CHAPTER NINE

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
CONSTRUCTION

Chapter 9 – Centrifugal Compressors Construction

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 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
CONSTRUCTION

9.1 General Construction

The centrifugal compressor is composed of a casing containing a

rotating element, rotor, which is supported by a set of bearings. For most
multistage compressors, shaft end seals are located in-board of the
bearings. The internal passages are formed by a set of diaphragms. Figure
9.1 shows a typical multistage compressor.

Figure 9.1 – Typical multistage compressor

Centrifugal compressors are employed in numerous fields: chemical

and petrochemical industries, refineries and fertilizer plants, nuclear
reactors and air separation plants, iron and steelworks, production of
liquefied natural gas (LNG) and substitute natural gas (SNG), cryogenic

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 and refrigeration plants, mining, transportation and storage of gas,
onshore and offshore installations. The range of applications can be
expanded still further by combining these centrifugal compressors with
other compressor types such as a x ia l - f lo w or reciprocating compressors.

A centrifugal compressor, Figures 9.2, raises gas pressure by

accelerating the gas as it flows radially out through the impeller and
converting this velocity energy to pressure by passage through a diffuser
section. The casing is stationary, and the wheels or impellers mounted on
the shaft are rotated by the driver. The units are usually mounted
horizontally with horizontal split case for low pressures and vertical split
case (barrel design) for high pressures about 800 psi.

In general configuration the centrifugal compressor resembles a

centrifugal pump. However, the significant difference in performance
requirements lies in the compressibility of the gas. A dynamical analogy
between these two items could be used to simplify the fundamental
principles involved. Both receive mechanical energy from an outside
source, and by rotating impellers they transform this into pressure energy
in the fluid pumped. The centrifugal force depends on the peripheral speed
of the impeller and the density of the fluid. The functioning of a centrifugal
compressor depends more on the density and fluid characteristics of the
material handled than does a reciprocating compressor. The peripheral
speed and, hence, the head developed per stage is limited by the acoustic
velocity, as it is believed that the peripheral speed should not exceed the
speed of sound in the fluid being handled.

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 1. Casing 6. Bearing housing 11. Keyway
2. Diaphragm 7. Load bearing 12. Inlet nozzle
3. Impeller 8. Oil baffles 13. Double-acting thrust bearing
4. Interstage seals 9. Balance piston 14. Retaining nuts
5. Shaft end seals 10. Shaft 15. Shaft sleeves

Figure 9.2 – Construction details of multistage centrifugal compressor

9.2 Casing

All centrifugal compressors' casings were initially of cast

construction, and this method is still used on many casings today,
particularly in the smaller sizes. In the past 15 years some manufacturers
have fabricated steel casings, generally converting their line of steel casings
beginning with the larger frame sizes. The reason was economics; while the
fabricated casings cost more to make on a per unit weight basis, the net
cost was less. Two factors were responsible. Quality of large steel castings
was hard to control, with much time spent repairing the casing after
inspection. Secondly, the fabrication techniques and costs have improved
significantly. There also came a side benefit, which was flexibility, once the
manufacturer discovered he was no longer tied to a set of patterns or was
bound by the time consumption and cost of pattern changes.

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 Casing materials are, in most cases, cast of iron or nodular iron, and
steel. Fabricated casings are generally made of carbon or alloy steel.

The wide range of processes in which centrifugal compressors are

employed makes varying demands on these machines. Compressor design
is dependent on such factors as the fluid handled, the pressure ratio , the
volume flow, the number of interstage coolers, injection and extraction of
the medium, and the type of shaft sealing.

Taking all these factors into consideration, the major compressor

manufacturers have developed series of centrifugal compressors offering
an optimum engineering solution implemented by the use of standard
components. These series include the two basic types, distinguished by
horizontally or vertically split casing compressors with two or three pairs
of main nozzles, and compressors with additional sidestream nozzles.
Figures 9.3 & 9.4 show typical examples of horizontally and vertically split
compressors.

Figure 9.3 – Typical horizontally split compressor installation

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 Figure 9.4 – Typical vertically split compressor installation

Horizontally split casings with nozzles in the lower half permit

simple removal of the rotor and facilitate the checking of labyrinth
clearances and O-rings. As pressure levels rise and gas molecules become
smaller, vertically split casings are employed.

9.2.1 Horizontal Split Casing

Centrifugal compressors with horizontally split casings typically

permit internal pressures of 70 bar with small volume flow rates and
volume flow rates of up to 300,000 m3/hr at low pressures. Drive ratings
of 30 MW for single-casing machines have already been implemented.

Figure 9.5 shows a cross section of a five-stage horizontally split

centrifugal compressor. Standardized components ensure high availability

Chapter 9 – Centrifugal Compressors Construction

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 and easy fitting. The two halves of the casing are sealed and bolted
together.

Figure 9.5 – Horizontally split compressor with two sidestream entry

nozzles

The rigid structure is supported at the centerline, thus preventing

vertical shifting of the compressor shaft as a result of thermal expansion.
For erection and dismantling purposes, the lop hall of the casing, complete
with the associated stationary components, can be handled as a single
unit. All types of drivers can be employed, for example, gas turbines,
steam turbines, and electric motors.

Many processes require compression of a fluid in one process stage

only, i.e., continuous compression from the first to the final stage with
constant mass flow rate. Most major centrifugal compressor
manufacturers build machines for this field of application with up to nine
or as many as twelve compression stages. Aerodynamic matching of the
individual compression stages is by means of diaphragms with diffuser
channels and vaned return passages. Following the final stage, the

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 compressed gas enters a collecting chamber in the form of a volute before
it reaches the discharge nozzle. The shaft is supported in bearings outside
the compression space. Shaft sealing is by means of tried and proven
systems such as labyrinth, floating ring, mechanical contact or non-
contact seals.

The wide range of possible variations in the materials used and in

the selection of the sealing system render compressors of this series
suitable for virtually all fields of application in industry, chemical and
petrochemical processes, and for almost all gases and mixtures of gases.
Sidestream Compressor

In multistage refrigeration processes, different mass flows pass

through the various refrigeration stages. Sidestreams therefore have to be
injected into or extracted from the main flow in the compressor at
process-dependent intermediate pressures and temperatures. Injection or
extraction is by means of additional nozzles. (The flow path through a
sidestream compressor is illustrated in Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6 – Flow path through horizontally split straight-through

compressor (left) and sidestream compressor (right)

In the case of gas injection, the sidestream is mixed with the main
stream in the return channel. Mixing takes place over the entire periphery.
When a sidestream is extracted, a separating volute removes part of the

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 major stream. The compressor stages are designed to correspond to the
stages of the refrigeration process. The working media for refrigeration
processes are primarily ethylene, propylene, ethane, and propane.
Refrigeration processes usually form a closed cycle, rather less frequently
a semi-open cycle.

In centrifugal compressors with two main nozzle pairs, the two

process stages can be arranged back to back, i.e., flow in the two process
stages is in opposite directions, or they can be arranged in series. In the
double-flow version, the compression process of both stages terminates in
a common discharge nozzle.

Back-to-back arrangement of the first and third stages or series

arrangement of the stages is also possible! Typical back-lo-back
arrangements are shown in Figure 9.7.

Figure 9.7 – Compressors with back-to-back oriented impellers

Tried and proven labyrinth seals separate the individual process

stages. The choice of shaft seal system is dictated by the service.
Whereas casings with two main nozzle pairs are widely employed for a
variety of media and processes, casings with three process stages are
mainly employed for air, oxygen, and nitrogen. The medium is normally
cooled outside the compressor.

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 Interstage cooling produces an almost isothermal compression
process. This requires the least compression work. Inter-cooling also
becomes necessary when the temperatures produced by compression
have to be limited.

In most compression systems, the coolers are mounted separately,

permitting a high degree of freedom in design and layout. However,
compressors with internally arranged coolers are available from some
manufacturers and may merit consideration when the ultimate in
compactness must be achieved.

9.2.2 Vertical Split Compressor

Vertically split (barrel-type) centrifugal compressors are the

preferred, and sometimes mandatory, design for high pressures or for
compressing gases rich in hydrogen. The cylindrical casing ensures good
stress distribution and extremely good gas-tightness. Unlike the casing,
the stationary internal components of the compressor, with the exception
of seal components, are horizontally split. During assembly of the com-
pressor they are mounted together with the rotor and inserted axially into
the casing. The end covers are retained by shear ring segments. A cross-
section view is shown in Figure 9.8.

The inlet and discharge nozzles are welded to the cylindrical casing
or, where heavy wall thicknesses are involved, are integral with the
casing; the pipe work is bolted to these nozzles. These compressors are
also built for two process stages; in this case they feature two main nozzle
pairs.

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 Figure 9.8 – Cross section of vertically split (barrel-type) compressor.

The main fields of application for barrel-type compressors are in

handling gases rich in hydrogen; hydrogenation cracking; synthesis of
ammonia, urea, and methanol; gas lift and reinjection; and transportation
of gas in pipelines.

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 A compressor with one stage is often adequate for compression
applications involving a low head. For such applications, the user may
choose from compressor types that may be vertically or horizontally split.
As mentioned earlier, the vertically split version is particularly suitable for
high pressures and for compressing gases of low molecular weight.

Depending on the operating conditions involved, the tried and

proven systems employing labyrinth, mechanical contact, or floating ring
seals are used for shaft scaling. Other seal systems may go under the
names of trapped bushing seal, gas phase mechanical seal, cone seal,
etc., but each type represents merely a variation of the three principal
configurations.

Fields of application for single-stage process compressors include

phthalic acid anhydride plants and cupolas, oxosynthesis, and water
treatment. In addition, they are suitable for handling all gases and gas
mixtures in the main and auxiliary processes in the chemical and
petrochemical industries. They also find application in the transportation
of natural gas and mineral oil gas as well as in closed-loop systems in
nuclear technology.

9.2.3 Compressor Train

Large pressure ratios cannot be handled by one casing alone.

Similarly, it is not possible to split the compression cycle into more than
two or three process stages within one casing. The major compressor
manufacturers therefore build compressor trains that may consist of up to
four separate casings. A train with separate casings is shown in Figure
9.9. These separate compressors, which need not be of the same type,
are interconnected by couplings; they can be powered by a common
driver. When additional transmission gearing is used, the compressor
casings may also be run at different speeds. The t r a i n is designed so that
a minimum of dismantling is necessary for maintenance, i.e., when a

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 vertically split casing is used, it is located at the opposite end to the
d r iv e r .

The compressor t r a in can be arranged on a common base frame.

In special applications, for instance, offshore installations, this base frame
can be of torsionally stiff design.

Figure 9.9 – Compressor train

9.3 Diaphragms and Diffusers

The diaphragms shown in the assembly, Figure 9.2, may be

uncooled or liquid cooled. Figures 9.10 and 9.11 represent the two halves
of uncooled diaphragms for a horizontally split unit. These are inserted in
matching casing locating grooves and locked in each casing half. The
diaphragms are the separation walls between the successive impeller

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 stages. The diaphragms form the diffuser walls and the return passages
for guiding the gas to the inlet of the next higher stage impeller.

Figure 9.10 – Multistage centrifugal compressor uncooled diaphragms for

horizontally split casings

Figure 9.11 – Diffuser

Diffuser vanes are used to decelerate a high velocity flow to create

a pressure rise. They are usually at the periphery of each impeller. The

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 variable diffuser vane system may be controlled manually by a handwheel
or automatically by a hydraulic or air-operated positioner.

The return channels (passages) contain vanes that direct and

evenly distribute the flow of gas into the guide vanes of the next impeller.
Most diaphragms for horizontally split compressors are of the uncooled
open diffuser type. Watercooled diaphragms are used to cool the
discharge temperature of the gas stream, but this cooling may be limited
in degree and not provide a total cooling in place of a final external cooler.

Figure 9.10 shows an interstage diaphragm, usually made of cast

iron are horizontally split and inserted in matching casing locating grooves
and locked in each casing half. The diaphragms form the diffuser walls
and the return passages for guiding the air or gas to the inlet of the next
impeller.

Diffusion action is accomplished by radially increasing the flow area

of the diffuser and thus converting velocity head into pressure head. The
diffuser passages are parallel-sided and do not include vanes. However,
return passages do contain vanes to redirect the flow to the next impeller.
Diaphragms are designed to accommodate the interstage labyrinth seals
at the shaft and impeller cover disc. The seals prevent interstage
recirculation.

Water-cooled diaphragms, shown in Figures 9.12, are used to cool

the surfaces of the metal passages and, thereby, reduce the temperature
of the gas as it passes through the machine. This will often allow for
higher ratios of compression in the same machine case. For some designs,
these are used on high-pressure or high compression-ratio applications,
for hazardous gases, or temperature-sensitive materials. The careful
installation of the water-cooled diaphragms shall prevent contamination of
the process gas by the cooling fluid (usually water). Despite the care and
attention to proper sealing, assembly, etc., the chance of a coolant leak

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 into the gas or vice versa always exists. Extreme attention to mechanical
details at this point are important. Some gaseous dry-chlorine
compressors use a non-corrosive chlorinated solvent as the diaphragm
coolant to guarantee no water in the system.

Figure 9.12 – Water cooled diaphragm

Internal liquid injection into the diffuser passage is used in a few

applications for direct contact cooling. The quantity and quality of the
liquid must be carefully controlled.

Materials of fabrication again vary with the nature of the gas being
compressed but are usually low alloy steel, such as AISI 4140 or 4340,
heat treated at 1,100°F (593°C) to Rockwell hardness C-26 to 30, AISI
Type 410 stainless steel, precipitation hardening stainless such as Armco
17-4PH or 15-5 PH, Type

9.4 Impeller Wheels

The impellers for centrifugal compressors are assemblies consisting

of three parts: the hub disc, the blades, and the cover disc. The hub and
cover disc are machined from single-piece forgings of an alloy steel
suitable for the application of the compressor. Blades are machined from

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 forged steel plates of identical material. Each forging is checked with
either sonic or X-ray machines to detect flaws or inclusions.

The hub disc forms the back portion of the impeller. The hub disc
has the proper design to form one-half of the inlet nozzle of the impeller
and carries the blade and cover disc on the shaft.

The blades are completely machined and formed to shape, leaving

materials that form the rivet integral with the blade.

The cover disc forms the inlet of the impeller and is accurately
machined to allow smooth flow. A sealing surface is provided on the cover
disc to prevent recirculation of the gas.

The component parts are placed in the fixture, and the drilled holes
for the rivets on both the hub and cover disc are countersunk and
polished. The entire assembled impeller is statically balanced. The impeller
is mounted on an overspeed mandrel and run at 25% overspeed.

The component parts are heated. The blade shape is laid out on the
hub disc and tack welded, which ensures that the blade cannot be
misaligned. The hub disc with the tack welded blades are placed on the
automatic impeller welding machine and heated for welding. After the
blades are completely welded to the hub disc, the cover disc is welded on
by the same means. The completely welded impeller is then ready for
annealing and for finishing machining.

The common wheel types are (1) backward and (2) radial. The
types of construction of wheels are milled, fabricated, welded, and cast.
See Figures 9.13A-H.

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 Figure 9.13A – Impeller with milled vanes on solid disc forging.

Figure 9.13B – A special design riveted wheel, used only on small wheels
where welding is impractical.

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 Figure 9.13C. Cutaway of riveted wheel. Blades are riveted to hub disc,
and the cover disc is drilled, ready for securing blades

Figure 9.13D – Welded impeller

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 Figure 9.13E – Radial impeller for single-stage compressor

Figure 9.13H – Advanced datum impeller design reduces operating

stresses and improves flow velocity

The fabricated or built-up wheels are machined from high-strength

alloy steel forgings. These may be riveted or welded for assembly. The
one-piece wheels are usually smaller than the built-up wheels and are
milled from a solid forging. The cast and welded wheels are usually only

Chapter 9 – Centrifugal Compressors Construction

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 made above a certain diameter due to fabrication problems in smaller
diameters. Each manufacturer has his own recommendations for each
application.

9.5 Guide or Prerotation Vanes

Vanes are formed on the diaphragm assembly to direct the flow of

gas into the eye of each succeeding impeller. The vanes are arranged to
suit the wheel design and flow rates of the gas through the compressor.
Figure 9.14 shows these interwheel vanes. Special designs allow for these
to have the pitch manually adjusted during operation to properly balance
the compressor operation.

When the vanes are placed on the inlet to the first stage wheel,
they are usually of a variable pitch design. The adjustable vanes vary the
angle of the gas flow as it enters the first wheel, thereby changing the
effective inlet gas pressure and/or volume without throttling losses (Figure
9.14). Figure 9.15 shows the inner side of the prerotation vanes as they
would be directly adjacent to the first wheel. The control linkage is shown.
Figure 9.16 illustrates the exterior view with control air motor in place. All
compressors do not have nor need inlet guide vanes; however, it is
advisable to discuss this with the manufacturer as his designs may
perform better with the vanes. They are usually an extra cost item.

Power savings of 15% or more may result from the use of such
vanes, depending on the design and final operating point on the
compressor’s performance curves. The inlet guide vanes increase the
turndown and, thus, increase the operating range.

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 Figure 9.14 – Gas flow through inlet guide vanes

Figure 9.15 – Inlet prerotation vanes

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 Figure 9.16 – Single-stage blower with automatically controlled inlet vanes

9.6 Balancing Drum (Piston)

The balancing drum or piston is fixed to, and rotates with the shaft
at the discharge end of the compressor. It is surrounded by a seal that
keeps leaks to a minimum. The side of the drum nearest to the end of the
shaft is vented to the suction end of the compressor (see figure 9.17).

Figure 9.17 – Balancing Drum

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 The pressure at the vent is the same as the suction pressure of the
compressor. The non-vented side of the drum is exposed to the pressure
of the discharge gas. The discharge gas pushes against the balancing
drum. It places a force in the direction of the discharge of the discharge of
the compressor. Its function is to control the axial thrust of the gas
pressure. The area on the vented side of the drum in relation to the
suction pressure is equal to the area on the non-vented side in relation to
the discharge pressure.

9.7 Rotor

The shaft carries the impellers and the balance piston, as illustrated
in Figure 9.18. It is supported in tilling-pad, plain, or modified (contoured)
sleeve bearings. The impellers and balance piston are shrunk onto the
shaft. Multipart rings or similar components locate the impellers in the
direction of the axial thrust. The shrink fit offers the advantage of uniform
stress distribution over the whole circumference and a constant self-
centering effect. This shrink fit is designed so that after the bore has
expanded due to centrifugal force at maximum speed, sufficient shrinkage
effect still exists to transmit the torque and the axial thrust. At the same
time, the impellers can be removed whenever necessary without damage.

Figure 9.18 – Rotor assembly

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 The balance piston balances part of the axial thrust produced by
pressure differentials across the impellers. Part of the axial thrust is
automatically balanced with a hack- to-back layout. All component parts
such as shaft, impellers, balance piston, and couplings are separately
balanced, after which the complete rotor is assembled. Each time another
component is added, concentricity of running is checked. The stresses
produced in the shaft by the shrink-fit method of mounting the impellers
and balance piston are relieved by running the complete rotor up to
operating speed.

9.7.1 Rotor Dynamics

Detailed vibration analyses as early as the preliminary design stage

ensure the operational availability of modern, well-engineered centrifugal
compressors. These analyses investigate the following vibration
phenomena: resonance behaviours, stability, and torsional analysis.

Investigation of the resonance behaviours includes computation of

the first and second lateral critical natural frequencies based on the
bearing stiffness and damping for each casing. Precise determination of
the critical natural frequencies, which are principally lateral vibrations of
the rotor caused by unbalance forces, allows multistage compressors to be
operated at a speed between the first and second lateral critical speeds.

The stability behaviour describes the behaviour of the rotor when

the vibrations are self-excited. This essentially includes vibrations excited
by the specific spring and damping characteristic of the bearings (oil whip)
and rotor-dynamic effects of labyrinths and scaling elements.

The torsional analysis covers torsional vibrations produced by

electric motors when switching occurs in the supply network and when a
synchronous motor is run up to operating speed asynchronously.

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 A precise knowledge of these interrelated factors ensures trouble-
free operation and a high degree of operational availability of major,
unspared centrifugal compressors.

9.8 Sealing Centrifugal Compressors

Since most centrifugal compressors are usually multi-stage

compressors, sealing between each stage is very important. A tight seal
will let the compressor develop pressure and be more efficient. (See figure
9.19).

Figure 9.19 – Sealing points in a centrifugal compressor

There are several ways of sealing centrifugal compressors.

9.8.1 Labyrinth Seals

Labyrinth seals are used to seal the shaft between the different
stages in a multi-stage compressor. They are the simplest type of seal.
They are usually made of a soft material such as bronze, babbit, or
aluminium. A series of grooves are machined to sharp edges that maintain
a close clearance between the mating parts. They can be either stationary
or rotating. Some leakage from the high pressure side to the low pressure
side is allowed. They are normally used on low pressure centrifugal
compressors, and operate without oil. (See figure 9.20).

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 Figure 9.20 – Labyrinth seals

9.8.2 Carbon rings

These are dry contact seals that are made up of several high quality
carbon rings. The carbon rings are held in place by stainless steel spacers
and axial springs. The whole seal assembly can be removed from the
compressor when it is worn, or if there is broken segments. Sometimes a
combination of carbon rings and labyrinth seals is used. The number of
rings required will depend on the gas pressure in the compressor. Carbon
rings resist wear better than some other seals. They are not, however, as
efficient as a labyrinth seal (see figure 9.21).

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 Figure 9.21 – Carbon rings

9.8.3 Mechanical Contact Seals

Mechanical contact seals consist of machined rotating and

stationary surfaces. The surfaces are in direct contact with each other to
prevent any leakage. They are mainly used for low pressure gas that is
not corrosive. A common type of mechanical seal has a rotating contact
ring, a full floating wear ring, a stationary ring, and a spring loading
device. A small amount of lubricating oil is used to remove any friction
(see figure 9.22).

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 Figure 9.22 – Mechanical contact seal

9.8.4 Liquid Film Seals

Liquid film seals are the most common type of seals used on high
pressure or heavy duty compressors. A typical seal consists of two or
more rings that do not rotate. They are free to float with the movement of
the shaft. Oil is injected between the rings at a pressure above the suction
pressure of the compressor. Labyrinth seals are placed on the gas side to
prevent any leakage of oil into the gas flow. (See figure 9.23).

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 Figure 9.23 – Liquid film seal

9.9 Compressor Bearings

The most common centrifugal compressor bearings are as in the following.

9.9.1 Plain Journal Bearings

Used to restrict radial movement (see figure 9.24).

Figure 9.24 – Plain journal bearing

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 9.9.2 Tilting Pad Journal Bearings

Oil becomes trapped in the wedges between the shaft and the
tilting pads. The oil prevents friction between the shaft and the pads. (See
figure 9.25).

Figure 9.25 – Tilting pad journal bearing

9.9.3 Thrust Disc or Collar Bearings

The thrust collar rotates with the shaft. Axial motion is prevented
by the thrust pads. In normal operation the thrust collar and the thrust
shoes are separated by a film of thin oil. (See figure 9.26).

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 Figure 9.26 – Thrust collar bearing

9.10 Compressor Lubrication System

The bearings of a centrifugal compressor are supplied under

pressure with lubricating oil. If the oil pressure is lost the bearings are not
lubricated. The lubrication system keeps a supply of clean oil flowing to
the bearings. (See figure 9.27).

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 Figure 9.27 – Compressor lubrication system

Oil is forced from the reservoir to the bearings by means of the

main oil pump. It then passes through the filter. Centrifugal compressors
are fitted with oil filters to clean the lubricating oil. The differential
pressure is the difference between the filter inlet pressure and the outlet
pressure. Differential pressure gauges indicate the condition of the filter. A
change in the gauge reading is a good indication that the filter is
becoming clogged up with dirt and needs replacing.

From the filter the oil passes through the cooler. The lubricating oil
must be kept cool so that it can cool the bearings. If the oil becomes too
hot it will become thin. Thin oil will not provide a protective film between
the moving parts. However, if the oil is too cold it will not flow through the
bearings correctly.

The oil lubrication system has two filters. The filters are provided
with switching and isolating valves to allow for a filter change without
shutting down the compressor. One filter must always be in service. The

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 differential pressure gauge is installed to indicate the condition of the filter
in service.

Because the lubrication system is so important there is a back-up

pump, filter and cooler. If the oil pressure falls an alarm will alert the
operator.

If the oil pressure drops below a certain pressure, the overhead

dump valve will release a supply of lubricating oil to the bearings. The
overhead dump valve is located above the compressor. It is a back-up
reserve system for short term lubrication. It will operate if there is a
shutdown or when a pump suddenly fails. The dump valve is a tank filled
with oil that will supply a gravity fed supply of oil to the bearings.

The oil system has low level switches in the oil reservoir which start
an alarm and can shutdown the compressor. Sight glasses are placed on
the oil lines flowing from the bearings so that the operator can see the oil
flow.

Normally the lubrication system should continue during a

compressor shutdown because large units take a long time to stop. During
the shutdown lubrication is very important.

9.11 Stationary Components

The term "stationary components" refers to the inlet channel, the

diffuser, and the return channel.

Impellers achieve optimum efficiency and operating characteristics

only if the inlet flow is free of disturbance, i.e., unswirled, and exhibits a
uniform velocity profile. Factors such as these are extremely important for
impellers of high suction capacity.

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 Single-shaft process compressors have radial intakes, and the flow
therefore has to be deflected through 90° prior to entry into the first
impeller. High-quality compressors are produced with inlet channel
designs that meet the above requirements. These incorporate standard,
stationary blades, which, distributed over the periphery, exhibit defined
angular settings. Similarly, these centrifugal compressors would have as a
standard vane-less annular diffusers that have parallel walls or profiled
cross sections. This feature ensures a wide range of regulation with almost
constant optimum efficiency.

Leading manufacturers have developed special cross-sectional

profiles that produce wider ranges of regulation and better efficiencies
than parallel wall diffusors especially with high-capacity impellers. As the
gas passages become smaller in cross-sectional area, the surface finish of
the diffusor has a decisive effect on the stage efficiency. In special cases,
the surfaces are therefore coated. Particular importance is attached to
smooth inflow into the following impeller in the design of the return chan-
nels, the blading of which is generally profiled. Like the impellers, they are
normally milled from the solid material to ensure a superior surface finish
and dimensional accuracy.

9.12 Auxiliary Equipment

The driver, suitable gearing, and the couplings have to be matched,

with the compressor, to the specific application requirements of the plant
and to the conditions on the site, it is only then that the maximum of
operational reliability is ensured.

One of the requirements for smooth and economical compressor

operation is control and regulation to match operational needs plus
inherent functional reliability of the coolers and lubrication and seal liquid
systems.

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35
 Monitoring of the bearings via the oil temperature, for example and
measurements of shaft vibrations and shaft position ensure that potential
trouble during compressor operation is recognized at an early stage. The
monitoring equipment, together with the alarm systems and controls, is
accommodated in control panels.

9.13 Drive Components

Couplings interconnect the various units of a compressor train.

Diaphragm or curved-tooth gear couplings are employed as a rule.
Couplings of these types allow angular deflection and axial deflection, but
they are nevertheless torsionally stiff. Gear couplings with convex tooth
flanks require precision manufacture. The lube oil system supplies them
with lubricant. Coupling- hubs are located and secured by keys or oil-
hydraulic means to the shaft.

Torsionally elastic couplings are employed if shock torque loads

occur, for example, when starting up synchronous motors or if there is a
brief drop in voltage. The shock torque load is absorbed by the
deformation of elastic components such as rubber buffers. Owing to the
lower torque transmission capacity of these components, torsionally
elastic couplings are larger.

Spur gears or epicyclic gears are employed between driver and

compressor or between two casings in order to drive centrifugal
compressors at the optimum speed.

9.14 Coolers

Process coolers are employed for a variety of reasons:

• To limit the maximum temperature of the process gas
• To limit the maximum temperature of the components for safety
reasons

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 • To minimize the compressor power consumption by aiming at
isothermal compression

Process coolers are employed as intercoolers and after-coolers. The

principal cooling medium used is water, including seawater. There are
various criteria for deciding whether the gas is to flow through or around
the tubes of the cooler. These are the quality of the gas, the quality of the
cooling medium, and the pressure level involved.

If either the process gas or the cooling medium contains

contaminants, the aim is to pass these through the tubes and the
relatively clean gas or cooling medium around the externally finned tubes.
This is because internal cleaning of the tubes is much easier.

When pressures are high, the process gas will be routed through
the tubes because of mechanical strength considerations.

The individual tubes form a bundle, the tube ends of which are
expanded into the tube end plates, brazed or welded to produce a gas-
tight fit. Depending on the design used, the tubes are combined into
bundles or single elements. The single-clement design is a lightweight,
easily portable unit often allowing economical maintenance of spares.
Baffle plates determining the flow of the process gas are provided inside
the cooler housing.

Air-cooled process gas coolers are used in special applications. The

process gas flows through the tubes around which cooling air flows
boosted by fans. Air-cooling requires much larger equipment, and a
number of elements are therefore arranged in parallel.

Chapter 9 – Centrifugal Compressors Construction

37