Anatomy and Physiology Reviewer
CHAPTER 4: TISSUEs
4. 1 Tissues and
histology
Tissue - These are the collection of specialized cells and extracellular
substance surrounding them.
Extracellular Matrix - Composition of non - cellular substances.
(EM)
1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue 4 Primary Types of Tissue
3. Muscle Tissue
4. Nerve Tissue
Histology -Microscopic study of tissues.
Biopsy -Process of removing tissue sample from patients surgically or with a
needle for diagnostic purposes.
Autopsy -postmortem examination of the organs to determine the cause of death.
4.2 Embryonic
Tissue
Endoderm -INNER LAYER, it forms the linings of digestive tract and its
derivatives.
Mesoderm -MIDDLE LAYER, it forms tissues such as muscle, bone and blood
vessels.
Ectoderm -OUTER LAYER, it forms the skin.
Neuroectoderm -portion of ectoderm.
Neural Crest Cells -a group of cells that breakaway from neuroectoderm during
development.
4.3 epithelial tissues
Epithelial or Epithelium -covers and protects surface, both outside and inside the body.
-Mostly composed of cells.
-Covers body surfaces.
-Distinct tissue surface. Characteristics of Most Common Types of Epithelial
-Cell and matrix connections.
-Nonvascular
Tissue
-Regeneration
Surface -where the cells are exposed and not attached to other cells.
Lateral Surface -Between the cells.
-where the cells are attached to other epithelial cells.
Basal Surface -base of the tissue
-attached to a basement membrane.
Basement Membrane -Special type of extracellular material secreted by epithelial and
connective tissue.
-Helps attach epithelial cells to the underlying tissue.
-Protecting underlying
structures.
-Acting as a barrier.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
-Permitting passage of
substances.
-Secreting substances. ADOL, HEATHER
-Absorbing substances.
Classification of Epithelial
Tissue
According to LAYERS
Simple Epithelium -consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending from the
basement membrane to free surface.
Stratified Epithelium -consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer
attaches the deepest layer to the basement membrane.
Pseudostratified Columnar -special type of simple epithelium.
Epithelium -the prefix pseudo means false, so this type of epithelium appears to be
stratified but it is not.
Transitional Epithelium -special type of stratified epithelium.
-the shape of its cell’s chances from cuboidal and columnar to
squamous-like when stretched.
Classification of Epithelial
Tissue
According to SHAPE
Squamous -cells are flat or scale-like.
Cuboidal -cells are cube-shaped
-about as wide as they tall.
Columnar - (tall and thin) cells tend to be taller than they are wide.
See the attached Table 4.1 Classification of Epithelium on the last page of this Chapter
-consists of living cells in both the deepest and superficial layers.
-a layer of fluid covers, the superficial layers which make them moist.
Non-Keratinized -they are mostly found in areas such as the mouth, esophagus, rectum
and vagina.
-consists of living cells in the deepest layers.
-while the superficial layers are composed of dead cells containing the
Keratinized protein keratin.
-the dead, keratinized cells give the tissue a DRY, DURABLE,
MOISTURE-RESISTANT characters.
Transitional Epithelium -unique type of stratified epithelium.
-lines the urinary bladder, ureters, pelvis of superior part of urethra.
Goblet Cells -responsible for synthesizing and secreting mucus,
-they are not in contact with other cells.
Free Surfaces -smooth or folded
-they also have microvilli or cilia.
CELL CONNECTIONS
-Mechanically bind the cells
together. These structures do 3 things
-Help form a permeability
barrier.
-Provide a mechanism for
intracellular communication.
Desmosomes -relatively strong adhesive structure.
Hemidesmosomes -similar to one half of desmosome, attach epithelial cells to the
basement membrane.
Tight Junctions -hold cells together and form a permeability membrane.
-found just below the tight junction.
Adhesion Belt -it is located between the plasma membranes of adjacent cells and acts
as a WEAK GLUE that hold cells together,
Gap Junction -is a small, allowing ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to
another.
GLANDS ADOL, HEATHER
Glands -are secretory organs.
SHAYNE AZUL
-composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network of
connective tissue.
Exocrine
-glands that are with ducts.
Endocrine 2 Types of Glands
-glans that have no ducts.
Hormones -cellular products of ENDOCRINE glands.
Unicellular -composed of single cells.
Multicellular -composed of many cells.
Simple Glands -have a single, non - branched duct.
Compound Glands -have both multiple branched ducts.
*Tubular -glands with secretory regions shapes as tubules (small tube).
-it can be straight or coiled.
Acinar or Alveolar -glands that are sac-liked structures.
*Tubuloacinar -glands with combination of two acinar.
TYPES OF SECRETION
-most common type of secretion.
Merocrine - merocrine secretion involves the release of secretory products by
exocytis.
-involves the release of secretory products as pinched – off fragments
Apocrine of the gland cells.
-the milk producing mammary glands release milk by a combination of
MEROCRINE and APOCRINE glands.
Holocrine -involves the shedding of entire cells.
4.4 connective
tissues
Connective Tissue -is a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in
the body.
-Enclosing and separating other
tissues.
-Connecting tissues to one
another.
Functions of Connective Tissue
-Supporting and moving parts of
the body.
-Storing compounds.
-Cushioning and insulating
-Transporting
-Protecting
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Blast create matrix, cytes maintain it, and clasts break it down for remodeling.
Osteoblast -bone cells, which form bones.
Chondroblast -cartilage cells, which form cartilages.
Fibroblast -fibrous tissue cell.
Osteocytes, Chondrocytes -maintain it
Fibrocytes
Osteoclast, Chondroclast -break it down.
Fibroclast
Adipocytes or Adipose Cells -contains large amounts of lipids. ADOL, HEATHER
-they contain chemicals, such as heparin, histamine,
SHAYNE andAZUL
proteolytic
Mast Cells enzymes, that are released in response to injury, such as trauma and
infection.
White Blood Cells or -continuously move from blood vessels into connective tissue.
Leukocytes
Macrophages -are large, phagocytic cells found in some connective tissue.
Platelets -are fragments of hemopoietic cells containing enzymes and special
proteins that function in the clotting process to reduce bleeding in
wound.
Undifferentiated Mesenchymall -type of adult stem cell.
Cells
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
-Protein Fibers
-Ground Substance
3 Major Components of EM
-Fluid
Protein Fibers of the Matrix
Collagen Fibers -most abundant protein in the body.
Reticular Fibers -a very short, thin fibers that branch to form a network.
Elastic Fibers -consists of the protein elastin.
Ground Substance of the Matrix
Ground Substance - is a gel – like mixture of non – fibrous molecules.
-Hyaluronic Acid 2 Components of Ground Substance
-Proteoglycan Monomer
Hyaluronic Acid -is a long unbranched polysaccharide chain composed of repeating
disaccharide units.
Proteoglycan Monomer -is a large molecule that consist of a protein core attached to many long
polysaccharides are called GLYCOSAMINOCLYCANS.
-a common glycosaminoglycans.
Chondroitin Sulfate -the protein cores of many proteoglycan monomers can attach through
link proteins to a long molecule of hyaluronic acid to form a
PROTEOGLYCAN AGGREGATE.
Adhesive Molecules -hold the proteoglycan aggregates together.
-Embryonic
-Adult
2 Major Categories of Connective Tissue
Mucous Connective Tissue/ -the major source of remaining embryonic connective tissue in the
Wharton’s Jelly newborn is in the umbilical cord.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
Loose Connective Tissue -consists of relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy network, with
numerous spaces filled with ground substance and fluid.
Areolar
Adipose
3 Subdivisions of Loose Connective Tissue
Reticular
Areolar -is the “loose packing” material of most organs and other tissues.
Adipose Tissue -consists of adipocytes, which contain large amount of lipids.
YELLOW ADIPOSE -is by far the most abundant.
-appears white at birth, but it turns yellow withADOL,
age. HEATHER
BROWN ADIPOSE -found in specific areas of the body such as the axillae(armpit), the
neck, and near the kidneys.
Reticular Tissue -forms the framework of lymphatic tissue such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes.
RETICULAR CELLS -produce the reticular fibers and remain closely attached to them.
Dense Connective Tissue -has a relatively large number of protein fibers which form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
Dense Regular -has protein fibers in the extracellular matrix that are oriented
predominantly in one direction.
Dense Regular Collagenous -has abundant collagen fibers, which gives this tissue a white
appearance.
Dense Regular Elastic -consists of parallel bundle of collagen fibers and abundant elastic
fibers.
Nuchal Ligament -back of the neck.
Dense Irregular -contains protein fibers arranged as a meshwork randomly oriented
fiber.
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Cartilage -is composed of cartilage cells within an extensive and relatively rigid
matrix.
Perichondrium -the surface of nearly all cartilage is surrounded by a layer of dense
irregular.
Chondrocytes -cartilage cells
Lacunae -the spaces in which they are located.
Hyaline
Fibro Cartilage
3 Types of Cartilage
Elastic
Hyaline -has large amounts of both collagen fibers and proteoglycans.
Fibro Cartilage -has more collagen fibers than proteoglycans.
Elastic -has numerous elastic fibers, in addition to collagen and proteoglycans
dispersed throughout its matrix.
Bone -is a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized.
Hydroxyapatite -the mineral or inorganic portion consists of specialized crystals.
Homopoietic Tissue -its forms blood cells.
-in adults it may found in the bone marrow.
Red Marrow
Yellow Marrow
2 Types of Bone Marrow
4.5 Muscle Tissue
Muscle Tissue -is that it contracts or shortens with a force and therefore is responsible
for movement.
Skeletal
Cardiac
3 Types of Muscle Tissue
Smooth
Skeletal Muscle -is what we normally think as of muscle. Skeletal muscle cells are
striated, or bonded, because of arrangement on contractile proteins
within the cell.
Cardiac Muscle -is the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for pumping blood.
Smooth Muscle -forms the walls of hollow organs; it is also found in the skin and eyes.
4.6 Nerve Tissue ADOL, HEATHER
SHAYNE
-is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and AZUL by
it is characterized
Nervous Tissue the ability to conduct electrical signals
called action potential.
-consist of neuron
-or nerve cells, are the conducting cells of nervous tissue. Just as an
electrical wiring system transports electricity throughout a house,
Neurons neurons transport electrical signals throughout the body transmit
information in the form of action potentials, store “information,” and
integrate and evaluate data; glia support, protect, and form specialized
sheaths around axons.
Neuron Is Composed of Three Major Parts
Cell Body -cell body contains the nucleus and is the site of general cell function
Dendrites -usually receive action potentials. They are much shorter than axons
and have multiple branches at their ends.
Axon -usually conducts action potentials away from the cell body. Axons can
be much longer than dendrites, and they have a constant diameter along
their entire length.
Multipolar Neuron -have multiple dendrites and a single axon
Bipolar Neurons -have a single dendrite and an axon
-have only a single, short process that extends from the cell body and
Pseudo Unipolar Neurons then divides into two branches, which extend to the periphery and to
the central nervous system.
Gilia -are the support cells of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
Glia nourishes, protect, and insulate neurons
4.7 Tissue Membrane
Tissue Membranes A tissue membrane is a thin sheet of tissue that covers a structure
or lines a cavity
The External Membrane
The External Membrane -is the skin, or cutaneous membrane
The Three Major Categories of Mucous Membranes
Internal Membranes Serous Membranes
Synovial Membranes
Mucous Membranes -lines cavities and canals that open to the outside of the body, such as
the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive passages.
Lamina Propria -Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their basement
membrane, and a thick layer of loose connective tissue.
Mucus -a viscous protein substance
Serous Membranes -lines cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body, such as the
pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
Mesothelium -its basement membrane, and a delicate layer of loose. connective
tissue.
Serous Fluid -Serous membranes do not contain glands, but they secrete a small
amount of fluid.
Synovial Membranes -line freely movable joints. Synovial membranes are made up of only
connective tissue. They consist of modified connective tissue cell
-They produce synovial fluid
4.8 Tissue Damage and Inflammation
Inflammation -is the response that occurs when tissues are damaged. Although many
agents cause injury, such as microorganisms, cold, heat, radiant energy.
Inflammatory Response -mobilizes the body’s defenses, isolates and destroys microorganisms
and other injurious agents, and removes foreign materials and damaged
cells, so that tissue repair can proceed.
Inflammation Has Five Major Redness Baylon, Mark M.
Manifestations Heat swelling
Swelling
Pain
Disturbed function
Chemical Mediators -are released or activated in the tissues and the adjacent blood vessels.
The mediators are histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and
others.
Edema -increases the pressure in the tissue, which can also stimulate neurons
and cause pain
4.9 Tissue Repair
Tissue Repair -is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells by regeneration or
replacement.
Regeneration -the new cells are the same type as those that were destroyed, and
normal function is usually restored.
Replacement -a new type of tissue develops, which eventually produces a scar and
causes the loss of some tissue function.
Cells are classified into three Labile cell
groups according to their Stable cell
ability to regenerate Permanent cell
Labile Cell -continue to divide throughout life. Labile cells include adult stem cells
and other cells of the skin, mucous membranes, and hemopoietic and
lymphatic tissues
Stable Cell -Such as those of connective tissues and glands, including the liver,
pancreas, and endocrine glands, do not normally divide after growth
ceases, but they retain the ability to divide and are capable of
regeneration in response to injury.
Permanent Cell -have a very limited ability to replicate and, if killed, are usually
replaced by a different type of cell
Primary Union -If the edges of the wound are close together, as in a surgical incision,
the wound heals by a process.
Secondary Union -If the edges are not close together, or if tissue loss has been extensive.
-which binds the edges of the wound together. The surface of the clot
Fibrin dries to form a scab, which seals the wound and helps prevent infection
Fibrin isolates and walls off microorganisms and other foreign matter.
Pus -Neutrophils are killed in this process and can accumulate as a mixture
of dead cells and fluid.
Granulation Tissue -a delicate, granular-appearing connective tissue that consists of
fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries, replaces the clot.
Wound Contracture -resulting in disfiguring and debilitating scars.
4.10 Effects of Aging on Tissues
Age-related changes in tissues result from reduced rates of cell division and changes in the extracellular fibers
Collagen fibers become less flexible and have reduced strength.
Elastic fibers become fragmented and less elastic.
[Link] is that it contracts, or shortens, with a force and therefore is responsible for
movement?
2. is what we normally think of as “muscle” It is the meat of animals and constitutes about
40% of a person’s body weight?
[Link] the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for pumping blood?
[Link] responsible for a number of functions, such as moving food through the digestive tract
and emptying the urinary bladder?
5. is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves and is characterized by the ability to conduct
electrical signals called action potentials?
[Link] the conducting cells of nervous tissue. Just as an electrical wiring system transports
electricity throughout a house, neurons transport electrical signals throughout the body?
7. usually receive action potential?
[Link] conducts action potentials away from the cell bod?
[Link] Three Major Categories of Internal Membranes?
10. neurons have multiple dendrites and a single axon?
11. is a thin sheet of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity?
12. have a single dendrite and an axon?
13. are the support cells of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves ?
14. are the support cells of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves ?
15. Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, and a thick
layer of loose connective tissue called the
16. is the response that occurs when tissues are damaged. Although many agents cause
injury, such as microorganisms, cold, heat, radiant energy, chemicals, electricity, and
mechanical trauma, the inflammatory response to all of them is similar.
17. mobilizes the body’s defenses, isolates and destroys microorganisms and other
injurious agents, and removes foreign materials and damaged cells, so that tissue repair can
proceed
18. is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells by regeneration or replacement.
19. a new type of tissue develops, which eventually produces a scar and causes the loss of
some tissue function
20. , a new type of tissue develops, which eventually produces a scar and causes the loss of
some tissue function
Baylon, Mark