belief of witchcraft
(kulam) and mythical creatures like aswang, Nuno sa Punso and other mythical creatures.

Pre- Colonial Clothing

During this pre-colonial era historians have found out that the “Barong Tagalog”
(dress of the Tagalog) already existed. The earliest Baro or Baro ng Tagalog was worn by the
natives of Ma-I (the Philippines name before) just before they were colonized by the
Spaniards.

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The men wore a sleeve-doublet made of Canga (rough

cotton) that reached slightly below the waist. It is collarless
with a front opening. Their loins were covered with a pane
that hung between the legs and mid-thigh. The women also
wore a sleeve dress but shorter than the men. They also wear
a pane attached to the waist and reaching to the feet
accented by a colorful belt. The materials used for their dress
is of fine line or Indian Muslin.

The Visayan men wore a jacket with a Moorish style rob,

that reach down their feet and was embroidered in beautiful
colors. Tagalog and Visayan men bound their temples and forehead with a “putong” (a
narrow strips of cloth). They also wore gold jewelry and other accessories to beautify their
bodies.

Pre- Colonial Writing Systems

During the early period almost everyone in the society-male or female knows how to
read and write. They have their own method of writing which they use sharp-pointed tools,
leaves, bamboo and trunk’s skin. They write from top to bottom and read it from left to right.
The first Visayan, Tagalog, Ilocano and some ethic groups have their own dialect and
form of writing too. They have an alphabet composed of 17 letters; 3 of which are vowels
and 14 are consonants. The Muslims have also their own system basing on their dialect. This
is called kirim of Maranao and jiwi of the Tausug, which they are still using until this day.

Abugida: Pre- Colonial method of Handwriting (Baybayin)

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Pre- Colonial Form of Government

Before the Spaniards came into the Philippines there were

existing culture of the Filipinos which were not distinguished by
most of the Filipinos especially for the new born Filipino citizens.
The Filipinos lived in settlements called barangays before the
colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards. As the unit of
government, a barangay consisted from 30 to 100 families. It
was headed by a datu and was independent from the other
group.
Usually, several barangays settled near each other to
help one another in case of war or any emergency. The position
of datu was passed on by the holder of the position to the
eldest son or, if none, the eldest daughter. However, later, any
member of the barangay could be chieftain, based on his talent and ability. He had the
usual responsibilities of leading and protecting the members of his barangay. In turn, they
had to pay tribute to the datu, help him till the land, and help him fight for the barangay in
case of war. In the old days, a datu had a council of elders to advise him, especially
whenever he wanted a law to be enacted. The law was written and announced to the whole
barangay by a town crier, called the umalohokan.

Social Classes

Before the coming of Spanish colonizers, the people

of the Philippine archipelago had already attained a semi-
communal and semis-lave social system in many parts and
also a feudal system in certain parts, especially in
Mindanao and Sulu, where such a feudal faith as Islam had
already taken roots. The Aetas had the lowest form of
social organization, which was primitive communal.
The barangay was the typical community in the whole
archipelago. It was the basic political and economic
unit independent of similar others. Each embraced a few
hundreds of people and a small territory. Each was headed
by a chieftain called the rajah or datu.
The social structure comprised a petty nobility, the ruling class which had started to
accumulate land that it owned privately or administered in the name of the clan or

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community; an intermediate class of freemen called the maharlikas who had enough land
for their livelihood or who rendered special service to the rulers and who did not have to
work in the fields; and the ruled classes that included the timawas, the serfs who shared the
crops with the petty nobility, and also the slaves and semi-slaves who worked without having
any definite share in the harvest. There were two kinds of slaves then: those who had their
own quarters, the aliping namamahay, and those who lived in their master's house, the
aliping sagigilid. One acquired the status of a serf or a slave by inheritance, failure to pay debts
and tribute, commission of crimes and captivity in wars between barangays.

Summary:

Contrary to colonial perception, early Filipinos already had their own rich and complex
spiritual traditions before the Spanish colonization in the late sixteenth century. These spiritual
traditions and forms of worship varied throughout the archipelago due to cultural, social,
economic, geographical, and linguistic differences. In the pre-colonial period, women were
empowered members of the community. These were manifested in the existence of highly
revered positions held by women as the local priestesses of the barangay. They were called
Katalonans in Luzon and Babaylans/Bailanas in Visayas.

Different accounts demonstrate contrasting perspectives. The religious (e.g., friars)

may portray early Filipinos' beliefs as pagan and devilish while laymen such as Loarca and
Morga can be more objective in their observations. Meanwhile, myths of the natives (e.g.,
Ilonggo) can be seen as a reflection of their society, identity, and worldview.

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