Interactive Reader

and Study Guide

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston

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ISBN 0-03-092478-2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 082 10 09 08 07 06
 Contents
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Earth Science
SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . 9
SECTION 3 Safety in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Earth Science

SECTION 1 Tools and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
SECTION 2 Models in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
SECTION 4 Maps in Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

CHAPTER 3 Earth’s Systems and Cycles

SECTION 1 The Earth System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
SECTION 2 Heat and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
SECTION 3 The Cycling of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

CHAPTER 4 Material Resources

SECTION 1 Natural Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
SECTION 2 Rock and Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
SECTION 3 Using Material Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

CHAPTER 5 Energy Resources

SECTION 1 Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
SECTION 2 Alternative Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide iii Contents
 CHAPTER 6 Plate Tectonics
SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
SECTION 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics. . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
SECTION 3 Deforming Earth’s Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
SECTION 4 California Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

CHAPTER 7 Earthquakes
SECTION 1 What Are Earthquakes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
SECTION 2 Earthquake Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

CHAPTER 8 Volcanoes
SECTION 1 Why Volcanoes Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
SECTION 3 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

CHAPTER 9 Weathering and Soil Formation

SECTION 1 Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
SECTION 2 Rates of Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
SECTION 3 From Bedrock to Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
SECTION 4 Soil Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

CHAPTER 10 Agents of Erosion and Deposition

SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . 172
SECTION 2 Wind Erosion and Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
SECTION 3 Erosion and Deposition by Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
SECTION 4 Erosion and Deposition by Mass Movement . . . 187

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide iv Contents
 CHAPTER 11 Rivers and Groundwater
SECTION 1 The Active River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
SECTION 2 Stream and River Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
SECTION 3 Using Water Wisely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

CHAPTER 12 Exploring the Oceans

SECTION 1 Earth’s Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
SECTION 2 The Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
SECTION 3 Resources from the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
SECTION 4 Ocean Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

CHAPTER 13 The Movement of Ocean Water

SECTION 1 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
SECTION 2 Currents and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
SECTION 3 Waves and Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere

SECTION 1 Characteristics of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . 248
SECTION 2 Atmospheric Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
SECTION 3 Air Movement and Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
SECTION 4 The Air We Breathe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

CHAPTER 15 Weather and Climate

SECTION 1 Water in the Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
SECTION 3 What Is Climate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
SECTION 4 Changes in Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide v Contents
 CHAPTER 16 Interactions of Living Things
SECTION 1 Everything Is Connected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
SECTION 2 Living Things Need Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
SECTION 3 Types of Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

CHAPTER 17 Biomes and Ecosystems

SECTION 1 Studying the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
SECTION 2 Land Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
SECTION 4 Freshwater Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide vi Contents
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Earth Science

SECTION

1 Thinking Like a Scientist

BEFORE YOU READ
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What qualities do all good scientists have?
• Why is it important for scientists to be ethical?
• What are ways you can think like a scientist every day?

What Makes a Good Scientist?

You may notice things that happen throughout the day. STUDY TIP
Why does the firetruck sound like it has a higher pitch just as Summarize As you read,
it passes by? How do clouds form? When you observe things keep a list of the different
features that good scientists
around you and ask questions, you are acting like a scientist. have. When you are finished
There are several features that all good scientists have. reading, write a paragraph
Scientists are curious. They do not like to accept facts or two telling why each
feature is important to a
without proof. Scientists are also open-minded, creative, good scientist.
and ethical.
It is important for scientists not to give up. The
inventor Thomas Edison once said that he never failed.
Instead, he just found 10,000 ways that did not work. READING CHECK
1. Identify Name three
CURIOSITY qualities that good scientists
Scientists are curious about the world around them. have.
An example of a scientist whose curiosity led her to
make important discoveries is Jane Goodall.
Jane Goodall wanted to know about where chimpan-
zees lived, what they ate, and how they behaved. She
has spent years studying chimpanzees. Her studies have
helped other scientists to know more about chimpanzees
and other primates.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Describe How did
Jane Goodall’s curiosity
Jane Goodall has studied help scientists learn about
chimpanzees for more than chimpanzees?
40 years. Her curiosity has helped
her, and other scientists, to learn
a lot about chimpanzees.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 1 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

SKEPTICISM
Skepticism is the practice of questioning accepted
ideas or claims. All good scientists are skeptical. They
READING CHECK look for proof before they believe new information.
3. Define What does Skepticism helped scientist Rachel Carson to discover
skepticism mean? Give an a major threat to the environment. Rachel Carson was a
example of a time when you biologist in the 1950s. At that time, many new chemicals
were skeptical.
were being used to kill insects.
The companies that made the chemicals said that the
chemicals would hurt only insects. Carson was skeptical.
She wanted proof that the chemicals wouldn’t hurt other
living things.
Carson did a lot of research on the chemicals. She
found that some of the chemicals were harmful to birds.
Because of her work, a chemical called DDT was banned
from use. Many kinds of birds were saved from harm by
her work.

TAKE A LOOK Rachel Carson helped save

4. Explain How did Rachel bald eagles and other birds.
Carson show the quality of She showed skepticism by
skepticism? questioning the claims of
chemical makers.

OPEN-MINDEDNESS
Keeping an open mind means being willing to consider
new ideas. This can be hard to do. Most people have a
very hard time believing in ideas that are different from
what they believe. Scientists should be open to new
ideas, even if the ideas are different from what the scien-
tists are used to.
Say It Sometimes, considering a different idea can help a
Investigate Find out more scientist to make an important new discovery. A famous
about Copernicus or another astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus, lived in the 1400s. At
scientist whose unpopular
ideas changed science. that time, most scientists believed that the Earth was the
Present your findings to your center of the universe. But Copernicus studied the stars
class or a small group. very closely. Based on his observations, he realized that
Earth revolved around the sun.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 2 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

CREATIVITY
Another feature scientists have is creativity. They use
their imaginations to think about the world in new ways.
For example, Andy Michael is a scientist who uses his
imagination to connect earthquakes to music! READING CHECK
Andy Michael is a scientist who studies earthquakes. 5. Describe Think of some
He also plays the trombone. He realized that the stress talents that you have. How
building up inside the Earth is like the beat in a song. He can you use your talents to
help you learn science?
wrote a song called “Earthquake Quartet #1.” He used
the music to show how stress builds up in the Earth
before an earthquake.
Writing earthquake music helped Michael think about
earthquakes in a new way. His ideas have helped scien-
tists learn more about earthquakes.

Andy Michael used his creativity to write “Earthquake Quartet #1.” Writing music
helped him think about earthquakes in new ways.

ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY AND HONESTY

Ethics are rules about right and wrong. Scientists have Critical Thinking
a duty to be ethical. Being ethical means they must not 6. Explain Why is it
unethical for a person to
cause people or animals unnecessary harm. It also means take credit for someone
that scientists must be honest about their work. They else’s idea?
must not make up data or copy other people’s work.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 3 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

Say It Who Can Be a Scientist?

What do you think of when someone talks about a sci-
Discuss Think of a
scientist you know or have entist? Do you picture a man who has crazy white hair
read about. What has he or and who wears thick glasses? Is he also wearing a white
she studied? What qualities lab coat? This is a common image of a scientist, but it is
do you especially admire?
not what most scientists are like.
Discuss your ideas in a
group. There are scientists all over the world. They have very
different backgrounds. Some are a lot like you. The pic-
tures below show some famous scientists from around
the world.

A B

A Mae Jemison was a scientist on the space shuttle. Now, she is using
space technology to help people in West Africa.
B David Ho is a researcher who has developed new treatments for the virus
that causes AIDS.
C Stephen Hawking is a physicist who has taught us about black holes
in space.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 4 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

How Can You Be Like a Scientist?

Why is it important for you to learn science? Learning
science increases your scientific literacy. When you
have scientific literacy, you understand how science works.
You also understand the role of science in society. READING CHECK
Even if you do not become a scientist, you can still 7. Define What is scientific
think like a scientist. Thinking like a scientist can help literacy?
you in your daily life. Science teaches you how to ask
questions and find answers.
Science also helps you make careful observations. It
teaches you to think carefully about information. Science
can help you decide if the information is true. Even if you
are not a scientist, being skeptical and asking questions
can help you know when to believe someone else’s claims.

TAKE A LOOK
8. Analyze Claims The
advertisement makes many
claims about the product.
Pick one claim and explain
how you can figure out if it
is true.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 5 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

CRITICAL THINKING
Scientists have good critical-thinking skills. When you
think critically about something, you think in a clear and
logical way. You can do this by gathering information,
asking questions, and making educated guesses. You
should also try not to let your feelings or beliefs get in
READING CHECK the way of your thinking.
9. List What are two ways The key to critical thinking is studying the information.
that you can help yourself to You should think about the following things when you
think critically? decide whether the information makes sense:
1. Is the person who is giving you the information trying
to sell you something or make you believe something?
2. How was the information gathered?
3. Was the research done scientifically?
4. Are there any other sources that back up the
information?
5. How may your opinion or beliefs affect how you
READING CHECK interpret information?
10. Describe Give an
example of how a person’s
You should think critically about information from
opinion or beliefs may all sources. This includes information from the TV, the
affect how they interpret Internet, and newspapers and magazines.
information.

How Does Science Affect Your Life?

Science is not limited to the laboratory or the class-
room. Science is a process. It is a way of thinking about
the world.
Scientists can affect your daily life by their discover-
ies. Many scientists work to improve the lives of others.
Mario Molina is an example of such a scientist. He has
worked hard to protect Earth’s ozone layer.
Critical Thinking When Molina was a student in the 1970s, he studied
11. Brainstorm Name a chemicals called CFCs. Molina discovered that CFCs
science topic that interests can damage Earth’s ozone layer. The ozone layer protects
you. What are two ways you
living things on Earth from the sun’s harmful rays.
can learn more about the
topic? Molina warned leaders and other scientists about his
discovery. It took a long time for people to believe him.
He worked for many years teaching others about the
connection between CFCs and damage to the ozone.
Finally, in the 1990s, the use of CFCs was banned in most
of the world.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 6 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 1 Thinking Like a Scientist continued

How Can You Learn More About Science?

Learning science does not stop when you leave the
classroom. You can read about science topics that inter-
est you. Try going to a museum or a zoo or on a nature
hike.
You can enter a science fair. You can also join a sci-
ence club. Your library and teachers are great resources
to find out about other opportunities. Some more ways to
learn more about science are described below.

SPECIAL SCIENCE PROGRAMS

You can learn about science by being part of a special sci-
ence program. These programs can offer exciting, hands-on
activities. Students interested in the ocean can explore tide
pools or go whale watching. They can even explore the ocean
by using an ROV, or remotely operated vehicle.

TAKE A LOOK
12. Predict What is one
thing that these students
may be learning about?

These students are learning to think like scientists by taking part in a special
science program.

COLLABORATING WITH OTHERS

Your class can participate in science projects that con-
nect classrooms around the world. One such project is
the JASON Project.
Each year, the scientists working on the project lead
students, teachers, and other scientists on a virtual two-
week research trip. Students talk online with researchers
and do online experiments. They also keep notes in their
online journals and share their observations with others.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 7 The Nature of Earth Science
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Section 1 Review
SECTION VOCABULARY
scientific literacy the understanding of the skepticism a habit of mind in which a person
methods of scientific inquiry, the scope of questions the validity of accepted ideas
scientific knowledge, and the role of science in
society

1. Explain Why is it important for scientists to be skeptical?

2. List What are five qualities that all good scientists have? For each quality, include
an example from a scientist you know or have read about.

3. Analyze What are three questions you can ask yourself if you want to think
critically about new information?

4. Infer Why is it important for scientists not to give up easily?

5. Explain Why is it hard for most people to be open-minded?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 8 The Nature of Earth Science
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CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Earth Science

SECTION

2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.7.a, 6.7.d
these questions:
• What are the steps used in scientific methods?
• How is a hypothesis tested?
• Why do scientists share their findings with others?

How Do Scientists Learn About the World?

Imagine you are standing in a thick forest. Suddenly, STUDY TIP
you hear a booming noise, and you feel the ground begin Outline As you read this
to shake. You notice a creature’s head looming over the section, make a chart
showing the ways that David
treetops. Gillette used the steps in
The creature’s head is so high that its neck must be scientific methods to learn
20 m long! Then, the whole animal comes into view. Now more about the dinosaur
bones he studies.
you know why the ground is shaking. The giant animal is
Seismosaurus hallorum, the “earthquake lizard.”
This description of Seismosaurus hallorum is not just
from imagination. Since the 1800s, scientists have gathered
information about dinosaurs and their environment. Using
this knowledge, scientists can recreate what dinosaurs
may have been like hundreds of millions of years ago.
How do scientists piece all the information together?
How do they know if they have discovered a new species
of dinosaur? Asking these questions is the first step in
using scientific methods to learn more about the world.

Seismosaurus hallorum was one of

the largest dinosaurs that ever lived.

Math Focus
1. Make Comparisons When
a Seismosaurus held its head
up as high as it could, it could
have been 25 m tall. How
many times taller than you
was Seismosaurus?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 9 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science continued

What Are Scientific Methods?

Scientific methods are a series of steps that
scientists use to answer questions and to solve problems.
Although each question is different, scientists can use the
READING CHECK same methods to find answers.
2. Define What are scientific Scientific methods have several steps. Scientists may
methods? use all of the steps or just some of them. They may even
repeat some of the steps.
The goal of scientific methods is to come up with reliable
answers and solutions. These answers and solutions must
be able to stand up to the skepticism of other scientists.

!SKA
1UESTION

-AKE -AKE
/BSERVATIONS &ORMA
PREDICTIONS
(YPOTHESIS

!NALYZE 4ESTTHE
TAKE A LOOK THE2ESULTS (YPOTHESIS
3. Use Models Starting
with “Ask a question,” trace $RAW#ONCLUSIONS .O
two different paths through
$OTHEYSUPPORT
the figure to “Communicate YOURHYPOTHESIS #OMMUNICATE
results.” Use a colored pen or 9ES 2ESULTS
marker to trace your paths.

Why Is It Important to Ask a Question?

Asking a question helps scientists focus on the most
important things they want to learn. The question helps
to guide the research that the scientist does.
David D. Gillette is a scientist who studies fossils. In
1979, he studied some bones from New Mexico. He knew
they came from a dinosaur, but he did not know which kind.
Gillette began his study by asking, “What kind of dinosaur
did these bones come from?” We will use a table to follow
Gillette as he tried to answer his question by using scientific
methods.

Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply

this step?

Asking questions He wondered what kind of

dinosaur the bones came from.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 10 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science continued

How Do Scientists Form a Hypothesis?

When scientists want to investigate a question, they
form a hypothesis. A hypothesis (plural, hypotheses) is CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
a possible answer to a question. It is sometimes called an
6.7.a Develop a hypothesis.
educated guess.
The hypothesis is a scientist’s best answer to the 4. Hypothesize Imagine
you are given a small
question. But a hypothesis can’t be just any answer. The cardboard box. It is heavy.
hypothesis must be tested to see if it is true. When you shake it, there is
From his observations and knowledge about dinosaurs, a metallic clinking sound.
Gillette formed a hypothesis about the bones. He said that Form a hypothesis about
what is in the box. What
the bones came from a new kind of dinosaur that had not are some ways you can test
been discovered yet. To test his hypothesis, Gillette had to your hypothesis without
do a lot of research. opening the box?

Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply

this step?

Forming a hypothesis He thought that the bones came

from a new kind of dinosaur.

Why Do Scientists Make Predictions?

Before scientists test a hypothesis, they make predic-
tions. A prediction is a guess based on a hypothesis.
Most predictions are stated in an if-then form. For
example, Gillette could make this prediction based on his
hypothesis: “If the bones are from a dinosaur that has not
been discovered, then some of the bones will not match
any dinosaur bones that have been studied before.”
Scientists may make many predictions based on one
hypothesis. After predictions are made, scientists do
experiments to see which, if any, of the predictions are
true. If a prediction turns out to be true, it suggests that
the hypothesis may also be true.

Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply

this step? TAKE A LOOK
5. Identify In the table, fill
Making predictions in the prediction that David
Gillette made based on his
hypothesis.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 11 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science continued

How Do Scientists Test a Hypothesis?

To see if an idea can be proven scientifically,
scientists must test the hypothesis. They do this by
gathering data. Data (singular, datum) are any pieces
of information gathered through observation or
experimentation. Scientists then use the data to see if
READING CHECK the hypothesis is correct.
6. Define What are data?
TESTING WITH EXPERIMENTS
To test a hypothesis, a scientist may perform a
controlled experiment. A controlled experiment tests
only one factor, or variable, at a time. All other variables
remain constant. By changing only one variable,
scientists can see the results of changing just one thing.
During experiments, scientists must keep accurate
records of everything that they do and observe. This
includes failed attempts, too. Accurate record keeping is
needed for overcoming the skepticism of other scientists.

Critical Thinking TESTING WITHOUT EXPERIMENTS

7. Compare and Sometimes, it is not possible to do a controlled experi-
Contrast What is the ment. In such cases, scientists depend on observation
difference between a
controlled experiment and to test their hypotheses. By observing nature, scientists
observation? can collect large amounts of data. If the data support a
hypothesis, the hypothesis is probably correct.
To test his hypothesis, Gillette took hundreds of
measurements of bones. He compared his measurements
with the measurements of bones from known dinosaurs.
He also visited museums and talked with other scientists.

To test his hypothesis, Gillette took

hundreds of measurements of the
sizes and shapes of the bones.

TAKE A LOOK Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply
this step?
8. Identify In the table, fill
in the way that David Gillette Testing hypotheses
tested his hypothesis.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 12 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science continued

How Do Scientists Analyze Results?

When scientists finish collecting data, they must
analyze the results. Analyzing results helps scientists
explain their observations. Their explanations are based
on the evidence they collected. READING CHECK
To arrange their data, scientists often make tables and 9. Explain Why do scientists
graphs. Gillette organized his data in a table that showed analyze their data?
the sizes and shapes of his dinosaur bones. When he
analyzed his results, he found that the mystery dinosaur’s
bones did not match the bones of any known dinosaur.

Hip bone of Hip bone of Hip bone of

Diplodocus Apatosaurus unknown dinosaur

Top view TAKE A LOOK

10. Explain Why did David
Gillette include bones from
Diplodocus and Apatosaurus
when he analyzed his results?

Side view

TAKE A LOOK
11. Identify In the table, fill
in the way that David Gillette
analyzed his results.

Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply

this step?
Analyzing results

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 13 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Scientific Methods in Earth Science continued

What Are Conclusions?

After analyzing results from experiments, scientists
must decide if the results agree with, or support, the
hypotheses. This is called drawing conclusions. Finding
out that a hypothesis is not true can be as valuable as
finding out that a hypothesis is true.
What happens if the results do not support the
hypothesis? Scientists may repeat the investigation
to check for mistakes. Sometimes scientists repeat
experiments hundreds of times.
Critical Thinking Another option is to look at the original question in a
12. Infer How can finding different way. A scientist can then ask another question
out that a hypothesis is not and make a new hypothesis.
true be useful for a scientist?
From all his work, Gillette concluded that the bones
found in New Mexico were from an unknown dinosaur.
From his data, he learned that the new dinosaur was
about 35 m long and had a mass of 30 to 70 metric tons.
The dinosaur definitely fits the name Gillette gave it—
Seismosaurs hallorum, or the “earthquake lizard.”

Step in scientific methods How did David Gillette apply

TAKE A LOOK this step?
13. Identify In the table, fill Drawing conclusions
in David Gillette’s conclusions
about his dinosaur bones.

Why Do Scientists Share Their Findings?

After finishing a study, scientists share their results
with others. They write reports and give presentations.
They can also put their results on the Internet.
Sharing information allows others the chance to repeat
the experiments for themselves. If other scientists get dif-
ferent results, more studies must be done to find out if
READING CHECK the differences are significant.
14. Describe Why is it In many cases, the results of an investigation are
important for scientists to reviewed year after year as new evidence is found. In the
share their results? case of Seismosaurus, the debate still continues. Some
wonder if Seismosaurus is a new genus. Other scientists
believe it belongs to the genus Diplodocus. The best way
to resolve this issue is to find another set of bones from
Seismosaurus to study.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 14 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.7.a, 6.7.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
controlled experiment an experiment that hypothesis a testable idea or explanation that
tests only one factor at a time by using a leads to scientific investigation
comparison of a control group with an scientific methods a series of steps followed to
experimental group solve problems
data any pieces of information acquired through
observation or experimentation

1. Describe How can a scientist test a hypothesis if she or he cannot do a controlled

experiment?

2. Explain Why is it important for scientists to ask questions?

3. Apply Procedures You observe that your tongue sticks to a very cold ice pop when
you lick it. You ask yourself, “Why does my tongue stick to the ice pop?” Make a
hypothesis about why your tongue sticks to the ice pop.

4. Identify How could you share the results of an experiment with the rest of your
class? Give two ways.

5. Infer Why might a scientist need to repeat a step in scientific methods?

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 15 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Earth Science

SECTION

3 Safety in Science
BEFORE YOU READ
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• Why should you follow safety rules when learning
science?
• What are the six elements of safety?
• What should you do if there is an accident?

Why Are Safety Rules Important?

STUDY TIP All safety rules have two purposes. Safety rules help
Summarize As you read prevent accidents. They also help prevent injuries if an
this section, underline the accident does happen.
important ideas. When you
have finished reading, use
the ideas you underlined to PREVENTING ACCIDENTS
write a summary of the section. To be safe while doing science activities, it is a good
idea to learn some safety rules. The most important
safety rule is to follow directions. The directions of a
science activity are made to help you prevent accidents.
Following directions will also make your work easier,
READING CHECK which will help you get better results.
1. Describe Why should you
follow directions in science? PREVENTING INJURIES
If an accident takes place, you or someone nearby can
get hurt. Following safety rules after an accident can help
prevent injuries. For example, you should never touch or
try to clean up a spilled chemical unless you know how
to do it safely. If you are using chemicals in a lab, you
should learn how to use them safely.

Safety rule How it prevents accidents or

injuries

Wear goggles when working

in the lab.
Throw away broken glass in
TAKE A LOOK a specially labeled container.
2. Identify In the table, fill in
the way that each safety rule Tell your teacher if a
can help prevent accidents or chemical spills in the lab.
injuries.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 16 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Safety in Science continued

What Are the Elements of Safety?

Safety has many parts. To be safe, you need to recognize
safety symbols. You also need to follow directions, be neat,
use equipment correctly, and clean up after experiments.

SAFETY SYMBOLS
Signs and symbols have special meanings when they
are used in science. Some of these symbols are safety
symbols. They tell you what to do to prevent injuries or
accidents.
Look at the safety symbols in the figure below. Each
symbol tells you something important. For example, the
“animal safety” symbol tells you to be careful when using
animals in experiments. You should follow your teacher’s
directions about how to handle the animals. You should
always wash your hands carefully after touching animals.

Safety Icons

TAKE A LOOK
Eye Clothing Hand Heating Electrical 3. Investigate Look around
protection protection safety safety safety your classroom for safety
symbols like the ones in the
figure. Give two examples of
places where safety symbols
are found in your classroom.
Chemical Animal Sharp Plant
safety safety object safety

READING AND FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS

If you want to bake cookies, you use a recipe. The
recipe provides all the directions on how to make cookies.
When scientists work in a lab, they also follow directions.
Before starting a science activity, read the directions
very carefully. If you do not understand them, ask your
teacher to explain them. If you can’t finish some of the
directions, you should stop your experiment and ask your
teacher for help.
When you read, understand, and follow directions, you
will get better results. You will also reduce the chance of
having an accident.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 17 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Safety in Science continued

NEATNESS
Before starting any experiment, you should clear your
work area of anything you don’t need for the lab. Some
objects can get in the way and can cause an accident.
Long hair and loose clothing can get in the way, too. They
should be tied back.
During an experiment, keep your table or desk clean.
Gather all the equipment you need for the activity before
you start. Arrange your equipment and materials so that
they are easy to find and pick up.
Label your materials clearly. Some lab materials look
alike and can get mixed up if they are not labeled.
As you collect data, you should record your findings
carefully in your data table or notebook. Neatly recorded
data are easier to read and analyze.

What to do Why to do it

Tie back loose hair and clothing.

This will keep your books or

backpack from getting in the way
TAKE A LOOK during the activity.
4. Explain In the table, fill Gather all of your equipment
in the blank spaces with before you start the activity.
things you should do in a lab
This will prevent materials that look
experiment, and the reasons
alike from getting mixed up.
for doing them.

USING PROPER SAFETY EQUIPMENT

Goggles, gloves, and aprons are all pieces of safety
equipment that you may use. Some of the safety symbols
tell you what safety equipment you need.
For example, when you see the symbol for eye protec-
tion, you must put on safety goggles. Your goggles should
be clean and fit properly. Your teacher can help you
READING CHECK adjust them for a proper fit.
5. Identify Why is it The chemicals that you use may not always be danger-
important to wear goggles ous. However, you should always wear aprons, goggles,
during lab activities? and protective gloves whenever you use chemicals.
You should wear protective gloves when handling ani-
mals, too. Different gloves are available for different uses.
For example, if you are handling warm or hot objects,
you should wear heat-resistant gloves.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 18 The Nature of Earth Science
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SECTION 3 Safety in Science continued

PROPER CLEANUP PROCEDURES

At the end of a science activity, you must clean up
your work area. Put caps back on bottles or jars. Return
everything to its proper place. Spills and accidents
are less likely to happen when everything is put away
correctly. READING CHECK
Wash your glassware and check for chips and cracks. 6. Explain Why is it important
If you find any damaged glassware, notify your teacher. It to clean up correctly after a
should be carefully thrown away in a special container. lab activity?
If you have extra chemicals, follow your teacher’s
directions for throwing them away. Once your work
area is clear, you should wipe it with a wet paper towel.
Finally, wash your hands carefully with soap and water.

What Should You Do If There Is an Accident?

Even when all the safety rules are followed, accidents
may still happen. If an accident happens, try to remain
calm. Panicking may make the situation worse. You may
be scared, but staying in control will help keep you and
others safe.
Being prepared and having a plan of action will help
you do the right things if an emergency happens.

THINGS TO KNOW BEFORE AN ACCIDENT

Take a look around your classroom or work area. Find
out where these things are:
Critical Thinking
7. Identify Why is it
• the fire extinguisher important to plan ahead
for an accident?
• the emergency shower and eyewash station
• the first-aid kit
• all the exits from the room
• a phone that you can use to call for help

Find out when and how to use the fire extinguisher,

the emergency shower, and the eyewash station. Find
out what phone number you can call in case there is an
emergency. Make sure that the number is clearly written
on or near the phone.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 19 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Safety in Science continued

STEPS TO FOLLOW AFTER AN ACCIDENT

Critical Thinking If an accident happens, follow these steps:
8. Design a Plan You are
heating water on a hot plate.
You suddenly notice that
some papers near the hot
plate have caught fire. What Step 1: Remain calm.
should you do? What could Try to stay calm and figure out what happened. Look
you have done to prevent around you for clues, but do not touch anything.
this accident?

Step 2: Secure the area.

Make sure that no one (including you!) is in danger.
If other students are coming over to see what happened,
tell them to stay away so that they don’t get hurt.

Step 3. Tell your teacher.

If an accident happens, you must tell your teacher. Tell
your teacher, even if the accident is small. Explain exactly
what happened. Give your teacher details, such as where the
accident happened, what chemicals were spilled, or if glass
was broken. If you can’t find your teacher, call for help.

Step 4. Help your teacher.

Ask your teacher if there is anything you can do to
help. If not, stay out of your teacher’s way.

CARING FOR INJURIES

If an accident happens, someone may need first aid.
First aid is emergency care for someone who has been
hurt. Find the first-aid kit in your classroom. Become
familiar with the items in it, such as bandages and
protective gloves.
If an accident happens, you can help your teacher
give first aid to someone who is hurt. However, you
should not try to give first aid to someone unless you
have first-aid training.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 20 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review
SECTION VOCABULARY
first aid emergency medical care for someone
who has been hurt or who is sick

1. Define Write your own definition of first aid.

2. Apply Concepts Fill in the table below to show that you understand safety symbols.

Safety symbol What does it mean? Where might you see it?

eye protection

near a chemical storage

closet

electrical safety

in a lab activity using

chemicals that could
burn you

3. Identify Name four pieces of safety equipment in your classroom. Write down
where each is located.

4. List What should you do if an accident happens? List four steps.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 21 The Nature of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Earth Science

SECTION

1 Tools and Measurement

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.7.b After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• How do tools help scientists?
• How do scientists measure length, area, mass,
volume, and temperature?

What Tools Do Scientists Use?

STUDY TIP Scientists collect and record a lot of information, or
Compare As you read this data. To gather and study the data, scientists use many
section, make a table that tools. A tool is anything that helps a person do a job.
compares how scientists Different tools help scientists gather different kinds of
measure length, area, mass,
volume, and temperature. data. Some tools help scientists see things. Some tools
Include the tools and units of help scientists analyze, or examine, information. Some
measurement that scientists tools help scientists take measurements.
use.

TOOLS FOR SEEING OBJECTS

Scientists can use tools to help them see objects
clearly. Different tools help scientists study objects of
different sizes. If the objects are very small, scientists
may use a microscope or a magnifying glass to study
them. If the objects are very far away, scientists may use
READING CHECK a telescope or binoculars to study them.
1. Identify What are two
tools that scientists can use
to see things that are very A telescope is a tool that can
small? help you see things, such as the
moon, that are very far away.

TOOLS FOR EXAMINING DATA

READING CHECK The measurements that scientists collect from
2. List Give three tools that experiments are called data (singular, datum). Scientists
scientists use to examine analyze, or examine, data using many different tools.
data.
Calculators can help scientists do calculations quickly.
Graphs and charts are tools that can help scientists see
patterns in data. Computers are very important tools for
collecting, storing, and studying data.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 22 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Tools and Measurement continued

TOOLS FOR MEASURING OBJECTS CALIFORNIA

During an experiment, scientists record what is STANDARDS CHECK
happening. They measure the changes that happen to the 6.7.b Select and use appropriate
tools and technology (including
objects in the experiment. To make these measurements, calculators, computers, balances,
spring scales, microscopes, and
scientists use many different tools. binoculars) to perform tests,
collect data, and display data.
A graduated cylinder is a tool that
is used to measure volume. Word Help: appropriate
correct for the use; proper

Word Help: technology

tools, including electronic
A balance is a tool that is used to products
measure mass.
Word Help: computer
an electronic device that
stores, retrieves, and
calculates data

Word Help: data

facts or figures; information
A meterstick is a tool that is used to
measure length.
3. Identify List the tools
that you should use
to make the following
A thermometer is a tool that is measurements:
used to measure temperature. mass:

How Do Scientists Measure Objects? temperature:

Scientists make many measurements as they collect
data. It is important for scientists to be able to share their length:
data with other scientists. Therefore, scientists use units
of measurement that are known to all other scientists.
One system of measurement that most scientists use is
called the International System of Units.

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

The International System of Units, or SI, is a system Critical Thinking
of measurement that scientists use when they collect 4. Predict Consequences
data. This system of measurement has two benefits. What could happen if all
First, scientists around the world can easily share and scientists used different
systems of measurement to
compare their data because all measurements are made record their data?
in the same units. In addition, SI units are based on the
number 10. This makes it easy to change from one unit to
another.
It is important to learn the SI units that are used for
different types of measurements. You will use SI units
when you make measurements in the science lab.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 23 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Tools and Measurement continued

LENGTH
Length is a measure of how long an object is. The SI
unit for length is the meter (m). Centimeters (cm) are
used to measure small distances. There are 100 cm in
1 m. Micrometers (μm) are used to measure very small
distances. There are 1 million μm in 1 m. Kilometers (km)
are used to measure large distances. There are 1,000
READING CHECK meters in 1 km.
5. Identify What is the SI Length SI unit: meter (m) 1 cm = 0.01 m
unit for length? other units: kilometer (km) 1 km = 1,000 m
centimeter (cm) 1 m = 1,000,000 μm
micrometer (μm) 1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 0.001 km

AREA
Area is a measure of how much surface an object has.
For most objects, area is calculated by multiplying two
lengths together. For example, you can find the area of
a rectangle by multiplying its length by its width. Area
is measured in square units, like square meters (m2) or
READING CHECK square centimeters (cm2).
6. Explain How can you find Area square meter (m2) 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2
square centimeter (cm2) 1 m2 = 10,000 cm2
the area of a rectangle?

Math Focus
7. Calculate What is the
area of a rectangle that has Area of rectangle ⴝ
Width ⴝ 2 cm
a width of 7 cm and a length (4 cm) ⴛ (2 cm) ⴝ 8 cm2
of 4 cm?

Length ⴝ 4 cm
MASS
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The
SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). The masses of
large objects, such as people, are measured using kg.
The masses of smaller objects, such as an apple or a
thumbtack, are measured in grams (g) or milligrams (mg).
Math Focus There are 1,000 g in 1 kg. There are 1 million mg in 1 kg.
8. Convert How many mg Mass SI unit: kilogram (kg) 1 g = 0.001 kg
are there in 1 g? other units: gram (g) 1 mg = 0.000001 kg
milligram (mg) 1 kg = 1,000 g
1 kg = 1,000,000 mg

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 24 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Tools and Measurement continued

VOLUME
Volume is the amount of space an object takes up.
You can find the volume of a box-shaped object by
multiplying its length, width, and height together. You can
find the volume of objects with many sides by measuring
how much liquid they can push out of a container. READING CHECK
Volume is most often measured in cubic units. For 9. Define What is volume?
example, very large objects can be measured in cubic
meters (m3). Smaller objects can be measured in cubic
centimeters (cm3). There are 1 million cm3 in 1 m3.
The volume of a liquid is sometimes given in units of
liters (L) or milliliters (mL). One mL has the same volume
as one cm3. There are 1,000 mL in 1 L. There are 1,000 L
in one m3.

Volume cubic meter (m3) 1 cm3 = 0.000001 m3

cubic centimeter (cm3) 1 L = 0.001 m3
liter (L) 1 mL = 1 cm3
milliliter (mL) 1 mL = 0.001 L
1 m3 = 1,000 L

You can find the volume

Math Focus
10. Calculate What is the
of a box-shaped object by
cm
volume of a cube with 5 m-
h ⴝ3 multiplying its length, width,
Height ⴝ Volume ⴝ Widt and height together. This long sides?
2 cm (5 cm) ⴛ (3 cm) ⴛ (2 cm)
ⴝ 30 cm3 box has a volume of 30 cm3.

Length ⴝ 5 cm

6OLUMEOF
LIQUIDROCKM,
6OLUMEOFLIQUIDM,

6OLUMEOFROCK
M,n M,M,
TAKE A LOOK
11. Explain How do
you know that the rock
in the figure has a volume
of 10 mL?
4HEROCKMADETHEVOLUMEOF
9OUCANFINDTHEVOLUMEOFAMORE MATERIALINTHECYLINDERGOUPTO
COMPLICATEDOBJECTSUCHASTHISROCK M,4HEROCKPUSHEDM,OF
BYMEASURINGHOWMUCHLIQUIDIT LIQUIDOUTOFTHEWAY4HEVOLUMEOF
PUSHESOUTOFTHEWAY4HEGRADUATED THEROCKISM,"ECAUSE
CYLINDERHASM,OFLIQUIDINIT M,CMTHEVOLUMEOFTHE
BEFORETHEROCKISADDED ROCKCANALSOBEWRITTENASCM

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 25 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Tools and Measurement continued

TEMPERATURE
Say It Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an
Discuss Where have you object is. The SI unit for temperature is the Kelvin (K).
seen volume, mass, or However, most people are more familiar with other units
temperature measurements
of temperature. For example, most people in the United
outside of science class? In a
small group, talk about differ- States measure temperatures using degrees Fahrenheit
ent places that these mea- (ºF). Scientists often measure temperatures using degrees
surements are found. Celsius (ºC).
It is easy to change measurements in ºC to K. To
change a temperature measurement from ºC to K, you
simply add 273 to the measurement. For example,
200 ºC = 200 + 273 = 473 K. It is more complicated to
change measurements in K or ºC into ºF. That is why
READING CHECK scientists do not measure temperatures in ºF.
12. Explain Why do
scientists measure
Temperature SI unit: Kelvin (K) 0ºC = 273 K
temperature in K or ºC other units: degrees Celsius (ºC) 100ºC = 373 K
instead of ºF ?

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientists often work with numbers that are very
big or very small. These numbers have a lot of zeros
or decimal places. Instead of writing out many zeroes,
scientists use scientific notation to simplify the numbers.
Scientific notation is a way to represent a number
by using a different number multiplied by a power of
10. The power of 10 shows how many zeroes or decimal
places the number has. For example, light moves through
space at a speed of 300,000,000 m/s. This number has
eight zeroes in it. To write the speed of light in scientific
notation, you would write 3 x 108 m/s.

Power of 10 What it means Example of scientific notation

10 6
1,000,000 7,000,000 = 7 x 106
105 100,000 200,000 = 2 x 105
104 10,000 10,000 = 1 x 104
10 3
1,000 3,000 = 3 x 103

Math Focus 102

101
100
10
800 = 8 x 102
60 = 6 x 101
13. Convert Write the
number 5,000,000 in 10-1 0.1 0.5 = 5 x 10-1
scientific notation. 10-2 0.01 0.04 = 4 x 10-2
10 -3
0.001 0.009 = 9 x 10-3

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 26 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.7.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
area a measure of the size of a surface or a temperature a measure of how hot (or cold)
region something is; specifically, a measure of the
mass a measure of the amount of matter in an average kinetic energy of the particles in an
object object
meter the basic unit of length in the SI volume a measure of the size of a body or
(symbol, m) region in three-dimensional space

1. Describe You can find the volume of a box-shaped object by multiplying its
length, width, and height together. How can you measure the volume of an object
if it is not shaped like a box?

2. Identify What are two units that scientists use to measure temperature?

3. Explain Why do scientists use scientific notation?

4. List Give two tools that you can use to see something that is far away.

5. Calculate What is the area of a room that is 10 m long and 12 m wide?

6. Identify Give one example of a tool that scientists use to find patterns in their
data.

7. List Give three units that can be used to describe volume.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 27 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Earth Science

SECTION

2 Models in Science
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.7.b, 6.7.c, 6.7.e After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• How do scientists use models?
• What are scientific theories and laws?

What Are Models?

STUDY TIP Why do scientists use crash-test dummies to learn how
Compare As you read, make safe cars are? By using crash-test dummies, scientists can
a table to show the features learn how to make cars safer without putting real people
of physical models and
in danger. A crash-test dummy is a model of a person. A
mathematical models.
model is something scientists use to represent an object
or event in order to make it easier to study.
Scientists use models to study things that are very
small, like atoms, or things that are very large, like Earth.
Some scientists use models to predict things that haven’t
happened yet, or to study events that happened long ago.
Some models, like crash-test dummies, allow scientists to
study events without affecting or harming the things they
READING CHECK are studying.
1. Identify Give two reasons World Population 1800 to 2150
scientists use models. 10

9
This graph shows
how the population 8
of the world is
Population (in billions)

7
changing with time.
Notice that it has 6
predictions for the
population of the 5
world in the future.
Scientists used a 4

Math Focus model to make

these predictions. 3
2. Read a Graph In about
2
what year did the world’s
population reach 6 billion 1
people?
0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150
Year

Models can come in many forms. Many models are

objects that you can see and touch. Other models are
made up of data and mathematical equations. Some
models are made up of both objects and data.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 28 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Models in Science continued

PHYSICAL MODELS
Physical models are models that you can see or touch.
Many physical models look like the things they represent.
For example, a globe is a physical model of Earth. Other
physical models may look different from the things
they represent. For example, a map is a physical model
of Earth. A map can show more details about Earth’s
surface than a globe can. However, a flat map looks very
different from the round Earth! ] READING CHECK
3. Define What is a physical
MATHEMATICAL MODELS model?
A mathematical model is made up of mathematical
equations and data. Some mathematical models are
simple. These models help you to calculate things such
as how far a car will travel in an hour. Other models are
more complicated. These models can have many different
parts related by complicated equations. READING CHECK
Many mathematical models contain so much data that 4. Define What is a
a person would need hundreds of years to sort through mathematical model?
it all. Scientists use computers to help them build and
use these models. Because computers can deal with
large amounts of data, they can solve many mathematical
equations at once. Some computers can solve 30 trillion
(3 ⫻ 1013) equations in only one second!

TAKE A LOOK
5. Explain How do
computers help scientists
make models?

The model in this picture was produced by a computer. The computer combined huge
amounts of data into a model that can predict changes in Earth’s climate. Without
computers, scientists would not be able to use complicated models like this.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 29 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Models in Science continued

LIMITS OF MODELS
Critical Thinking Models are very useful for scientists. However,
6. Analyze A crash-test models are not exactly like the things they represent. For
dummy is a model of a example, a globe is a model of Earth. It shows the shape
person. Give two ways that
a crash-test dummy is like a
of Earth and the locations of oceans and land. However,
person, and two ways that it does not show the living things on Earth, or what Earth
they are different. looks like inside. When you use a model, make sure that
you know how it is different from the thing it represents.
Models are not perfect, but all models can change.
Models can change if a scientist finds new data or thinks
about ideas in a new way. Scientists are always working
to make models better. For example, scientists can use
technology, such as computers, to make their models
more accurate.

HOW SCIENTISTS USE MODELS

Scientists often use models to study repeating patterns
in nature. For example, the model in the figure on the
previous page can help scientists predict repeating
weather events, such as hurricanes.

How Do Scientists Explain Natural Events?

Many of the events that happen in the natural world
form patterns. For example, the moon looks different
every night, but it looks the same again about every
month. Scientists study these patterns to learn more
about how the world works. Scientists study how the
moon changes to learn about its movements through
space.
Scientists use their observations about the natural
world to develop scientific laws and theories. A
scientific law is a statement or equation that can predict
what will happen in certain situations. A theory is a
scientific explanation that connects and explains many
observations.

Name What it is

an explanation that connects and explains

TAKE A LOOK evidence and observations
7. Identify Fill in the blank
boxes in the table with the a statement or equation that predicts what will
happen in a certain situation
terms scientific theory and
scientific law.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 30 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 2 Models in Science continued

THEORIES AND OBSERVATIONS

Scientific theories are based on observations. They
explain all of the observations about a topic that
scientists have at a certain time. However, scientists
are always discovering new information. This new
information may show that a theory is incorrect. When
this happens, the theory must be changed so that it
explains the new information. Sometimes, scientists have
to develop a totally new theory to explain the new and
old information. READING CHECK
For thousands of years, people believed that Earth was at 8. Explain What must
the center of the solar system. They observed stars moving scientists do if new
in a circle in the sky. This evidence seemed to support the information shows that a
theory that Earth was at the center of the solar system. theory is incorrect?

TAKE A LOOK
9. Identify Why did
scientists change their theory
about the shape of the solar
When the telescope was invented, scientists were able to make more
detailed observations about the solar system. They saw that planets moved system?
in ways that did not fit the theory of an Earth-centered solar system.
Therefore, they developed a new theory about the shape of the solar
system. This theory states that the sun is at the center of the solar system.
All of the evidence that scientists have been able to collect supports this
theory. Therefore, scientists now accept that this theory is correct.

THEORIES AND LAWS

Many people think that scientific theories become
scientific laws, but this is not true. Actually, many
scientific laws provide evidence to support scientific
theories.
In 1665, Sir Isaac Newton discovered the law of
universal gravitation. This law states that all objects
in the universe attract each other with a force called
gravity. Gravity holds the planets in their orbits as they
travel around the sun. Scientists used this law to support
the theory of a sun-centered solar system.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 31 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.7.b, 6.7.c, 6.7.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
law a descriptive statement or equation theory a system of ideas that explains many
that reliably predicts events under certain related observations and is supported by
conditions a large body of evidence acquired through
model a pattern, plan, representation, or scientific investigation
description designed to show the structure or
workings of an object, system, or concept

1. Identify How are scientific theories related to observations and evidence?

2. Explain Why do scientists use models?

3. Describe What effect can new observations have on a scientific theory?

4. List Give one example of a physical model and one example of a mathematical
model.

5. Summarize How is a scientific theory different from a scientific law?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 32 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Earth Science

SECTION

3 Mapping Earth’s Surface

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.7.b, 6.7.f
these questions:
• What is a map?
• How are maps made?

What Is a Map?
A map is a model that shows the features of an object. STUDY TIP
Most of the maps that people use show the features of Discuss Read this section
Earth’s surface. Some maps show all of Earth’s surface. quietly to yourself. In a small
Other maps show only part of Earth’s surface. Maps can group, try to figure out any-
thing you didn’t understand.
show natural features, such as rivers. They can also show
features made by people, such as roads. Although maps
can show different things, all maps of Earth’s surface
have one thing in common: they all show directions.

FINDING DIRECTIONS ON EARTH

Earth’s shape is similar to a sphere. However, a true
sphere has no top, bottom, or sides that can be used as
reference points. Reference points are certain locations
that never change. They can be used to define directions. READING CHECK
Unlike a true sphere, Earth has two reference points. 1. Define What are
They are located where Earth’s axis of rotation passes reference points?
through Earth’s surface. The reference points are called
the North Pole and the South Pole. The North and South
Poles are known as geographic poles. Since these poles
never move, they are used as references points to define
directions on Earth.

North Pole Earth’s axis

of rotation

The North Pole and the

South Pole can be used
as reference points to
define directions on
Earth.
TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify What are two
reference points on Earth?
South Pole

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 33 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

USING A COMPASS TO FIND DIRECTIONS

Earth’s core produces a field that makes Earth act as a
giant magnet. Earth has two magnetic poles located near
the geographic poles. A compass is a tool that uses the
Earth’s natural magnetism to show direction. The needle
on a compass points to the magnetic pole that is near the
North Pole. Therefore, a compass can show you which
READING CHECK direction is north.
3. Identify What does
the needle on a compass How Do People Find Specific Locations
point to? on Earth?
All of the houses and buildings in your neighborhood
have addresses that give their locations. These addresses
may include a street name and a number. You can tell
someone exactly where you live by giving them your
address. In a similar way, you can use latitude and
longitude to give an “address” for any place on Earth.

LATITUDE
The equator is a circle halfway between the North
and South Poles. It divides Earth into two hemispheres,
or halves—the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemisphere. Lines of latitude, or parallels, are imaginary
READING CHECK lines on Earth’s surface that are parallel to the equator.
4. Define What are Latitude is the distance north or south from the
parallels? equator. Latitude is measured in degrees. The equator
represents 0° latitude. The North Pole is 90° north
latitude and the South Pole is 90° south latitude. North
latitudes are in the Northern Hemisphere and south
latitudes are in the Southern Hemisphere.
.ORTH0OLE
Ž.
.ORTHERN
(EMISPHERE
%QUATOR
Ž.
Ž.

Ž.

TAKE A LOOK Ž

5. Describe Which parallel is Ž3

farther from the equator:
Ž3
10ºN latitude or 10ºS
Ž3
latitude?
3OUTHERN 0ARALLELS
(EMISPHERE
3OUTH0OLE
Ž3

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 34 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

LONGITUDE
Lines of longitude, or meridians, are imaginary lines Critical Thinking
that link the geographic poles. Lines of longitude are 6. Apply Concepts A friend
similar to the lines on a basketball. The lines all touch asks you what the distance
at the poles. They are farthest apart at the equator. The is between 80ºE longitude
and 90ºE longitude. What
prime meridian is the line that represents 0º longitude. else do you need to know
Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime in order to answer your
meridian. Like latitude, longitude is measured in degrees. friend’s question? Explain
why you need this piece of
The prime meridian does not circle the whole globe. It information.
runs from the North Pole, through Greenwich, England,
to the South Pole. On the other side of the globe, the 180°
meridian runs from the North to the South Pole. Together,
the prime meridian and the 180° meridian split Earth into
Western and Eastern Hemispheres.
.ORTH
² 0OLE
MERIDIAN %ASTERN

Ž7 Ž%(EMISPHERE
Ž
%
7
Ž


Ž7

Ž%


Ž7

Ž7

TAKE A LOOK
7. Identify Where do all
7ESTERN 0RIME lines of longitude meet?
(EMISPHERE MERIDIAN
3OUTH
0OLE

USING LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Lines of latitude and longitude cross to form a grid.
This grid is shown on maps and globes. You can use the
lines of latitude and longitude to tell someone the location
of any point on Earth’s surface. First, find the point on a
map like the one below. Then, estimate the latitude and
longitude of the point, using the lines closest to it.

45°N
You can use
latitude and
longitude to 40°N
locate points
on a map.
For example, 35°N
this city
is located 30°N
TAKE A LOOK
very close 8. Read a Map Circle the
to latitude city on the map that is
35ºN, 25°N
closest to latitude 45ºN,
longitude
105ºW. 120°W 115°W 110°W 105°W 100°W 95°W 90°W 85°W 80°W 75°W
longitude 100ºW.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 35 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

How Is Information Shown on Maps?

The information on a map is in the form of symbols.
To read a map, you must understand the symbols on the
map. Maps can show many different kinds of information.
Almost all maps contain five pieces of information: a title,
READING CHECK an indicator of direction, a scale, a legend, and a date.
9. Describe How is The title tells you what the subject of the map is.
information shown on a
map?

The date tells you when

TAKE A LOOK the map was made. It
10. Identify What is the may also tell you when
subject of the map in the the information in the
map was collected.
figure?
The indicator
of direction can
show which way is
north or give other
information about
the location of the
map. It can be an
arrow pointing
north, like this one,
a compass rose,
or a latitude and
The longitude grid.
legend
tells
what the
symbols
on the
map
mean.

Math Focus
11. Use Models How far is
Arcade from Rio Linda? Use a
ruler and the map’s scale to The scale shows how a distance
find out. Give your answer in on the map is related to the
km. distance on the Earth.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 36 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

How Are Maps Made?

The information used to make maps today comes
from remote sensing. Remote sensing is a way to gather
information about an object without actually touching or
seeing the object. READING CHECK
Today, most maps are made from photographs. 12. Define What is remote
Cameras on low-flying airplanes take the photographs. sensing?
However, mapmakers are beginning to use new
equipment that can be carried on both airplanes and
satellites.

PASSIVE REMOTE SENSING

All things on Earth’s surface give off radiation, such as
heat or light. Passive remote-sensing equipment records
the radiation given off by objects. A satellite collects the
data and changes it to numbers. These numbers are then
sent to a computer. The computer changes the numbers
into a picture of the Earth’s surface.

ACTIVE REMOTE SENSING

Active remote-sensing equipment makes its own
radiation, mostly in the form of microwaves. It sends
out the radiation toward Earth’s surface. The radiation
bounces off Earth’s surface and travels back to the sensing
equipment. The strength of the signal that bounces back
can be used to produce an image of Earth’s surface. READING CHECK
Microwaves can travel through clouds and water. 13. Compare How is active
Therefore, active remote-sensing equipment can be used remote sensing different
to map areas that are difficult to see. from passive remote sensing?

This picture
of downtown
San Francisco,
California,
was made
using remote-
sensing
equipment.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 37 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

Satellites can keep you from getting lost. The global
positioning system (GPS) can help you find where you
are on Earth. GPS is a system of satellites that travel
around the Earth. The satellites send radio waves to
receivers on Earth. The receivers calculate the latitude,
READING CHECK longitude, and elevation of a certain place.
14. Identify What is GPS?

Satellites orbit the Earth.

'03SATELLITESORBIT%ARTHTWICE
They send signals to
ADAY%ACHSATELLITETRANSMITS
receivers on Earth’s surface.
ADIFFERENTMICROWAVESIGNAL

TAKE A LOOK
15. Describe What do GPS
satellites do?
A GPS receiver gets signals from several
!'03RECEIVERRECEIVESSIGNALSFROMAT
LEASTFOURSATELLITESATONETIME)TUSES
satellites. The receiver uses the signals
THESIGNALSTOFINDITSEXACTLOCATION
to determine its exact location.”

GPS is very common in people’s lives today.

Mapmakers use GPS to check the location of boundary
lines between countries. Airplane and boat pilots use GPS
for navigating. GPS receivers are even put into cars and
watches!

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a
computerized system that shows information about
an area. A GIS allows scientists to combine a lot of
information into one model. A GIS organizes information
in layers. Scientists can compare the layers in order to
answer questions. The figure on the next page shows how
scientists use GIS to combine information and find safe
READING CHECK places for bears to live.
16. Define What is a GIS?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 38 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Mapping Earth’s Surface continued

This image shows where

bears were killed on the
roads near Ocala National
Forest in Florida. Each dot
represents one bear.

This image shows the

roads and places where
people live near Ocala
National Forest.
Say It
Discuss In a small group,
talk about some different
problems that scientists can
use GIS to solve.
This image shows where
parks are found near Ocala
National Forest.

Scientists used GIS to combine the information in the images above. They used the
information to learn where bears could safely live

TAKE A LOOK
17. Color On the maps,
color the parks using green.
Color the places where bears
can live using purple.

Safe place for bears to live.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 39 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.7.b, 6.7.f

SECTION VOCABULARY
equator the imaginary circle halfway between map a representation of the features of a
the poles that divides the Earth into the physical body such as Earth
Northern and Southern Hemispheres prime meridian the meridian, or line of
Wordwise The root equ means “even” or longitude, that is designated as 0º longitude
“equal.” Other examples are equal, equidistant, remote sensing the process of gathering and
and equality. analyzing information about an object without
latitude the distance north or south from the physically being in touch with the object
equator; expressed in degrees
longitude the angular distance east or west
from the prime meridian; expressed in degrees

1. Explain How can you use a compass to find direction on Earth?

2. Compare Fill in the table below to compare latitude and longitude.

Name What it is Measured in Distance apart
latitude degrees always the same

longitude distance east or west of the

prime meridian

3. List What are five pieces of information that are found on all maps?

4. Apply Concepts Why would a mapmaker use active remote sensing instead of
passive remote sensing?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 40 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 2 Tools of Earth Science

SECTION

4 Maps in Earth Science

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.7.f
these questions:
• What is a topographic map?
• What is a geologic map?

What Is a Topographic Map?

If you were going hiking in the wilderness, you would STUDY TIP
want to take a compass and a map. Because there are no Compare After you read
roads in the wilderness, you would not take a road map. this section, make a chart
Instead, you would take a topographic map. comparing the features
of topographic maps and
A topographic map is a map that shows the surface geologic maps.
features, or topography, of an area. Topographic maps
show natural features, such as rivers and lakes. They
show some features made by people, such as bridges.
Topographic maps also show elevation. Elevation is
the height of an object above the surface of the sea. The
elevation at sea level is 0 m. READING CHECK
1. Define What is elevation?
CONTOUR LINES
How can a flat map show elevations? Contour lines are
used to show elevation on a topographic map. Contour lines
are lines that connect points on a map that are the same
elevation. Each contour line on a map shows a different
elevation. Here are some rules for using contour lines:
• Contour lines never cross. All points on a contour line are Critical Thinking
at the same elevation. 2. Explain Why can two
• The space between contour lines depends on the slope of contour lines never cross?
the ground. Contour lines that are close together show a
steep slope. Contour lines that are far apart show a gentle
slope.
• Contour lines that cross a valley or stream are V-shaped.
The V points toward the area of higher elevation, or
upstream.
• The tops of hills, mountains, and depressions (dips) are
shown by closed circles. Depressions are marked with
short, straight lines inside the circle. The lines point
toward the center of the depression.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 41 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 4 Maps in Earth Science continued

CONTOUR INTERVALS AND RELIEF

Each contour line represents a certain elevation. The
difference in elevation between any two contour lines is
called the contour interval. For example, a map with a
contour interval of 20 m has contour lines drawn at 0 m,
20 m, 40 m, and so on. The contour interval of a map is
usually given in or near the map’s legend. The contour
interval on a map is based on the relief in the area.
READING CHECK Relief is the difference in elevation between the
3. Define What is a contour highest and lowest points in the area on the map.
interval?
Mountains have high relief. They are usually mapped with
large contour intervals. Plains have low relief. They are
usually mapped with small contour intervals.

INDEX CONTOURS
The many contour lines on a map can make it hard to
Math Focus read. An index contour is used to make reading the map
easier. An index contour is a darker, heavier contour line
4. Calculate A map has
index contours at 250 m, that is labeled with an elevation. In most maps, every
500 m, and 750 m. What is fifth contour line is an index contour. So, for example,
the contour interval?
a map with a contour interval of 20 m may have index
contours at 0 m, 100 m, 200 m, and so on.

COLORS
Topographic maps use colors and symbols to show
different features of Earth’s surface. Buildings, bridges,
and railroads are shown by special symbols drawn in
black. Contour lines are brown. Major roads are red.
Bodies of water are blue. Wooded areas are shaded in
READING CHECK green. Cities are shaded in gray or red.
5. Identify How do Topographic maps contain a lot of information. This
topographic maps show information can be confusing at first. However, if you
information? practice, you will be able to read topographic maps more
easily. When you look at a topographic map, ask yourself
these questions to help you read the map:
• What area does the map show?
• What is the contour interval of the map?
• What is the relief of the area in the map?
• What kinds of features are shown on the map?
The map on the next page is an example of a
topographic map. You can use it to become more familiar
with reading topographic maps.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 42 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 4 Maps in Earth Science continued

Topographic Map of El Capitan CALIFORNIA

STANDARDS CHECK
The contour interval on this
map is 40 ft. Index contours 6.7.f Read a topographic
The top of a hill is shown
are found every 200 ft. map and a geologic map
by a closed circle.
for evidence provided on
Index contour the maps and construct and
interpret a simple scale map.

Contour line Word Help: evidence

information showing
whether an idea or belief is
true or valid
Stream
Word Help: construct
to build; to make from
parts
Contour lines that are far
apart show a ___________ Word Help: interpret
slope. to tell or explain the
meaning of
6. Read a Map On the figure,
circle the areas that have the
Road steepest slope. Make a box
around the areas that have the
gentlest slope.

River

Contour lines that cross a valley

or stream are V-shaped. The V Contour lines that are close
points toward the together show a ___________
______________ elevation. slope.

Building Lake or pond

Highway Railroad track

TAKE A LOOK
Trail Stream 7. Identify Fill in the blanks
Depression Contour interval = 40 ft
in the figure to explain how
to use contour lines.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 43 Tools of Earth Science
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SECTION 4 Maps in Earth Science continued

What Is a Geologic Map?

Geologic maps show the geologic features in a given
area. Geologic features include different types of rocks
and rock structures, such as folded, tilted, or broken
rocks. Geologic maps present a history of the rocks in a
certain area.
To make a geologic map, scientists walk over the area.
They record the rock and structures they see on a base
map. A base map is often a topographic map. Geologists
use this map to find hills, valleys, and other features.
They then use these topographic features to help record
READING CHECK the location of geologic features.
8. Explain How do scientists
make a geologic map? ROCK UNITS
Rocks of a certain type and age range are called a
geologic unit. On a geologic map, different geologic units
are identified by different colors. If some geologic units
are of similar age, they are colored in different shades of
the same color.

On geologic
maps, different
rock units
Rock are shown by
unit different colors.
Rock units are
also labeled
with letters.
There is usually
one capital
letter followed
by lowercase
letters. The
capital letter
indicates the
TAKE A LOOK age of the rock.
9. Color On the map, shade The lowercase
the different rock units with letters indicate
the type of rock
different colors. Make sure
or name of the
to make a legend explaining rock unit.
your colors.

OTHER STRUCTURES
Besides rock units, other features can be shown on
geologic maps. Contact lines show places where two
geologic units meet. The shape of the contact line can
show where rock has been folded. Other symbols show if
rocks have been tilted. Faults, or breaks in rock, can also
be shown on geologic maps.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 44 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.7.f

SECTION VOCABULARY
elevation the height of an object above sea relief the difference between the highest and
level lowest elevations in a given area; the variations
geologic map a map that records geologic in elevation of a land surface
information, such as rock units, structural topographic map a map that shows the surface
features, mineral deposits, and fossil localities features of Earth

1. Define What are contour lines?

2. Explain What is the relationship between the relief of an area and the contour
interval on a map of the area?

3. Describe What do the colors on a geologic map represent?

4. Identify Give three features that are shown on topographic maps.

5. Identify Give three features that are shown on geologic maps.

6. Calculate The highest point on a topographic map is marked as 345 m. The lowest
contour interval is at 200 m. What is the relief of the area in the map?

7. Describe How is the top of a mountain shown on a topographic map?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 45 Tools of Earth Science
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 3 Earth’s Systems and Cycles

SECTION

1 The Earth System

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.1.b, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.4.d, After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.5.a, 6.5.b these questions:
• What are the parts of the Earth system?
• How does energy move through the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere?

What Are the Parts of the Earth System?

STUDY TIP What do the sky and the ground have in common? Like
Compare In your notebook, all other parts of Earth, they are always changing. Some
make a chart showing the parts of Earth change slowly. Other parts change very
features of the atmosphere,
biosphere, geosphere, and quickly. All of these changes are important in shaping the
hydrosphere. Earth system.
Scientists divide Earth into four parts: the geosphere,
the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere.
The geosphere is the mostly solid, rocky part of Earth.
The hydrosphere is the part of Earth that is water. The
atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surrounds Earth.
READING CHECK The biosphere is the part of Earth where life is found.
1. Identify What are the four
Energy and matter move through and between the four
parts of the Earth system? parts of the Earth system. This movement of energy and
matter is what makes life on Earth possible.

Part of the Earth system Definition

the part of Earth that is water

Atmosphere

the part of Earth where life is found

TAKE A LOOK Geosphere

2. Define Fill in the blank
spaces in the table.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 46 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 1 The Earth System continued

What Are the Parts of the Geosphere?

The geosphere is the rocky part of Earth. It includes
all of the rock on Earth’s surface and all of the rock
inside Earth. The geosphere is made up of layers.

LAYERS IN THE GEOSPHERE

Different parts of the geosphere are made of different
materials. The geosphere can be divided into three layers
based on composition: the crust, the mantle, and the
core. The crust is the thin, outermost layer of Earth. The
mantle is the layer of hot, solid rock beneath the crust.
The core is the central part of Earth. READING CHECK
Another way to think about the parts of the geosphere 3. List What are the three
is to divide it into five layers based on physical features: layers of the Earth, based on
the lithosphere, the asthenosphere, the mesosphere, the composition?
outer core, and the inner core.

Crust The crust is the Lithosphere The

thin, outermost layer of lithosphere is the outer,
Earth. It is between rigid layer of Earth. It is
5 km and 70 km thick.
Even though it is very
between 15 km and
300 km thick. It contains Critical Thinking
thin compared with the all of the crust and a
rest of Earth, it is still little bit of the mantle. 4. Infer Where do you think
too thick for people The lithosphere is the thickest crust on Earth is
to drill or dig through. broken into several large found?
Even the deepest holes pieces called tectonic
that people have plates. The tectonic
drilled reach only a plates move very slowly
small part of the way over Earth’s surface.
through the crust.
Asthenosphere The
Mantle The mantle is asthenosphere is the
about 2,900 km thick. solid layer of mantle
Even though it is very that lies beneath the
hot, the rock in the lithosphere. It can flow
mantle is solid. Most and move like putty.
of the rock in the
mantle can flow like Mesosphere The meso-
soft chewing gum. sphere is the solid layer
of the mantle between
Core The core has a the asthenosphere and
radius of 3,400 km. It
is made of iron and
the core.
TAKE A LOOK
nickel. Outer Core The outer 5. Identify What is the main
core is made of liquid difference between the inner
iron and nickel. core and the outer core?
Inner Core The inner
core is made of solid
iron and nickel.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 47 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 1 The Earth System continued

CALIFORNIA What Are the Features of the Hydrosphere?

STANDARDS CHECK Earth’s hydrosphere is made up of the water in, on,
6.4.a Students know the sun is
the major source of energy for and around Earth. The hydrosphere includes all of the
phenomena on Earth’s surface; oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, and polar icecaps on Earth.
it powers winds, ocean currents,
and the water cycle. Clouds, rain, and snow are also part of the hydrosphere.
Even water that is found in rocks deep underground is
Word Help: major
of great importance or part of the hydrosphere.
large scale
GLOBAL OCEAN
Word Help: source
the thing from which Most of the water on Earth is found in the oceans. This
something else comes water is sometimes called the global ocean. The global
Word Help: energy ocean holds more than 97% of all of the water on Earth.
what makes things happen People cannot use ocean water for drinking, because it is
too salty.
Word Help: phenomenon
any facts or events that can
be sensed or described ENERGY FLOW IN THE OCEAN
scientifically
The water in the oceans moves because the
Word Help: cycle temperature of the water is different in different places.
a repeating series of When the temperature of water changes, its density also
changes
changes. Cold, dense water sinks. Warmer, less-dense
6. Explain How does water rises. A convection current forms when matter
the sun cause convection moves because of differences in density. In the ocean,
currents in the ocean? convection currents help to move energy from one place
to another.
The sun is the main source of energy for convection
in the ocean. Energy from the sun heats ocean water.
However, not all parts of Earth get the same amount of
energy from the sun. Therefore, the temperature of ocean
water can be very different from place to place. For
example, the ocean water near the equator is warm, but
the water near the poles can be close to freezing.
The sun heats the water at the equator
more than at the poles. The warm
water at the equator has more energy
Heat from than the cold water at the poles. Heat from
the sun the sun
Pole
The warm water moves from the
equator to the poles. It carries energy
Equator
from the equator to the poles. As it
moves, it cools and sinks.

Warm Convection Cold

water current water

The cold water moves from

the poles to the equator. As it
moves, it warms up and rises.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 48 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 1 The Earth System continued

What Is the Atmosphere?

The atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surrounds
Earth. The atmosphere reaches out from the surface of
Earth for about 500 km. However, most of the gases in
the atmosphere are found within about 8 km to 12 km of
Earth’s surface.

LAYERS IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Earth’s atmosphere is made up of four layers. The
troposphere is the layer that is closest to Earth’s surface.
It is the layer in which people live. Most weather happens
in the troposphere. The stratosphere is the layer that
is right above the troposphere. The mesosphere is the
coldest layer of the atmosphere. The thermosphere is the
uppermost layer of the atmosphere. READING CHECK
7. Draw In the space above,
The sun heats Earth’s surface. The atmosphere
absorbs heat from the ground. More sunlight draw a picture of the four
hits the equator than the poles, so the air at layers of the atmosphere.
the equator is warmer than the air at the poles.
Label each layer.
Energy from
the sun The warm air rises and
moves toward the poles. As
the air moves, it carries
energy from the equator to
the poles.

TAKE A LOOK
8. Identify On the figure,
draw an arrow showing the
main direction that energy
moves in the atmosphere.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The sun is the main source of energy for Earth’s
surface. The energy from the sun heats Earth’s surface
unevenly. The atmosphere absorbs energy from Earth’s
surface. Since the surface is heated unevenly, the
atmosphere is, too. The uneven heating makes the air in
the atmosphere move.
The movement of the air helps move heat energy
through the atmosphere. The term convection is used
to describe the transfer of energy by the movement of
matter. Convection is an important way that energy flows
through the atmosphere, just as it is in the hydrosphere.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 49 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 1 The Earth System continued

What Is the Biosphere?

Critical Thinking The biosphere is made up of organisms, or living
9. Apply Concepts Why things, and the parts of Earth where life is found. The
are the upper parts of the biosphere includes Earth’s surface, the lower part of the
atmosphere not part of the atmosphere, and most of the hydrosphere. Scientists
biosphere?
continue to find life in new places. Therefore, the
boundaries of the known biosphere are always changing.

FACTORS NEEDED FOR LIFE

The biosphere has many factors that living things need
in order to survive. For example, most living things need
liquid water and a certain range of temperatures in order
to survive. Therefore, most living things are found near
READING CHECK Earth’s surface.
10. Explain Why are most
living things found near MATTER AND ENERGY FLOW
Earth’s surface? Most of the energy that flows through the biosphere
comes from sunlight. Plants use the energy in sunlight
to change chemicals, such as carbon dioxide, into food,
such as sugar. The plants use some of the energy in the
food to grow. Animals and other living things get energy
by eating plants or by eating living things that have eaten
plants. Both matter and energy are transferred when
living things eat other living things.
The transfer of matter and energy does not stop when
a living thing dies. Living things such as some bacteria
and fungi break down the remains of dead organisms into
simple materials. These materials then can be used by
other organisms. The bacteria and fungi get their energy
from the remains of the dead organisms they break down.
Energy

Matter and energy

Plants
Matter and energy

Matter

TAKE A LOOK
11. Identify Fill in the blank
boxes in the figure to show Matter Bacteria and fungi
how matter and energy flow
in the biosphere.

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Section 1 Review 6.1.b, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.4.d, 6.5.a, 6.5.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
convection the movement of matter due to core the central part of the Earth below the
differences in density; the transfer of energy mantle
due to the movement of matter crust the thin and solid outermost layer of the
Wordwise The prefix con- means “with” or Earth above the mantle
“together.” The root vect means “to carry.” mantle the layer of rock between the Earth’s
convection current any movement of matter crust and core
that results from differences in density; may be
vertical, circular, or cyclical

1. Identify How does heat flow through the atmosphere and the hydrosphere?

2. Compare Give two differences between the mantle and the core.

3. Explain How does energy flow in the biosphere?

4. Describe How does matter flow in the biosphere?

5. Identify What is the main source of energy for convection in the atmosphere and
the oceans?

6. Compare How is the lithosphere different from the asthenosphere?

7. Explain Why are water and air at the equator warmer than water and air at the poles?

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CHAPTER 3 Earth’s Systems and Cycles

SECTION

2 Heat and Energy

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is temperature?
• What is heat?
• How does heat move from place to place?

What Is Temperature?
STUDY TIP What makes an object have a certain temperature? The
Discuss Read this section answer to that question has to do with the tiny particles
quietly to yourself. When you that make up the object.
finish reading, talk about
the section with a partner.
All matter is made up of tiny particles. These particles
Work together to figure out are always moving, even though we can’t see them move.
the parts that you don’t When particles are moving, they have a kind of energy
understand. called kinetic energy. The faster the particles move, the
more kinetic energy they have.
READING CHECK The particles in an object are all moving at different
1. Explain How does the speeds and in different directions. We can’t measure the
speed of a particle affect its kinetic energy of each particle by itself. However, we can
kinetic energy?
measure the average kinetic energy of all of the particles
in an object.
The average kinetic energy of these tiny particles is
what gives an object its temperature. The temperature
of an object is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of all of the particles in the object. The temperature of
an object does not depend on the size of the object. If
the particles in an object have a lot of kinetic energy, the
object will have a high temperature.

This material has a low temperature. This material has a high temperature.
The particles in the material are moving The particles in the material are
slowly. They have a __________ average moving quickly. They have a
kinetic energy. __________ average kinetic energy.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify Fill in the blank
lines in the figure to describe
the amount of kinetic energy
in the particles.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 52 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 2 Heat and Energy continued

What Is Heat?
What do you think of when you think about heat? Most
people think of something that has a high temperature.
However, heat also has to do with objects that have
low temperatures. In science, heat is the energy that
is transferred between objects that are at different
temperatures. READING CHECK
Why do some objects feel hot or cold? Heat moves 3. Define What is heat?
from one object to another when their temperatures
are different. Heat always moves from the object
with a higher temperature to the object with a lower
temperature. When you touch something that feels cold,
heat moves from your body into the object. When you
touch something that feels hot, heat moves from the
object into your body.

HEAT AND THERMAL ENERGY

If heat is transferred energy, what kind of energy Critical Thinking
is being transferred? The answer is thermal energy. 4. Compare How is thermal
Thermal energy is the total kinetic energy of the energy different from
particles that make up a substance. Thermal energy is temperature?
measured in joules (J).
The amount of thermal energy in a substance
depends partly on its temperature. Something at a high
temperature usually has more thermal energy than
something at a lower temperature.
Thermal energy also depends on the number of
particles in a substance. At the same temperature, objects
made of many particles have more thermal energy than
objects made of few particles.
The soup in the bowl has the same temperature as the
soup in the pan. However, there is less soup in the
bowl than in the pan. Therefore, the soup in the pan
has more thermal energy than the soup in the bowl.

TAKE A LOOK
5. Explain The soup in the
bowl and the soup in the pan
have the same temperature.
Why does the soup in the
pan have more thermal
energy than the soup in the
bowl?

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SECTION 2 Heat and Energy continued

REACHING THE SAME TEMPERATURE

When two objects with different temperatures touch,
heat flows between them. The heat flows from the
warmer object to the cooler object. Heat flows until both
objects have the same temperature.
Metal ball: 35ºC Metal ball: 33ºC Metal ball: 15ºC
Water: 5ºC
Water: 6ºC Water: 15ºC
Time Time

TAKE A LOOK
6. Identify Fill in the blank 1. A hot metal ball is placed 2. As soon as the ball enters 3. In time, the ball and the
in a beaker of cold water. the water, heat begins to water reach the same
spaces to show the direction The ball starts out with a move from the into temperature. The ball has
that thermal energy moves temperature of 35ºC. The the . The temperature become cooler, and the
water starts out with a of the water begins to rise, water has become warmer.
between the ball and the temperature of 5ºC. and the temperature of the Heat stops moving between
water. ball begins to drop. the ball and water.

How Does Heat Move?

Math Focus Heat can move between objects in three main
7. Calculate By how many ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. During
degrees did the temperature
of the metal ball decrease conduction, heat moves through matter, but the matter
when it transferred its does not move. During convection, matter moves and
thermal energy to the water? carries heat with it. During radiation, no matter is needed
to move the heat from place to place.

CONDUCTION
Conduction happens when heat moves from one object
to another through direct contact. Imagine that you place
a metal spoon into a bowl of hot soup. The particles in the
rounded end of the spoon touch the particles in the soup.
Heat moves from the soup into the spoon by conduction.
After a while, the handle of the spoon will get hot, even
though it is not touching the soup. This is because the metal
in the spoon can conduct heat from the rounded end to the
Critical Thinking handle.
8. Apply Concepts What will The hot soup touches the spoon.
happen to the temperature Heat moves from the soup into
the spoon by conduction.
of the soup when the spoon
is placed into the bowl? Ex-
plain your answer.

The heat moves through the

spoon by conduction. Heat
is transferred from particle
to particle in the spoon.

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SECTION 2 Heat and Energy continued

CONVECTION
Convection happens when matter carries heat from
one place to another. For example, when you boil water
in a pot, the temperature of the water near the hot burner
increases. The particles in the hot water move farther
apart. The hot water rises. As it rises, the hot water
carries heat from the bottom of the pot to the top. READING CHECK
In many cases, convection occurs because of thermal 9. Define What is
expansion. Thermal expansion happens when the convection?
volume of a substance increases because its temperature
increases. Thermal expansion is what causes hot air to
rise above cold air in the atmosphere. It is also what
causes warm water to rise above colder water in the
oceans. Thermal expansion can even cause rocks in the
geosphere to move!
As the warm water rises, the colder water sinks
toward the bottom of the pot. At the bottom, it
warms up and rises, and the cycle continues.

TAKE A LOOK
10. Identify On the figure,
As the water heats up, it expands. The warm water rises toward the draw arrows showing how
top of the pot. As it rises, it carries energy from the bottom of the the warm and cold water
pot to the top by convection.
moves in the pot.
RADIATION
Radiation happens when energy, such as heat, moves
in waves between one object and another. Energy can
move between objects by radiation even if there is
no matter to carry the energy. For example, the sun
produces a lot of energy. This energy travels to Earth
by radiation through outer space. Even though there is
almost no matter in outer space, the energy can travel to
Earth by radiation.

TAKE A LOOK
11. Compare How is
radiation different from both
convection and conduction?
Earth
The sun gives off a lot of energy.
Sun The energy travels through space
to Earth by radiation.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 55 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 2 Heat and Energy continued

How Can Heat Affect Matter?

What is the difference between ice and water? You
probably answered that ice is a solid and water is
a liquid. The chemicals that make up the water are
the same as the chemicals that make up the ice. The
difference between the ice and the water is the state, or
physical form, that the matter is in. In general, substances
READING CHECK can be in three different states: solid, liquid, or gas.
12. Identify What are the
Remember that matter is made of tiny particles. The
three states of matter? state of a substance depends on the speed of its particles
and on the attractions between them. The figure below
shows how the particles in solids, liquids, and gases are
different.

Particles of a solid Particles of a liquid are Particles of a gas

have a strong attraction more loosely connected move fast enough that
between them. The than those of a solid they overcome the
particles are closely and can collide with and attractions between
locked in position and move past one another. them. The particles
can only vibrate. move independently
and collide frequently.

CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK One way to change matter from one state to another is
6.3.a Students know energy can to add heat. When heat moves into an object, the object’s
be carried from one place to an-
other by heat flow or by waves,
temperature goes up. The particles in the substance move
including water, light and sound faster. This can make a solid turn into a liquid or a liquid
waves, or by moving objects.
turn into a gas.
Word Help: energy You can also change a substance’s state by causing it
what makes things happen to lose heat. When you put a glass of water in the freezer,
heat moves from the water into the much colder freezer.
13. Apply Concepts Why
does the ice in a glass of The particles in the water move more and more slowly.
soda melt? After a while, they move so slowly that the water turns
from a liquid into a solid.

Change of state Description

Condensing A gas turns into a liquid.
Freezing A liquid turns into a solid.
Melting A solid turns into a liquid.
Evaporating A liquid turns into a gas.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 56 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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Section 2 Review 6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
conduction the transfer of energy as heat radiation the transfer of energy as
through a material electromagnetic waves
convection the movement of matter due to temperature a measure of how hot (or cold)
differences in density; the transfer of energy something is; specifically, a measure of the
due to the movement of matter average kinetic energy of the particles in an
heat the energy transferred between objects that object
are at different temperatures thermal energy the kinetic energy of a
substance’s atoms

1. Explain How is temperature related to kinetic energy?

2. Explain Why does an ice cube feel cold when you touch it?

3. Describe You place a hot glass rod in a cup filled with a cold liquid. Describe
what will happen to the rod and the liquid with time.

4. Apply Concepts Why does the energy from the sun travel to Earth by radiation
instead of by convection or conduction?

5. Compare How is convection different from conduction?

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CHAPTER 3 Earth’s Systems and Cycles

SECTION

3 The Cycling of Energy

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.b,
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.4.c, 6.4.d these questions:
• Where does the heat on Earth come from?
• How does heat move through the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and geosphere?

How Does Energy Move from Place to Place?

STUDY TIP Imagine that you are playing outside on a warm, sunny
Compare As you read day. You see some clouds start to form in the sky. All of
this section, make a chart a sudden, a strong wind starts to blow, and the air feels
comparing the ways that
heat moves through Earth’s
much cooler. Soon, you hear thunder. It starts to rain.
systems. Why did the weather change so quickly? The answer has
to do with how heat moves through Earth’s atmosphere.
Remember that heat can be carried from one place to
another in three ways: by radiation, by convection, or by
conduction. During radiation, heat moves in the form of
waves. During convection, matter moves from place to
place and carries heat with it. During conduction, heat
moves by heat flow. Heat flow means the transfer of
READING CHECK heat from a warmer object to a cooler object.
1. Identify What are three
Radiation, conduction, and convection are all
ways heat can move? important in moving heat through Earth’s systems. Where
does this heat come from? The sun is the main source
of heat for Earth’s systems. However, the inside of Earth
also gives a little bit of heat to Earth’s systems. The heat
from the sun and from the inside of Earth moves through
the geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere.

Type of heat transfer How heat moves Example

Radiation

Conduction
TAKE A LOOK
2. Recall Fill in the table to
compare the three different Convection
ways that heat can move
from place to place.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 58 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 3 The Cycling of Energy continued

How Does the Sun’s Energy Get to Earth?

Earth is almost 150 million kilometers from the sun.
However, the sun provides 99% of the energy on Earth. How CALIFORNIA
does energy from the sun travel to Earth? The answer is STANDARDS CHECK
radiation. Remember that energy can travel by radiation, 6.4.b Students know solar
energy reaches Earth through
even when there is no matter around to transmit the energy. radiation, mostly in the form of
visible light.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Word Help: energy

what makes things happen
Most of the energy that the sun gives off is light that
you can see. However, the sun also gives off energy that Word Help: visible
that can be seen
you can’t see. All of the energy from the sun travels in
waves. These waves are called electromagnetic radiation. 3. Identify In what form
is most of the energy that
Electromagnetic radiation includes many different Earth gets from the sun?
wavelengths, or kinds, of energy. Together, all of these
wavelengths are called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Shorter wavelengths Longer wavelengths

X-ray
Visible
(light we
can see)

Gamma
Ultraviolet
Microwave
Radio
Say It
ray
Discuss You may have heard
Infrared or seen the terms “X-ray,”
(heat) “infrared,” and “ultraviolet”
The electromagnetic spectrum is made up of many different wavelengths of in other places. In a small
electromagnetic radiation. Most of the energy that the sun gives off is visible group, talk about the ways
light that we can see. Other kinds of electromagnetic radiation are X-rays, that these words are used in
microwaves, and radio waves. everyday speech.
EARTH AND ENERGY FROM THE SUN
The energy from the sun travels through space by
radiation. Some of the energy can pass through Earth’s
atmosphere and reach Earth’s surface. The energy from
the sun is the main force that drives the water cycle. The
energy from the sun makes life on Earth possible.
Earth’s geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and
biosphere absorb a lot of the energy that Earth gets
from the sun. As Earth’s systems absorb the light energy,
some of it turns into heat. Heat can move through Earth’s
systems by convection and conduction.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 59 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 3 The Cycling of Energy continued

How Does Convection Move Energy Through

Earth’s Systems?
Remember that convection happens when moving
matter carries heat from one place to another.
Convection happens when matter is heated unevenly.
Most of the heat that moves through Earth’s systems
moves by convection. Convection moves energy in the
READING CHECK hydrosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere.
4. Identify What is the
main way that energy moves CONVECTION IN THE HYDROSPHERE
through the atmosphere, Most of the convection in the hydrosphere happens
hydrosphere, and geosphere?
in the oceans. Remember that convection in the oceans
happens when ocean water is colder in some places
than in other places. The colder water is denser than
the warmer water. The difference in density produces a
convection current in the ocean.
Critical Thinking In the ocean, convection can cause currents. Currents are
5. Predict Consequences bodies of water that move like rivers on the ocean surface
Would there still be convec- or far below it. Currents can move water over thousands of
tion in the oceans if the Earth miles, but the journey can take a thousand years or more!
stopped getting energy from
the sun? Explain your answer.
No r th
A m er i c a
Eu r o p e
No r th Asia
A m er i c a

Africa
wa
mr

su
,

r fa
ce
cu
rre
So u th nt
nt
A m er i c a cu
rre
cold

ce
fa
, dee

ur Australia
,s
rm
wa
pc

nt
rre
ur

nt cu
re

p
ee
,d
cold

Antarctica
Surface currents

Convection in the oceans moves heat from place to place.

Deep currents
Convection produces currents on the surface and in the
deep water. These currents can move water and energy for
thousands of miles.

CONVECTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Convection in the atmosphere, just like convection in
the oceans, happens because of uneven heating. The sun
heats Earth’s surface. The ground warms up the air by
conduction. Then, the warm air rises and moves across
READING CHECK Earth’s surface. As it rises and moves, it loses some of its
6. Explain Why does heat and gets cooler. The cooler air sinks toward Earth.
convection happen in the The movement of air by convection can cause winds.
atmosphere? It also helps transfer heat from one place to another on
Earth’s surface.

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SECTION 3 The Cycling of Energy continued

CONVECTION IN THE GEOSPHERE CALIFORNIA

Earth may seem very solid and rigid to you. However, STANDARDS CHECK
inside Earth, solid rock is flowing slowly from place to 6.4.c Students know heat
from Earth’s interior reaches
place. Energy from inside Earth heats up the rock in the surface primarily through
convection.
Earth’s mantle. The rock in the mantle is under a lot of
pressure, so it does not melt. Instead, the heated rock Word Help: primarily
mainly
acts like soft taffy or chewing gum. It is still solid, but it
moves slowly from place to place. 7. Explain How does heat
move from inside Earth to
As the rock heats up, it rises toward Earth’s surface. Earth’s surface?
At the same time, cooler, denser rock sinks deeper into
the mantle. This movement produces convection currents
like those in the ocean. In this way, heat from inside Earth
moves to Earth’s surface. Scientists think that convection
currents in the mantle make tectonic plates move.
#RUST

2ISINGHOTMATERIAL

3INKINGCOLDMATERIAL

-ANTLE

/UTERCORE

TAKE A LOOK
Convection in the geosphere moves and matter from 8. Identify Fill in the blank
the inside of Earth to the surface. line in the figure.

How Does Conduction Move Energy Through

Earth’s Systems?
Conduction happens when heat moves between
objects that are touching. Heat moves from the warmer
object to the cooler object. Heat can move by conduction
between the geosphere and the atmosphere where the air
touches the ground.

Radiation from the sun

Cooler air warms the ground. If the
ground is warmer than the
air, heat can move from
the ground into the air by
TAKE A LOOK
Heat conduction. Conduction 9. Explain How does energy
happens only within a move from the geosphere to
few centimeters of Earth’s the atmosphere?
Warmer ground surface, where air particles
are touching the ground.

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Section 3 Review 6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.4.c, 6.4.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
electromagnetic spectrum all of the heat flow another term for heat transfer, the
frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic transfer of energy from a warmer object to a
radiation cooler object

1. List What are three ways that heat can move from one place to another?

2. Identify On the figure below, fill in the blanks with the terms radiation,
conduction, and convection to show how energy moves in Earth’s systems.
Hint: You may need to use some of the terms more than once.

Energy travels from

Energy moves through
the sun to Earth by
the atmosphere by
____________.
____________.

Energy travels from the geosphere to

Atmosphere the atmosphere by ____________.

e
spher
Hydro
Geosphere

Energy moves through the

hydrosphere by ____________. Energy moves through the
geosphere by ____________.

3. Apply Concepts Will heat move from the ground to the atmosphere by conduction
if the air is warmer than the ground? Explain your answer.

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CHAPTER 3 Earth’s Systems and Cycles

SECTION

4 The Cycling of Matter

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.4.a, 6.5.a, 6.5.b
these questions:
• What is the rock cycle?
• What is the water cycle?
• How do nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus move
through Earth’s systems?

How Fast Does Earth Change?

You probably know people who recycle. Did you know STUDY TIP
that Earth also recycles? Not very much new matter comes Compare As you read, make
into the Earth system. Therefore, the matter that is already a chart comparing the ways
that carbon, nitrogen, and
here has to be recycled. Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, phosphorus move through
and even rocks move through cycles on Earth. Earth’s systems.
As matter moves through the parts of Earth, the matter
changes. Some of the changes happen very fast. For example,
floods can move a lot of rock from one place to another in
only a few days. On the other hand, some of the changes
happen very slowly. For example, it can take millions of years
for a tall mountain to form. Because Earth is so old, even
these very slow changes have affected Earth a great deal.
Ma = millions of years ago
Cenozoic era
Mesozoic era
Precambrian eon (4,600 Ma to 542 Ma) Paleozoic era

Math Focus
4,600 Ma

Ma
542 Ma

251 Ma

Present
5M

1. Calculate For what

65.5

Earth’s crust fraction of Earth’s history

Oxygen starts to Dinosaurs go extinct.
starts to form. First forms of
build up in
have human-like animals
life appear.
Liquid water first appears
Earth’s atmosphere.
First complex living
existed? Show your work.
on Earth’s surface. things appear.

Earth is 4.6 billion years old. This timeline shows when some important events happened
on Earth. Human-like animals did not appear on Earth until about 4 million years ago.

What Are the Different Kinds of Rocks?

Rocks can look very different from each other. In many
cases, they look different because they form in different
ways. Scientists put rocks into three groups based on how
they form. Sedimentary rocks form when pieces of rock
stick together to form a hard rock. Igneous rocks form
when melted rock cools and hardens. Metamorphic rocks
form when rock changes because of heat or pressure.

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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
What do sand, clay, and pebbles have in common? They
all form when large rocks are broken into smaller pieces.
Small pieces of rock that are moved from place to place
are called sediment. Sediment can be moved by wind,
READING CHECK water, ice, and gravity.
2. Define What is sediment? Sedimentary rocks can be grouped based on what they
are made of and how they form. Some sedimentary rocks
form when sediment is buried and put under pressure.
The pressure causes the sediment pieces to stick
together. In time, the sediment hardens and forms a rock.
Sedimentary rocks that form when sediment hardens
under pressure are called clastic sedimentary rocks.
Other sedimentary rocks form when chemicals form
mineral crystals. For example, many kinds of chemicals
are dissolved in ocean water. If the water evaporates,
some of the chemicals will form mineral crystals.
Critical Thinking Sedimentary rock that forms when minerals that are
3. Compare How are clastic dissolved in water form crystals are called chemical
sedimentary rocks different sedimentary rocks.
from organic sedimentary Some sedimentary rocks are made of pieces of dead
rocks?
organisms. For example, many animals that live in the
ocean have hard shells. When the animals die, their shells
fall to the ocean floor. The shells can be buried. In time,
pressure can cause the pieces to stick together and form
a rock. Sedimentary rocks that form from pieces of dead
organisms are called organic sedimentary rocks.

TAKE A LOOK
4. Describe How does halite
form?

Sandstone is a kind of Halite is a kind of chemical sedimentary Coquina is a kind of

clastic sedimentary rock. rock. It forms when seawater organic sedimentary rock.
It is made of sand that evaporates. It is made of the shells of
has stuck together and tiny sea creatures.
hardened.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 64 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rock forms when melted rock cools and
hardens. Igneous rocks can be grouped based on the size
of the crystals in the rock. When melted rock cools slowly,
large crystals can form. Igneous rocks made of large
crystals are called coarse-grained igneous rocks.
If melted rock cools quickly, only very small crystals
can form. Sometimes, the melted rock cools so fast that no
crystals can form. Igneous rocks made of tiny crystals or
no crystals at all are called fine-grained igneous rocks. READING CHECK
Igneous rocks can also be grouped by the types of 5. Identify What is the main
minerals in them. Some igneous rocks, such as granite, are factor that affects whether an
made of mostly light-colored minerals. Most of these light- igneous rock is fine-grained
colored rocks are found on Earth’s crust, in the continents. or coarse-grained?

Other igneous rocks are made of mostly dark-colored

minerals. These dark-colored rocks are found mainly in
Earth’s mantle and in the crust under the oceans.
TAKE A LOOK
6. Infer Where would you
be most likely to find granite,
in Earth’s mantle or Earth’s
continents? Explain your
answer.

Granite is a kind of igneous Basalt is a kind of igneous rock. It

rock. It has very large crystals, has very small crystals, so it is fine-
so it is coarse-grained. It is grained. It is made of dark-colored
made mostly of light-colored minerals.
minerals.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rock forms when one kind of rock
changes into another kind of rock because of heat or
pressure. Most metamorphic rocks form deep within
Earth’s crust. At these depths, temperature and pressure
can be much higher than they are at Earth’s surface.
Metamorphic rocks can be put in groups based on how
the minerals in them are related. In foliated metamorphic
rocks, the minerals form bands or stripes within the rock.
In nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, the minerals do not
form bands or stripes. The picture at the top of the next
page shows examples of metamorphic rocks.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 65 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

TAKE A LOOK
7. Explain Why is marble
considered a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock?
Gneiss is a kind of metamorphic rock. Marble is a kind of metamorphic
The minerals form stripes in the rock, rock. The minerals do not form
so it is a foliated metamorphic rock. stripes in the rock, so it is a
nonfoliated metamorphic rock.

How Do Rocks Change from One Kind to

Another?
There are many ways that rocks can change. The
rock cycle is made up of all of the ways that rocks can
change from one kind to another. Some of the processes
that can change the form of a rock are melting, cooling,
heating, increasing pressure, weathering, and erosion.
Weathering happens when rock is broken into smaller
pieces. Erosion happens when sediment is moved from
READING CHECK one place to another.
8. Identify Give three ways
that rock can change from HOW ROCK MOVES THROUGH THE ROCK CYCLE
one form to another. Rocks can take many different paths through the rock
cycle. The path that a rock takes depends on the forces
that act on the rock. These forces change, depending on
where the rock is located. For example, metamorphic
rock usually forms deep beneath Earth’s surface, where
pressure and temperature are high.
Magma
Cooling Melting

Melting
Igneous Metamorphic
rock rock
Heat and
pressure
TAKE A LOOK Heat and
9. Use Models Find two Weathering pressure
and erosion Weathering
paths through the rock cycle
and erosion
that lead from sedimentary
rock to igneous rock. Use
a colored pen or marker Sediment
to trace both paths on the Sedimentary
Pressure
rock
figure.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 66 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

How Does Water Move Through Earth’s

Systems?
The water cycle is the constant movement of water Critical Thinking
between the atmosphere, the land, and the oceans. Most 10. Predict Consequences
of the energy that drives the water cycle comes from the Imagine that evaporation
sun. For example, the sun’s energy can turn liquid water stopped happening on Earth.
What could happen to the
in the oceans into water vapor, a gas that enters the water cycle? Explain your
atmosphere. The figure below shows some of the ways answer.
that water moves through the water cycle.

Condensation happens when

Precipitation is rain, snow, sleet, or hail water vapor cools and changes
that falls from clouds to Earth's surface. into drops of liquid water. The
Most precipitation falls into the ocean. water drops form clouds in the
It never touches the land. atmosphere.

Evaporation happens
when liquid water on
Earth's surface changes
into water vapor. Energy
from the sun makes
water evaporate.

Groundwater is water
Transpiration
happens when
Say It
that flows under the
Runoff is water that plants give off Discuss In a small group,
flows over the land into
ground. Gravity can water vapor talk about the ways that
streams and rivers. Most
make water that falls from tiny holes in precipitation, runoff, and
of the water ends up
on the land move into their leaves.
in the oceans. groundwater can affect
rocks underground.
people.

How Do Elements Move Through Earth’s

Systems?
Many chemical elements, such as carbon, nitrogen,
and phosphorus, are important for life on Earth. These
elements are constantly moving from one place to
another. They move between living things and nonliving
things through many different processes.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 67 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is an important part of many of the chemicals
CALIFORNIA that make up living things. However, carbon is not found
STANDARDS CHECK
only in living things. It is also found in the atmosphere,
6.5.b Students know matter is
transferred over time from one the land, and water. The carbon cycle is the way that
organism to others in the food
web and between organisms
carbon moves between living things and nonliving things.
and the physical environment. Some parts of the carbon cycle happen fairly quickly.
Word Help: transfer For example, plants can turn carbon dioxide from the
to carry or cause to pass atmosphere into food. Other organisms get food from
from one thing to another plants. When plants and other organisms break down the
11. Identify Give one food, the carbon dioxide moves back into the atmosphere.
way that carbon can move
This process takes as little as a day or two.
from the atmosphere into
living things. Give one In contrast, some parts of the carbon cycle happen
way that carbon can move very slowly. For example, dead plants and tiny sea
from living things into the creatures can be buried by sediment before they decay.
atmosphere?
After millions of years, the remains can turn into fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. The carbon in the
organisms is stored in the fossil fuels. People can burn
fossil fuels for energy. When people burn the fossil fuels,
the carbon in them moves back into the environment.

Carbon dioxide in the

air can move as the
Humans burn fossil fuels
air moves.
for energy. The fossil fuels
give off carbon dioxide
when they burn.

Plants can turn

Plants give off
carbon dioxide in
carbon dioxide
the air into food.
when they respire.
Animals get carbon in the
form of food from plants.
They also give off carbon
dioxide when they breathe.

TAKE A LOOK
12. Explain How does the When organisms die, most of the
carbon in fossil fuels get into carbon in their bodies is turned into
Carbon dioxide can dissolve in
the atmosphere? carbon dioxide. Sometimes, however,
ocean water. It can be given off
the organisms are buried. The carbon
when the water warms up.
in their bodies can turn into fossil
fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 68 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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SECTION 4 The Cycling of Matter continued

NITROGEN CYCLE
The movement of nitrogen through the Earth system
is called the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen can be found in
several different forms. In the atmosphere, nitrogen is
mainly found as a gas. However, most living things cannot
use nitrogen gas as a nutrient. Special bacteria change
the nitrogen gas into a form of nitrogen that plants can
use. Other organisms get their nitrogen from plants.
When organisms die, the nitrogen in them can be
returned to the environment. Bacteria can change the
nitrogen in dead organisms back into nitrogen gas. The
nitrogen gas then can move into the atmosphere. READING CHECK

Bacteria can change nitrogen 13. Explain Why are

in soils into nitrogen gas. bacteria important in the
nitrogen cycle? Give two
reasons.

Animals get nitrogen

when they eat plants.

Bacteria and fungi break down dead organisms. The Bacteria in soils change nitrogen gas
nitrogen in the dead organisms moves into the soil. into a form that plants can use.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Like carbon and nitrogen, phosphorus is found in
living things. Phosphorus is also found in soil, rock, and
water. Plant roots can take up phosphorus from the soil.
Animals take in phosphorus when they eat the plants.
When the animals and plants die, the phosphorus in their
bodies moves back into the soil.

OTHER CYCLES IN NATURE

Critical Thinking
14. Summarize Why does
Rock, water, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus move matter on Earth have to be
through the Earth in cycles. Many other forms of matter recycled in order for living
also move in cycles through Earth’s systems. In fact, things to survive?
almost all of the elements that living things need to
survive are cycled through Earth’s systems. When living
things die, every element in their bodies is recycled.
Every cycle in nature is connected to every other
cycle. For example, water can carry nitrogen and carbon
through the environment. Living things are also important
in keeping the cycles moving.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 69 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
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Section 4 Review 6.4.a, 6.5.a, 6.5.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
carbon cycle the movement of carbon from the rock cycle the series of processes in which rock
nonliving environment into living things and forms, changes from one type to another,
back is destroyed, and forms again by geologic
nitrogen cycle the process in which nitrogen processes
circulates among the air, soil, water, plants, water cycle the continuous movement of water
and animals in an ecosystem between the atmosphere, the land, and the
oceans

1. Describe How does water move from the oceans into groundwater? Use some of
the steps in the water cycle in your answer.

2. Identify What is the main feature that scientists use to put rocks into three main
groups?

3. Identify Relationships Give two ways that human beings contribute to the carbon
cycle.

4. Summarize What are the steps in the nitrogen cycle?

5. Apply Concepts Give three reasons why living things are important in moving
matter through cycles.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 70 Earth’s Systems and Cycles
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 4 Material Resources

SECTION

1 Natural Resources
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.6.b
these questions:
• What is the difference between a renewable resource
and a nonrenewable resource?
• How can you protect natural resources?

What Are Earth’s Resources?

Earth provides what you need to survive. You breathe STUDY TIP
air from Earth’s atmosphere. You drink water from Summarize After you
Earth’s rivers, lakes, and aquifers. You eat food from read this section, make a
chart giving the definitions
Earth’s plants and animals. of renewable and
A natural resource is any material from Earth that is nonrenewable resources.
used by people. Air, soil, fresh water, petroleum, rocks, In the chart, include two
minerals, forests, and wildlife are examples of natural examples of each kind of
resource.
resources. The figure below shows some examples of
natural resources.
Examples of Natural Resources READING CHECK
1. Define In your own
words, write a definition of
natural resource.

Gasoline and plastic

are both made from
oil that is pumped out
of Earth’s crust. These windmills produce
electricity from the energy
This pile of lumber in wind. The energy in wind
is made of wood, comes mainly from the sun.
which comes from
trees.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify Give two
examples of natural
resources that are not
shown in the figure.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 71 Material Resources
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SECTION 1 Natural Resources continued

What Types of Resources Exist on Earth?

Natural resources can be grouped based on how
fast they can be replaced. Some natural resources are
nonrenewable. Others are renewable.

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
Some resources, such as coal, petroleum, and natural
gas, take millions of years to form. A nonrenewable
resource is a resource that is used much faster than it
can be replaced. Renew means “to begin again.” When
nonrenewable resources are used up, people can no
READING CHECK longer use them.
3. Define What is a
nonrenewable resource? RENEWABLE RESOURCES
Some natural resources, such as trees and fresh water,
can grow or be replaced quickly. A renewable resource
is a natural resource that can be replaced as fast as it is
used.
Many renewable resources are only renewable if
people do not use them too fast. For example, wood is
usually considered a renewable resource. However, if
people cut down trees faster than the trees can grow
back, wood is no longer a renewable resource. Some
renewable resources, such as the sun, will never be used
up, no matter how fast people use them.

TAKE A LOOK
4. Explain Describe how
some renewable resources
can become nonrenewable
resources.

Fresh water and trees are both renewable resources. However, they can be used up
if people use them too quickly.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 72 Material Resources
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SECTION 1 Natural Resources continued

How Can We Protect Natural Resources?

Whether the natural resources you use are renewable
or nonrenewable, you should be careful how you use Critical Thinking
them. In order to conserve natural resources, you should 5. Explain Why is it
important to conserve all
try to use them only when you have to. For example, natural resources, even
leaving the water running while you are brushing your if they are renewable
teeth wastes clean water. Turning the water off while you resources?
brush your teeth saves water so that it can be used in the
future.
The energy we use to heat our homes, drive our cars,
and run our computers comes from natural resources.
Most of these resources are nonrenewable. If we use
too much energy now, we might use up these resources.
Therefore, reducing the amount of energy you use can
help to conserve natural resources. You can conserve
energy by being careful to use it only when you need to.
The table shows some ways you can conserve energy.
Instead of… You can…
…leaving the lights on all the time …turn them off when you’re not in
the room
…running the washing machine …run it only when it is full
when it is only half full
…using a car to travel everywhere …walk, ride a bike, or use public
transportation when you can
TAKE A LOOK
6. Brainstorm Fill in the
blank spaces in the table
with some other ways
you can conserve natural
resources.
Recycling is another important way that you can help
to conserve natural resources. Recycling means using
things that have been thrown away to make new objects.
Fewer natural resources are used to make objects
READING CHECK
from recycled materials than from materials that aren’t
7. Identify How does
recycled. Recycling also helps to conserve energy. For recycling conserve natural
example, it takes less energy to recycle an aluminum can resources?
than to make a new one.
Conserving resources also means taking care of them
even when you are not using them. For example, it is
important to keep our drinking water clean. Polluted
water can harm the living things, including humans, that
need water in order to live.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 73 Material Resources
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
natural resource any natural material that is recycling the process of recovering valuable or
used by humans, such as water, petroleum, useful materials from waste or scrap
minerals, forests, and animals Wordwise The prefix re- means “again.” The
nonrenewable resource a resource that forms root cycl means “circle” or “wheel.”
at a rate that is much slower than the rate at renewable resource a natural resource that
which the resource is consumed can be replaced at the same rate at which the
resource is consumed

1. Identify What is the difference between a renewable resource and a

nonrenewable resource?

2. List Give four ways to conserve natural resources.

3. Explain Why is wood usually considered a renewable resource? When would it be

considered a nonrenewable resource?

4. Describe What does it mean to conserve natural resources?

5. Explain Why are coal, oil, and natural gas considered nonrenewable resources,
even though they come from living things that can reproduce?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 74 Material Resources
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 4 Material Resources

SECTION

2 Rock and Mineral Resources

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.6.b, 6.6.c
these questions:
• What are minerals?
• What are rocks?
• How are rock and mineral resources used?

How Are Rocks Different from Minerals?

A mineral is a naturally formed, inorganic solid that STUDY TIP
forms crystals and is always made of the same elements. Describe After you read
Let’s look at each part of this definition more closely. this section, make a chart
showing the uses of different
rock and mineral resources.
• Minerals form naturally. For example, most diamonds
form far underground. These diamonds are minerals.
However, some diamonds are made by people. These
diamonds are not minerals, because they did not form
naturally.
• Minerals are solids. For example, frozen water, or ice,
in a glacier is considered a mineral because it is solid.
However, liquid water in a stream is not a mineral. READING CHECK
• Minerals form by inorganic processes. In other words, 1. Explain Why is the salt
they are not formed from living things. For example, coal dissolved in ocean water not
is not a mineral because it forms from the remains of considered a mineral?
plants.
• Minerals are crystals. Crystals are solids whose particles
are lined up in a repeating pattern. For example, volcanic
glass is not a mineral because the particles in it are not
lined up in a pattern.
• Minerals are always made of the same elements. For
example, every sample of the mineral fluorite contains
the same elements: calcium and fluorine. In many cases,
the elements in minerals are valuable natural resources.
Critical Thinking
2. Compare How are rocks
different from minerals?
A rock is a natural material that makes up most of the
solid part of Earth. Most rocks are made from one or more
minerals. Rocks can also be made from solid materials that
are not minerals. For example, a rock can contain coal or
volcanic glass, neither of which are minerals.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 75 Material Resources
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SECTION 2 Rock and Mineral Resources continued

How Do Minerals Form?

Minerals form in many different ways. The table below
shows five ways that minerals can form.
TAKE A LOOK Process Description Examples of
3. Identify Give three minerals that
minerals that form by form this way
metamorphism and three Evaporation When a body of salt water dries up, gypsum, halite
minerals that form by minerals are left behind.
reaction. Metamorphism High temperatures and pressures deep garnet, graphite,
Metamorphism: underground can cause the minerals in magnetite, talc
rock to change into different minerals.
Deposition When water carries dissolved materials calcite,
into lakes and seas, minerals form and dolomite
sink to the bottom.
Reaction Water underground can be heated by gold, copper,
Reaction: hot rock. The hot water can dissolve sulfur, pyrite,
some minerals and deposit other galena
minerals in their place.
Cooling Melted rock can cool slowly under mica, feldspar,
Earth’s surface. As the melted rock quartz
cools, minerals form.

How Are Minerals Removed from Earth?

People mine many kinds of rocks and minerals from
the ground and make them into objects we need. Some
kinds of rocks and minerals have more useful materials
in them than others. An ore is a rock or mineral that
contains enough useful materials for it to be mined at a
profit.
There are two ways of removing ores from Earth:
surface mining and subsurface mining. The type of
mining that people use depends on how close the ore is
READING CHECK to the surface.
4. Explain What determines
the type of mining that SURFACE MINING
people use to remove an ore People use surface mining to remove ores that are
from Earth’s crust? near Earth’s surface. Open-pit mining is used to remove
gold and copper from the ground. Explosives break up
the overlying rock and ore. Then, trucks haul the ore
from the mine to a processing plant.
Quarries are open mines that are used to remove
sand, gravel, and crushed rock. The layers of rock near
the surface are removed and used to make buildings and
roads.
Strip mines are often used to mine coal. The coal is
removed in large pieces. These pieces are called strips.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 76 Material Resources
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SECTION 2 Rock and Mineral Resources continued

SUBSURFACE MINING
People use subsurface mining to remove ores that are
deep underground. Iron, coal, and salt can be mined in
subsurface mines. READING CHECK
5. List Give three resources
that can be mined using
subsurface mining.

)NSUBSURFACEMINING
TUNNELSAREDUGINTOTHE
GROUND3OMEOFTHE
TUNNELSAREHORIZONTAL

3OMESUBSURFACE MINING
#OALBEDS
TUNNELSAREDUGATANANGLE

TAKE A LOOK
6. Identify What are three
6ERTICALTUNNELSAREUSEDTOGETTO kinds of tunnels used in
ORETHATISVERYFARBELOWTHEGROUND subsurface mining?
4HEYAREALSOUSEDTOCONNECTOTHER
TUNNELSWITHINTHEMINE

RESPONSIBLE MINING
Mining can help us get the resources we need, but it
can also create problems. Mining may destroy or harm
the places where plants and animals live. The wastes
from mining can be poisonous. They can pollute water. READING CHECK
One way to reduce these problems is to return the land 7. Describe What are two
to its original state after mining is finished. This is called problems with mining?
reclamation. Since the mid-1970s, laws have required
the reclamation of land used for mining. Another way
to reduce the problems with mining is to use less of the
resources that are mined.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 77 Material Resources
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SECTION 2 Rock and Mineral Resources continued

CALIFORNIA What Are Rocks and Minerals Used For?

STANDARDS CHECK The table shows how some common minerals are
6.6.c Students know the natu- used.
ral origin of the materials used
to make common objects.

8. Identify Give two uses Mineral Uses Mineral Uses

for the mineral silver and Copper electrical wire, Gypsum wallboard, plaster,
two uses for the mineral plumbing, coins cement
bauxite. Diamond jewelry, cutting tools, Halite table salt, road salt,
Silver: drill bits water softener
Galena lead in batteries, Quartz glass, silicon for
ammunition computer chips
Bauxite aluminum cans, foil, Silver photography,
Bauxite: appliances, utensils electronic products,
jewelry
Gold jewelry, computers, Sphalerite zinc for jet aircraft,
spacecraft, dentistry paints

METALS
Many minerals contain metals. Many of the features
of metals make them useful in aircraft, automobiles,
computers, and spacecraft. Some of these features are
listed below.
• Metals have shiny surfaces.
• Light cannot pass through metals.
• Heat and electricity can pass through metals easily.
• Metals can be rolled into sheets or stretched into wires.
Some metals react easily with air and water. For
example, iron can react with oxygen in the air to produce
rust. Other metals do not react very easily. For example,
gold does not react with very many chemicals. Therefore,
it is used in many spacecraft.

NONMETALS
Many minerals also contain nonmetals. Some
important features of nonmetals are listed below.
Say It • Nonmetals have shiny or dull surfaces.
Discuss In a small group, • Light can pass through some kinds of nonmetals.
talk about some of the ways • Heat and electricity cannot pass through nonmetals easily.
that metals and nonmetals
are used in everyday objects.
Nonmetals are very important. For example, the
mineral calcite is used to make cement. Sand is made
of small pieces of rocks and minerals. It contains silica,
which is used to make computer chips and glass.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 78 Material Resources
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Section 2 Review 6.6.b, 6.6.c

SECTION VOCABULARY
mineral a naturally formed, inorganic solid that ore a natural material whose concentration of
has a definite chemical structure economically valuable minerals is high enough
for the material to be mined profitably

1. Identify What are five features of minerals?

2. Describe Fill in the spaces in the table to describe metals and nonmetals.

Type of material Main features Common objects made

from it
Metal has shiny surfaces
does not transmit light
transmits heat and electricity easily
can be rolled into sheets or
stretched into wires
Nonmetal

3. List What are three ways minerals can form?

4. Apply Concepts Are minerals renewable resources or nonrenewable resources?

Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 79 Material Resources
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CHAPTER 4 Material Resources

SECTION

3 Using Material Resources

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.6.b, 6.6.c
these questions:
• What resources come from Earth?
• What resources come from living things?
• How can we use resources wisely?

What Resources Come from Earth?

STUDY TIP Earth’s resources are found in Earth’s atmosphere,
Ask Questions As you read crust, and oceans. They also come from the organisms
this section, write down any that live on Earth. Earth’s resources can be divided into
questions that you think
of. Then, talk about your
two categories: energy resources and material resources.
questions with the class. Energy resources are natural resources that humans
use to produce energy. Material resources are natural
resources that humans eat, drink, or use to make objects.

RESOURCES FROM THE ATMOSPHERE

The air around us contains oxygen gas, which almost all
living things need to survive. Other valuable resources are
READING CHECK
also found in Earth’s atmosphere. For example, nitrogen
gas in the atmosphere is used to make fertilizer. Argon gas
1. Identify Give two
resources that are found in is used in light bulbs.
Earth’s atmosphere.
ROCK AND MINERAL RESOURCES
Rocks and minerals are used to make many of the
objects that we use every day. The table below shows
some of the ways that people use different minerals.
TAKE A LOOK
2. Infer What is the most
likely reason that copper Mineral Uses
and platinum are used in Iron making steel; cars and other vehicles; cooking utensils
electrical wires, but salt is Aluminum cars, buildings, and aircraft; food and drink containers
not?
Copper electrical wires; computers; money
Platinum jewelry; cars and other vehicles; electrical wires
Calcite cement; fertilizer; building stone
Salt food; clearing ice from roads; source of the element chlorine

The figure on the top of the next page shows how

people get salt out of sea water.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 80 Material Resources
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SECTION 3 Using Material Resources continued

Ocean water has salt in it. Most

of the salt is the chemical sodium
chloride. In its solid form, sodium
chloride forms the mineral halite.

People pump ocean water into

large ponds. The water evaporates.
The salt is left behind as crystals.

Math Focus
3. Calculate One kilogram
of ocean water has about
35 g of salt in it. One pound
of salt has a mass of about
455 g. How many kilograms
of ocean water would have
to evaporate to produce one
pound of salt?
The salt is used for flavoring food and to keep food from
going bad. It can also be used to help melt ice on roads.

PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a mixture of liquid chemicals that is
found in Earth’s crust. You may know that gasoline and
other fuels are made from petroleum. Petroleum can also
be used to make many other products, such as tar, wax,
and plastic. READING CHECK
4. Identify List three ways
What Resources Come from Living Things? that people use petroleum
Many of the products we use are made with resources products in their everyday
lives.
from Earth. Many other products are made with resources
from living things.

PLANT RESOURCES
People use resources from plants in many different
ways. Farming provides us with plants for food and drinks,
and also with food for animals. Cotton produces fibers that
can be woven into cloth or braided into ropes or baskets.
Trees supply fruit and nut crops, as well as wood for
lumber, paper, and fuel. The sap of some trees can be used
to make products such as rubber and maple syrup.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 81 Material Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Material Resources continued

ANIMAL RESOURCES
CALIFORNIA People also use resources from animals. Animals
STANDARDS CHECK provide transportation for people and for cargo. They help
6.6.c Students know the natural farmers till the soil and plant crops. People use animals for
origin of the materials used to
make common objects. food and clothing. Fur from sheep, goats, and llamas can
5. Identify Give three be made into fabric. The skin from some animals can be
everyday objects that are used for leather. Animal wastes can be used for fertilizer
made from plant resources, and cooking fuel.
and three everyday objects
that are made from animal Resources from Plants and Animals
resources.
Wool comes from sheep. People use
Plant Resources: the wool from sheep to make clothing.

Animal Resources:

Cotton comes from a

plant. People use cotton
to make clothing.

What Are the Costs of Material Resources?

Using natural resources has many costs. Most natural
resources must be removed from rock, water, or the air
before they can be used. Then, the resources have to be
made into the products we need. The products have to be
shipped from place to place. Plant and animal resources
may need special care. Using natural resources can harm
READING CHECK the environment.
6. Describe What are
two costs related to using
ECONOMIC COSTS
material resources?
It costs money to get natural resources from Earth and
from living things. Companies will only make a product if
they can sell it for more than it costs them to make it. If
it becomes too expensive to get a natural resource for a
product, a cheaper resource must be used instead.
The figure on the next page shows how trees can be
made into paper. Each step costs money. For example,
companies have to pay people to do the work in each step.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 82 Material Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Material Resources continued

People cut
The paper can be down trees to

Say It
made into many get wood. Wood
different products. is a material
resource.
Discuss In a small group,
talk about ways that the costs
of using material resources
can be reduced.

Paper can be
recycled into
pulp. The pulp
can be used
The wood from
the cut trees is cut TAKE A LOOK
to make fresh into small chips. 7. Explain How does
paper without recycling paper reduce the
cutting down
more trees.
cost of using some material
resources?

The pulp is
spread out,
pressed, and
dried to form paper.
The paper is stored in
large rolls. The wood chips are
ground and mixed with
water and other materials.
This forms a pulp.

ENVIRONMENTAL COSTS
Often, the price of an item in a store is only based on Critical Thinking
how much money it costs to make the item. However, using 8. Analyze Relationships
natural resources also has environmental costs. For example, Why does protecting the
environment sometimes
trees are cut down to make paper. The trees may come from cause products to cost more
old-growth forests. Cutting down trees can harm the places money?
where other plants and animals live. The machines that are
used to make the paper can pollute the air and water.
Some communities have passed laws that require
companies to protect the environment. These laws can
require that companies produce less pollution. They may also
require companies to restore the land used for mining or to
replant trees that were cut down.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 83 Material Resources
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.6.b, 6.6.c

SECTION VOCABULARY
material resource a natural resource that petroleum a liquid mixture of complex
humans use to make objects or to consume as hydrocarbon compounds; used widely as a
food and drink fuel source
Wordwise The root petr means “rock.”
Another example is petrify.

1. Identify Give two resources that come from the atmosphere and describe how
each is used.

2. Describe How is petroleum used as a material resource?

3. List Give four rock or mineral resources and explain how each is used.

4. Describe What are three environmental costs of producing paper?

5. Identify Give two examples of renewable material resources and two examples of
nonrenewable material resources.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 84 Material Resources
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 5 Energy Resources

SECTION

1 Fossil Fuels
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.3.b, 6.6.a, 6.6.b
these questions:
• What are the different kinds of fossil fuels?
• How do fossil fuels form?
• What are the problems with using fossil fuels?

What Are Fossil Fuels?

How do plants and animals that lived hundreds of STUDY TIP
millions of years ago affect your life today? If you turned Compare In your notebook,
on the lights or traveled to school in a car or bus, you make a table to show the
similarities and differences
probably used some of the energy from plants and between different kinds of
animals that lived long ago. fossil fuels.
Energy resources are natural resources that people use
to produce energy, such as heat and electricity. Most of the
energy we use comes from fossil fuels. A fossil fuel is an
energy resource made from the remains of plants and tiny
animals that lived long ago. The different kinds of fossil
fuels are petroleum, coal, and natural gas. READING CHECK
Fossil fuels are an important part of our everyday life. 1. Identify Where do we get
When fossil fuels burn, they release a lot of heat energy. most of the energy we use?
Power plants use the energy to produce the electricity we
use. Cars use the energy to move.
However, there are also some problems with using fos-
sil fuels. Fossil fuels are nonrenewable, which means that
they cannot be replaced once they have been used. Also,
when they burn, they release pollution.
#OALCOMESFROMAREASTHAT
WERESWAMPSANDBOGS

TAKE A LOOK
0ETROLEUM 2. Describe In general,
.ATURALGAS
where are the natural gas
#OAL
deposits in the United States?
0ETROLEUMCOMESFROM
AREASTHATWEREOCEANS
MILLIONSOFYEARSAGO

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 85 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Fossil Fuels continued

What Is Natural Gas?

A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains the ele-
ments carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Natural gas is a
mixture of hydrocarbons that are in the form of gases.
Natural gas includes methane, propane, and butane,
which can be separated from one another.
Most natural gas is used for heating. Your home may
be heated by natural gas. Your kitchen stove might run on
natural gas. Some natural gas is used for creating electrical
READING CHECK energy, and some cars are able to run on natural gas, too.
3. Identify What is most
natural gas used for? HOW NATURAL GAS FORMS
When tiny sea creatures die, their remains settle to
the ocean floor and are buried in sediment. The sediment
slowly becomes rock. Over millions of years, the remains
of the sea creatures turn into natural gas.
The formation of natural gas is always happening.
Some of the sea life that dies today will become natural
gas millions of years from now.

'AS
0ETROLEUM

2ESERVOIRROCKS
HOLDNATURALGASAND
PETROLEUM

TAKE A LOOK )MPERMEABLEROCKSACT

LIKEATRAPTHATPETROLEUM
4. Infer Is reservoir rock ANDNATURALGASCANNOT
permeable or impermeable? MOVETHROUGH
Explain your answer.

0ERMEABLEROCKSARE
ROCKSTHATNATURALGAS
ANDPETROLEUMCAN
MOVETHROUGH

PROBLEMS WITH NATURAL GAS

Natural gas can be dangerous because it burns very
easily. It can cause fires and explosions. Like other fos-
sil fuels, natural gas causes pollution when it burns.
However, it does not cause as much pollution as other
fossil fuels.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 86 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Fossil Fuels continued

What Is Petroleum?
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons that are
in the form of liquids. It is also known as crude oil. At
a refinery, petroleum is separated into many different
products, including gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel
fuel, and fuel oil. READING CHECK
Petroleum products provide more than 40% of the 5. Describe What form is
world’s energy, including fuel for airplanes, trains, boats, petroleum found in naturally?
ships, and cars. Petroleum is so valuable that it is often
called “black gold.”

HOW PETROLEUM FORMS

Petroleum forms the same way natural gas does. Tiny
sea creatures die and then get buried in sediment, which
turns into rock. The organisms eventually become petro-
leum or natural gas, which is stored in permeable rock
within Earth’s crust.

PROBLEMS WITH PETROLEUM

Petroleum can be harmful to animals and their envi-
ronment. For example, in June 2000, the carrier ship
Treasure sank off the coast of South Africa and spilled
more than 400 tons of oil into the ocean. The oil covered
penguins and other sea creatures, making it hard for
them to swim, breathe, and eat.

Math Focus
6. Make a Graph Use the
information below to show
where the world’s crude oil
comes from.
Middle East: 66%
North America and South
America: 15%
Europe and Asia: 12%
Africa: 7%

Burning petroleum causes smog. Smog is a brownish

haze that forms when sunlight reacts with pollution in the
air. Smog can make it hard for people to breathe. Many
cities in the world have problems with smog.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 87 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Fossil Fuels continued

What Is Coal?
Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is made of partly
decayed plant material. Coal was once the main source
of energy in the United States. Like other fossil fuels,
coal releases heat when it is burned. Many people used
to burn coal in stoves to heat their homes. Trains in the
1800s and 1900s were powered by coal-burning steam
locomotives. Coal is now used in power plants to make
electricity.

HOW COAL FORMS

When swamp plants die, they sink to the bottom of the
swamp. If they do not decay completely, coal can start to
form. Coal forms in several different stages.

TAKE A LOOK
7. Identify Name the three Stage 1: Formation of Peat
Dead swamp plants that have not decayed can turn into
types of coal. peat, a crumbly brown material made mostly of plant
material and water. Dried peat is about 60% carbon. In
some parts of the world, peat is dried and burned for
fuel. Peat is not coal, but it can turn into coal.

Stage 2: Formation of Lignite

If sediment buries the peat, pressure and temperature
increase. The peat slowly changes into a type of coal
called lignite. Lignite coal is harder than peat. Lignite is
about 70% carbon.

Stage 3: Formation of Bituminous Coal

If more sediment is added, pressure and temperature
force more water and gases out of the lignite. Lignite
slowly changes into bituminous coal. Bituminous coal is
about 80% carbon.

TAKE A LOOK
8. Identify Which kind Stage 4: Formation of Anthracite
of coal contains the most If more sediment accumulates, temperature and pressure
continue to increase. Bituminous coal slowly changes
carbon? into anthracite. Anthracite coal is the hardest type of
coal. Anthracite coal is about 90% carbon.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 88 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Fossil Fuels continued

PROBLEMS WITH COAL

Mining coal can create environmental problems. When
coal is mined from Earth’s surface, people remove the
layers of soil above the coal. This can harm the plants
that need soil to grow and the animals that need soil for
shelter. If the land is not restored after mining, wildlife
habitats can be destroyed for years. CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
Coal that is on Earth’s surface can cause pollution.
8.3.b Students know different
Water that flows through coal can pick up poisonous met- natural energy and material
als. That water can then flow into streams and lakes and resources, including air, soil,
rocks, minerals, petroleum, fresh
pollute water supplies. water, wildlife, and forests, and
When coal is burned without pollution controls, sulfur know how to classify them as
renewable or nonrenewable.
dioxide is released. Sulfur dioxide can combine with the
water in the air to produce sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid is Word Help: energy
what makes things happen
one of the acids in acid precipitation. Acid precipitation
is rain, sleet, or snow that has a high concentration of Word Help: resource
acids, often because of air pollutants. Acid precipitation anything that can be used
to take care of a need
is also called “acid rain.” Acid precipitation can harm
wildlife, plants, and buildings. 9. Classify Are fossil
fuels renewable or
nonrenewable resources?
Explain your answer.

Critical Thinking
10. Infer What do you think
is the reason that fossil fuels
In 1935, this statue had not been By 1994, acid precipitation had are still used today, even
damaged by acid precipitation. caused serious damage to the
statue.
though they create many
environmental problems?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 89 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.3.b, 6.6.a, 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
acid precipitation rain, sleet, or snow that has a natural gas a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons
high concentration of acids located under the surface of Earth, often near
coal a fossil fuel that forms underground from petroleum deposits; used as a fuel
partially decomposed plant material petroleum a liquid mixture of complex hydrocarbon
fossil fuel a nonrenewable energy resource compounds; used widely as a fuel source
formed from the remains of organisms that Wordwise The root petr means “rock.”
lived long ago; examples include oil, coal, and Another example is petrify.
natural gas smog photochemical haze that forms when sunlight
acts on industrial pollutants and burning fuels

1. Compare How are petroleum and natural gas different?

2. Compare Fill in the table to compare the different kinds of fossil fuels.

Kind of fossil fuel What it is How it forms

Coal

a mixture of gases
containing carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen

3. Summarize What are some of the problems with using fossil fuels for energy?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 90 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 5 Energy Resources

SECTION

2 Alternative Energy
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.3.b, 6.6.a, 6.6.b
these questions:
• What are some kinds of alternative energy?
• What are the benefits of alternative energy?
• What are the problems with alternative energy?

What Is Alternative Energy?

What would your life be like if you couldn’t turn on STUDY TIP
the lights, microwave your dinner, take a hot shower, or Compare and Contrast In
ride the bus to school? We get most of the energy we use your notebook, make a
chart to show each kind of
for heating and electricity from fossil fuels. However, fos- alternative energy source and
sil fuels can be harmful to the environment and to living its benefits and problems.
things. In addition, they are nonrenewable resources, so
we cannot replace them when they are used up.
Many scientists are trying to find alternative energy
sources. Alternative energy sources are sources of energy
that are not fossil fuels. Some sources can be converted
easily into usable energy. Others are not as easy to use.

What Is Nuclear Energy?

One kind of alternative energy source is nuclear energy.
Nuclear energy is the energy that is released when atoms
come together or break apart. Nuclear energy can be
obtained in two main ways: fission and fusion. READING CHECK
1. List What are the two
FISSION ways in which nuclear energy
Fission happens when an atom splits into two or more is produced?
lighter atoms. Fission releases a large amount of energy.
This energy can be used to generate electricity. All
nuclear power that people use is generated by fission.
$URINGNUCLEARFISSIONANEUTRON
COLLIDESWITHAURANIUM  .EUTRON !FTERCOLLIDINGWITHA
ATOM4HEURANIUMISTHEFUEL NEUTRONTHEURANIUM
FORTHEREACTION "ARIUM ATOM ATOMSPLITSINTOTWO

TAKE A LOOK
SMALLERATOMSCALLED
FISSIONPRODUCTSAND
TWOORMORENEUTRONS
!LARGEAMOUNTOF 2. Identify What are the
ENERGYISRELEASED fission products in the figure?
.EUTRON
%.%2'9

5RANIUM ATOM +RYPTON ATOM

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 91 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Alternative Energy continued

FISSION’S BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

One benefit of fission is that it does not cause air pol-
lution. In addition, mining the fuel for nuclear power is
less harmful to the environment than mining other energy
READING CHECK sources, such as coal.
3. Explain Why is nuclear
However, nuclear power has several problems. The
energy called a “clean” fission products created in nuclear power plants are
energy source? dangerous. They must be stored for thousands of years.
Nuclear fission plants can release harmful radiation into
the environment. Also, nuclear power plants must release
extra heat from the fission reaction. This extra heat is
not used to make electricity. The extra heat can harm the
environment.

FUSION
Fusion happens when two or more atoms join to form
a heavier atom. This process occurs naturally in the sun.
Fusion releases a lot of energy.

4HETWOHYDROGENATOMS
JOINTOFORMAHELIUM
ATOM!LARGEAMOUNTOF
(YDROGEN ATOM ENERGYISRELEASED
$URINGNUCLEAR .EUTRON
FUSIONATOMSOFTWO
(ELIUM 
FORMSOFHYDROGEN
NUCLEUS
ATOM
COLLIDEWITHEACH
TAKE A LOOK OTHER4HESEFORMSOF
HYDROGENARETHEFUEL
0ROTON %.%2'9
4. Identify How many FORTHEREACTION
protons and how many
neutrons are there in the
helium-4 nucleus?
(YDROGEN ATOM .EUTRON

FUSION’S BENEFITS AND PROBLEMS

Fusion has two main benefits. First, fusion does not
create a lot of dangerous wastes. Second, the fuels used
in fusion are renewable.
The main problem with fusion is that it can take place
only at high temperatures. The reaction is difficult to
READING CHECK
control and keep going. Right now, people cannot control
5. Describe What is the
main problem with fusion?
fusion reactions or use them to create usable energy.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 92 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Alternative Energy continued

How Can Wind Provide Electricity?

Wind is air that is moving. Moving air contains energy. Critical Thinking
People can use windmills to turn the energy in wind into 6. Infer In most cases,
electricity. The electricity that is produced by windmills people use a large number
of windmills to create
is called wind power. Large groups of windmills can electricity. What do you
make a lot of electricity. think is the reason a lot of
Like all energy sources, wind power has benefits and windmills are used, instead
of just one or two?
problems. Since the wind can’t be used up, wind energy
is renewable. Wind power does not cause air pollution.
However, in many areas, the wind isn’t strong or regular
enough to generate enough electricity for people to use.

This pickup truck

shows how large
the windmills are.

TAKE A LOOK
7. Explain Based on what
you see in the figure, what
do you think is the reason
windmills are not used in
cities or other crowded areas?

These windmills near Livermore, California, produce electricity.

What Are Fuel Cells?

What powers a car? You probably thought of gasoline.
But not all cars are powered by gasoline. Some cars are
powered by fuel cells. Fuel cells change chemical energy
into electrical power. The chemical energy is released
when hydrogen and oxygen react to form water.
Fuel cells have been used in space travel since the
1960s. They have provided space crews with electrical
energy and drinking water. Today, fuel cells are used to
create electrical energy in some buildings and ships. READING CHECK
The only waste product of fuel cells is water, so they do 8. Explain How could
not create pollution. Fuel cells are also more efficient than fuel cells give space crews
engines that use gasoline. However, not very many cars today electricity and water?

use fuel cells. The hydrogen and oxygen used in fuel cells can
be expensive to make and to store. Many people hope that
we will be able to use fuel cells to power cars in the future.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 93 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Alternative Energy continued

How Can We Use Sunlight for Power?

Say It Most forms of energy originally come from the sun.
For example, the fossil fuels we use today were made
Share Experiences Have
you ever used an object that from plants. The plants got their energy from the sun.
was powered by sunlight? In The heat and light that Earth gets from the sun is solar
a small group, talk about the energy. This type of energy is a renewable resource.
different ways that sunlight
can be used for energy. People can use solar energy to create electricity.
Photovoltaic cells, or solar cells, can change sunlight into
electrical energy. Solar energy can also be used to heat
buildings.
Solar energy does not produce pollution and is renewable.
The energy from the sun is free. However, some climates
don’t have enough sunny days to be able to use solar energy
all the time. Also, even though sunlight is free, solar cells and
CALIFORNIA
solar collectors are expensive to make.
STANDARDS CHECK
6.6.a Students know the utility How Can Running Water Provide Electricity?
of energy sources is determined
by factors that are involved in Water wheels have been used since ancient times to
converting these sources to useful help people do work. Today, the energy of falling water
forms and the consequences of
the conversion process. is used to generate electrical energy. Hydroelectric
energy is electrical energy produced from moving water.
Word Help: utility
usefulness
Hydroelectric energy causes no air pollution and is
considered renewable. Hydroelectric energy is generally
Word Help: factor not very expensive to produce.
a condition or event that
brings about a result However, hydroelectric energy can be produced only
in places that have a lot of fast-moving water. In addition,
Word Help: consequence
the effect, or result, of an
building a dam and a power plant to generate hydroelectric
action or process energy can be expensive. Dams can harm wildlife living in
and around the river. Damming a river can cause flooding
Word Help: conversion
a change from one form to and erosion.
another

9. Compare What are

hydroelectric energy’s
problems and benefits?

This dam in California can

create electricity because
a lot of water moves
through it every day.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 94 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Alternative Energy continued

How Can Plants Be Used for Energy?

Plants store energy from the sun. Leaves, wood, Critical Thinking
and stems contain stored energy. Even the dung of plant- 10. Infer What would
eating animals has a lot of stored energy. These sources happen if biomass were
used at a faster rate than it
of energy are called biomass. Biomass is organic matter was produced?
that can be a source of energy.
Biomass is commonly burned in its solid form to
release heat. However, biomass can be changed into a
liquid form. The sugar and starch in plants can be made
into alcohol and used as fuel. Alcohol can be mixed with
gasoline to make a fuel called gasohol.
Biomass is not very expensive. It is available almost
everywhere. Since biomass grows quickly, it is considered
a renewable resource. However, people must be careful
not to use up biomass faster than it can grow back.

What Is Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal energy is energy produced by the heat
within Earth. This heat makes solid rocks get very hot.
If there is any water contained within the solid rock, the
water gets hot, too. The hot water can be used to gener-
ate electricity and to heat buildings. READING CHECK
Geothermal energy is considered renewable because 11. List What are two uses
the heat inside Earth will last for millions of years. for water that has been
Geothermal energy does not create air pollution or harm heated by hot rock?
the environment. However, this kind of energy can be
used only where hot rock is near the surface.

4HESTEAMLEAVES
THEPOWERPLANT
4HEENGINES
THROUGHVENTS
PRODUCEELECTRICAL
ENERGY

4HESTEAMTURNS
WHEELSTHATPOWER
ELECTRICENGINES %XTRAWATERIS
PUTBACKINTO
THEHOTROCK

3TEAMRISES
THROUGHAWELL
TAKE A LOOK
12. Describe On the figure,
draw arrows showing the
(OTROCK path that the steam takes as
it moves through the power
(EATEDWATER
plant.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 95 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.3.b, 6.6.a, 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
biomass organic matter than can be a source hydroelectric energy electrical energy produced
of energy by the flow of water
chemical energy the energy released when a nuclear energy the energy released by a fission
chemical compound reacts to produce new or fusion reaction; the binding energy of the
compounds atomic nucleus
gasohol a mixture of gasoline and alcohol that is solar energy the energy received by Earth from
used as a fuel the sun in the form of radiation
geothermal energy the energy produced by wind power the use of a windmill to drive an
heat within Earth electric generator

1. Explain Why is solar energy considered a renewable resource?

2. Identify When would biomass not be considered a renewable resource?

3. Apply Concepts Which place is most likely to be able to use geothermal energy: a
city near a volcano or a city near a waterfall? Explain your answer.

4. Identify Why is wind a useful energy source in some places, but not in others?

5. Analyze Which alternative energy source do you think would be most useful for
the place where you live? Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 96 Energy Resources
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 6 Plate Tectonics

SECTION

1 Earth’s Structure
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.a, 6.1.b
these questions:
• What are the layers inside Earth?
• How do scientists study Earth’s interior?
• What is the evidence for continental drift?

What Is Earth’s Interior Made Of?

Earth is made of three main layers. Each layer is made STUDY TIP
of different materials with different properties. Scientists Summarize As you read,
think about Earth’s layers in two ways: by their chemical make a chart showing the
features of Earth’s layers.
makeup and by their physical properties. Make sure you include the
compositional layers and the
COMPOSITIONAL LAYERS physical layers.
Scientists divide Earth into three layers based on chemi-
cal makeup. In the very center of Earth is the core. The
core is a thick sphere made of iron and nickel. The next
layer is the mantle. The mantle is a thick layer that is
made of hot, solid rock. The outermost layer of Earth is
called the crust. The crust is the thinnest of Earth’s layers.
There are two main kinds of crust: continental crust
and oceanic crust. Continental crust forms the conti-
nents. It is thicker than oceanic crust. Continental crust
can be up to 70 km thick. Oceanic crust is found beneath
the oceans. It contains more iron than continental crust.
Most oceanic crust is less than 7 km thick. READING CHECK

4HEMANTLEIS 4HECRUSTISLESSTHAN 1. Compare How is oceanic

OF%ARTHSMASSAND OF%ARTHSMASSAND crust different from continental
ISKMTHICK ISTOKMTHICK
crust?

Math Focus
2. Calculate How many
times thicker is Earth’s
mantle than the thickest part
4HECOREISOF
%ARTHSMASSANDHAS of Earth’s crust?
ARADIUSOFKM

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Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure continued

EARTH’S PHYSICAL STRUCTURE

Scientists also divide Earth into five layers based on
physical properties. The outer layer is the lithosphere.
It is a cool, rigid layer that includes all of the crust and a
small part of the upper mantle. The lithosphere is divided
into pieces called tectonic plates. These plates move
READING CHECK slowly over Earth’s surface.
3. Define What is the
The asthenosphere is found beneath the lithosphere.
lithosphere? It is a layer of hot, solid rock that flows very slowly, like
chewing gum. Beneath the asthenosphere is the meso-
sphere, which is the lower part of the mantle. The meso-
sphere flows more slowly than the asthenosphere.
There are two physical layers in Earth’s core. The
outer layer is the outer core. It is made of liquid iron and
nickel. At the center of Earth is the inner core, which
is a ball of solid iron and nickel. The inner core is solid
CALIFORNIA because it is under very high pressure.
STANDARDS CHECK
/CEAN /CEANIC #ONTINENTALCRUST
6.1.b Students know Earth is CRUST
composed of several layers; a ,ITHOSPHERE
#RUST
cold, brittle lithosphere; a hot, !STHENOSPHERE
convecting mantle; and a dense, )NNERCORE -ESOSPHERE
metallic core. SOLID
,ITHOSPHERE
Word Help: layer /UTERCORE
LIQUID -ANTLE
a separate or distinct
portion of matter that has
thickness

Word Help: core

center !STHENOSPHERE

4. Describe What are the

five layers of Earth, based
on physical properties? How Do Scientists Study the Inside of Earth?
Much of what scientists know about Earth’s layers comes
from studying earthquakes. Earthquakes create vibrations
called seismic waves. Scientists detect the waves using
instruments called seismometers. Seismic waves travel at
different speeds through the different layers of Earth.
Therefore, by studying the data from seismometers, scientists
can learn about the layers inside Earth.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 98 Plate Tectonics
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SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure continued

3EISMICWAVES
%ARTHQUAKE
3EISMICWAVES
TRAVELATDIFFERENT
SPEEDSTHROUGH
%ARTHSLAYERS

TAKE A LOOK
3OMEKINDSOFSEISMICWAVES 5. Explain What is one way
CANNOTTRAVELTHROUGHLIQUIDS that scientists know the outer
0ATHOF
SUCHASTHEOUTERCORE core is liquid?
SEISMICWAVE
4HEREFORESOMESEISMOM
ETERSON%ARTHDONOTRECORD
THESEWAVES4HISISONE
WAYTHATSCIENTISTSKNOW
THATTHEOUTERCOREISLIQUID

What Is Continental Drift?

Remember that the lithosphere is broken into pieces
called tectonic plates that move slowly over Earth’s sur-
face. The continents move over Earth’s surface along
with the plates. Sometimes, the continents are joined
together. At other times, such as today, they are broken
apart. This slow movement of continents over Earth’s
surface is called continental drift. READING CHECK
6. Define What is
EVIDENCE FOR CONTINENTAL DRIFT continental drift?
Look at the map of the continents on the next page.
Can you see that South America and Africa seem to fit
together, like the pieces of a puzzle? Continental drift can
explain why this is so. South America and Africa were
once part of a single continent. They have since broken
apart and moved to their current locations.
Evidence for continental drift can also be found in
fossils. For example, many of the same fossils have been
found along the matching coastlines of South America
and Africa. The organisms that formed these fossils could
not have traveled across the Atlantic Ocean. Therefore,
the two continents must once have been joined together.
Other evidence comes from similar rock types and
mountain ranges on different continents. The locations
of similar fossils and mountain ranges are shown on the
map on the next page.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 99 Plate Tectonics
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SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure continued

Critical Thinking
7. Infer Which continent was
once joined with Greenland?
How do you know?

CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.1.a Students know evidence
of plate tectonics is derived
from the fit of the continents;
the location of earthquakes,
volcanoes, and midocean ridges;
and the distribution of fossils,
rock types, and ancient climatic
zones.

Word Help: evidence Similar fossils and rocks are found on widely separated continents.
information showing For example, Glossopteris and Mesosaurus fossils are found in Africa
and in South America. These fossils and rocks indicate that, at one
whether an idea or belief is time, all of the continents were joined together.
true or valid
BREAKUP OF PANGAEA
Word Help: derive
to figure out by reasoning
About 245 million years ago, all of the continents were
joined into a single supercontinent. This superconti-
Word Help: distribution nent was called Pangaea. The word Pangaea means “all
the relative arrangement
of objects or organisms in Earth” in Greek. About 200 million years ago, Pangaea
time or space began breaking apart. It first separated into two large
landmasses called Laurasia and Gondwana. The conti-
8. Explain How do fossils
indicate that the continents nents continued to break apart and slowly move to where
have moved with time? they are today.
As the continents moved, some of them collided.
These collisions produced many of the landforms that we
see today, such as mountain ranges and volcanoes.

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SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure continued

Pangea

Panthalassa

About 245 million years ago, the supercontinent

Pangaea existed. It was surrounded by a huge sea
called Panthalassa, which is Greek for “all sea.”

Laurasia

Gondwana

TAKE A LOOK
9. Describe How were the
By about 135 million year ago, Pangaea had split locations of the continents
into two smaller continents. These continents
were called Laurasia and Gondwana. 65 million years ago differ-
ent from the locations of the
North Eurasia continents today? Give two
America
ways.
Africa
South India
America Australia

Antarctica

By about 65 million years ago, Laurasia and Gondwana

had split into several smaller continents. These continents
looked similar to the continents that exist today.

What Is Sea-Floor Spreading?

Mid-ocean ridges are mountain systems found deep
in Earth’s oceans. They form a continuous chain that is
50,000 km long. The chain wraps around Earth like the
seams of a baseball. Mid-ocean ridges are the sites of
intense volcanic activity. READING CHECK
At a mid-ocean ridge, melted rock rises through cracks 10. Define What is a
in the sea floor. As the melted rock cools and hardens, mid-ocean ridge?
it forms new crust. The newly formed crust pushes the
older crust away from the mid-ocean ridge. This process
is called sea-floor spreading.
-ID OCEANRIDGE

/LDERCRUST /LDERCRUST
Younger crust

Oceanic crust
-AGMA TAKE A LOOK
,ITHOSPHERE 11. Identify Does the
!STHENOSPHERE
oceanic lithosphere get
older or younger as you move
Sea-floor spreading produces new oceanic lithosphere at mid-ocean ridges. closer to the mid-ocean ridge?
The oldest oceanic crust is found far from the ridges, and the youngest crust
is found very close to the ridges.

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SECTION 1 Earth’s Structure continued

SEA-FLOOR SPREADING AND MAGNETISM

In the 1960s, scientists studying the ocean floor discovered
an interesting property of mid-ocean ridges. Using a tool that
can record magnetism, they found magnetic patterns on the
sea floor! The pattern on one side of a mid-ocean ridge was
a mirror image of the pattern on the other side of the ridge.
What caused the rocks to have these magnetic patterns?
Throughout Earth’s history, the north and south mag-
netic poles have switched places many times. This pro-
cess is called magnetic reversal. This process, together
with sea-floor spreading, can explain the patterns of mag-
READING CHECK netism on the sea floor.
12. Define What is a .ORMAL 2EVERSE
magnetic reversal?
.ORTH0OLE .ORTH0OLE

#OMPASS #OMPASS

3OUTH0OLE 3OUTH0OLE
During times of normal polarity, such as today, a compass needle points
toward the North Pole. During times of reverse polarity, a compass needle
points toward the South Pole.

As ocean crust forms from melted rock, magnetic minerals

form. These minerals act as compasses. As they form, they
line up with Earth’s magnetic north pole. When the melted
rock cools, the minerals are stuck in place.
After Earth’s magnetic field reverses, these minerals
point to Earth’s magnetic south pole. However, new rock
that forms will have minerals that point to the magnetic
north pole. Therefore, the ocean floor contains “stripes”
of rock whose magnetic minerals point to the north or
south magnetic poles.
4HISPARTOFTHESEA 4HISPARTOFTHESEAFLOORFORMEDW HEN%ARTHS
FLOORFORMEDW HEN MAGNETICFIELDW ASTHESAMEASITISTODAY!S
%ARTHSMAGNETIC NEW SEAFLOORFORMEDTHEROCKW ASPUSHEDAW AY
FIELDW ASREVERSED FROMTHERIDGE
TAKE A LOOK
13. Describe How are
the “stripes” of magnetism
on each side of the ridge
related?
-AGMA .ORMALPOLARITY
LITHOSPHERE
2EVERSEDPOLARITY
LITHOSPHERE

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Section 1 Review 6.1.a, 6.1.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
asthenosphere the soft layer of the mantle on lithosphere the solid, outer layer of Earth that
which the tectonic plates move consists of the crust and the rigid upper part of
continental drift the hypothesis that states that the mantle
the continents once formed a single landmass, Wordwise The root lith means “stone.”
broke up, and drifted to their present locations mantle the layer of rock between the Earth’s
core the central part of the Earth below the crust and core
mantle sea-floor spreading the process by which
crust the thin and solid outermost layer of the new oceanic lithosphere (sea floor) forms as
Earth above the mantle magma rises to Earth’s surface and solidifies at
a mid-ocean ridge

1. Describe What are the features of each of the three compositional layers of Earth?

2. Identify Give three pieces of evidence that support the idea of continental drift.

3. Compare How is the crust different from the lithosphere? How are they the same?

4. Explain How do the parallel magnetic “stripes” near mid-ocean ridges form?

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CHAPTER 6 Plate Tectonics

SECTION

2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.1.b, 6.1.c, 6.1.e, 6.4.c
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is the theory of plate tectonics?
• What are the three types of tectonic plate boundaries?

What Is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?

STUDY TIP As scientists learned more about sea-floor spreading and
Compare As you read, make magnetic reversals, they formed a theory to explain how
a table showing the features continents move. This theory, known as plate tectonics,
of the three kinds of plate
boundaries. explains how many of the features on Earth’s surface form.
The theory of plate tectonics states that Earth’s litho-
sphere is broken into many pieces that move slowly over
the asthenosphere. These pieces are called tectonic plates.
READING CHECK There are 12 large plates and many smaller ones.
1. Define What are tectonic
Tectonic plates can contain different kinds of lithosphere.
plates? Some plates contain mostly oceanic lithosphere. Others
contain mostly continental lithosphere. Some contain both
continental and oceanic lithosphere. The figure below
shows Earth’s tectonic plates.

%URASIANPLATE
.ORTH!MERICAN
PLATE

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify Give the name )NDIAN
of one plate that contains !FRICAN
PLATE
0ACIFICPLATE
mostly oceanic lithosphere 3OUTH!MERICAN PLATE
and of one plate that .AZCA PLATE
!USTRALIAN
PLATE
contains mostly continental PLATE
lithosphere.
Oceanic: !NTARCTIC
PLATE
Continental:

Tectonic plates move very slowly—only a few

centimeters per year. Scientists can detect this motion
only by using special equipment, such as global positioning
systems (GPS). This equipment is sensitive enough to pick
up even small changes in a continent’s location.

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SECTION 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics continued

STRUCTURE OF A TECTONIC PLATE

The tectonic plates that make up the lithosphere are
like pieces of a giant jigsaw puzzle. The figure below
shows what a single plate might look like it if were sepa-
rated from the other plates. Notice that the plate contains
both continental and oceanic crust. It also contains some
mantle material.
Andes mountain range Oceanic
crust
Continental
crust
Mid-ocean
ridge TAKE A LOOK
3. Compare Which type of
crust is thicker, oceanic crust
or continental crust?
Mantle
This figure shows what the South American plate might look like if it were lifted off
the asthenosphere. Notice that the plate is thickest where it contains continental
crust and thinnest where it contains oceanic crust.

What Happens Where Tectonic Plates Touch?

The places where tectonic plates meet are called
boundaries. Earthquakes and volcanoes are more com-
mon at tectonic plate boundaries than at other places
on Earth. Other features, such as mid-ocean ridges and
ocean trenches, are found only at plate boundaries.
There are three types of boundaries between plates:
divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and trans-
form boundaries. The kinds of features that are found at
a plate boundary depend on what kind of plate boundary
it is.

DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
A divergent boundary forms where plates are moving
apart. Most divergent boundaries are found beneath the
oceans. Mid-ocean ridges form at these divergent bound-
aries. Because the plates are pulling away from each
other, cracks form in the lithosphere. Melted rock can
rise through these cracks. When the melted rock cools
and hardens, it becomes new lithosphere. READING CHECK
4. Describe What features
are found at most divergent
boundaries?

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SECTION 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics continued

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
A convergent boundary forms where plates are mov-
ing together. There are three different types of conver-
gent boundaries:
Critical Thinking • Continent-Continent Boundaries These form when
5. Infer Why do continent- continental lithosphere on one plate collides with conti-
continent convergent nental lithosphere on another plate. Continent-continent
boundaries produce very tall
mountain ranges?
convergent boundaries can produce very tall mountain
ranges, such as the Himalayas.
• Continent-Ocean Boundaries These form when con-
tinental lithosphere on one plate collides with oceanic
lithosphere on another plate. The denser oceanic litho-
sphere sinks underneath the continental lithosphere in
a process called subduction. Subduction can cause a
chain of mountains, such as the Andes, to form along
the plate boundary.
• Ocean-Ocean Boundaries These form when oceanic
lithosphere on one plate collides with oceanic lithosphere
on another plate. One of the plates subducts beneath the
other. A series of volcanic islands, called an island arc,
can form along the plate boundary.
#ONTINENT OCEANCOLLISION7HEN
OCEANICLITHOSPHERECOLLIDESWITH
#ONTINENT CONTINENTCOLLISION
CONTINENTALLITHOSPHERETHEDENSER
7HENTWOPIECESOFCONTINENTAL
OCEANICLITHOSPHERESUBDUCTS!
LITHOSPHERECOLLIDETHEYBUCKLE
CHAINOFVOLCANOESCANFORMONTHE
ANDTHICKEN!SARESULTTALL
CONTINENTALLITHOSPHERE
MOUNTAINSFORM

TAKE A LOOK
6. Identify At what two
types of convergent bound- #ONTINENTAL
/CEAN OCEANCOLLISION7HEN
TWOPIECESOFOCEANIC
aries do subduction zones LITHOSPHERE
LITHOSPHERECOLLIDEONEOFTHE
form? PLATESSUBDUCTS!LINEOF
3UBDUCTIONZONES VOLCANOESCALLEDANISLANDARC
FORMSONTHEUPPERPLATE

TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
A transform boundary forms where plates slide past
each other horizontally. Most transform boundaries are
found near mid-ocean ridges. The ridges are broken into
segments, or pieces. Transform boundaries separate the
segments from one another.
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SECTION 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics continued

Why Do Tectonic Plates Move?

Scientists do not know for sure what causes tectonic
plates to move. However, they have three main hypotheses
to explain plate movements: convection, slab pull, and
ridge push.
Scientists used to think that convection in the mantle
was the main force that caused plate motions. Remember
that convection happens when matter carries heat from
one place to another. Convection happens in the mantle
as rock heats up and expands. As it expands, it becomes
less dense and rises toward Earth’s surface. READING CHECK
As the hot material rises, cold, dense lithosphere sinks 7. Define What is convection?
into the mantle at subduction zones. The rising hot mate-
rial and the sinking cold material form convection currents.
Until the 1990s, many scientists thought that these convec-
tion currents pulled the tectonic plates over Earth’s surface.
Today, most scientists think that slab pull is the main
force that causes plate motions. During subduction, oce-
anic lithosphere at the edge of a plate sinks into the man-
tle. The oceanic lithosphere sinks because it is colder and
denser than the mantle. As the lithosphere at the edge of
the plate sinks, it pulls the rest of the plate along with it.
This process is called slab pull.
Another possible cause of plate motions is ridge push. Critical Thinking
At mid-ocean ridges, new oceanic lithosphere forms. This 8. Compare How is slab pull
new lithosphere is warmer and less dense than the older different from ridge push?
lithosphere farther from the ridge. Therefore, it floats
higher on the asthenosphere than the older lithosphere.
As gravity pulls the new lithosphere down, the plate
slides away from the mid-ocean ridge. This process is
called ridge push.

Driving Force Description

Slab pull Cold, sinking lithosphere at the edges
of a tectonic plate pulls the rest of
the plate across Earth’s surface.
Ridge push Gravity pulls newly formed lithosphere
downward and away from the mid-
ocean ridge. The rest of the plate
moves because of this force.
Convection currents Convection currents are produced
when hot material in the mantle
rises toward the surface and colder
material sinks. The currents pull the
plates over Earth’s surface.

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Section 2 Review 6.1.b, 6.1.c, 6.1.e, 6.4.c

SECTION VOCABULARY
plate tectonics the theory that explains how tectonic plate a block of lithosphere that
large pieces of the Earth’s outermost layer, consists of the crust and the rigid, outermost
called tectonic plates, move and change shape part of the mantle

1. Define Write your own definition for tectonic plate.

2. Identify What are the three main types of plate boundaries?

3. Describe How fast do tectonic plates move?

4. List Give three processes that may cause tectonic plates to move.

5. Explain Why does oceanic lithosphere sink beneath continental lithosphere at

convergent boundaries?

6. Describe What is a transform boundary?

7. Identify Give two features that are found only at plate boundaries, and give two
features that are found most commonly at plate boundaries.

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CHAPTER 6 Plate Tectonics

SECTION

3 Deforming Earth’s Crust

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.a, 6.1.d
these questions:
• What happens when rock is placed under stress?
• What are three kinds of faults?
• How do mountains form?

What Is Deformation?
In the left-hand figure below, the girl is bending the STUDY TIP
spaghetti slowly and gently. The spaghetti bends, but it Learn New Words As you
doesn’t break. In the right-hand figure, the girl is bending read, underline words that
you don’t understand. When
the spaghetti quickly and with a lot of force. Some of the you learn what they mean,
pieces of spaghetti have broken. write the words and their
definitions in your notebook.

How can the same material bend in one situation but

break in another? The answer is that the stress on the mate-
rial is different in each case. Stress is the amount of force
per unit area that is placed on an object. READING CHECK
In the left-hand picture, the girl is slowly putting a small 1. Define What is stress?
amount of stress on the spaghetti. The spaghetti bends
under the small amount of stress. In the right-hand picture,
the girl is quickly putting a lot of stress on the spaghetti. The
spaghetti breaks under this large amount of stress.
Rocks can also bend or break under stress. When a rock
is placed under stress, it deforms, or changes shape. When
a small amount of stress is put on a rock slowly, the rock
can bend. However, if the stress is very large or is applied
quickly, the rock can break.
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SECTION 3 Deforming Earth’s Crust continued

What Happens When Rock Layers Bend?

Folding happens when rock layers bend under stress.
Folding causes rock layers to look bent or buckled. The
bends are called folds.
Scientists assume that all rock layers start out as hori-
zontal layers. Therefore, when scientists see a fold, they
READING CHECK know that deformation has happened.
2. Explain How do folds All folds have a hinge and two limbs. Limbs are the
indicate that deformation has sides of a fold. The hinge is the place where the two
happened? limbs meet.

TYPES OF FOLDS
Two of the most common types of folds are synclines
and anticlines. In a syncline, the oldest rocks are found
on the outside of the fold. Most synclines are U-shaped.
In an anticline, it is the youngest rocks that are found on
the outside of the fold. Most anticlines are 艚-shaped. The
figure below shows two anticlines and a syncline.
(INGE

TAKE A LOOK
3. Color The rock layers in !NTICLINE
!NTICLINE
the picture are oldest at the
bottom and youngest at the 3YNCLINE
top. Color each rock layer
with a different color to help
you see where the oldest
and youngest rocks are in
anticlines and synclines. ,IMB ,IMB

SHAPES OF FOLDS
Folds can have many shapes. Symmetrical folds,
like the ones in the figure above, have two limbs that are
bent the same amount. Asymmetrical folds have limbs
that are bent by different amounts. For example, an
overturned fold has one limb that is tilted more than
90 degrees. In a recumbent fold, the limbs are bent so
much that it looks like the fold is lying on its side.

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SECTION 3 Deforming Earth’s Crust continued

What Happens When Rock Layers Break?

When rock is put under so much stress that it can no
longer bend, it may break. The crack that forms when
rocks break and move past each other is called a fault.
The blocks of rock that are on either side of the fault are
called fault blocks. When fault blocks move suddenly,
they can cause earthquakes. READING CHECK
When a fault forms at an angle, one fault block is 4. Define Write the
called the hanging wall, and the other is called the footwall. definition of a fault in your
The figure below shows the difference between the hanging own words.
wall and the footwall.
Scientists classify faults by how the fault blocks have
moved along the fault. There are three main kinds of
faults: normal faults, reverse faults, and strike-slip faults.
Fault

TAKE A LOOK
5. Compare How is the
hanging wall different from
the footwall?
Footwall Hanging wall

The footwall is the fault block that is below the fault. The hanging wall is
the fault block that is above the fault.

NORMAL FAULTS
In a normal fault, the hanging wall moves down, or
the footwall moves up, or both. Normal faults form
where tectonic plate motions cause tension. Tension is
stress that pulls rock apart. Therefore, normal faults are
common along divergent boundaries, where Earth’s crust
stretches. The figure at the top of the next page shows a READING CHECK
normal fault. 6. Explain Why are normal
faults common along
REVERSE FAULTS divergent boundaries?
In a reverse fault, the hanging wall moves up, or the
footwall moves down, or both. Reverse faults form where
tectonic plate motions cause compression. Compression
is stress that pushes rock together. Therefore, reverse
faults are common along convergent boundaries, where
two plates collide. The figure on the top of the next page
shows a reverse fault.

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SECTION 3 Deforming Earth’s Crust continued

Strike-slip faults form

when rocks slide past
each other horizontally.
TAKE A LOOK
7. Identify Label the
hanging walls and the
Reverse faults can
footwalls on the normal and Normal faults can
form when rocks are
form when rocks
reverse faults. are pulled apart. pushed together.

STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
In a strike-slip fault, the fault blocks move past each
other horizontally. Strike-slip faults form when rock is
under shear stress. Shear stress is stress that pushes dif-
ferent parts of the rock in different directions. Therefore,
strike-slip faults are common along transform boundar-
ies, where tectonic plates slide past each other.

RECOGNIZING FAULTS
Faults produce many features that you can see on
Earth’s surface. For example, faulting causes rock lay-
ers to move relative to one another. Therefore, layers of
different kinds of rock that are next to each other can
indicate a fault. In addition, rocks can grind against each
other when a fault forms. This grinding can produce
READING CHECK grooves and scrapes on the surface of the rock.
8. Describe Give two
Some faults are many kilometers long. These faults
features that can indicate can produce very large features on Earth’s surface. For
the presence of a fault. example, streams may flow in different directions when
they cross a fault. Structures made by people, such as
fences and roads, can also be disturbed by a fault.
Another feature that can indicate faulting is a scarp.
A scarp is a row of cliffs that forms on a fault. Scarps
form when one fault block is raised above the other fault
block, as in a reverse fault. Some scarps are very small,
but others may be tens of meters high.

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SECTION 3 Deforming Earth’s Crust continued

How Do Mountains Form?

As tectonic plates move over Earth’s surface, the edges Critical Thinking
of the plates grind against each other. This produces a lot 9. Apply Concepts Why
of stress in Earth’s lithosphere. Over very long periods of does it take a very long time
time, the movements of the plates can form mountains. for most mountains to form?

Mountains can form in three main ways: through folding,

faulting, and volcanism.

FOLDED MOUNTAINS
Folded mountains form when rock layers are squeezed
together and pushed upward. Folded mountains usually
form at convergent boundaries, where continents collide.
For example, the Appalachian Mountains formed hundreds
of millions of years ago when North America collided with
Europe.

FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS
Fault-block mountains form when tension makes the
lithosphere break into many normal faults. Along these
faults, pieces of the lithosphere drop down compared with
other pieces. This produces fault-block mountains. The
Tetons are an example of a fault-block mountain range. READING CHECK
10. Identify What kind
VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS of stress forms fault-block
Volcanic mountains form when melted rock erupts mountains?
onto Earth’s surface. Most major volcanic mountains are
found at convergent boundaries.
Volcanic mountains can form on land or on the ocean
floor. Volcanoes on the ocean floor can grow so tall that
they rise above the surface of the ocean. These volcanoes
form islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands.
Most of Earth’s active volcanoes are concentrated
around the edge of the Pacific Ocean. This area is known
as the Ring of Fire.

Type of Mountain Description

Folded
TAKE A LOOK
11. Describe Fill in the table
Fault-block with the features of each
kind of mountain. Include
Volcanic where the mountains form
and what they are made of.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 113 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.1.a, 6.1.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
fault a break in a body of rock along which one folding the bending of rock layers due to stress
block slides relative to another

1. Compare How are folding and faulting similar? How are they different?

2. Describe Fill in the spaces in the table to describe the three main kinds of faults.

Kind of fault Description Kind of stress that

produces it
Normal

Hanging wall moves up;

footwall moves down.
shear stress

3. Identify Name two kinds of asymmetrical folds.

4. Explain Why are strike-slip faults common at transform boundaries?

5. Infer Why are fault-block mountains probably uncommon at transform boundaries?

6. Define What is the Ring of Fire?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 114 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 6 Plate Tectonics

SECTION

4 California Geology
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.f
these questions:
• How have plate movements affected California?
• What features in California are the result of plate
movements?

How Has Plate Tectonics Affected California?

Much of California’s landscape is a result of plate tec- STUDY TIP
tonics. Compression along the plate boundaries has pro- Organize As you read this
duced many of the rugged mountains in California. The section, create a time line of
the geologic events that are
steep, rocky coastlines in central and northern California discussed.
are also a result of compression.
The main plate boundary in California, the San
Andreas fault system, runs in a northwest-southeast
direction. Many major river valleys and mountain ranges
run parallel to this fault, as you can see in the figure
below. The Transverse Ranges in southern California are
an exception to this trend. The motion along the faults in
southern California has caused these mountains to run in
an east-west direction. READING CHECK
1. Describe In which direc-
+Õ>ÌiÀ˜>ÀÞÊÃi`ˆ“i˜Ì>ÀÞÊ`i«œÃˆÌÃ
+LAMATH -ODOC /iÀ̈>ÀÞÊ>˜`Ê+Õ>ÌiÀ˜>ÀÞÊ tion do most of the geologic
-OUNTAINS 0LATEAU Ãi`ˆ“i˜Ì>ÀÞÊÀœVŽÃ
"ASIN
AND /iÀ̈>ÀÞÊÃi`ˆ“i˜Ì>ÀÞÊÀœVŽÃ features in California run?
#ASCADE 2ANGE /iÀ̈>ÀÞÊ>˜`Ê+Õ>ÌiÀ˜>ÀÞÊ
2ANGE ۜV>˜ˆVÊÀœVŽÃ
iÜ✈VÊÃi`ˆ“i˜Ì>ÀÞÊÀœVŽÃ
iÌ>“œÀ«…œÃi`ʈ}˜iœÕÃÊÀœVŽÃ
#OAST
2ANGES iÜ✈VÊ}À>˜ˆÌˆVÊÀœVŽÊ
*ÀiV>“LÀˆ>˜]Ê*>iœâœˆV]Ê>˜`Ê
iÜ✈VʓiÌ>“œÀ«…ˆVÊ>˜`Ê
Ãi`ˆ“i˜Ì>ÀÞÊÀœVŽÃ
3IE
'R

RRA
EA

T

.E

6A

VAD
LLE

A
Y

#OAST
2ANGES "ASIN
AND
2ANGE

-OJAVE
$ESERT
4RANSVERSE
2ANGES

TAKE A LOOK
0ENINSULAR
2ANGES
#OLORADO
$ESERT
2. Identify What is the main
This geologic map of California shows many of the kind of rock that is found in
features of the California landscape. Notice that many the Coast Ranges?
of the features run in a northwest-southeast direction,
parallel to the San Andreas fault system.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 115 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 California Geology continued

How Did California Form?

The area that we know as California has been an
active plate boundary for more than 225 million years.
Before then, the western coast of North America stopped
at Nevada and the eastern deserts of California. Most of
what is now California was then either part of a distant
plate or did not yet exist.
When Pangaea began to break up, the North American
plate moved west. The western edge of North America
became an active convergent boundary. A long period
of subduction began. This subduction lasted from about
160 million to 100 million years ago. It started to “build”
READING CHECK the area that we know today as California.
3. Identify What kind
of plate boundary started ANCIENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
to form California when Three major tectonic plates have affected California’s
Pangaea began to break up?
geology: the North American, the Farallon, and the
Pacific plates. The interactions of these plates produced
many of the features that are found in California today.
The figures below show how these plates have interacted
over time.

$IRECTIONOFPLATE
MOVEMENT

&ARALLONPLATE
,OS!NGELES
About 30 million years ago, the Farallon
plate was subducting underneath the
0ACIFIC
PLATE North American plate. About 25 million
.ORTH
!MERICAN years ago, the Pacific plate first touched
PLATE
the North American plate.
3UBDUCTION
ZONE
E A

*UAN
AT U C

LATE
PL E&

&U C NDE

3UBDUCTION
DE&UCA
D

ZONE
AN

AP

RIDGE
*U A
*U

3UBDUCTIONZONE

0ACIFIC .ORTH!MERICANPLATE
PLATE
-ENDOCINO
2ELATIVEMOTION
FRACTUREZONE
OF.ORTH!MERICAN
,OS!NGELES PLATE
0ACIFICPLATE
3AN&RANCISCO
3A

.ORTH
N!

!MERICAN
ND

ASFAU
RE

PLATE
2ELATIVEMOTION
LT

,OS

TAKE A LOOK
OF0ACIFICPLATE !NGELES

By 10 million years ago, almost Today, most of California’s coastline is a

4. Identify What is the all of the Farallon plate had been transform boundary. The small Juan de
only remaining piece of the subducted. The plate boundary Fuca plate is all that is left of the Farallon
Farallon plate? between the Pacific plate and the plate.
North American plate became a
transform boundary.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 116 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 California Geology continued

How Did California’s Volcanic Mountains Form?

As an oceanic plate subducts, it heats up and releases Say It
water into the mantle rock around it. The mantle rock Investigate and Share
begins to melt. The melted rock rises toward the surface, Learn more about how one
of California’s mountain
where it can erupt to form mountains. The subduction ranges formed. Share what
of the Farallon plate produced California’s well-known you learn with a small group
volcanic mountain ranges, the Sierra Nevada and the or with your class.
Cascade Mountains.

SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS

As the Farallon plate subducted beneath the North
American plate, large amounts of melted rock were pro-
duced. Some of the melted rock rose to the surface and Math Focus
erupted to form volcanoes. However, most of the melted 5. Calculate How long did
rock remained below Earth’s surface. Between about it take for the melted rock to
cool and harden?
210 million and 100 million years ago, it cooled and hard-
ened below the ground.
As the melted rock cooled and hardened, it produced a
large mass of granite below the ground. This mass of gran-
ite is called the Sierra Nevada batholith. A batholith is a
large mass of igneous rock that forms underground.
The Sierra Nevada batholith formed hundreds of
millions of years ago. Over time, the rock above the
batholith was removed by weathering and erosion. Today,
only the batholith remains. It is exposed at the surface in
the Sierra Nevada mountain range.

TAKE A LOOK
6. Describe Why is the
Sierra Nevada batholith
found above the ground
today, even though it formed
far beneath the ground?
The rocks in the Sierra Nevada mountains formed when melted rock cooled
and hardened over hundreds of millions of years. This cooled rock makes up
the Sierra Nevada batholith, which was once located far underground. Today,
weathering and erosion have removed the overlying rock. Only the rock of the
batholith is left.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 117 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 California Geology continued

CASCADE MOUNTAINS
Today, the Juan de Fuca plate is subducting beneath
the North American plate. This convergent boundary
stretches from northern California to British Columbia,
Canada. It is known as the Cascadia subduction zone.
Many active volcanoes are found along the Cascadia
subduction zone. These volcanoes form the Cascade
Mountains. They include Mount St. Helens, in Washington,
and Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak, in California.
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.1.f. Students know how to ex-
How Did Other Mountains in California Form?
plain major features of California When a tectonic plate subducts, parts of the plate can
geology (including mountains,
faults, volcanoes) in terms of
be scraped off and become attached to the plate above
plate tectonics. it. This process is called accretion. Accretion can form
Word Help: major
mountain chains parallel to the plate boundary.
of great importance or The chunks of Earth’s crust that are added to the
large scale edge of the continent are called accreted terranes.
Word Help: feature Geologists can identify accreted terranes because the
the shape or form of a rocks in the terranes are different from the surrounding
thing; characteristic rocks. For example, rocks from an accreted terrane may
7. Identify Name four be a different age. They may be made of rocks from deep
mountain ranges in in the ocean or even of rocks from the mantle. In addi-
California that formed as a tion, many accreted terranes are surrounded by faults.
result of plate tectonics.
The Coast and Transverse mountain ranges in
California probably formed by accretion. The Central
Valley, Los Angeles Basin, and Ventura Basin separate
some of these mountain ranges.

GOLD ORES FROM ACCRETION

Most of the California’s gold is found in the western
foothills along the Sierra Nevada range. The rocks that
contain the gold are thought to be accreted terranes that
originally formed near volcanic vents in the ocean.

Type of mountain How it forms Examples in California

Volcanic Magma forms at a
convergent plate
boundary. It erupts
to form volcanoes
or cools to form
batholiths.
Accreted terrane Coast Ranges,
TAKE A LOOK Transverse Ranges
8. Describe Fill in the blank
spaces in the table.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 118 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 California Geology continued

How Do Transform Faults Affect California?

The San Andreas fault system in California is the
most famous transform boundary in the world. The San
Andreas is the dividing line between the Pacific plate to
the west and the North American plate to the east. Most
of California is located on the North American plate. The
San Andreas fault system is more than 1,000 km long. It
includes many smaller faults that branch off or join the
main fault. READING CHECK
9. Identify Which two plates
PLATE MOVEMENT ALONG THE FAULT SYSTEM are separated by the San
Scientists consider the San Andreas fault to be the Andreas fault system?
boundary between the Pacific and North America plates.
However, not all of the plate motion takes place on
the San Andreas fault itself. For example, in southern
California, most plate motion happens on other faults
in the fault system. Therefore, it is better to think of the
boundary between the Pacific and North American plates
as a region, rather than as a single line.

TAKE A LOOK
10. Explain Why can it
be hard to define the ex-
act boundary between the
Pacific plate and the North
American plate?

Movement in the San Andreas fault system takes place along several faults.
Therefore, the boundary between the Pacific plate and the North American
plate can be hard to define.

The Pacific and North American plates have been mov-

ing along the San Andreas fault system for about 25 million
years. Over the last 16 million years, the total movement
along the fault has been about 315 km.
In southern California, the San Andreas fault system
bends to the east. Because of this bend, the Pacific and
North American plates are colliding as they slide past each
other. The collision produces a lot of compression. This
compression causes the crust to be pushed up. The San
Bernardino and San Gabriel mountains are some of the
mountains that have been produced by this compression.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 119 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.1.f

SECTION VOCABULARY
accreted terrane a piece of lithosphere that be- batholith a large mass of igneous rock in Earth’s
comes part of a larger landmass when tectonic crust that, if exposed at the surface, covers an
plates collide at a convergent boundary area of at least 100 km2

1. Define Write your own definition for accreted terrane.

2. Identify What kind of plate boundary is found along most of the coast of California?

3. Explain How are Lassen Peak and Mount Shasta related to subduction?

4. Infer What kind of fault is probably most common in the northern San Andreas
fault system? Explain your answer.

5. Apply Concepts How is the stress in the southern part of the San Andreas fault
system different from the stress in the northern part?

6. Describe How have the tectonic plate boundaries in California changed over the
last 225 million years?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 120 Plate Tectonics
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 7 Earthquakes
SECTION

1 What Are Earthquakes?

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.a, 6.1.d, 6.1.e, 6.3.a
these questions:
• Where do most earthquakes happen?
• What makes an earthquake happen?
• What are seismic waves?

What Is an Earthquake?
Have you ever been in an earthquake? An earthquake STUDY TIP
is a movement or shaking of the ground. Earthquakes Outline As you read, create
happen when huge pieces of the Earth’s crust move sud- an outline of this section. Use
the headings in the section
denly and give off energy. This energy travels through the to guide you.
ground and makes it move.

Where Do Most Earthquakes Happen?

Most earthquakes happen at places where two tectonic
plates touch. Tectonic plates are always moving. Where
two plates touch, they may be moving toward each other,
moving away from each other, or sliding past each other.
The movements of the plates can break the rocky
crust in many places. A place where the crust is broken is
called a fault. Earthquakes happen when rock breaks and
slides along a fault. READING CHECK
A place in the crust where a lot of faults are found 1. Define What is a fault?
is called a fault zone. Most fault zones, such as the San
Andreas Fault Zone, are found at plate boundaries. But
some fault zones are in the middle of plates.
Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries

• Recorded earthquakes

TAKE A LOOK
2. Infer Use the earthquake
locations to help you fig-
ure out where the tectonic
plate boundaries are on the
map. Use a colored pen or
marker to draw tectonic plate
boundaries on the map.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 121 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 What Are Earthquakes? continued

Why Do Earthquakes Happen?

As tectonic plates move, pressure builds up on the
rock near the edges of the plates. When a rock is put
under pressure, it deforms, or changes shape. Rock can
deform in two main ways.
One kind of deformation is called plastic deformation.
Plastic deformation happens when rock bends and folds
like clay. When the pressure is taken away, the rock stays
folded.

TAKE A LOOK
3. Explain How do you Folded Layers
know that the rock layers in of Rock
the figure were once under a
lot of pressure?

A second kind of deformation is called elastic

deformation. Elastic deformation happens when rock
CALIFORNIA bends a little bit under pressure but returns to its original
STANDARDS CHECK
size and shape when the pressure stops.
6.1.e Students know major
geologic events, such as Earthquakes happen when rock breaks under
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, pressure. When the rock breaks, it snaps back to almost
and mountain building, result
from plate motions. the same size and shape as before the earthquake. This
snap back is called elastic rebound. When the rock
Word Help: major
of great importance or breaks and rebounds, it gives off energy. This energy
large scale causes the ground to shake.
4. Explain How does Elastic Rebound
the movement of tectonic
plates cause earthquakes?

1. Forces push rock in 2. If enough force is placed

opposite directions. The on the rock, it breaks.
rock deforms elastically. The rock slips along the
It does not break. fault. Energy is released.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 122 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 What Are Earthquakes? continued

How Do Earthquakes Happen at Divergent

Boundaries?
A divergent boundary is a place where two tectonic READING CHECK
plates are moving away from each other. As the plates 5. Define What is a fault
pull apart, the crust stretches. The crust breaks into pieces block?
along faults. The pieces are called fault blocks because
they are blocks of rock that move along faults.
Most of the crust at divergent boundaries is thin, so
the earthquakes tend to be shallow. Most earthquakes at
divergent boundaries are no more than 20 km deep. READING CHECK
Earthquakes at Divergent Boundaries 6. Explain Why do most
earthquakes at divergent
Ocean
Tectonic plate boundaries happen at
Tectonic plate
shallow depths?

Earthquake

How Do Earthquakes Happen at Convergent

Boundaries?
A convergent boundary is a place where two tectonic
plates collide. When two plates come together, both plates
may crumple up to form mountains. Or one plate can subduct,
or sink, underneath the other plate and into the mantle.
The earthquakes that happen at convergent boundaries
can be very strong because so much pressure is produced.
When one plate subducts under another, earthquakes can
happen inside the sinking plate at depths of up to 700 km. READING CHECK
Earthquakes at Convergent Boundaries 7. Explain Why are most
earthquakes at convergent
boundaries very strong?

Ocean

Earthquake
TAKE A LOOK
8. Identify Draw arrows
Tectonic plate Tectonic plate
on the figure to show the
directions in which the two
tectonic plates are moving.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 123 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 What Are Earthquakes? continued

How Do Earthquakes Happen at Transform

Boundaries?
A transform boundary is a place where two tectonic
plates slide past each other. As the plates move past each
other, pressure builds up on the rock. Eventually, the
rock breaks along a fault.
The rock will break only if it is brittle. Rocks far below
Earth’s surface are generally not brittle. Therefore, most
earthquakes at transform boundaries happen in the upper
READING CHECK 50 km of the crust.
9. Identify How deep Earthquakes at Transform Boundaries
can earthquakes occur at
transform boundaries?

TAKE A LOOK
10. Identify Draw arrows
showing the directions that
Tectonic plate
the tectonic plates in the
figure are moving. Tectonic plate
Earthquake

How Does Earthquake Energy Travel?

When an earthquake occurs, a lot of energy is given
off. This energy travels through the Earth in the form of
waves called seismic waves.
There are two kinds of seismic waves. Body waves are
seismic waves that travel through the inside of Earth to
the surface. Surface waves are seismic waves that travel
READING CHECK through the top part of Earth’s crust.
11. List What are the two
kinds of seismic waves? BODY WAVES
There are two kinds of body waves: P waves and
S waves. P waves are the fastest kind of seismic wave.
P waves cause rock to move back and forth. P waves can
move through solids, liquids, and gases.
Another kind of wave, an S wave, can cause the rock
to move horizontally from side to side. S waves can also
cause the rock to move up and down. S waves travel
more slowly than P waves. They can travel only through
solids.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 124 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 What Are Earthquakes? continued

SURFACE WAVES
Surface waves travel along the top of Earth’s crust.
Only the very top part of the crust moves when a surface
wave passes. Surface waves travel much more slowly
than body waves, but they cause a lot more damage. READING CHECK
12. Compare Which kind
of seismic waves travel the
most slowly?
Contraction Expansion Contraction

Direction P wave is
traveling

Wave 1 Wave 2

P waves are body waves that squeeze and stretch rock.

Side-to-side
motion

Direction S wave
is traveling
TAKE A LOOK
13. Compare How are the
motions of P waves and
S waves different?

S waves are body waves that can move rock from side
to side.

Critical Thinking
14. Infer What do you think
Up-and-down
rolling motion is the reason that surface
Direction surface waves usually cause the most
wave is traveling damage?

Surface waves can move the ground up and down in a

circular motion.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 125 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.1.a, 6.1.d, 6.1.e, 6.3.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
earthquake a movement or trembling of the seismic wave a wave of energy that travels
ground that is caused by a sudden release of through the Earth, away from an earthquake in
energy when rocks along a fault move all directions
elastic rebound the sudden return of elastically
deformed rock to its undeformed shape

1. Compare What is the difference between an earthquake and a fault?

2. Compare Give two ways that P waves are different from S waves.

3. Identify Where do most earthquakes happen?

4. Describe What causes an earthquake to happen?

5. Explain What is the main difference between body waves and surface waves?

6. Apply Concepts Why are some earthquakes stronger than others?

7. Infer Why do few earthquakes happen in Earth’s mantle?

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 126 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 7 Earthquakes
SECTION

2 Earthquake Measurement
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.g
these questions:
• How do scientists know exactly where an earthquake
happened?
• How are earthquakes measured?
• What affects the intensity of an earthquake?

How Do Scientists Study Earthquakes?

Scientists who study earthquakes use an important STUDY TIP
tool called a seismometer. A seismometer records the Ask Questions Read this
vibrations that are caused by seismic waves. When section quietly to yourself.
the waves from an earthquake reach a seismometer, it As you read, write down
questions that you have.
records them as lines on a chart called a seismogram. Discuss your questions in a
Remember that earthquakes happen when rock in small group.
Earth’s crust breaks. The rock breaks in just one area,
even though the earthquake can sometimes be felt many
miles away.
The place inside the Earth where the rock first breaks
is called the earthquake’s focus. The place on Earth’s sur-
face that is right above the focus is called the epicenter.
Scientists can use seismograms to find the epicenter of
an earthquake. READING CHECK
1. Explain What is the differ-
Earth’s surface
ence between the epicenter
of an earthquake and the
focus of the earthquake?

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify On the figure,
mark the epicenter of the
Focus
Seismic waves earthquake with a star.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 127 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Earthquake Measurement continued

How Do Scientists Know Where an

Earthquake Happened?
Scientists can use seismograms to figure out how far
each seismometer is from the epicenter of an earthquake.
Then they can find the epicenter by using the steps below.

  -ILES

  +ILOMETERS

3EATTLE

 !CIRCLEISDRAWNAROUNDA 3IOUX#ITY
SEISMOMETERSTATION4HERADIUS
OFTHECIRCLEEQUALSTHEDISTANCE
FROMTHESEISMOMETERTOTHE
EPICENTER

 7HENASECONDCIRCLEISDRAWN !LBUQUERQUE
AROUNDANOTHERSEISMOMETER
STATIONTHECIRCLEOVERLAPSTHE
FIRSTCIRCLEINTWOSPOTS/NEOF
THESESPOTSISTHEEARTHQUAKES
EPICENTER

TAKE A LOOK  7HENACIRCLEISDRAWNAROUNDA

3. Identify On the THIRDSEISMOMETERALLTHREE
CIRCLESMEETINONESPOTTHE
map, draw a star at the EARTHQUAKESEPICENTER
earthquake’s epicenter.

What Is Earthquake Magnitude?

The strength of an earthquake is called its magnitude.
READING CHECK Scientists use two different scales to measure magnitude.
4. Define What is magnitude? One scale is called the Richter magnitude scale. It measures
how much ground movement an earthquake causes.
Scientists prefer to use another scale, the moment
magnitude scale. Unlike the Richter scale, this scale is
based on the size of the area involved in the earthquake.
Math Focus The moment magnitude scale gives a more accurate
5. Multiply How much measurement of the strength of an earthquake.
stronger is a magnitude The Richter magnitude scale and the moment magnitude
6.0 earthquake than a
magnitude 4.0 earthquake?
scale can be used to compare the magnitudes of different
Show your work. earthquakes. When the magnitude of an earthquake goes up
by one unit, the strength of the earthquake goes up ten times.
For example, an earthquake with a magnitude of 5.0 is ten
times stronger than an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.0.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 128 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Earthquake Measurement continued

What Is Earthquake Intensity?

The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of
how much damage it caused and how much it was felt by
people. Scientists in the United States use the Modified
Mercalli intensity scale to compare the intensities of dif-
ferent earthquakes. READING CHECK
Intensity Description of effects 6. Define What is intensity?
I generally is not felt by people
II is felt by only a few people
III is felt by most people indoors
IV is felt by many people; causes dishes to rattle
V is felt by nearly everyone; breaks or tips over some objects
VI is felt by everyone; causes some damage to buildings
VII causes some damage to many buildings
VIII causes a lot of damage to ordinary buildings
IX causes much damage to earthquake-resistant buildings
X destroys many buildings; bends railroad tracks
XI destroys almost all buildings; breaks bridges
XII causes total destruction

The effects of an earthquake can be very different from Critical Thinking

place to place. One earthquake can have many different inten- 7. Explain Why is it that an
sity values, even though it has only one magnitude. Many earthquake can have many
things can affect the intensity of an earthquake. intensity values, even though
it has only one magnitude?
Factor How it affects intensity
Size of the earthquake Intensity is higher in larger earthquakes.
Distance from the epicenter Areas that are closer to the epicenter have
higher intensities.
Local geology Areas with hard rock in the ground have lower
intensities than areas on soft or wet soil.
Building features Short buildings made of wood or steel are not
damaged as much as taller buildings made of
brick or concrete.

INTENSITY MAPS
Scientists can measure the intensities of an earthquake
in different areas. They can use the measurements to
make an intensity map of an earthquake.
An intensity map shows which areas had the most
damage from the earthquake. By looking at intensity maps
for past earthquakes, scientists can figure out which
areas are likely to be damaged in future earthquakes.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 129 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.1.g

SECTION VOCABULARY
epicenter the point on Earth’s surface directly intensity in Earth science, the amount of
above an earthquake’s starting point, or focus damage caused by an earthquake
focus the point along a fault at which the first magnitude a measure of the strength of an
motion of an earthquake occurs earthquake

1. Explain What is the difference between a seismometer and a seismogram?

2. Compare Fill in the chart below to show the differences between an earthquake’s
magnitude and its intensity.

Feature What does it measure? What scale is used to measure it?

Magnitude

Intensity

3. Describe How is the focus of an earthquake related to the epicenter?

4. Infer An area that is far from the epicenter of an earthquake generally has a lower
intensity than an area closer to the epicenter. Why is this so?

5. Apply Concepts Which city would most likely be the epicenter of an earthquake:
San Francisco, California, or St. Paul, Minnesota? Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 130 Earthquakes
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 7 Earthquakes
SECTION

3 Earthquakes and Society

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.g, 6.2.d
these questions:
• Can scientists predict when earthquakes will happen?
• Why do some buildings survive earthquakes better
than others?
• How can you prepare for an earthquake?

What Is Earthquake Hazard?

Earthquake hazard is a measure of how likely it is STUDY TIP
that an area will have a damaging earthquake in the Concept Map As you read,
future. Scientists figure out the earthquake-hazard level underline the main ideas in
this section. After you have
by looking at the history of earthquakes in an area. Areas read the section, create a
that have had many large earthquakes in the past have Concept Map using your
higher earthquake-hazard levels than areas without many underlined ideas.
earthquakes.
Earthquake Hazard Map of the Continental United States

Highest
earthquake-hazard
level

TAKE A LOOK
1. Identify Which parts of
California have the highest
Lowest
earthquake-hazard
earthquake-hazard level?
level

Look at the map in the figure above. Notice that

California has the highest earthquake-hazard level in the
country. The San Andreas Fault Zone runs through most
of California, and a lot of earthquakes happen there. As a
result, California has a high earthquake-hazard level.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 131 Earthquakes
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SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society continued

Can Scientists Predict Earthquakes?

Scientists can’t predict earthquakes. But by looking at
how often earthquakes have happened in the past, they
can estimate where and when an earthquake will happen.
Look at the table below. It shows the number of earth-
quakes of different sizes that happen every year. There are a lot
more weak earthquakes than strong earthquakes every year.
Kind of earthquake Magnitude on the Average number
Richter scale every year
Great 8.0 and higher 1
Math Focus Major 7.0 to 7.9 18
2. Calculate About how Strong 6.0 to 6.9 120
many times more light Moderate 5.0 to 5.9 800
earthquakes than strong
earthquakes happen every Light 4.0 to 4.9 6,200
year? Minor 3.0 to 3.9 49,000
Very minor 2.0 to 2.9 365,000

Scientists can guess when an earthquake will happen

by looking at how many earthquakes have happened in the
past. For example, if only a few strong earthquakes have
happened recently in a fault zone, scientists can predict
that a strong earthquake is likely to happen soon.

What Is the Gap Hypothesis?

Some faults are very active. That is, they have a lot of
earthquakes every year. These faults sometimes have very
strong earthquakes. A part of an active fault that hasn’t had
a strong earthquake in a long time is called a seismic gap.
Critical Thinking The gap hypothesis says that if an active fault hasn’t
3. Apply Concepts What do had a strong earthquake in a long time, it is likely to have
you think is the reason that one soon. In other words, it says that earthquakes are
strong earthquakes are more more likely to happen in seismic gaps because pressure
likely to happen in seismic
gaps? builds up in these places.
"EFOREEARTHQUAKE
3AN&RANCISCO 3AN*OSE 3ANTA#RUZ

%ARTHQUAKESBEFORETHEEARTHQUAKE
)NSEISMOLOGISTSFOUNDASEISMICGAP
INTHE3AN!NDREAS&AULT4HEPICTURESSHOW
ASIDEVIEWOFTHEFAULTANDTHELOCATIONSOF
EARTHQUAKESONTHEFAULT
3EISMICGAP
EARTHQUAKEANDAFTERSHOCKS
!FTEREARTHQUAKE 3EISMOLOGISTSPREDICTEDTHATTHEREWASA
CHANCEOFASTRONGEARTHQUAKEIN
THESEISMICGAPWITHINYEARS)N
AMAGNITUDEEARTHQUAKEHAPPENED
AT,OMA0RIETA#ALIFORNIA-ANY
SEISMOLOGISTSTHINKTHATTHEGAPHYPOTH
3EISMICGAPFILLED ESISHELPEDTOPREDICTTHISEARTHQUAKE

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 132 Earthquakes
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SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society continued

How Do Earthquakes Affect Buildings?

Have you ever seen pictures of a city after a strong
earthquake? You may have noticed that some buildings
survive without very much damage. Other buildings, how-
ever, are totally destroyed.
Buildings that are damaged in an earthquake can be
dangerous to the people in or near them. The damage can
Critical Thinking
4. List Give three factors
also be useful, though. Engineers can study it to learn how that can affect how much a
to make buildings that can better survive earthquakes. building will be damaged in
an earthquake.

A mass damper is a
weight that is placed in
the roof of a building.
Computers can sense
when the building is
moving. The computers
move the mass damper
around to help keep
the building from
moving too much.

Steel cross braces are Flexible pipes can

found between the help to prevent water
floors in a building. lines and gas lines
They help to keep the from breaking. The
building from breaking pipes can bend and
when it moves from twist without breaking.
side to side.

TAKE A LOOK
5. Compare How is a mass
An active tendon system is like a damper different from an
mass damper, except it is placed active tendon system?
under the building.

Base isolators can absorb energy

during an earthquake. They keep
seismic waves from moving through
the building. Base isolators are
made of rubber, steel, and lead.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 133 Earthquakes
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SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society continued

What Are Tsunamis?

Earthquakes can affect water as well as land. A
tsunami is a series of very long water waves. Tsunamis
are often called “tidal waves.” Tsunamis can form when
a strong earthquake happens on the sea floor. They can
travel up to 800 km/h, from one side of the ocean to the
READING CHECK other.
6. Identify What is one thing
that can cause a tsunami?

TAKE A LOOK
7. Compare What happens
to the size of the waves as
a tsunami moves closer to
shore? An earthquake on the ocean floor causes a tsunami. A lot of water is
lifted up by the earthquake. As the water moves toward the shore, it
creates huge waves that flood the land.

How Do Tsunamis Cause Damage?

Out in the ocean, tsunami waves are fast but not very
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
tall. When they come close to shore, they slow down and
6.2.d Students know
get much taller. When a tsunami hits, it floods the land.
earthquakes, volcanic The water has a lot of energy and can smash or wash
eruptions, landslides, and away almost anything in its path.
floods change human and In December 2004, a very strong earthquake in the
wildlife habitats.
Indian Ocean caused a huge tsunami to hit part of Asia.
8. Infer How can a tsunami The tsunami killed more than 280,000 people. It also
change wildlife habitats?
destroyed people’s homes and businesses.

A tsunami on December 26, 2004, caused widespread destruction in Asia.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 134 Earthquakes
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SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society continued

How Can You Prepare for an Earthquake?

If you live in a place with a high earthquake-hazard
level, you and your family should have an earthquake
plan. If you plan ahead and practice your plan, you will
be better prepared for an earthquake. READING CHECK
9. Explain Why is it
How Can You Make an Earthquake Plan? important to make and
practice an earthquake plan?
YOUR SAFE HOME
Put heavy things near the floor so that they do not fall
during an earthquake. Keep electrical wires and other
things that can start a fire away from things that can
burn.
SAFE PLACES IN YOUR HOME
Make sure you know a safe place in each room in your
home. Safe places are areas that are far from windows
and heavy objects that can fall or break. READING CHECK
A PLAN TO MEET OTHERS 10. Identify Think of your
Talk to your family, friends, or neighbors and set up a home. Write down a safe place
in your home where you can
place where you all will meet after an earthquake. If go during an earthquake.
you all know where to meet each other, it will be easy
to make sure that everyone is safe.
AN EARTHQUAKE KIT
Your earthquake kit should have things that you
may need after an earthquake. Remember that your
electricity may not work after an earthquake. It may
be difficult to find clean water to drink.

What Should Be in an Earthquake Kit?

Water
A fire extinguisher
A small radio with batteries TAKE A LOOK
11. List List four foods
Medicines that are good to put in an
Food that won’t go bad earthquake kit.

A flashlight with batteries

Extra batteries
A first-aid kit

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 135 Earthquakes
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SECTION 3 Earthquakes and Society continued

What Should You Do During an Earthquake?

If you are inside when an earthquake happens, crouch
or lie face down under a table or a desk. Make sure you
are far from any windows or heavy objects that can break
READING CHECK or fall. Cover your head with your hands.
12. List Look around your If you are outside during an earthquake, lie face down
classroom. List two safe on the ground. Make sure you are far from buildings,
places that you can go in power lines, and trees. Cover your head with your hands.
case of an earthquake.
If you are in a car or bus, you should ask the driver to
stop. Everyone should stay inside the car or bus until the
earthquake is over.
If you are near the shore when an earthquake happens,
you should try to get to high ground in case there is a tsu-
nami. If there is no high ground, try to get to the top of a
building or tree.

Say It
Share Experiences Have If you are inside
you ever been in an during an earth-
earthquake or heard quake, you should
about an earthquake that crouch under a
happened somewhere else? table or a desk.
In a small group, talk about
what it was like.

What Should You Do After an Earthquake?

Being in an earthquake can be scary. After an earth-
quake happens, people are often confused about what
happened. They may not know what to do or where to
go. If you can stay calm, you can help to keep yourself
and others safe.
After an earthquake, look around you. If you are near
READING CHECK
something dangerous, like a power line or broken glass,
get away as quickly as you can. Never go into a building
13. Identify Who should
you ask if you want to after an earthquake until a parent, teacher, police officer,
know whether it is safe to go or firefighter tells you it is safe.
back into a building after an Always remember that there could be aftershocks.
earthquake?
Aftershocks are weak earthquakes that sometimes hap-
pen after a large earthquake. Even though they are
weaker than the main earthquake, they can still be strong
and damaging.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 136 Earthquakes
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Section 3 Review 6.1.g, 6.2.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
seismic gap an area along a fault where tsunami a large ocean wave caused by an
relatively few earthquakes have occurred earthquake or other disturbance such as a
recently but where strong earthquakes have volcanic eruption or a meteorite impact
occurred in the past

1. Identify What is the relationship between earthquakes and tsunamis?

2. Graphic Organizer Fill in the chart below to show what you should do during an
earthquake.
If you are... Then you should...
...inside a building,

...lie face down on the ground with your

hands on your head, far from power lines or
fire hazards.
...in a car or bus,

...at the beach,

3. Identify How do engineers know how to make a building more likely to survive
an earthquake?

4. Identify Relationships What is the relationship between the strength of an earth-

quake and how often it occurs?

5. Infer In most cases, you should stay inside a car or a bus in an earthquake. When
might it be better to leave a car or bus during an earthquake?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 137 Earthquakes
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CHAPTER 8 Volcanoes
SECTION

1 Why Volcanoes Form

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.1.d, 6.1.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• How do volcanoes form?
• What causes magma to form?
• Where do most volcanoes form?

What Is a Volcano?
STUDY TIP When you think of a volcano, what comes into your
Summarize in Pairs mind? Most people think of a steep mountain with smoke
Read this section quietly to coming out. In fact, a volcano is any place where gas, ash,
yourself. With a partner, take
turns explaining what you and melted rock come out of the ground. A volcano can be
learned. Work together to a tall mountain, or it can be a small hole in the ground.
figure out things that you or
your partner didn’t understand.
How Do Volcanoes Form?
At many tectonic plate boundaries, the rock that is just
below the surface melts. The melted rock, or magma, is
less dense than the solid rock, so it rises toward the sur-
face. When the magma gets to Earth’s surface, it erupts
and forms a volcano. Whether or not a rock melts depends
READING CHECK on three things: temperature, pressure, and fluid.
1. List What three things
control whether or not a rock TEMPERATURE
will melt? If a rock gets hot enough, parts of it will melt. On Earth’s
surface, few places are hot enough for rocks to melt. Deep
underground, temperatures can be very high. In many cases,
however, heat alone is not enough to make a rock melt. In
order for the rock to melt, the pressure on it must drop, or
water or other fluids must be added to it.

PRESSURE
READING CHECK Magma takes up more space than solid rock. This means
2. Explain Why does that rock must be able to expand in order to melt. In many
pressure have to be low in
order for magma to form?
places deep underground, hot rock cannot melt because it
is under too much pressure. Near Earth’s surface, however,
the pressure is low because not much rock is pushing
down from above. As solid rock rises to the surface, the
decreasing pressure allows the rock to melt.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 138 Volcanoes
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SECTION 1 Why Volcanoes Form continued

(IGH

TAKE A LOOK

4EMPERATURE
-ELTINGPOINT
3. Identify The graph shows
what happens to rock as
pressure and temperature
change. Fill in the blank
,OW
spaces on the graph with the
,OW 0RESSURE (IGH following words: melted rock
and solid rock.

FLUIDS
Rock that has fluids like water in it can melt more eas-
ily than dry rock. Therefore, when fluids are added to rocks
that are already very hot, the rocks can melt. The illustration
below shows how this can happen.
1. Rocks and mud of the
ocean crust are very wet. 4. The magma erupts.

Ocean crust Ocean crust

Mantle Mantle

2. When ocean crust is 3. The water mixes with the TAKE A LOOK
subducted, water gets squeezed rock in the mantle. This 4. Identify Draw a volcano
out of the rock and mud. The makes the mantle rock melt
and form magma.
in the proper place on the
water rises up into the mantle.
diagram.

Where Do Volcanoes Form?

Look at the map below. It shows the locations of many
of the volcanoes in the world. Can you see that most volca-
noes are found in chains? The chains of volcanoes seem to
break up the Earth’s crust into pieces. The pieces are tectonic
plates. Most volcanoes form at tectonic plate boundaries. READING CHECK
5. Identify Where do most
volcanoes form?

0LATEBOUNDARY
!CTIVEVOLCANO

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 139 Volcanoes
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SECTION 1 Why Volcanoes Form continued

WHERE PLATES MOVE APART

At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each
other. The crust stretches and gets thinner, so the
pressure decreases on the mantle rocks below. This
causes parts of the mantle to melt. Magma flows up
through cracks called fissures and out onto the land or
on the ocean floor. When the magma erupts underwater,
READING CHECK it forms a long mountain chain called a mid-ocean ridge.
6. Explain What causes
the rocks in the mantle at
divergent boundaries to melt? Volcanoes form at divergent boundaries,
where tectonic plates pull apart.

WHERE PLATES COME TOGETHER

At convergent boundaries, two plates move toward
each other and one plate sinks beneath the other. This
process is called subduction. As the sinking plate dives
deeper into the mantle, fluids get squeezed out of it. The
fluids make the rock above melt and form magma. This
magma rises to the surface and erupts to form volcanoes.
TAKE A LOOK
7. Explain Draw arrows
on the divergent boundary
Volcanoes form at convergent boundaries,
and convergent boundary to
where one plate sinks beneath another.
show which ways the plates
are moving.

IN THE MIDDLE OF A PLATE

Most volcanoes form at the edges of tectonic plates,
but some form in the middle. These volcanoes form
where columns of hot rock called mantle plumes rise up
through the mantle and crust. When the hot rock
Critical Thinking gets near the surface, it can melt and then erupt to form
a volcano.
8. Infer Hawaii is a chain of Areas on Earth’s surface that have volcanoes like these
volcanoes in the middle of
the Pacific Ocean. How did are called hot spots. As the plate moves over a mantle
the Hawaiian island chain plume, a chain of volcanic mountains can form.
form?

Volcanoes form in the middle of a plate

where the plate moves over a column
of hot rock called a mantle plume.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 140 Volcanoes
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Section 1 Review 6.1.d, 6.1.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
magma liquid rock produced under Earth’s volcano a vent or fissure in the Earth’s surface
surface; igneous rocks can form when magma through which magma and gases are expelled
cools and solidifies

1. Explain How are volcanoes and magma related?

2. List Name three things that can cause rock to melt and form magma.

3. Describe What causes magma to form at a divergent plate boundary?

4. Describe What causes magma to form at a convergent plate boundary?

5. Compare How are hot spot volcanoes different from volcanoes in other places?

6. Apply Concepts Why do most volcanoes form at plate boundaries?

7. Explain Give one reason that a very hot rock might not melt.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 141 Volcanoes
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CHAPTER 8 Volcanoes
SECTION

2 Types of Volcanoes
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.1.d, 6.1.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• Why are there different kinds of volcanoes?
• What are the parts of a volcano?
• How do types of lava differ?

Why Are Volcanoes Different from Each Other?

STUDY TIP You have probably noticed that not all volcanoes look
Color When you come to an the same. Some are tall and steep. Others are low and
illustration, use crayons or wide. The type of volcano that forms depends on the type
colored pencils to color it in.
Use a different color for each of lava it is made of.
part of the drawing. Include Lava is magma that has reached Earth’s surface. Lava
a legend. at different places on the Earth is made up of different
materials. In some places, lava is thin and runny, like
water. In other places, lava is thick and stiff. Because
there are different types of lava, there are different types
of volcanoes.
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.1.d Students know that
What Are the Parts of a Volcano?
earthquakes are sudden motions There are some features that most volcanoes have in
along breaks in the crust called
faults and that volcanoes and
common: a magma chamber, vents, and lava flows. In
fissures are locations where addition, most volcanoes experience earthquakes.
magma reaches the surface.

1. Describe Use the Lava Flows Lava runs out

illustration to describe of the vents and down
Earthquakes When magma rises
the sides of the volcano.
how magma inside a The rivers of lava are
through the crust, it can cause small
volcano becomes a lava earthquakes. By studying the
called lava flows. As they
earthquakes, scientists can sometimes
flow outside. cool and harden, they
predict when a volcano will erupt.
make the volcano bigger.

Vents When the magma

reaches the surface, it erupts
out of holes or openings in
the volcano. These holes are
called vents.

Magma Chamber Magma

moves from the mantle into
a pocket under the surface
called a magma chamber.
When the magma chamber
is full, magma rises through
the crust and erupts out of
the volcano.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 142 Volcanoes
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SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes continued

What Kind of Lava Forms at Hot Spots?

Most of the magma that erupts at hot spots forms when
parts of Earth’s mantle melt. Magma that comes from
the mantle is mafic. Mafic is a word that describes rock,
magma, or lava that has a lot of iron and magnesium but
not much silica in it. Most mafic rocks are dark in color. READING CHECK
2. Define What is mafic
rock?

Aa is lava that forms Pahoehoe is lava Blocky lava is Pillow lava is lava
a thick, brittle crust that forms a thin, cool, stiff lava that that erupts under
as it cools. The crust flexible crust as it does not travel water. As it cools,
is torn into sharp cools. The crust very far from the it forms rounded
pieces as lava moves wrinkles as the lava volcano. Blocky lava lumps that look like
underneath it. moves underneath it. usually oozes from pillows. Pillow lava
a volcano and forms is common at hot
piles of rocks with spots and divergent
sharp edges. boundaries.

What Kinds of Volcanoes Form at Hot Spots?

Because mafic lava is so runny, it can travel a long
distance before it hardens. As a result, mafic volcanoes
tend to be very wide and not very steep. Mafic volcanoes
are rarely explosive. READING CHECK
3. Explain Why are mafic
SHIELD VOLCANOES volcanoes so wide?
If mafic lava erupts from the same place for thousands
of years, lava flows build up. A wide, tall mountain called
a shield volcano can form. From the side, a shield volcano
looks like a knight’s shield. Most hot-spot volcanoes are
shields for two reasons: mafic lava is very runny, and the
volcano erupts over and over, for a very long period of time.

Lava flows

Mauna Kea is a shield volcano in Hawaii. Shield volcanoes form when many TAKE A LOOK
Its base is on the sea floor, but its top layers of mafic lava build up over 4. Identify On the illustra-
pokes above the ocean. If you measured time.
the height of Mauna Kea from the sea
tion, draw and label arrows
floor all the way to the top of the volcano, pointing to the magma
it would be taller than Mount Everest! chamber and the vents.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 143 Volcanoes
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SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes continued

What Kinds of Volcanoes Form at

Divergent Boundaries?
Like the lava at hot spots, most of the lava that erupts
at divergent boundaries comes from the mantle. As the
tectonic plates move apart, part of the mantle melts.
Magma rises up and fills the space between the plates.
Some of it erupts on the surface. Like hot-spot lava, the
READING CHECK lava at divergent boundaries is mafic.
5. Compare How is lava at
divergent boundaries similar MID-OCEAN RIDGE
to lava at hot spots? Most divergent boundaries are on the ocean floor.
When the mafic lava erupts, it forms a long chain of
undersea volcanoes known as the mid-ocean ridge.
Although mafic lava is thin and runny, it does not
travel very far underwater, because it hardens quickly.
The reason mid-ocean ridges are wide and low is because
the plates are moving apart. As soon as lava erupts and
hardens, it begins moving away from the vent.

-AGMARISESFROMTHEMANTLE

At mid-ocean ridges, magma moves upward from the mantle.

The magma erupts as lava. It then cools and hardens to form new
ocean floor. The plates keep moving apart and more lava erupts.
This process is called sea-floor spreading.

ICELAND
Iceland is part of the mid-ocean ridge that runs down the
center of the Atlantic Ocean. But it is also a hot spot. There is

Critical Thinking
a mantle plume beneath the mid-ocean ridge under Iceland.
Iceland is not deep underwater like the rest of the mid-ocean
6. Infer Iceland has an area ridge because there are so many volcanic eruptions.
of 100,000 km2. The Big
Island of Hawaii is only
10,000 km2. Explain why
Iceland is so much bigger.
The Krafla volcano in Iceland has
erupted 29 times in the last few
thousand years.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 144 Volcanoes
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SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes continued

What Kind of Lava Forms at

Convergent Boundaries?
The lava that erupts at convergent boundaries comes from
melted crust as well as melted mantle. Some of the lava is
mafic, but some of it is felsic. Felsic is a word that describes
rocks, magma, and lava that have a lot of silica but not very
much iron and magnesium in them. Most felsic rocks are light
in color. Felsic magma and lava are thick and sticky. READING CHECK
7. Compare Name one way
What Kinds of Volcanoes Form at that the lava at convergent
Convergent Boundaries? boundaries is different from
the lava at hot spots.
Have you ever shaken a can of soda and then opened it?
The foamy soda probably exploded out of the can. Felsic
magma does the same thing when it gets near Earth’s surface.
The low pressure near the surface causes the gas
and water trapped in the magma to form bubbles. The
bubbles cannot get out because the magma is thick and
sticky. When the pressure inside the bubbles gets too
high, the magma explodes. READING CHECK
When a volcano explodes, a lot of material is given off. 8. Explain Why does felsic
Gas, ash, and even large chunks called pyroclastic rocks magma explode when it gets
can be blown out of the volcano. Ash and dust can race near the surface?
down the side of a volcano like a river, forming a
pyroclastic flow. Pyroclastic flows are very dangerous.
They can be as hot as 700°C and can move at 200 km/h.
A pyroclastic flow can destroy everything in its path.

Volcanic bombs are Volcanic blocks are large pieces of solid

large blobs of lava rock that come out of a volcano.
that harden in the air.

Lapilli are small bits

of lava that harden
before they hit the
ground. Lapilli are
usually about the size
of pebbles.

Volcanic ash forms

when gases trapped
Math Focus
in magma or lava 9. Multiply How fast can
form bubbles. When
the bubbles explode,
pyroclastic flows move in
they create millions miles per hour?
of tiny pieces.
1 km ⫽ 0.62 mi

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 145 Volcanoes
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SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes continued

Pyroclastic
flows associated
with the 1991
eruption of Mount
TAKE A LOOK Pinatubo in the
10. Apply Concepts At Philippines had
what kind of tectonic plate temperatures that
boundary do you think the reached 750°C.
Philippines are located?

COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
Many of the volcanoes that form at convergent bound-
aries are composite volcanoes. Composite volcanoes are
made of layers of different materials. Some layers are
made of mafic lava flows. Other layers are made of ash,
dust, and other pyroclastic materials. Composite volca-
noes are also called stratovolcanoes because they are
READING CHECK made of strata, or layers.
11. Explain Why are Unlike shield volcanoes, most composite volcanoes
composite volcanoes also have very steep sides. Composite volcanoes can erupt
called stratovolcanoes? many times, but there may be hundreds of years between
eruptions.

TAKE A LOOK
12. Explain How can you
tell that Mount Fuji is a
composite volcano rather
than a shield volcano?

Mount Fuji is a composite volcano in Japan.

It has erupted many times.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 146 Volcanoes
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SECTION 2 Types of Volcanoes continued

CINDER CONES
Sometimes lava and ash come out of small vents and
spray out into the air. Pieces of lava harden in the air and
then rain down onto the ground. These hardened pieces
of lava are called cinders. The cinders and ash build up
around the vent and form a small, steep volcano called a
cinder cone.
Many cinder cones form at convergent boundaries,
but they can form at hot spots also. In fact, some shield
volcanoes have cinder cones on their sides. Unlike shield
volcanoes and composite volcanoes, most cinder cones
erupt only once. READING CHECK
Cinder cone volcanoes form 13. Explain Why are cinder
Ash Crater when ash from an eruption
cones smaller than shield
piles up. Most are small. Some
have a large crater at the top.
volcanoes?

Paracutín is a cinder cone volcano in Mexico. It formed in a

farmer’s cornfield in 1943. It erupted for nine years. At the
end of all that time, it was only 400 m tall.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 147 Volcanoes
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Section 2 Review 6.1.d, 6.1.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
felsic describes magma, lava, or igneous rock mafic describes magma, lava, or igneous rock
that is rich in feldspars and silica and that is that is rich in magnesium and iron and that is
generally light in color generally dark in color
lava magma that flows onto Earth’s surface; the
rock that forms when lava cools and solidifies

1. Compare What is the difference between lava and magma?

2. Explain Why are there different types of volcanoes?

3. Contrast Fill in the chart below to show the differences between mafic and felsic
lava.
Type of lava Where it forms What it is like How it erupts
mafic hot spots and flows in rivers
divergent boundaries

felsic thick and sticky

4. Explain Why are shield volcanoes wider than composite volcanoes and not as
steep?

5. Describe Relationships Describe one way that earthquakes and volcanoes are
related.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 148 Volcanoes
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CHAPTER 8 Volcanoes
SECTION

3 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.d
these questions:
• How do volcanic eruptions affect humans and wildlife?
• How can a volcanic eruption affect global temperature?
• What are the benefits of volcanic eruptions?

What Are Some Harmful Effects

of Volcanoes?
A volcanic eruption can hurt or kill humans and other STUDY TIP
living things. A volcano’s blast can destroy buildings and List As you read, make a
trees. An eruption can also cause large changes in the list of the effects of volcanic
eruptions. Using a colored
environment. pencil, underline harmful
Pyroclastic flows can race down the side of a volcano effects in red and helpful
and burn or bury everything in their path. Snow on top effects in green.
of a tall volcano can melt and cause dangerous floods.
Volcanic ash can mix with water and create fast-moving
mudflows called lahars.
Ash from a volcano can make it hard for people and
animals to breathe. It can also damage or ruin crops by
covering their leaves. Ash and gas from a volcano can
mix into the air and travel all around the world. The ash
in the air can block sunlight and make the world cooler
for several years.

TAKE A LOOK
1. Identify What is a likely
harmful effect of the volcanic
eruption shown in the picture?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 149 Volcanoes
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SECTION 3 Effects of Volcanic Eruptions continued

What Are Some Helpful Effects of Volcanoes?

Although volcanoes can cause damage, they can also
be very useful. For example, volcanic rocks, like other
rocks, break down to form soil. The soil that forms from
volcanic rocks contains nutrients that many plants need
in order to grow. Many farmers rely on volcanic soil to
READING CHECK grow enough food.
2. Explain Why is volcanic
soil good for growing plants?

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Critical Thinking Volcanoes can also give people a clean, renewable
3. Apply Concepts Explain energy source. When magma rises toward the surface, it
why a divergent boundary, heats up the rocks around it. Water underground heats up
such as the one in Iceland, when it flows through cracks in the hot rock.
would be a good source of
geothermal energy. People can pump the hot water out of the rocks and
use it to make electricity or to heat buildings. This kind
of energy is called geothermal energy.
There is a very large geothermal energy power plant
in Santa Rosa, California, called the Geysers. The Geysers
is the largest geothermal energy plant in the world! San
Francisco gets some of its electricity from the Geysers.

USES FOR VOLCANIC MATERIALS

Say It Rocks from volcanoes can be used to build large
Break Down Words In a buildings. The early Romans used volcanic ash from
group, break down the word Mount Vesuvius to make cement. Some of the buildings
geothermal into two parts. they made are still standing today!
Discuss what you think the
two parts mean. If you are Volcanic materials can be used for many other things.
having trouble, look them up Volcanic ash is used in cat litter, soaps, cleaners, and
in a dictionary. polishes. Pumice, a volcanic rock, can be added to soil to
help air and water move through it more easily. Pumice is
even used to filter drinking water.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 150 Volcanoes
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Section 3 Review 6.2.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
lahar a mudflow that forms when volcanic ash
and debris mix with water during a volcanic
eruption

1. Describe How can a lahar affect wildlife?

2. Compare Fill in the chart below with examples of helpful and harmful effects of
volcanic eruptions.
Type of effect Examples
Helpful

Harmful

3. Explain How can a volcanic eruption in one part of the world cause the tempera-

ture to change in another part of the world?

4. Describe How did the early Romans use volcanic ash?

5. Explain What can geothermal energy be used for?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 151 Volcanoes
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 9 Weathering and Soil Formation

SECTION

1 Weathering
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.2.a, 6.2.b After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is weathering?
• What causes mechanical weathering?
• What causes chemical weathering?

What Is Weathering?
STUDY TIP Have you ever wondered how large rocks turn into
Compare Make a chart smaller rocks? Weathering is the process in which rocks
showing the ways that break down. There are two main kinds of weathering:
mechanical weathering and
chemical weathering can mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.
happen.
What Is Mechanical Weathering?
Mechanical weathering happens when rocks are
broken into pieces by physical means. There are many
READING CHECK ways that mechanical weathering can happen.
1. Define What is
mechanical weathering? ICE WEDGING
Ice wedging is one kind of mechanical weathering. Ice
wedging breaks rock into pieces during cycles of freezing
and thawing.
The cycle of ice wedging starts when water seeps into
cracks in a rock. As the water freezes, it expands. The
ice pushes against the sides of the cracks. This causes
the cracks to widen. When the ice melts, the water seeps
further into the cracks. As the cycle repeats, the cracks
get bigger. Finally, the rock breaks apart.
)CE7EDGING
Critical Thinking
2. Infer Would ice wedging
happen if water did not
expand as it froze? Explain
your answer.

7ATER
)CE
7ATER
)CE
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 152 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Weathering continued

ABRASION
As you scrape a large block of chalk against a board,
tiny pieces of the chalk rub off on the board. The large
piece of chalk wears down and becomes smaller. The CALIFORNIA
same process happens with rocks. Abrasion is a kind STANDARDS CHECK
of mechanical weathering that happens when rocks 6.2.a Students know water
running downhill is the
are worn away by contact with other rocks. Abrasion dominant process in shaping the
happens whenever one rock hits another. Water, wind, landscape, including California’s
landscape.
and gravity can cause abrasion.
Word Help: dominant
having the greatest effect
Word Help: process
a set of steps, events, or
changes

3. Explain How does

running water cause
abrasion?

Water can cause abrasion Wind can cause abrasion Gravity can cause abrasion
by moving rocks and when it blows sand against by making rocks grind
causing them to hit rocks. This rock has been against each other as they
each other. The rocks in shaped by blowing sand. slide downhill. As the
this river are rounded rocks grind against each
because of abrasion. other, they are broken into
smaller pieces.

EXFOLIATION
Abrasion or other kinds of weathering can remove
layers of rock from a large body of rock. When the layers
of rock are removed, they no longer press down on the
rest of the rock. Therefore, there is less pressure on the
rest of the rock. The lower pressure on the rest of the
rock allows it to expand.
When the rock expands, sheets of rock can peel away
from the surface of the rock. Exfoliation is a kind of Say It
mechanical weathering that happens when sheets of Explore Meanings In a small
rock peel away from a larger rock because pressure is group, look up the word
exfoliate in the dictionary.
removed. Talk about where the word
comes from and the different
PLANT GROWTH ways it can be used.
Have you ever seen sidewalks and streets that are
cracked because of tree roots? As plants grow, their roots
get larger. The roots can make cracks in rock wider. In
time, an entire rock can split apart. Roots don’t grow fast,
but they are very powerful!

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 153 Weathering and Soil Formation
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SECTION 1 Weathering continued

ANIMALS
Did you know that earthworms cause a lot of
weathering? They tunnel through the soil and move
pieces of rock around. This motion breaks some of the
rocks into smaller pieces. It also exposes more rock
READING CHECK surfaces to weathering.
4. Describe How can Any animal that burrows in the soil causes mechanical
earthworms cause weathering. Ants, worms, mice, coyotes, and rabbits
weathering?
are just a few of the animals that can cause weathering.
The mixing and digging that animals do can also cause
chemical weathering, another kind of weathering.

What Is Chemical Weathering?

Rocks can be broken down by chemical means.
Chemical weathering happens when rocks break down
because of chemical reactions.
Water, acids, and air can all cause chemical
weathering. They react with the chemicals in the rock.
The reactions can break the bonds in the minerals that
make up the rock. When the bonds in the minerals are
READING CHECK broken, the rock can be worn away.
5. List What are three things
that can cause chemical WATER
weathering?
If you drop a sugar cube into a glass of water, the
sugar cube will dissolve after a few minutes. In a similar
way, water can dissolve some of the chemicals that make
up rocks. Even very hard rocks, such as granite, can be
broken down by water. However, this process may take
thousands of years or more.
#HEMICAL7EATHERINGIN'RANITE

%VENTUALLYMANYOFTHEMINERALSIN
'RANITEISMADEOFMANY THEGRANITEWILLBEBROKENDOWN4HE
DIFFERENTMINERALS2AINANDAIR SMALLPIECESOFMINERALSTHATARELEFT

TAKE A LOOK CANCONTAINCHEMICALSTHATREACT ARECALLEDSEDIMENT

WITHTHEMINERALS
6. Infer What do you think
is the reason it takes a very
long time for granite to break
down?

4HECHEMICALSINRAINANDAIRCANBREAK
DOWNTHEBONDSBETWEENTHEMINERALS
2AINCANDISSOLVESOMEOFTHEMINERALS
INTHEROCKANDWASHTHEMAWAY

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 154 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Weathering continued

ACID PRECIPITATION
Precipitation, such as rain and snow, always contains
a little bit of acid. However, sometimes precipitation
contains more acid than normal. Rain, sleet, or snow
that contains more acid than normal is called acid
precipitation.
Acid precipitation forms when small amounts of
certain gases mix with water in the atmosphere. The
gases come from natural sources, such as volcanoes.
They are also produced when people burn fossil fuels,
such as coal and oil. READING CHECK
The acids in the atmosphere fall back to the ground in 7. Identify What are two
rain and snow. Acids can dissolve materials faster than sources of the gases that
produce acid precipitation?
plain water can. Therefore, acid precipitation can cause
very rapid weathering of rock.

ACIDS IN GROUNDWATER
In some places, water flows through rock
underground. This water, called groundwater, may
contain weak acids. When the groundwater touches rock,
a chemical reaction takes place. The chemical reaction
dissolves the rock. Over a long period of time, huge caves
can form where rock has been dissolved.

TAKE A LOOK
8. Explain Caves like the
one in the picture are not
found everywhere. What do
you think controls where a
cave forms?

This cave was formed when acids in groundwater dissolved the rock.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 155 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Weathering continued

ACIDS FROM LIVING THINGS

All living things make weak acids in their bodies.
When the living things touch rock, some of the acids are
transferred to the surface of the rock.
The acids react with chemicals in the rock and weaken
it. The different kinds of mechanical weathering can
READING CHECK more easily remove rock in these weakened areas.
9. Explain How can acids The rock may also crack in the weakened areas. Even
from living things cause the smallest crack can expose more of the rock to both
mechanical weathering?
mechanical weathering and chemical weathering.

AIR
Have you ever seen a rusted car or building? Metal
reacted with something to produce rust. What did the
metal react with? In most cases, the answer is air.
The oxygen in the air can react with many metals.
These reactions are examples of a kind of chemical
weathering called oxidation. This common form of
chemical weathering is what causes rust. Rocks can rust
if they have a lot of iron in them.
Many people think that rust forms only when metal
gets wet. In fact, oxidation can happen even without any
water around. However, when water is present, oxidation
happens much more quickly.
Oxidation can cause rocks to weaken. Oxidation
changes the metals in rocks into different chemicals.
These chemicals are more easily broken down than the
metals were.
Factor How does it cause chemical weathering?
Water

Acid precipitation

Acids in groundwater

Acids from living things

TAKE A LOOK
10. Describe Fill in the
blank spaces in the table to Air
describe how different factors
cause chemical weathering.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 156 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.2.a, 6.2.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
abrasion the grinding and wearing away of rock exfoliation the process by which sheets of rock
surfaces through the mechanical action of peel away from a large body of rock because
other rock or sand particles pressure is removed
acid precipitation rain, sleet, or snow that mechanical weathering the process by which
contains a high concentration of acids rocks break down into smaller pieces by
chemical weathering the process by which physical means
rocks break down as a result of chemical weathering the natural process by which
reactions atmospheric and environmental agents, such
as wind, rain, and temperature changes,
disintegrate and decompose rocks

1. List What are three things that can cause abrasion?

2. Explain Fill in the spaces to show the steps in the cycle of ice wedging.

Water seeps
into cracks in
the rock.

The cracks
expand.

3. Identify How can acids cause chemical weathering?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 157 Weathering and Soil Formation
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CHAPTER 9 Weathering and Soil Formation

SECTION

2 Rates of Weathering
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.2.c After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is differential weathering?
• What factors affect how fast rock weathers?

What Is Differential Weathering?

STUDY TIP Hard rocks, such as granite, weather more slowly
Apply Concepts After you than softer rocks, such as limestone. Differential
read this section, think about weathering happens when softer rock weathers away
how the different factors that
control weathering can affect and leaves harder, more resistant rock behind. The
objects that you see every figures below show an example of how differential
day. weathering can shape the landscape.
-ILLIONSOFYEARSAGOMAGMA
ROSETHROUGHPARTOF%ARTHS
CRUST4HEMAGMAPUSHEDUP
%ARTHSSURFACE
THEROCKON%ARTHSSURFACE
TOFORMAMOUNTAIN

Say It
Discuss In a small group, -AGMA
share your ideas about how CHAMBER
some different landscape
features formed because of
differential weathering.
/VERTIMETHEMAGMACOOLED
ANDFORMEDHARDROCK4HE
SOFTERROCKON%ARTHSSURFACE
BEGANTOWEATHERANDWEAR %ARTHSSURFACE
AWAY

#OOLED
TAKE A LOOK MAGMA
HARDROCK
1. Infer Imagine that the
rock on the outside of the
mountain was much harder 4ODAYALLOFTHESOFTROCKOFTHE
MOUNTAINHASWEATHEREDAWAY
than the cooled magma.
4HEONLYTHINGTHATISLEFTIS
How might Devils Tower look
THEHARDROCKFROMINSIDETHE
today?
MOUNTAIN4HISHARDROCKFORMS
THEUNUSUALSTRUCTURECALLED
$EVILS4OWERIN7YOMING

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 158 Weathering and Soil Formation
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SECTION 2 Rates of Weathering continued

How Does a Rock’s Surface Area Affect

Weathering?
Most chemical weathering takes place only on the Critical Thinking
outer surface of a rock. Therefore, rocks with a lot 2. Explain Why does most
of surface area weather faster than rocks with a little chemical weathering happen
only on the outer surface of
surface area. However, if a rock has a large surface area a rock?
as well as a large volume, it takes longer for the rock to
wear down. The figure below shows how the surface area
and volume of a rock affect how fast it wears down.
Imagine a rock in the shape of a cube. Now imagine eight smaller rocks that are
Each side of the rock is 4 m long. The shaped like cubes. Each small rock’s side
volume of the cube is 4 m ⫻ 4 m ⫻ is 2 m long. The volume of each small rock
4 m ⫽ 64 m3. Each face of the rock is 2 m ⫻ 2 m ⫻ 2 m ⫽ 8 m3. The total
has an area of 4 m ⫻ 4 m ⫽ 16 m2. volume of all 8 rocks is 8 ⫻ 8 m3 ⫽ 64 m3,
Because there are eight faces on the the same as the large rock. Each face of
rock, it has a surface area of each small rock has an area of 2 m ⫻ 2 m
⫽ 4 m2. Each small rock has eight faces, Math Focus
8 ⫻ 16 m2 ⫽ m2. and there are eight rocks total. Therefore, 3. Calculate Determine the
the total surface area of all eight small rocks surface areas of the large
is 8 ⫻ 8 ⫻ 4 m2 ⫽ m2. This is twice cube and the eight smaller
M as big as the surface area of the large rock. cubes. Write these values in
the blank lines on the figure.
M

M

2m
Cube with 4 m sides: volume ⫽ 2m 2m

64 m3, surface area ⫽ m2

Eight cubes with 2 m sides: volume ⫽

64 m3, surface area ⫽ m2
Over time, the rock weathers. Its In the same amount of time, the smaller
volume and surface area get smaller. rocks weather more and become much
smaller. They lose a larger fraction of
their volume than the larger rock.

More time passes. The large rock is In the same amount of time, the small
weathered even more. It is now much rocks have completely worn away. They
smaller than it was before it was took much less time to wear away than
weathered. the large rock. Even though their volume
was the same, they had more surface TAKE A LOOK
area than the large rock. The large 4. Apply Concepts Why do
surface area allowed them to wear away the edges and corners of the
more quickly.
cubes weather faster than
the faces?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 159 Weathering and Soil Formation
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SECTION 2 Rates of Weathering continued

How Does Climate Affect Weathering?

The rate of weathering in an area is affected by the
climate of that area. Climate is the average weather
conditions of an area over a long period of time.
Some features of climate that affect weathering are
temperature, moisture, elevation, slope, and living things.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is a major factor in both chemical and
mechanical weathering. Cycles of freezing and thawing
increase the chance that ice wedging will take place.
Areas in the world that have many freezes and thaws
have faster mechanical weathering than other regions
do. In addition, many chemical reactions happen faster
at higher temperatures. These reactions can break down
READING CHECK rock quickly in warm areas.
5. Identify What is one
way that temperature affects MOISTURE
mechanical weathering?
Water can interact with rock as precipitation, as
running water, or as water vapor in the air. Water
can speed up many chemical reactions. For example,
oxidation can happen faster when water is present.
Water is also important in many kinds of mechanical
weathering. For example, ice wedging cannot happen
without water. Abrasion is also faster when water is
present.

ELEVATION, SLOPE, AND LIVING THINGS

Factor How the factor affects weathering

Elevation Rocks at high elevations are exposed to low temperatures

and high winds. They can weather very quickly. Rocks at sea
level can be weathered by ocean waves.
TAKE A LOOK
6. Explain Why do rocks Slope The steep sides of mountains and hills make water flow
on the sides of mountains down them faster. Fast-moving water has more energy to
break down rock than slow-moving water. Therefore, rocks
weather faster than rocks on
on steep slopes can weather faster than rocks on level
level ground? ground.

Living things Organisms in the soil can produce acid, which causes
chemical weathering. Plant roots and burrowing animals
can move soil and rocks. Weathering may happen faster in
places with many living things.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 160 Weathering and Soil Formation
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Section 2 Review 6.2.c

SECTION VOCABULARY
differential weathering the process by which
softer, less weather resistant rocks wear away
at a faster rate than harder, more weather
resistant rocks do

1. Identify What are five factors that affect how fast weathering happens?

2. Explain Why does it take less time for small rocks to wear away than it does for
large rocks to wear away?

3. Describe Imagine a rock on a beach and a rock on the side of a mountain. How
would the factors that control weathering be different for these two rocks?

4. Apply Concepts Two rivers run into the ocean. One river is very long. The other is
very short. Which river probably drops the smallest rock pieces near the ocean?
Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 161 Weathering and Soil Formation
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CHAPTER 9 Weathering and Soil Formation

SECTION

3 From Bedrock to Soil

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.e After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is soil?
• How do the features of soil affect the plants that
grow in it?
• What is the effect of climate on soil?

Where Does Soil Come From?

STUDY TIP What do you think of when you think of soil? Most
Summarize in Pairs Read people think of dirt. However, soil is more than just dirt.
this section quietly to Soil is a loose mixture of small mineral pieces, organic
yourself. Then, talk about
the material with a partner. material, water, and air. All of these things help to make
Together, try to figure out soil a good place for plants to grow.
the parts that you didn’t Soils are made from weathered rocks. The rock that
understand.
breaks down and forms a soil is called the soil’s parent
rock. Different parent rocks are made of different
chemicals. Therefore, the soils that form from these
READING CHECK rocks are also made of different chemicals.
1. Explain Why are different Bedrock is the layer of rock beneath soil. In some
soils made of different cases, the bedrock is the same as the parent rock. In
chemicals? these cases, the soil remains in place above its parent
rock. Soil that remains above its parent rock is called
residual soil.
The material in soil is easily moved. Therefore, not
very many soils are residual soils. Soil can be carried
away from its parent rock by wind, water, ice, or gravity.
Soil that has been moved away from its parent rock is
called transported soil.

The soil is The soil is

weathered carried in from
from bedrock. another place.

The bedrock is The bedrock is

the same as the not the same as
TAKE A LOOK parent rock. the parent rock.
2. Identify Fill in the blanks
with the terms residual soil
and transported soil.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 162 Weathering and Soil Formation
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SECTION 3 From Bedrock to Soil continued

What Are the Properties of Soil?

Some soils are great for growing plants. However,
plants cannot grow in some other soils. Why is this?
To better understand how plants can grow in soil, you
must know about the properties of soil. These properties
include soil composition, soil texture, and soil fertility. READING CHECK
3. Identify What are three
SOIL COMPOSITION properties of soil?
Soil is made up of mineral fragments, organic material,
water, and air. Different soils have different amounts
of these materials. For example, some soils contain
more water or air than other soils do. Soil composition
describes the kinds and amounts of different materials in
the soil. CALIFORNIA
The composition of a soil can affect the kinds of plants STANDARDS CHECK
6.5.e Students know the
that grow in it. For example, dark-colored soil is often number and type of organisms
rich in organic material. More kinds of plants can grow in an ecosystem can support
depends on the resources
dark-colored soil than in soil that has less organic matter. available and on abiotic factors,
such as quantities of light and
water, a range of temperatures,
SOIL TEXTURE and soil composition.
Soil is made of particles of different sizes. Some Word Help: resource
particles, such as sand, are fairly large. Other particles anything that can be used
are so small that they cannot be seen without a to take care of a need
microscope. Soil texture describes the amounts of soil 4. Explain How can soil
particles of different sizes that a soil contains. composition affect the
plants that can grow in
Soil texture affects the consistency of soil and
soil?
how easily water can move into the soil. Consistency
describes how easily a soil can be broken up for farming.
For example, soil that contains a lot of clay can be hard,
which makes breaking up the soil difficult. Most plants
grow best in soils that can be broken up easily.
Clay particles are smaller than
0.002 mm in diameter.

Silt particles are 0.002 mm to

0.05 mm in diameter.

Math Focus
5. Calculate How many
times larger is the biggest silt
Sand particles are 0.05 mm to
2 mm in diameter. particle than the biggest clay
particle?
Soil contains particles of many different sizes. However, all of the particles are
smaller than 2 mm in diameter.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 163 Weathering and Soil Formation
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SECTION 3 From Bedrock to Soil continued

SOIL FERTILITY
Plants need to get nutrients from soil in order to grow.
Some soils are rich in nutrients. Other soils may have
few nutrients or may be unable to give the nutrients to
plants. The ability of soil to hold nutrients and to supply
nutrients to plants is called soil fertility.
Many of the nutrients in a soil come from its parent
rock. Other nutrients come from humus. Humus is the
organic material that forms in soil from the remains of
plants and animals. These remains are broken down into
nutrients by decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi. It
READING CHECK is humus that gives dark-colored soils their color.
6. Define What is humus?
What Are the Different Layers in Soil?
Most soil forms in layers. The layers are horizontal, so
soil scientists call them horizons.
Horizon
name Description
The O horizon is made of
decaying material from dead
O organisms. It is found in
some areas, such as forests,
but not in others.

The A horizon is made of

A topsoil. Topsoil contains
more humus than any other
soil horizon does.
Water dissolves
The E horizon is a layer of
and removes E
sediment with very few
nutrients as it
nutrients in it. The nutrients
passes through
in the E horizon have been
the soil.
removed by water.

TAKE A LOOK The B horizon is very rich in

7. Infer Name a kind of B nutrients. The nutrients that
environment where an were washed out of other
O horizon would probably horizons collect in the B
not be found. horizon.

8. Identify Which three soil The C horizon is made of

partly weathered bedrock or
horizons probably have the
of sediments from other
most nutrients? C locations.

The R horizon is made of

bedrock that has not been
R weathered very much.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 164 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 From Bedrock to Soil continued

Why Is the pH of a Soil Important?

The pH scale is used to measure how acidic or basic
something is. The scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is
a neutral pH. Soil that has a pH below 7 is acidic. Soil
that has a pH above 7 is basic.
More acidic Neutral More basic

pH 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
TAKE A LOOK
Lemon 9. Identify Which is more
juice Milk Sea acidic, lemon juice or a soft
Soft Household
water
drink ammonia drink?
Acid rain Clean rain Detergents

The pH of a soil affects how nutrients dissolve in

the soil. Many plants are unable to get certain nutrients
from soils that are very acidic or basic. The pH of a soil
therefore has a strong effect on soil fertility. Most plants
grow best in soil with a pH of 5.5 to 7.0. A few plants
grow best in soils with higher or lower pH.
Soil pH is determined partly by the soil’s parent rock.
Soil pH is also affected by the acidity of rainwater, the use
of fertilizers, and the amount of chemical weathering. READING CHECK
10. List What are three
How Does Climate Affect Soil? things that affect soil pH?
Soil types vary from place to place. The kinds of
soils that develop in an area depend on its climate. The
different features of these soils affect the number and
kinds of organisms that can survive in different areas.

TROPICAL CLIMATES
Tropical rain forests receive a lot of direct sunlight and
rain. Because of these factors, plants grow year-round.
The heat and moisture also cause dead organisms to
decay easily. This decay produces a lot of rich humus in
the soil.
Even though a lot of humus can be produced in
tropical rain forests, their soils are often poor in nutrients.
One reason for this is that tropical rain forests have heavy READING CHECK
rains. The heavy rains in this climate zone can remove, or 11. Explain Why are
leach, nutrients from the topsoil. The rainwater carries the many tropical soils poor in
nutrients deep into the soil, where the plants can’t reach nutrients?
them. In addition, the many plants that grow in tropical
climates can use up the nutrients in the soil.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 165 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 From Bedrock to Soil continued

DESERTS AND ARCTIC CLIMATES

Deserts and arctic climates receive little rainfall.
Therefore, the nutrients in the soil are not leached by
rainwater. However, the small amount of rain in these
climates makes weathering happen more slowly. As a
result, soil forms slowly.
Few plants and animals live in deserts and arctic
climates. Therefore, most soils there contain very little
humus.
Critical Thinking Sometimes, desert soils can become harmful, even to
12. Apply Concepts As in desert plants. Groundwater can seep into the desert soil.
deserts, groundwater in arctic The groundwater often contains salt. When the water
climates can contain salt. Salt
does not build up in arctic
evaporates, the salt is left in the soil. The salt can build
soils as quickly as in desert up in the soil and harm plants.
soils. What do you think is
the reason for this?
TEMPERATE FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS
Most of the continental United States has a temperate
climate. Because the temperature changes often,
mechanical weathering happens quickly in temperate
climates. Thick layers of soil can build up.
Temperate areas get a medium amount of rain. The
rain is enough to weather rock quickly, but it is not
enough to remove nutrients from the soil.
Temperate soils are very productive. Many different
kinds of plants can grow in them. Therefore, they
contain a lot of humus. The large amount of humus
makes the soils very rich in nutrients. The most fertile
soils in the world are found in temperate climates. For
example, the Midwestern part of the United States is
often called the “breadbasket” because of the many
crops that grow there.

Features of the soil in

Type of climate Description of climate this climate
Tropical climates warm temperatures
a lot of rain
many living things
Deserts and arctic very little rain
climates few living things

Temperate forests and medium amount of rain

TAKE A LOOK grasslands temperature changes
13. Describe Fill in the chart often
to show the features of soils
in different climates.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 166 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
bedrock the layer of rock beneath soil parent rock a rock formation that is the source
humus dark, organic material formed in soil of soil
from the decayed remains of plants and soil a loose mixture of rock fragments, organic
animals material, water, and air that can support the
growth of vegetation

1. Summarize What are three properties of soil?

2. Compare What climate feature do arctic climates and desert climates share that
makes their soils similar?

3. Analyze How can flowing water affect the fertility of soils?

4. Identify How does soil pH affect plant growth?

5. Explain What determines a soil’s texture?

6. Apply If the soil in your yard is mostly clay, how can you change its properties to
make it better for growing plants?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 167 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 9 Weathering and Soil Formation

SECTION

4 Soil Conservation
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.2.a, 6.5.e, 6.6.b After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• Why is soil important?
• How can farmers conserve soil?

Why Is Soil Important?

STUDY TIP You have probably heard about endangered plants and
Compare Create a chart animals. Did you know that soil can be endangered, too?
that shows the similarities Soil can take many years to form. It is not easy to replace.
and differences between the
ways that farmers can help Therefore, soil is considered a nonrenewable resource.
conserve soil. Soil is important for many reasons. Soil provides
nutrients for plants. If the soil loses its nutrients, plants
will not be able to grow. Soil also helps to support plant
roots so the plants can grow well.
Animals get their energy from plants. The animals get
energy either by eating plants or by eating animals that
have eaten plants. If plants are unhealthy because the soil
has few nutrients, then animals will be unhealthy, too.
Soil also provides a home, or habitat, for many living
things. Bacteria, insects, mushrooms, and many other
organisms live in soil. If the soil disappears, so does the
READING CHECK habitat for these living things.
1. Explain Why is soil Soil is very important for storing water. Soil holds
important for animals? water that plants can use. Soil also helps to prevent
floods. When rain falls, the soil can soak it up. The water
is less likely to run over the land and cause floods.

What does soil provide? Why is it important?

Nutrients
TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify In the table, fill Habitat
in the reasons that nutrients,
habitat, and water storage Water storage
are important.

If we do not take care of soils, we could lose them.

In order to keep our soils from being lost, we need to
conserve them. Soil conservation means protecting soils
from erosion and nutrient loss. Soil conservation can
help to keep soils fertile and healthy.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 168 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Soil Conservation continued

How Can Soil Be Lost?

Soil loss is a major problem around the world. One
CALIFORNIA
cause of soil loss is soil damage. Soil can be damaged if STANDARDS CHECK
it is overused. Overused soil can lose its nutrients and 6.2.a Students know water
become infertile. Plants can’t grow in infertile soil. running downhill is the
dominant process in shaping
Plants help to hold water in the soil. If plants can’t the landscape, including
California’s landscape.
grow somewhere because the soil is infertile, the
area can become a desert. This process is known as Word Help: dominant
having the greatest effect
desertification.
Word Help: process
EROSION a set of steps, events, or
changes
Another cause of soil loss is erosion. Erosion happens
when wind, water, or gravity transports soil and sediment 3. Describe How do plant
from one place to another. If soil is not protected, it can roots prevent erosion?
be exposed to erosion.
Plant roots help to keep soil in place. They prevent
water and wind from carrying the soil away. If there are
no plants, soil can be lost through erosion.

How Can Farmers Help to Conserve Soil?

Farming can cause soil damage. However, farmers can
prevent soil damage if they use certain methods when
they plow, plant, and harvest their fields.

CONTOUR PLOWING
Water that runs straight down a hill can carry away
a lot of soil. Farmers can plow their fields in special
ways to help slow the water down. When the water
moves more slowly down a hill, it carries away less soil.
Contour plowing means plowing a field in rows that run
across the slope of a hill.

TAKE A LOOK
4. Identify Fill in the blank
line in the figure to explain
Contour plowing helps water to run more slowly down hills. This reduces how contour plowing
erosion because reduces erosion.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 169 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Soil Conservation continued

TERRACES
Critical Thinking On very steep hills, farmers can use terraces to
5. Infer What do you think prevent soil erosion. Terraces change one very steep field
is the reason farmers use into many smaller, flatter fields.
terraces only on very steep
hills?

Terraces keep water from running downhill very quickly.

NO-TILL FARMING
In no-till farming, farmers leave the stalks from old crops
lying on the field while the newer crops grow. The old
stalks protect the soil from rain and help reduce erosion.

CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.5.e Students know the num-
ber and types of organisms an
ecosystem can support depends
on the resources available
and on abiotic factors, such as
quantities of light and water, a
range of temperatures, and soil
composition.

Word Help: resource

anything that can be used The stalks left behind in no-till farming reduce
erosion by protecting the soil from rain.
to take care of a need
COVER CROPS
6. Apply Concepts How
can crop rotation affect the Cover crops are crops that are planted between harvests
number of plants that soil of a main crop. Cover crops can help to replace nutrients in
can support? the soil. They can also prevent erosion by providing cover
from wind and rain.

CROP ROTATION
If the same crop is grown year after year in the same
field, the soil can lose certain nutrients. To slow this
process, a farmer can plant different crops in the field every
year. Different crops use different nutrients from the soil.
Some crops used in crop rotation can replace soil nutrients.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 170 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.2.a, 6.5.e, 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
erosion the process by which wind, water, ice, soil conservation a method to maintain the fer-
or gravity transports soil and sediment from tility of soil by protecting the soil from erosion
one location to another and nutrient loss

1. Explain Why is soil a nonrenewable resource?

2. Describe How is weathering different from erosion?

3. Identify What are two causes of soil loss?

4. Explain How does no-till farming help to reduce erosion?

5. List What are five ways that farmers can help to conserve soil?

6. Apply Many gardeners put mulch, which is usually shredded bark or straw,
around their plants in the fall. How do you think this helps conserve soil?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 171 Weathering and Soil Formation
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 10 Agents of Erosion and Deposition

SECTION

1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.2.a, 6.2.c, 6.3.a
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is a shoreline?
• How do waves shape shorelines?

How Do Waves Form?

STUDY TIP Waves form when wind blows over the surface of the
Summarize Read this sec- ocean. Strong winds produce large waves. The waves
tion quietly to yourself. With move toward land. When waves crash into the land over a
a partner, talk about what
you learned. Together, try to
long time, they can break rock down into smaller pieces.
figure out the answers to any These pieces are called sand.
questions that you have. A shoreline is a place where the land and the water
meet. Most shorelines contain sand. The motion of waves
helps to shape shorelines. During erosion, waves remove
sand from shorelines. During deposition, waves add sand
READING CHECK to shorelines.
1. Compare How is wave
erosion different from wave WAVE TRAINS
deposition? Waves move in groups called wave trains. The waves
in a wave train are separated by a period of time called
the wave period. You can measure the wave period by
counting the seconds between waves breaking on the
shore. Most wave periods are 10 s to 20 s long.
When a wave reaches shallow water, the bottom of the
wave drags against the sea floor. The bottom slows down.
As the water gets shallower, the wave gets taller. The wave
gets so tall, it can’t support itself. It begins to curl, fall over,
and break. Breaking waves are called surf.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify On the figure, Waves travel in groups called wave trains. The time between one wave and the next
label the wave train. is the wave period.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 172 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
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SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition continued

POUNDING SURF
The energy in waves is constantly breaking rock into
smaller and smaller pieces. Crashing waves can break
solid rock and throw the pieces back toward the shore.
Breaking waves can enter cracks in the rock and break off
large boulders. Waves also pick up fine grains of sand. The
loose sand wears down other rocks on the shore. READING CHECK
3. Identify Give two ways
What Are the Effects of Wave Erosion? that waves can break rock
Wave erosion can produce many features along a into smaller pieces.

shoreline. For example, sea cliffs form when waves erode

rock to form steep slopes. As waves strike the bottom of
the cliffs, the waves wear away soil and rock and make the
cliffs steeper.
How fast sea cliffs erode depends on how hard the rock
is and how strong the waves are. Cliffs made of hard rock,
such as granite, erode slowly. Cliffs made of soft rock, Critical Thinking
such as shale, erode more quickly. 4. Identify Relationships
During storms, large, high-energy waves can erode When may a storm not pro-
duce high-energy waves?
the shore very quickly. These waves can break off large
chunks of rock. Many of the features of shorelines are
shaped by storm waves. The figures below and at the top
of the next page show some of these features.

3EACAVESFORMWHEN
WAVESCUTHOLESINTO
WEAKROCKATTHE
BOTTOMOFSEACLIFFS

TAKE A LOOK
3EAARCHESFORMWHENWAVESCUT
5. Compare How is a sea
THROUGHPARTOFAROCKBODY 3EASTACKSARECOLUMNS stack different from a sea
OFROCKTHATARESEPARATE arch?
FROMTHERESTOFTHE
SHORE4HEYAREMADEOF
HARDROCKTHATERODES
MORESLOWLYTHANTHEREST
OFTHESHORE

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 173 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition continued

(EADLANDSARE
FINGER SHAPEDBODIES
OFROCKTHATSTICKOUT
INTOTHESEA4HEY
AREMADEOFHARDER
ROCKTHANTHERESTOF
THESHORE

TAKE A LOOK 7AVE CUTTERRACESFORM

6. Define What is a WHENSEACLIFFSAREWORN
headland? BACKFROMTHESHORE4HIS
PRODUCESANEARLYFLAT
PLATFORMBENEATHTHEWATER
ATTHEBASEOFTHECLIFF

What Are the Effects of Wave Deposition?

Waves carry many materials, such as sand, shells, and
small rocks. When the waves deposit these materials
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK on the shoreline, a beach forms. A beach is any area of
6.2.c Students know beaches shoreline that is made of material deposited by waves.
are dynamic systems in which Some beach material is deposited near oceans by rivers
the sand is supplied by rivers
and moved along the coast by and moves down the shoreline by the action of waves.
the action of waves.

Word Help: dynamic BEACH MATERIALS

active Many people think that all beaches are made of sand.
7. Define Write your own However, beaches may be made of many materials, not
definition for beach. just sand. The size and shape of beach material depend on
how far the material traveled before it was deposited. They
also depend on how the material is eroded. For example,
beaches in stormy areas may be made of large rocks
because smaller particles are removed by the waves.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 174 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition continued

BEACH COLOR
The color of a beach depends on the particles deposited
there. Many beaches are light-colored because light-
colored sand is the most common beach material. Most
light-colored sand is made of the mineral quartz, which
comes from eroded sandstone. Many Florida beaches are
made of quartz sand. On many tropical beaches, the sand
is white. It is made of finely ground white coral. READING CHECK
Beaches can also be black or dark-colored. Black- 8. Identify What mineral
sand beaches are found in Hawaii. Their sands are made is most light-colored sand
of eroded lava from volcanoes. This lava is rich in dark- made of?
colored minerals, so the sand is also dark-colored. The
figures below show some examples of beaches from
across the United States.

This beach in New England is

made of large rocks. Smaller
sand particles are washed away
during storms.
This beach in Florida is made
of light-colored quartz sand.

TAKE A LOOK
This beach in Hawaii is made of The sand at this beach in 9. Explain Why are some
dark-colored sand from igneous California is made of light-
rocks. colored minerals.
beaches made mostly of
larger rock pieces, instead of
sand?

CALIFORNIA BEACHES
California has both rocky and sandy beaches. Many
rocky beaches are found where mountains or cliffs meet
the ocean. Many sandy beaches form on the edges of
gently sloping land. Most sandy beaches get some of their
sand from rivers.
The materials that make up California beaches also
vary. Materials from different sources have different colors
and compositions. For example, the sand at Shelter Cove
in Humboldt County is grey because it is made of eroded
shale. The white sand at Carmel is made of light-colored
quartz and feldspar. The dark sand near Santa Cruz
contains dark grains of magnetite from igneous rock.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 175 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition continued

BEACH SIZE
The amount of sand on a beach can change with the
seasons. In California, beaches can become narrower in
winter. Large waves from winter storms erode sand away
from the beaches. The eroded sand can be trapped in areas
away from the shore. Small waves return the sand to the
READING CHECK beaches during the summer.
10. Explain Why do some
beaches in California get SHORE CURRENTS
smaller in the winter? After waves crash on the beach, the water glides back
to the ocean. It flows underneath the incoming waves. This
kind of water movement is called undertow. Undertow
carries sand and pieces of rock away from the shore.

LONGSHORE CURRENTS
In some cases, water travels parallel to the shoreline
very near the shore. This current is called a longshore
current.
Longshore currents form when waves hit the shore at
an angle instead of head-on. The waves wash sand onto
the shore at the same angle that the waves are moving.
However, when the waves wash back into the ocean, they
move sand directly down the slope of the beach. This
causes the sand to move in a zigzag pattern, as shown in
the figure below.

Waves hitting the shore move

sand in the same direction that
the waves are traveling.
The sand moves down the
beach in a zigzag pattern.

Wave direction

TAKE A LOOK
11. Infer Why don’t long-
shore currents form in places
where waves hit the shore
head-on?

Direction of
longshore current
Waves wash back into the ocean
and carry sand straight down the
slope of the beach.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 176 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
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SECTION 1 Shoreline Erosion and Deposition continued

OFFSHORE DEPOSITS
Longshore currents can carry beach material offshore.
This process can produce landforms in open water. These
landforms include sandbars, barrier spits, and barrier
islands.
A sandbar is a ridge of sand, gravel, or broken shells
that is found in open water. Sandbars may be completely
underwater or they may stick above the water. READING CHECK
A barrier spit is a sandbar that sticks above the water 12. Define What is a
and is connected to the shoreline. A barrier island is a sandbar?
long, narrow island that forms parallel to the shoreline.
Most barrier islands are made of sand.

TAKE A LOOK
13. Identify What is a
barrier spit?

Cape Cod, Massachusetts, is an example of a barrier spit. Barrier spits form when
sandbars are connected to the shoreline.

CALIFORNIA ISLANDS
California is different from many other states because
it has offshore islands. For example, the Channel
Islands are found off the southern California coast. They
formed millions of years ago. They were once part of the
mainland. Now they are separated from the mainland by
the Santa Monica and San Pedro Channels. The Channel
Islands protect the coastline. They reduce the erosion of
coastal cliffs by storm waves.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 177 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.2.a, 6.2.c, 6.3.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
beach an area of the shoreline that is made up shoreline the boundary between land and a
of deposited sediment body of water
longshore current a water current that travels undertow a subsurface current that is near shore
near and parallel to the shoreline and that pulls objects out to sea

1. Compare How is a longshore current different from undertow?

2. Explain Where does the energy to change the shoreline come from?
Explain your answer.

3. Identify Give two examples of different-colored beach sand and explain why each
kind is a certain color.

4. Explain How do longshore currents move sand?

5. List Give five landforms that are produced by wave erosion.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 178 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 10 Agents of Erosion and Deposition

SECTION

2 Wind Erosion and Deposition

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.a, 6.7.e
these questions:
• How can wind erosion shape the landscape?
• How can wind deposition shape the landscape?

How Can Wind Erosion Affect Rocks?

Wind can move soil, sand, and small pieces of rock. STUDY TIP
Therefore, wind can cause erosion. However, some areas Learn New Words As you
are more likely to have wind erosion than other areas. For read this section, underline
words you don’t understand.
example, plant roots help to hold soil and rock in place. When you figure out what
Therefore, areas with few plants, such as deserts and they mean, write the words
coastlines, are more likely to be eroded by wind. These and their definitions in your
notebook.
areas also may be made of fine, loose rock particles. Wind
can move these particles easily.
Wind can shape rock pieces in three ways: saltation, READING CHECK

deflation, and abrasion. 1. Explain How do plant

roots help to prevent wind
erosion?
SALTATION
Wind moves large grains of soil, sand, and rock by
saltation. Saltation happens when sand-sized particles
skip and bounce along in the direction that the wind is
moving. When moving sand grains hit one another, some of
the grains bounce up into the air. These grains fall back to
the ground and bump other grains. These other grains can
then move forward.

3MALLERPARTICLESARELIFTED
ANDCARRIEDBYTHEWIND
7INDDIRECTION

TAKE A LOOK
2. Apply Concepts Why
can’t the wind lift and carry
large particles?

,ARGERPARTICLESBOUNCEAND
SKIPALONGTHEGROUND

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 179 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
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SECTION 2 Wind Erosion and Deposition continued

DEFLATION
Wind can blow tiny particles away from larger rock
pieces during deflation. Deflation happens when wind
removes the top layers of fine sediment or soil and leaves
READING CHECK behind larger rock pieces.
3. Define What is deflation? Deflation can form certain land features. It can produce
desert pavement, which is a surface made of pebbles and
small, broken rocks. In some places, the wind can scoop
out small, bowl-shaped areas from fine sediment. These
areas are called deflation hollows.

ABRASION
Wind can grind and wear down rocks by abrasion.
Abrasion happens when rock or sand wears down larger
pieces of rock. Abrasion happens in areas where there
are strong winds, loose sand, and soft rocks. The wind
blows the loose sand against the rocks. The sand acts like
sandpaper to erode, smooth, and polish the rocks.
Process Description
Large particles bounce and skip along the ground.
TAKE A LOOK Deflation
4. Complete Fill in the blank
Abrasion
spaces in the table.

What Landforms Are Produced by Wind

Deposition?
Wind can carry material over long distances. The
wind can carry different amounts and sizes of particles
depending on its speed. Fast winds can carry large
particles and may move a lot of material. However, all
winds eventually slow down and drop their material. The

Critical Thinking
heaviest particles fall first.
Barriers, such as plants and rocks, cause the wind to
5. Infer What do you think slow down. As it slows, the wind deposits particles on
is the reason that fast winds
top of the barrier. As the dropped material builds up, the
can carry larger particles than
slower winds? barrier gets larger. The barrier causes the wind to slow
down even more. More and more material builds up on the
barrier until a mound forms. The sand completely buries
the original barrier.
A mound of wind-deposited sand is called a dune.
Dunes are common in sandy deserts and along sandy
shores of lakes and oceans.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 180 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
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SECTION 2 Wind Erosion and Deposition continued

CALIFORNIA DUNES
There are many formations of dunes in California. They
are found in coastal and desert areas. People use these
areas for activities such as camping.
One major coastal dune system is the Monterey Bay Math Focus
Dunes, which covers 40 square miles. The largest desert 6. Calculate How many
times larger is the Algodones
sand-dune system in the state is the Algodones. The
sand-dune system than the
Algodones are in southeast California. They cover 1,000 Monterey Bay Dunes?
square miles.

THE MOVEMENT OF DUNES

Wind conditions affect a dune’s shape and size. In
general, dunes move in the same direction the wind is
blowing. A dune has one gently sloped side and one steep
side. The gently sloped side faces the wind. It is called the
windward slope. The wind constantly moves sand up this
side. As sand moves over the top of the dune, the sand
slides down the steep side. The steep side is called the
slip face. READING CHECK
7. Identify In what direction
Windward do dunes generally move?
slope
Wind direction Slip face

TAKE A LOOK
Direction of 8. Compare How is the
dune movement windward slope of a dune
different from the slip face?
The wind blows sand up the windward slope of the dune. The sand moves over the
top of the dune and falls down the steep slip face. In this way, dunes move across
the land in the direction that the wind blows.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 181 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.2.a, 6.7.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
abrasion the grinding and wearing away of rock dune a mound of wind-deposited sand that
surfaces through the mechanical action of moves as a result of the action of wind
other rock or sand particles saltation the movement of sand or other
deflation a form of wind erosion in which fine, sediments by short jumps and bounces that is
dry soil particles are blown away caused by wind or water

1. Identify Give two land features that can form because of deflation.

2. Describe What areas are most likely to be affected by wind erosion? Give two
examples.

3. Label The figure shows a drawing of a sand dune. Label the windward slope and
the slip face. Add an arrow to show the direction
of the wind.

4. Explain How do dunes form?

5. Apply Concepts Wind can transport particles of many different sizes. What sized
particles are probably carried the farthest by the wind?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 182 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 10 Agents of Erosion and Deposition

SECTION

3 Erosion and Deposition by Ice

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.a
these questions:
• What are glaciers?
• How do glaciers affect the landscape?

What Are Glaciers?

A glacier is a huge piece of moving ice. The ice in STUDY TIP
glaciers contains most of the fresh water on Earth. Compare As you read,
Glaciers are found on every continent except Australia. make a table comparing the
landforms that glaciers can
There are two kinds of glaciers: continental and alpine. produce.
Continental glaciers are ice sheets that can spread across
entire continents. Alpine glaciers are found on the tops
of mountains. Both continental and alpine glaciers can
greatly affect the landscape. READING CHECK
Glaciers form in areas that are so cold that snow stays 1. Identify What are the two
on the ground all year round. For example, glaciers are kinds of glaciers?
common in polar areas and on top of high mountains. In
these areas, layers of snow build up year after year. Over
time, the weight of the top layers pushes down on the
lower layers. The lower layers change from snow to ice.

HOW GLACIERS MOVE

Glaciers can move in two ways: by sliding and by
flowing. As more ice builds up on a slope, the glacier
becomes heavier. The glacier can start to slide downhill,
the way a skier slides downhill. Glaciers can also move by
flowing. The solid ice in glaciers can move slowly, like soft
putty or chewing gum.
Thick glaciers move faster than thin glaciers. Glaciers
on steep slopes move faster than those on gentler slopes.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Define What is a glacier?

This is McBride Glacier in Alaska.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 183 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Erosion and Deposition by Ice continued

How Do Glaciers Affect the Landscape?

Critical Thinking Glaciers can produce many different features as they
3. Identify Relationships move over Earth’s surface. As a glacier moves, it can
How is erosion by glaciers pick up and carry the rocks in its path. Glaciers can carry
an example of water shaping
the landscape?
rocks of many different sizes, from dust all the way up to
boulders. These rocks can scrape grooves into the land
below the glacier as the glacier moves.
Continental glaciers tend to flatten the land that they
pass over. However, alpine glaciers can produce sharp,
rugged landscapes. The figure below shows some of the
features that alpine glaciers can form.

Horns are sharp,

pyramid-shaped peaks that
form when three or more cirque
Cirques are bowl- glaciers erode a mountain.
shaped depressions
where glacial ice cuts
back into the Arêtes are jagged ridges that form
mountain walls. between two or more cirques that cut
into the same mountain.

TAKE A LOOK
4. Explain How are horns, Hanging valleys are small glacial
cirques, and arêtes related? valleys that join the deeper main
valley. Many hanging valleys form
waterfalls after the ice is gone.

U-shaped valleys form when a glacier erodes a river valley.

The valley changes from its original V shape to a U shape.

GLACIAL DEPOSITS
As a glacier melts, it drops all of the material that it is
carrying. The material that is carried and deposited by
glaciers is called glacial drift. There are two kinds of
glacial drift: till and stratified drift.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 184 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Erosion and Deposition by Ice continued

TILL DEPOSITS
Till is unsorted rock material that is deposited by
melting glacial ice. It is called “unsorted” because the
rocks are of all different sizes. Till contains fine sediment
as well as large boulders. When the ice melts, it deposits
this material onto the ground. READING CHECK
The most common till deposits are moraines. Moraines 5. Explain Why is till
form ridges along the edges of glaciers. There are many considered to be unsorted?
types of moraines. They are shown in the figure below.

Lateral moraines form

along each side of a
glacier.

Medial moraines form

when valley glaciers that
have lateral moraines
meet.

Ground moraines form

from unsorted materials
left beneath a glacier.

Terminal moraines
Say It
form when sediment
Learn New Words Look up
is dropped at the front the words lateral, medial,
of the glacier. and terminal in a dictionary.
In a group, talk about why
these words are used to
describe different kinds of
moraines.
STRATIFIED DRIFT
When a glacier melts, the water forms streams that
carry rock material away from the glacier. The streams
deposit the rocks in different places depending on their
size. The rocks form a sorted deposit called stratified
drift. The large area where the stratified drift is deposited READING CHECK
is called an outwash plain. 6. Define Write your own
In some cases, a block of ice is left in the outwash plain definition for stratified drift.
as the glacier melts. As the ice melts, sediment builds
up around it. The sediment forms a bowl-shaped feature
called a kettle. Kettles can fill with water and become
ponds or lakes.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 185 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.2.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
glacial drift the rock material carried and stratified drift a glacial deposit that has been
deposited by glaciers sorted and layered by the action of streams or
glacier a large mass of moving ice meltwater
till unsorted rock material that is deposited
directly by a melting glacier

1. List Give two kinds of glacial drift.

2. Identify What are four kinds of moraines?

3. Compare How are continental glaciers different from alpine glaciers?

4. Explain How do glaciers form?

5. Describe How does a kettle form?

6. Infer How can a glacier deposit both unsorted and sorted material?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 186 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 10 Agents of Erosion and Deposition

SECTION

4 Erosion and Deposition by Mass Movement

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.d
these questions:
• What is mass movement?
• How does mass movement shape Earth’s surface?
• How can mass movement affect living things?

What Is Mass Movement?

Gravity can cause erosion and deposition. Gravity STUDY TIP
makes water and ice move. It also causes rock, soil, snow, Ask Questions As you read
or other material to move downhill in a process called this section, write down any
questions you have. Talk
mass movement. about your questions in a
small group.
ANGLE OF REPOSE
Particles in a sand pile move downhill. They stop when
the slope of the pile becomes stable. The angle of repose is
the steepest angle, or slope, at which the loose material no
longer moves downhill. If the slope of a pile of material is
larger than the angle of repose, mass movement happens. READING CHECK
1. Define What is the angle
of repose?
The slope of this pile of sand
is equal to the sand’s angle of
35°
repose. The sand pile is stable.
The sand particles are not moving.

TAKE A LOOK
60° 2. Explain Why are sand
The slope of this pile of sand is larger than particles moving downhill in
the angle of repose. Therefore, particles of the bottom picture?
sand move down the slope of the pile.

The angle of repose can be different in different

situations. The composition, size, weight, and shape
of the particles in a material affect its angle of repose.
The amount of water in a material can also change the
material’s angle of repose.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 187 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Erosion and Deposition by Mass Movement continued

What Are the Kinds of Mass Movement?

Mass movement can happen suddenly and quickly.
CALIFORNIA Rapid mass movement can be very dangerous. It can
STANDARDS CHECK
6.2.d Students know
destroy or bury everything in its path.
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
landslides, and floods change
human and wildlife habitats. LANDSLIDES
A landslide happens when a large amount of material
3. Describe How can moves suddenly and rapidly downhill. Landslides can
landslides affect wildlife carry away or bury plants and animals and destroy their
habitats? habitats. Several factors can make landslides more likely.
• Heavy rains can make soil wet and heavy, which makes
the soil more likely to move downhill.
• Tree roots help to keep land from moving. Therefore,
deforestation, or cutting down trees, can make
landslides more likely.
• Earthquakes can cause rock and soil to start moving.
• People may build houses and other buildings on
unstable hillsides. The extra weight of the buildings can
READING CHECK cause a landslide.
4. Identify Give three factors The most common kind of landslide is a slump. Slumps
that can make landslides happen when a block of material moves downhill along a
more likely. curved surface.

ROCK FALLS
A rock fall happens when loose rocks fall down a steep
slope. Many such slopes are found on the sides of roads
that run through mountains. Gravity can cause the loose
and broken rocks above the road to fall. The rocks in a
rock fall may be many different sizes.

MUDFLOWS
A mudflow is a rapid movement of a large amount of
mud. Mudflows can happen when a lot of water mixes
with soil and rock. The water makes the slippery mud flow
downhill very quickly. A mudflow can carry away cars,
READING CHECK trees, houses, and other objects that are in its path.
5. Define What is a Mudflows are common in mountain regions when a long
mudflow? dry season is followed by heavy rain. Mudflows may also
happen when trees and other plants are cut down. Without
plant roots to hold soil in place and help water drain away,
large amounts of mud can quickly form.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 188 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Erosion and Deposition by Mass Movement continued

CREEP
Not all mass movement is fast. In fact, very slow mass
movement is happening on almost all slopes. Creep is
the name given to this very slow movement of material
downhill. Even though creep happens very slowly, it can
move large amounts of material over a long period
of time. READING CHECK
Many factors can affect creep. Water can loosen soil 6. Compare How is creep
and rock so that they move more easily. Plant roots can different from the other kinds
cause rocks to crack and can push soil particles apart. of mass movement that are
mentioned in this section?
Burrowing animals, such as moles and gophers, can loosen
rock and soil particles. All of these factors may make
creep more likely.
Type of mass movement Description
Landslide Material moves suddenly and rapidly down a
slope.

Rock fall

Mudflow

Material moves downhill very slowly.

TAKE A LOOK
7. Describe Fill in the blank
spaces in the table.

How Does Mass Movement Affect Land Use?

Mass movement can cause serious property damage,
injury, and even death. Therefore, people need to consider
mass movement when they decide how to use land. For
example, when people build roads through mountains,
rock falls may happen on the sides of the roads. People
may put metal fences on the sides of the road to prevent
rocks from damaging cars on the road.
Many of the short-term effects of sudden, large mass
movements are harmful to people and to other organisms.
However, the long-term effects of mass movements may be
helpful. For example, minerals and rocks may be exposed
at the surface after a landslide. The minerals and rocks can READING CHECK
be used by people or can break down to form new, rich 8. Explain How can mass
movements be helpful?
soil.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 189 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.2.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
creep the slow downhill movement of mass movement the movement of a large mass
weathered rock material of sediment or a section of land down a slope
landslide the sudden movement of rock and mudflow the flow of a mass of mud or rock and
soil down a slope soil mixed with a large amount of water
rock fall the rapid mass movement of rock
down a steep slope or cliff

1. List What are four kinds of mass movement?

2. Explain Why is it important for people to think about mass movement when they
decide how to use land?

3. Identify Relationships How is mass movement related to the angle of repose?

4. Identify What force causes mass movements?

5. Compare How are landslides different from mudflows?

6. List Give four things that can affect a material’s angle of repose.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 190 Agents of Erosion and Deposition
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 11 Rivers and Groundwater

SECTION

1 The Active River

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.4.a
these questions:
• How does moving water change the surface of Earth?
• What is the water cycle?
• Which factors affect the rate of stream erosion?

What Is Erosion?
Six million years ago, the Colorado River began carving STUDY TIP
through rock to form the Grand Canyon. Today, the river Make A List As you read,
has carved through 1.6 km (about 1 mi) of rock! make a list of the different
Before the Grand Canyon was formed, the land was ways in which water can
change the landscape of Earth.
flat. Then the rock in the area began to lift upward
because of plate tectonics. As Earth’s crust lifted upward,
water began running downhill. The moving water cut into
the rock and started forming the Grand Canyon.
Over millions of years, water cut into rock through the
process of erosion. During erosion, wind, water, ice, and
gravity move soil and rock from one place to another.
Water is the main force in forming the Grand Canyon and
in changing the Earth’s landscape. READING CHECK
1. Identify What formed the
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Math Focus
2IVER
2. Calculate How long is
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Show how you got your
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Six million years ago, the Colorado River started flowing through northern
Arizona. Today, it has carved the Grand Canyon, which is about 1.6 km deep
and 446 km long.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 191 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

CALIFORNIA How Does the Water Cycle Work?

STANDARDS CHECK Have you ever wondered where the water in rivers
6.4.a Students know the sun is
the major source of energy for comes from? It is part of the water cycle. The water
phenomena on Earth’s surface; cycle is the nonstop movement of water between the air,
it powers winds, ocean currents,
and the water cycle. the land, and the oceans. The major source of energy that
drives the water cycle is the sun.
Word Help: major
of great importance or In the water cycle, water comes to Earth’s surface
large scale from the clouds in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
The water moves downward through the soil or flows
Word Help: energy
what makes things happen over the land. Water that flows over the land collects in
streams and rivers and flows to the oceans.
Word Help: phenomena
any facts or events that can
Energy from the sun changes the water on Earth’s
be sensed or described surface into a gas that rises up to form clouds. The gas is
scientifically called water vapor. The water vapor moves through the
3. Explain How does the atmosphere until it falls to Earth’s surface again.
sun help the water cycle
work? Condensation happens when
water vapor cools and changes into
liquid water drops. The water drops
form clouds in the atmosphere.

Evaporation
Precipitation is happens when
rain, snow, sleet, water on Earth’s
or hail that falls surface changes into
from to water vapor. Energy
Earth’s surface. from
makes water
evaporate.

Runoff is water
that flows on the

TAKE A LOOK land into streams

and rivers. The
4. Identify In the figure, fill Percolation happens when water ends up in
water moves through the soil the .
in the blank lines with the because of gravity.
correct words.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 192 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

What Is a River System?

What happens when you turn on the shower in your
family’s bathroom? When water hits the shower floor,
the individual drops of water join together to form small
streams. The small streams join together to form larger
streams. The larger streams carry the water down the drain.
The water in your shower is like the water in a river
system. A river system is a group of streams and rivers
that drain an area of land. A river is a stream that has
many tributaries. A tributary is a stream that flows into
a lake or a larger stream. READING CHECK
5. Define What is a river
How Do River Systems Work? system?
River systems are divided into areas called water-
sheds. A watershed is the land that is drained by a river
system. Many tributaries join together to form the rivers
in a watershed.
The largest watershed in the United States is the
Mississippi River watershed. It covers over one third
of the United States. It has hundreds of tributaries.
The Mississippi River watershed drains into the Gulf of
Mexico.
Watersheds are separated from each other by an area
of higher ground called a divide. All of the rivers on one
side of a divide flow away from it in one direction. All of
the rivers on the other side of the divide flow away from
it in the opposite direction. The Continental Divide separates
the Mississippi River watershed from the watersheds in the
western United States.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 193 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

What Is a Stream Channel?

A stream forms as water wears away soil and rock
to make a channel. A channel is the path that a stream
follows. As more soil and rock are washed away, the
channel gets wider and deeper.
Over time, tributaries flow into the main channel of
a river. The main channel has more water in it than the
tributaries. The larger amount of water makes the main
READING CHECK channel longer and wider.
7. Explain Why is the main
channel of a river longer and What Causes Stream Erosion?
wider than the channels of Gradient is a measure of the change in height over a
its tributaries?
certain distance. Gradient can be used to measure how
steep a stream is. The left-hand picture below shows a
stream with a high gradient. The water in this stream is
moving very fast. The fast-moving water easily washes
away rock and soil.
A river that is flat, as in the right-hand picture, has a
low gradient and flows slowly. The slow water washes
away less rock and soil.

TAKE A LOOK
8. Explain How does the
gradient of a stream affect
how much erosion it causes?

This stream has a large gradient. This stream has a small gradient. It flows
It flows very fast. very slowly.

The amount of water that flows in a stream during

a certain amount of time is called the discharge. The
discharge of a stream can change. A large rainfall or a lot
of melted snow can increase the stream’s discharge.
When the discharge of a stream gets bigger, the stream
can carry more sediment. The larger amount of water will
flow fast and erode more land.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 194 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

How Does a Stream Carry Sediment?

A stream’s load is the material carried in the stream’s
water. A fast-moving stream can carry large rocks. The
large rocks speed up the stream’s erosion by knocking
away more rock and soil.
A slow-moving stream carries smaller rocks in its load.
The smaller particles erode less rock and soil. The stream
also carries material that is dissolved in the water.
CALIFORNIA
Large rocks that bounce Materials that are floating in the STANDARDS CHECK
along the bottom of the water are called suspended
stream are called bed load. They often make the 6.2.b. Students know that
load. rivers and streams are dynamic
stream look muddy or cloudy.
systems that erode, transport
sediment, change course, and
flood their banks in natural and
recurring patterns.

Word Help: dynamic

active; tending toward
change

Word Help: erode

to wear away

Word Help: transport

to carry from one place to
another

Tiny particles that 9. Identify How does a

are dissolved in stream carry material from
the water are one place to another? Give
called dissolved three ways.
load.

How Do Scientists Describe Rivers?

All rivers have different features. These features can
change with time. Many factors, such as weather, sur-
roundings, gradient, and load, control the changes in a
river. Scientists use special terms to describe rivers with
certain features.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 195 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

YOUTHFUL RIVERS
Youthful rivers are fast-flowing rivers with steep gradi-
ents. They often flow over rapids and waterfalls. Youthful
rivers make narrow, deep channels for the water to flow
in. The picture below shows a youthful river.

TAKE A LOOK
10. Describe What features
of this river tell you that it is a
youthful river?

MATURE RIVERS
Mature rivers erode rock and soil to make wide chan-
nels. Many tributaries flow into a mature river, so mature
rivers carry large amounts of water. The picture below
shows a mature river bending and curving through the
READING CHECK land. The curves and bends are called meanders.
11. Explain Why do mature
rivers carry a lot of water?

TAKE A LOOK
12. Identify Label the
meanders on this picture
of a mature river.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 196 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 The Active River continued

REJUVENATED RIVERS
Rejuvenated rivers form where land has been raised
up by plate tectonics. This gives a river a steep gradient.
Therefore, rejuvenated rivers flow fast and have deep
channels. As shown in the picture below, steplike
gradients called terraces usually form along the sides of
rejuvenated rivers.

TAKE A LOOK
13. Identify Label the
terraces on this picture of a
rejuvenated river.

OLD RIVERS
Old rivers have very low gradients. Instead of widening
and deepening its channel, an old river deposits soil and
rock along its channel. Since very few tributaries flow
into an old river, the river does not quickly erode land.
Old rivers have wide, flat floodplains and many meanders.
In the picture below, a bend in an old river’s channel has
eroded into a lake. This is called an oxbow lake.

Old river

Oxbow lake
Critical Thinking
14. Infer Very few tributaries
flow into an old river. Do you
think it will have a large or a
small discharge?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 197 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.4.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
channel the path that a stream follows load the materials carried in a stream
divide the boundary between drainage tributary a stream that flows into a lake or into
areas that have streams that flow in opposite a larger stream
directions water cycle the continuous movement of water
erosion the process by which wind, water, ice, between the atmosphere, the land, and the
or gravity transports soil and sediment from oceans
one location to another watershed the area of land that is drained by a
river system

1. Explain Why do most rivers have wider channels than most streams?

2. Show a Sequence Fill in the Process Chart to show what happens in the water cycle.

Clouds drop
precipitation on
Earth’s surface.

Rivers flow over

Earth’s surface to
the ocean.

3. Identify What is the main source of energy for the water cycle?

4. Describe How do rivers change Earth’s surface?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 198 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 11 Rivers and Groundwater

SECTION

2 Stream and River Deposits

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.2.d
these questions:
• What types of deposits are caused by streams?
• Why do floods happen?
• How do floods from rivers and streams affect
humans?

How Do Rivers and Streams Rebuild Land?

Earlier, you learned that rivers and streams erode STUDY TIP
rock and soil. However, rivers also carry this loose rock Graphic Organizer In your
and soil to new places. Rivers can help to form new land notebook, create a table
to compare the different
through deposition. Deposition is the process in which landforms created by stream
material is laid down, or dropped. deposits.
The rock and soil that a river erodes from the land
move downstream in the river’s load. When the flow of
water slows down, the river deposits, or drops, some of
its load. Material, such as rock and soil, that is deposited
by rivers and streams is called sediment. READING CHECK
In a river, erosion happens on the outside of a bend, 1. Define What is sediment?
where the water flows quickly. Deposition happens on
the inside of a bend where the water flows more slowly.

Erosion happens along

the outside of a bend,
where water is flowing
.

Deposition happens along the

inside of a bend, where water TAKE A LOOK
is flowing . 2. Identify Fill in the blanks
in the figure with the correct
words.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 199 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Stream and River Deposits continued

What Are Deltas and Alluvial Fans?

Rivers deposit their loads of rocks and soil when their
flow of water slows down. When a river enters the ocean,
it flows much more slowly. Therefore, it deposits its load
into the ocean.
Say It When the river enters the ocean, it deposits its load in
Investigate Learn about a fan-shaped pattern called a delta. The river deposits
a place in the world where form new land and build new coastline.
people live on a delta. Give a
short talk to your class about
Rivers and streams can also deposit their loads on dry
the place you studied. land. When a fast-moving stream flows from a mountain
onto flat land, the stream slows down quickly. As it
slows down, the stream deposits its rocks and soil in a
fan-shaped pattern known as an alluvial fan.

Mountains

Delta

Alluvial fan

Why Do Rivers and Streams Flood?

Rivers and streams are always changing. Rivers and
streams have different amounts of water in them in
different seasons. If there is a lot of rain or a lot of
snow melting, a stream will have a lot of water in it.
Floods are natural events that happen with the change
of seasons. A flood happens when there is too much
water for the channel to hold. The stream flows over the
READING CHECK sides of its channel.
3. Explain What is a flood? During a flood, the land along the sides of the stream
is covered in water. The stream drops its sediment on this
land. This area is called a floodplain. Floodplains are
good areas for farming because flooding brings new soil
to the land.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 200 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Stream and River Deposits continued

What Are the Effects of Floods?

Floods are powerful and can cause a lot of damage.
They can ruin homes and buildings. They can also wash
away land where animals and people live.
In 1993, when the Mississippi River flooded, farms and
towns in nine states were damaged. Floods can cover
roads and carry cars and people downstream. They can
also drown people and animals. READING CHECK
Floods sometimes happen very fast. After a very heavy 4. List List three ways that
rainstorm, water can rush over the land and cause a flash floods can be harmful to
flood. Flash floods can be hard to predict and are dangerous. people and animals.

TAKE A LOOK
5. Explain Why can a flash
flood be dangerous to
people driving in cars?

Floodwater can flow strongly enough to move cars. These people

were trapped in their car in a flash flood.

Humans try to control flooding by building barriers.

One kind of barrier is called a dam. A dam is a barrier
that can guide floodwater to a reservoir.
Another barrier that people build is called a levee. A levee
is a wall of sediment on the side of a river. The barrier helps
keep the river from flooding the nearby land. READING CHECK
6. Identify What do
people do to try to protect
themselves from a flood?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 201 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.2.a, 6.2.b, 6.2.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
alluvial fan a fan-shaped mass of material deposition the process in which material is laid
deposited by a stream when the slope of the down
land decreases sharply floodplain an area along a river that forms from
delta a fan-shaped mass of material deposited sediments deposited when the river overflows
at the mouth of a stream its banks

1. Explain Why do floods happen?

2. Compare Complete the table to describe the features of different kinds of

stream deposits.
Type of Deposit How is it formed? Where is it formed? When is it formed?

Alluvial fan

Delta

Floodplain

3. Explain How can a flood be both helpful and harmful to people?

4. Compare How are dams and levees different?

5. Explain What causes floods?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 202 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 11 Rivers and Groundwater

SECTION

3 Using Water Wisely

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.6.b
these questions:
• How does California get its water supply?
• Why should people in California conserve water?
• How can people protect their water supply?

Where Is Fresh Water Found?

Although the Earth is covered with oceans, lakes, and STUDY TIP
rivers, only 3% of the Earth’s water is fresh water. Most of Summarize As you read,
that 3% is frozen in the polar icecaps. Therefore, people underline the important
ideas in this section. When
must take care of and protect their water resources. you are finished reading,
Some of the Earth’s fresh water is found in streams write a one- or two-paragraph
and lakes. However, a large amount of water is also summary of the section, using
the underlined ideas.
found underground. Rainwater and water from streams
move through the soil and into the spaces between rocks
underground. The water found inside the underground
rocks is called groundwater. The rock layer that stores
groundwater is called an aquifer. READING CHECK
Groundwater is found beneath the Earth’s surface. The 1. Define What is
upper surface of groundwater is called the water table. groundwater?
The water table is the top of an aquifer. When there is
less water in the aquifer, the water table will be lower.

7ELL 7ELL

7ATERTABLE TAKE A LOOK

SURFACEOFTHEWATER 2. Identify Two people
STOREDINTHEROCK
drilled wells to try to get
water out of the ground. The
white bars in the figure show
!QUIFERROCKTHATSTORESWATER
where the two people drilled
their wells. Which of the
wells will probably produce
water? Explain your answer.

)MPERMEABLEROCKROCKTHATWATER
CANNOTPASSTHROUGH

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 203 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Water Wisely continued

Where Does Water in California Come From?

People in California get some of their water from aqui-
fers. The shaded areas on the map below show the state’s
aquifers. However, the aquifers in California can’t supply
enough water for all the people who live there. Many of
these aquifers are polluted. In others, overdraft occurs.
That means more water is being taken out than is being
READING CHECK replaced by rain.
3. Explain Why can’t all !QUIFERSIN#ALIFORNIA
of the water in California’s
aquifers be used for drinking?

3ACRAMENTO

3AN&RANCISCO
TAKE A LOOK
4. Identify On the map,
draw an arrow showing where
most of the rain in California
falls. Draw another arrow
showing where most of the
water in California is used.
,OS!NGELES

!QUIFERREGIONS

People in California also get their water from sources

besides aquifers. Surface water, such as the water in rivers,
READING CHECK is collected and stored in reservoirs for people to use.
5. Explain Why does In California, most of the rain falls in the area north of
California need to get some Sacramento. But most of the state’s water is used by the
of its water from other states
and countries?
people and farmland south of Sacramento. The California
Aqueduct is a system of channels that is used to move
water from Northern California to Southern California.
Some water in California also comes from Oregon,
Colorado, and Mexico.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 204 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Water Wisely continued

How Is Water in California Used?

California is the largest producer of crops in the
United States. Up to 50% of the state’s water supply is
used to support the farming industry. The water supply
is also used to generate power and energy for use by
the state. Businesses and households use the remaining
water supply.

What Is Water Pollution?

Water pollution is any waste material or harmful sub-
stance that is found in water. Water pollution can make
water unsafe for organisms to live in, drink, or touch.
Most water pollution comes from the waste of cities,
factories, and farms. Surface water and groundwater can
become so polluted that they can kill organisms. READING CHECK
6. Describe Why is water
Where Does Water Pollution Come From? pollution harmful?
Water pollution can come from just one source or
from many sources. Most of these sources are created by
humans.
Pollution from a single place can be traced back to
its source, and the problem can be corrected. However,
when pollution comes from many sources, people must
work together to figure out how to correct the problem.

Industrial waste

Wastewater plant
Urban pollutants

Pesticides Runoff

City
well
Road
salt
Lawn fertilizer
Private well
TAKE A LOOK
7. Identify List four sources
Landfill
of groundwater pollution.
Petroleum Septic
storage tank system
Percolation
Water
table Aquifer

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 205 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Water Wisely continued

How Do Laws Help Keep Water Clean?

In 1969, the Cuyahoga River in Cleveland, Ohio, was so
polluted with oil that it caught on fire. To try to prevent
such shocking events from happening again, Congress
passed the Clean Water Act of 1972.
Say It The goal of the Clean Water Act of 1972 was to make
Investigate Learn more all surface water clean enough for swimming and fishing
about one of the laws that
by 1983. Although this goal was not reached, many states
help to protect our water
supply. Share what you find have passed tougher water-quality standards. The number
out with your class or a small of clean lakes and rivers has also increased.
group. The table below shows some of the laws that have
been passed to help protect our water supply.
Name of the act What the act did
Clean Water Act of 1972

Marine Protection, Research, and strengthened laws against dumping

Sanctuaries Act of 1972 chemicals and waste into the oceans
Drinking Water Act of 1975 helped to protect groundwater and
TAKE A LOOK surface water from pollution
8. Identify Fill in the blank Oil Pollution Act of 1990 required that all ships that carry oil
box in the table to describe near the United States have two
layers of metal in their hulls
the Clean Water Act of 1972.
Although some of their goals have not been met, these
and many other laws have improved the quality of water
in the United States. However, people, businesses, and
governments will have to continue to cooperate in order
to maintain a clean water supply.

How Can Water Be Conserved?

Water is a limited natural resource. There is only a cer-
tain amount of water on Earth. In order to have enough
clean water, we must conserve it. Conservation is the
protection and smart use of natural resources. Everyone
READING CHECK can conserve water.
9. Define What is When farmers water their crops, a large amount of
conservation? water is lost through evaporation and runoff. Drip irri-
gation, in which water is placed directly on the plant’s
roots, loses less water. Many other industries conserve
water by recycling it to be used again.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 206 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Using Water Wisely continued

What Can You Do? CALIFORNIA

Individual families can conserve water also. Toilets STANDARDS CHECK
6.6.b Students know different
and shower heads that work with less water are good natural energy and material
choices for conservation. If you have to water your lawn, resources, including air, soil,
rocks, minerals, petroleum, fresh
water it at night and use a drip watering system. water, wildlife, and forests, and
Some people use an idea called xeriscaping. know how to classify them as
renewable or nonrenewable.
Xeriscaping is landscaping in a way that conserves
water. This method uses plants that are local and used Word Help: energy
what makes things happen
to the weather in an area, so they easily survive without
extra water. Word Help: resource
anything that can be used
to take care of a need

10. Draw Conclusions Why

is it important for people to
try to conserve water?

Each person can do his or her part to conserve water.

Simple choices, such as taking shorter showers and turn-
ing off the water when you brush your teeth, are helpful.
If everyone tries to conserve water, we can make a big
difference.

Things You Can Do to Conserve Water

• TAKE A LOOK
11. Brainstorm With your
class, talk about ways that
•
you can conserve water.
Write down five of those
•
ways in the table.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 207 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
aquifer a body of rock or sediment that water pollution waste matter or other mate-
stores groundwater and allows the flow of rial that is introduced into water and that is
groundwater harmful to organisms that live in, drink, or are
Wordwise the root aqui- means “water;” the exposed to the water
suffix –fer means “to carry” water table the upper surface of underground
conservation the preservation and wise use of water
natural resources

1. Explain Why is it important to protect our water from pollution?

2. Analyze Why does Northern California transport water to Southern California?

3. Describe How can farmers and other industries conserve water?

4. Infer How can watering your lawn at night help to conserve water?

5. List What are four laws that help to protect our water supply?

6. Identify Name four sources of water pollution.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 208 Rivers and Groundwater
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 12 Exploring the Oceans

SECTION

1 Earth’s Oceans
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.3.c, 6.4.d
these questions:
• What affects the salinity of ocean water?
• What affects the temperature of ocean water?
• How does density affect ocean currents?

What Is the Global Ocean?

Earth has more liquid water on its surface than any STUDY TIP
other planet in the solar system. In fact, 71% of Earth’s Ask Questions As you read
surface is covered by liquid water. Most of Earth’s water this section, write down any
questions you have. After you
is found in its oceans. There are five main oceans on read, discuss your questions
Earth. However, the oceans are all connected to each in a small group.
other. Therefore, scientists often refer to all the oceans
on Earth as the global ocean.
The continents divide the global ocean into the five
main oceans. The largest ocean is the Pacific Ocean. The
Atlantic Ocean is the second largest ocean. It has half
the volume of the Pacific Ocean. The Indian Ocean is the
third largest ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from
the coast of Antarctica to 60°S latitude. The Arctic Ocean
is the smallest ocean. Much of its surface is covered by
ice. The figure below shows where these oceans are
found. READING CHECK
1. Describe What divides the
Arctic Ocean
global ocean into five parts?

TAKE A LOOK
Atlantic Ocean

2. Identify What are the five

main oceans?
Indian Ocean
Pacific Ocean

Southern Ocean

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 209 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Earth’s Oceans continued

Why Is Ocean Water Salty?

Ocean water is different from the water that we
drink. People cannot use ocean water for drinking
because it is salty.
Most of the salt in the ocean is the same kind of salt
we use on our food. This type of salt is called sodium
chloride. It is a compound made from the elements
sodium, Na, and chlorine, Cl. Ocean water also contains
other dissolved solids, including magnesium and calcium,
which make the water taste salty.
-AGNESIUM

3ULFUR

3ODIUM

Math Focus  #ALCIUM

 This graph shows the
3. Read a Graph Which two 0OTASSIUM amounts of different kinds
elements make up most of  of solids in ocean water.
the dissolved solids in sea
water? #HLORINE /THER
 

Salts have collected in the ocean for billions of years.

As rivers and streams flow toward the ocean, they dis-
solve minerals from rocks and soil. The rivers carry the
dissolved minerals to the ocean. At the same time, liquid
water in the oceans evaporates to form water vapor. As
the water evaporates, it leaves behind the salts that were
READING CHECK dissolved in it.
4. Identify Where does
most of the salt in the ocean What Is Salinity?
come from? Salinity is a measure of the amount of solid material
that is dissolved in a certain amount of liquid. It is usu-
ally measured as grams of dissolved solids per kilogram.
On average, ocean water has 35 g/kg of dissolved solids
in it. This means that 1 kg of ocean water has about 35 g
of solids dissolved in it. If you evaporated 1 kg of ocean
water, 35 g of solids would remain.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 210 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Earth’s Oceans continued

EFFECTS OF LOCATION ON SALINITY

Some parts of the ocean are saltier than others. Most
oceans in hot, dry climates have high salinities. In these
areas, the hot weather causes water to evaporate quickly.
Salt is left behind. For example, the Red Sea in the Middle
East is very salty. The climate there is very hot and dry. READING CHECK
Some parts of the ocean are less salty than others. 5. Explain Why do oceans
Along the coastlines, fresh water from streams and riv- in hot, dry climates tend to
ers runs into the ocean. As fresh water mixes with ocean have high salinity?
water, the salinity of the ocean water decreases. For exam-
ple, the salinity of the ocean waters near the Amazon River
is much lower than the salinity in other parts of the ocean.

TAKE A LOOK
6. Infer The Gulf of Mexico
2ED is located between Mexico
3EA
and Florida. Why is the ocean
water in the Gulf of Mexico
-OUTH
OFTHE less salty than in other
!MAZON
'RAMSOFSALTPER places?
KILOGRAMOFSEAWATER
ORLESS


 This figure shows the salinity of ocean
 water in different parts of the world.

ORMORE

EFFECTS OF WATER MOVEMENT ON SALINITY

The movement of water also affects salinity.
Slow-moving ocean water tends to have higher salinity
than fast-moving water. Parts of the ocean with
slow-moving water, such as gulfs, bays, and seas, often
have high salinities. Parts of the ocean without currents
are likely to have higher salinities as well. READING CHECK
7. Describe How does water
What Affects Ocean Temperatures? movement affect salinity?
The temperature of ocean water decreases as depth
increases. However, the temperature change is not uniform.
Scientists can divide the water in the ocean into three layers
based on how temperature changes. These three layers are
the surface zone, the thermocline, and the deep zone.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 211 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Earth’s Oceans continued

Ocean Temperature and Depth

0 Surface zone The surface zone extends to
about 300 m below the surface. Sunlight heats
200 the top 100 m. Convection currents mix the
heated water with the cooler water below.

Water depth (m)

400 Thermocline The thermocline extends to
between 700 m and 1,000 m below the sur-
face. Temperature decreases quickly as depth
600 increases.

Deep zone The deep zone is the deepest

800
TAKE A LOOK
layer of the ocean. The temperature in the
deep zone is only about 2°C.
8. Identify How does warm 1,000
water mix with cool water in
1,200
the surface zone? 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Water temperature (°C)

SURFACE ZONE
Critical Thinking The surface zone is the top layer of ocean water. It
is heated by energy from the sun. As the ocean water is
9. Predict Consequences
What would happen to the
heated, it becomes less dense and rises above denser,
water temperature in the cooler water. Convection currents form as the water
surface zone if convection moves. These currents can move heat within the surface
currents did not form there? zone to a depth of 100 m to 300 m. Therefore, the water
Explain your answer.
temperature within the surface zone is fairly uniform.

THERMOCLINE
The thermocline is the layer of the ocean just beneath
the surface zone. Within the thermocline, the temperature
of the water decreases a lot as depth increases. This is
because the sun cannot heat the water below the surface
zone. In addition, the warm water of the surface zone
cannot mix easily with the water below.
The depth of the thermocline is different in different
places. It can extend from 100 m to almost 1,000 m below
the surface of the ocean.

DEEP ZONE
The deep zone is the layer below the thermocline. In the
deep zone, the temperature of the water is about 2°C. This
very cold water is very dense. It moves slowly across the
ocean floor and forms the deep ocean currents.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 212 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Earth’s Oceans continued

CHANGES IN SURFACE TEMPERATURE

The temperature of water at the surface of the ocean
is different in different places. Surface water along
the equator is warmer than water at the poles. This is
because more sunlight reaches the equator than the
poles. Water near the surface at the equator can be up to
30°C. In the polar oceans, water at the surface can be as
cold as ⫺1.9°C. READING CHECK
The temperature of water at the surface of the ocean 10. Explain Why is surface
can also change during different times of year. Many water warmer at the equator
areas receive more sunlight in the summer than in the than at the poles?
winter. In these areas, the surface water in the oceans is
warmer in the summer.

Why Does Ocean Water Move?

Salinity and temperature both affect the density of
ocean water. The large amount of solids dissolved in
ocean water make it more dense than fresh water. The
higher the salinity of ocean water, the higher its density.
Temperature can have a large effect on the density
of ocean water. In fact, water temperature has a larger
effect on the density of ocean water than salinity does.
Cold water is denser than warm water. Therefore, cold
water will sink below warm water in the oceans.
The differences in density in the ocean cause water to CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
circulate in convection currents. These currents distribute
6.4.d Students know convection
heat, water, and dissolved materials throughout the oceans. currents distribute heat in the
atmosphere and oceans.

North
America Word Help: distribute
E ur ope
N or t h
America
Asia to spread out over an area

Africa
11. Describe How does
wa

heat move in Earth’s

mr

su
,

r fa
ce
cu
S out h
rre
nt
nt
oceans?
America cu
rre
cold

ce
rfa
, dee

, su Australia
rm
wa
pc

nt
rre
ur

nt cu
re

p
ee
,d
cold

Antarctica
Surface currents

Deep currents

The density of ocean water varies because of differences in temperature and

salinity. These differences cause the water to move in currents. Cold, dense
water moves from the poles toward the equator. Warm, less dense water moves
from the equator to the poles. The currents move heat throughout the oceans.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 213 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.3.c, 6.4.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
salinity a measure of the amount of dissolved thermocline a layer in a body of water in which
salts in a given amount of liquid water temperature drops with increased depth
faster than it does in other layers
Wordwise The root therm means “heat.” The
root clino means “slope.” Other examples are
incline, decline, and thermometer.

1. Explain Why do scientists call the ocean water on Earth the global ocean?

2. Identify What are two factors that can affect salinity?

3. Identify Relationships How does salinity affect the density of ocean water?

4. Explain Why does the temperature in the thermocline decrease quickly with depth?

5. Describe How do temperature and salinity differences produce convection currents?

6. List What are the three temperature layers of ocean water?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 214 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 12 Exploring the Oceans

SECTION

2 The Ocean Floor

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.1.a, 6.1.d, 6.1.e
these questions:
• What are the features of the ocean floor?
• How do the features of the ocean floor form?

How Do Scientists Study the Ocean Floor?

The ocean floor can be as far as 11,000 m below the sur- STUDY TIP
face of the ocean. People cannot survive at such great depths Compare As you read, make
without a lot of special equipment. Scientists sometimes use a chart showing the similari-
such equipment to travel to the ocean floor. However, scien- ties and differences between
the different ways that scien-
tists can also study the ocean floor from the surface of the tists study the ocean floor.
ocean. They can even study the ocean floor from outer space!

STUDYING THE OCEAN FLOOR WITH SONAR

Sonar stands for sound navigation and ranging. Sonar
instruments on a ship send pulses of sound down into the
ocean. The sound moves through the water, bounces off the
ocean floor, and returns to the ship. The deeper the water,
the longer it takes for the sound to return to the ship. READING CHECK
Scientists use sonar to determine how deep the ocean 1. Identify What is sonar?
floor is. They know how fast sound travels in ocean
water (about 1,500 m/s). They measure how long it takes
for the sound to return to the ship. Then, they use this
information to figure out how deep the ocean floor is.
3ONAREQUIPMENTISCARRIEDONASHIP4HE
EQUIPMENTSENDSOUTAPULSEOFSOUND
4HESOUNDBOUNCESOFFOFTHEOCEANFLOOR
ANDTRAVELSBACKTOTHESHIP"YTIMING
HOWLONGITTAKESFORTHESIGNALTOBOUNCE
BACKSCIENTISTSCANDETERMINETHE
DISTANCETOTHEOCEANFLOOR
Math Focus
2. Calculate The ship sends
out a sonar signal. It picks
up the return signal 4 s later.
About how deep is the ocean
floor? The speed of sound
in ocean water is about
1,500 m/s. Show your work.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 215 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 The Ocean Floor continued

STUDYING THE OCEAN FLOOR WITH SHIPS

People cannot survive the high pressures on the ocean
floor. Therefore, in order to explore the deep zone, scien-
tists had to build an underwater vessel that can survive
under high pressures. This vessel is called Deep Flight.
Future models of Deep Flight may be able to carry
READING CHECK scientists to 11,000 m below the ocean’s surface.
3. Explain Why did scientists
Scientists can also use Remotely Operated Vehicles,
have to build a special ship or ROVs, to explore the ocean floor directly. These ROVs
to explore the deep zone? can explore parts of the ocean floor that are too danger-
ous for people to travel to.

Critical Thinking
4. Infer The Deep Flight
and other deep-ocean
vessels have very thick
windows and walls. Why do
you think this is?

The Deep Flight is a vessel that can carry scientists deep beneath the
ocean surface.

STUDYING THE OCEAN FLOOR BY DRILLING

Scientists involved in the Integrated Ocean Drilling
Program (IODP) use drilling to study the ocean floor.
Scientists use special equipment to cut cores, or long
tubes of rock and sediment, from the ocean floor. The
layers of rock and sediment in the cores can tell scien-
READING CHECK tists about the history of Earth.
5. Describe How do
scientists in the IODP study STUDYING THE OCEAN FLOOR USING SATELLITES
the ocean floor? Geosat was once a top-secret military satellite. Today,
scientists use Geosat to study the ocean floor indirectly.
Underwater features, such as mountains and trenches,
affect the height of the ocean surface. Scientists can use
Geosat to measure the height of the water on the ocean
surface. They can use these measurements to make
detailed maps of the ocean floor.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 216 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 The Ocean Floor continued

What Are the Features of the Ocean Floor?

Because most of the ocean floor is covered by kilometers
of water, it has not been thoroughly explored. However,
scientists do know that many of the features of the ocean
floor are caused by plate tectonics.

THE MAJOR REGIONS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

Scientists divide the ocean floor into two major
regions: the continental margin and the deep-ocean basin.
The continental margin is the edge of a continent that is
covered by ocean water. The deep-ocean basin begins at
the edge of the continental margin and extends under the
deepest parts of the ocean. READING CHECK
There are three main parts of the continental margin: the 6. Identify What are the two
continental shelf, the continental slope, and the continental major regions of the ocean
rise. The figure below shows where these parts are found. floor?

#ONTINENTALSHELF
#ONTINENTALSLOPE

#ONTINENTALRISE

TAKE A LOOK
7. Arrange Write the names
of the three parts of the con-
tinental margin in order from
shallowest to deepest.

The deep-ocean basin includes the abyssal plain, mid-

ocean ridges, and ocean trenches. The abyssal plain is
the flat, almost level part of the ocean basin. The abyssal
plain is covered by layers of sediment. Some of the sedi-
ment comes from land. Some of it is made of the remains
of dead sea creatures. These remains settle to the ocean
floor when the creatures die.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 217 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 The Ocean Floor continued

PLATE TECTONICS AND OCEAN FLOOR FEATURES

Convection within Earth causes tectonic plates to
move. When the plates touch, they can slide past each
other, collide with each other, or move away from each
other. Remember that the movement of tectonic plates
creates features, such as mountains, on land. Tectonic
CALIFORNIA movements can also form features on the ocean floor.
STANDARDS CHECK
These features include seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, and
6.1.e Students know major
geologic events, such as ocean trenches.
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and mountain building, result
from plate motions. The Deep-Ocean Basin
!BYSSALPLAIN
Word Help: major 3EAMOUNT
-ID OCEANRIDGE /CEANTRENCH
of great importance or !BYSSALPLAIN
large scale

8. Infer What would the

ocean floor look like if plate
tectonics did not happen?

SEAMOUNTS
A volcanic mountain on the ocean floor is called a
seamount. Some seamounts form when magma pushes
its way between tectonic plates and erupts to form a
mountain. Other seamounts form far away from the
edges of tectonic plates. These areas are called hot spots.
At these locations, magma rises from within Earth and
READING CHECK breaks through a tectonic plate.
9. Define What is a seamount?
As lava continues to erupt at a seamount, the
mountain gets taller. If it gets tall enough to rise above
the ocean’s surface, it is called a volcanic island. The
islands of the state of Hawaii are volcanic islands.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 218 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 The Ocean Floor continued

MID-OCEAN RIDGES
A long mountain chain that forms on the floor of the
ocean is a mid-ocean ridge. Mid-ocean ridges form
where tectonic plates move apart. This motion produces
a crack in the ocean floor called a rift. Magma rises
through the rift and cools to form new rock. The ridge is
built up from this new rock. READING CHECK
Most mid-ocean ridges are far below the ocean sur- 10. Identify Where do
face. However, Iceland is one place on Earth where the mid-ocean ridges form?
mid-ocean ridge has risen above the ocean’s surface.

OCEAN TRENCHES
Long, narrow valleys in the deep-ocean basins are
called ocean trenches. Trenches form where tectonic
plates are moving together. As the plates move toward
each other, one plate sinks under the other plate in a
process called subduction. READING CHECK
Subduction causes pressure to increase on the plate 11. Define Write your own
that is sinking. Water and other fluids are squeezed out of definition for ocean trench.
the rock and sediments on this plate. These fluids cause
mantle rock to melt and form magma. The magma rises
to the surface and erupts to form a chain of volcanoes.
Ocean trenches are some of the deepest places on
Earth. For example, the Marianas Trench in the Pacific
Ocean is nearly 11,000 m deep.

Feature What it is Where it is found

Seamount

flat part of the ocean in the deep-ocean

basin, covered in basins
sediment

where plates move

apart

TAKE A LOOK
Ocean trench long, narrow valley on 12. Describe Fill in the
the ocean floor table to compare the
different features of the
ocean floor.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 219 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.1.a, 6.1.d, 6.1.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
abyssal plain a large, flat, almost level area of ocean trench a long, narrow, and steep
the deep-ocean basin depression on the ocean floor that forms when
mid-ocean ridge a long, undersea mountain one tectonic plate subducts beneath another
chain that forms along the floor of the major plate; trenches run parallel to volcanic island
oceans chains or to the coastlines of continents; also
called a trench or a deep-ocean trench

1. List Name four ways that scientists study the ocean floor.

2. Describe How do plate movements form ocean trenches?

3. Identify Where does the sediment on the abyssal plain come from? Give two
sources.

4. Explain How do mid-ocean ridges form?

5. Explain How can scientists map the ocean floor using the satellite Geosat?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 220 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 12 Exploring the Oceans

SECTION

3 Resources from the Ocean

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.6.a, 6.6.b, 6.6.c
these questions:
• What are the living resources from the ocean?
• What are the nonliving resources from the ocean?

What Are the Living Resources of the Ocean?

People have been harvesting plants and animals from the STUDY TIP
ocean for thousands of years. Today, harvesting food from the Summarize As you read,
ocean is a multi-billion-dollar industry. As the population of make a chart describing the
resources that people use
humans on Earth has grown, the demand for these resources from the ocean.
has increased. However, the availability of these resources
has not increased as much.
Harvesting fish from the ocean can harm the environ-
ment. Usually, fish can reproduce faster than people can
catch them. However, new technology, such as drift nets,
has allowed people to catch more fish in less time. This may CALIFORNIA
allow people to take fish faster than they can reproduce. This STANDARDS CHECK
6.6.b Students know different
could cause the population of fish in the oceans to decrease. natural energy and material
Also, other animals, such as dolphins and turtles, can be resources, including air, soil,
rocks, minerals, petroleum, fresh
caught in fishing nets. water, wildlife, and forests, and
Recently, laws have been passed that regulate fishing more know how to classify them as
renewable or nonrenewable.
strictly. These laws are designed to help reduce the amount
of damage fishing causes to the environment. As a result of Word Help: resource
anything that can be used
these laws, people have begun to raise fish and other types
to take care of a need
of seafood, such as shellfish and seaweed, in farms near the
shore. 1. Explain Why can fish
be considered to be a
renewable resource? When
would fish not be considered
a renewable resource?

New technology, such as these drift nets, allows people to

catch more fish in less time. However, other animals, such as
dolphins and turtles, can sometimes get caught in the nets.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 221 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Resources from the Ocean continued

What Are the Nonliving Resources of

the Ocean?
Fish and other seafood are important resources that
people take from the oceans. However, people also take
many nonliving resources from the oceans. These resources
include energy resources and material resources.

FRESH WATER
Fresh water is often considered a renewable resource.
However, in parts of the world where the climate is dry, fresh
water is limited. In these parts of the world, ocean water is
desalinated to provide fresh drinking water. Desalination is
READING CHECK the process of removing salt from sea water.
2. Define What is Most desalination plants heat ocean water to cause the
desalination? water to evaporate. The water vapor, which is not salty, is
collected and condensed into liquid fresh water. Another
method of desalination involves passing the ocean water
through a membrane to leave the salts behind. However,
no matter what process is used, desalination is expensive
and can be slow.

TIDAL ENERGY
Critical Thinking The ocean is constantly moving as tides come in and
3. Infer Why can’t tidal go out. People can use the motion of the water to gener-
energy be used everywhere? ate electricity. Energy that is generated from the move-
ment of tides is called tidal energy. Tidal energy is clean,
inexpensive, and renewable. However, it can only be used
in certain parts of the world.

High tide
Low tide

Gate closed
TAKE A LOOK
Gate closes Gate opens

4. Explain Why is tidal 1 As the tide rises, 2 The gate remains 3 At low tide, the gate
energy considered to be water enters a bay closed as the tide opens, and water
renewable? behind a dam. The falls. rushes through the
gate closes when dam. The water
high tide reaches its moves turbines,
peak. which generate
electricity.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 222 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Resources from the Ocean continued

OIL AND NATURAL GAS

Oil and natural gas are considered the most valuable
resources in the ocean. Oil and natural gas form from
the remains of tiny plants and animals. These remains
take millions of years to turn into oil and natural gas.
Therefore, oil and gas are nonrenewable resources.
Many deposits of oil and natural gas are found in rock
near the continental margins. In order to obtain these
Say It
Discuss In a small group,
resources, engineers must drill wells through the rock. talk about different ways that
About one-fourth of the world’s oil is now obtained from you use resources from the
wells in rock beneath the oceans. ocean every day.
Oil is refined by manufacturers to make gasoline.
Gasoline powers vehicles and generators that make elec-
tricity. Oil is also used to make plastic and other products. READING CHECK
5. List Give two ways that
MINERALS people use oil or natural gas.
Many different kinds of minerals can be found on the
ocean floor. These minerals are commonly in the form of
nodules. Nodules are potato-shaped lumps of minerals
that form from chemicals dissolved in ocean water.
Nodules can be made of many different kinds of minerals.
Most nodules contain the element manganese. Manganese
can be used to make certain kinds of steel. Some nodules
contain the valuable metals iron, copper, nickel, or cobalt.
Some contain phosphorus, which can be used in fertilizer.
Nodules can be very large. They may contain a large
amount of valuable minerals. However, they form in the
very deep parts of the ocean. For this reason, they are
difficult to mine. READING CHECK
6. Explain Why are nodules
hard to mine?

Minerals can be found on the

ocean floor in the form of
nodules. These nodules are
difficult to mine because they
are found in very deep water.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 223 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.6.a, 6.6.b, 6.6.c

SECTION VOCABULARY
desalination a process of removing salt from
ocean water

1. List Name two living resources from the ocean.

2. Define Write your own definition for desalination.

3. Describe How can the tides can be used to generate electricity?

4. Identify Give five minerals that may be found in nodules.

5. List Give four nonliving ocean resources.

6. Infer Why are people starting to farm the oceans instead of harvesting wild organisms?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 224 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 12 Exploring the Oceans

SECTION

4 Ocean Pollution
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.6.a
these questions:
• What are the different types of pollution in the ocean?
• How can we preserve ocean resources?

What Pollutes the Ocean?

Many human activities produce pollution that can harm STUDY TIP
the oceans. Some of this pollution comes from a specific Summarize As you read,
source. Pollution that can be traced to one source is called underline the main ideas in
each paragraph. When you
point-source pollution. However, some pollution comes finish reading, write a short
from many sources. Pollution that cannot be traced to a summary of the section using
single source is called nonpoint-source pollution. the ideas you underlined.

TRASH DUMPING READING CHECK

People dump trash in many places, including the ocean. 1. Define Write your own
In the 1980s, scientists became alarmed by the kinds of trash definition for nonpoint-
that were washing up on beaches. Bandages, vials of blood, source pollution.
and other medical wastes were found among the trash.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found
that hospitals in the United States were dumping medical
wastes into the oceans. Much of this waste is now buried
in sanitary landfills. However, dumping trash in the ocean
is still common in many countries.
Trash thrown into the ocean can affect the organisms that
live there. It also affects the organisms, such as people, that
depend on the ocean for food. For example, most plastic
material that is thrown into the ocean does not break down
for thousands of years. Animals can mistake plastic material
for food and choke on it.
TAKE A LOOK
2. Describe How can trash
harm the organisms that
live in the oceans? Give two
Marine animals, such as this
ways.
bird, can choke on plastic
trash that is thrown into the
oceans.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 225 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Ocean Pollution continued

SLUDGE DUMPING
Raw sewage is all of the liquid and solid wastes that are
flushed down toilets and poured down drains. In most places,
raw sewage is collected and sent to a treatment plant. The
treatment removes solid waste and cleans the raw sewage.
READING CHECK The solid waste that remains is called sludge.
3. Compare How is raw In many places, people dump sludge into the ocean.
sewage different from Currents can stir up the sludge and move it closer to
sludge? shore. The sludge can pollute beaches and kill ocean life.
Many countries have banned sludge dumping. However, it
still happens in many parts of the world.

OIL SPILLS
Oil is used by most of the world as an energy source.
However, oil is only found in certain places around the
world. Therefore, large tankers must transport billions of
barrels of oil across the oceans. Sometimes, the tankers
break open and the oil spills out of them.
Oil spills can cause many problems for the environment.
Oil is poisonous to plants and animals. It is also very hard to
READING CHECK clean up oil spills, so their effects can last for a long time.
4. Explain Why can the In 1990, the Oil Pollution Act was passed. This law states
effects of an oil spill last a that all oil tankers that travel in United States waters must
long time? have two hulls. If the outer hull of a ship is damaged, the
inner hull can keep oil from spilling into the ocean.
The Oil Pollution Act may help to prevent large oil spills.
However, as the figure below shows, big spills only cause
about 5% of the oil pollution in the ocean. Most of the oil in
the ocean comes from nonpoint-source pollution on land.

2UNOFFFROMLAND
2OUTINESHIP 
MAINTENANCE

Math Focus


5. Read a Graph What are

the three largest sources of
oil pollution in the oceans? "IGSPILLS

.ATURALSEEPS !IRPOLLUTION
 
/FFSHOREDRILLING


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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 226 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Ocean Pollution continued

NONPOINT-SOURCE POLLUTION
Nonpoint-source pollution is pollution that comes
from many sources instead of a single place. Most ocean
pollution is nonpoint-source pollution. Things that people
do on land can pollute rivers. The rivers can carry the
pollution into the oceans. READING CHECK
Nonpoint-source pollution is hard to control because it
6. Explain How can
enters the water in many different ways. However, there human activities on land
are things that people can do to help reduce nonpoint- cause ocean pollution?
source pollution. For example, we can throw away chem-
icals, such as used motor oil, properly instead of washing
them down the drain.

Oil and gasoline can leak out

of cars and trucks and onto the
streets. Rain can wash the oil
and gasoline into rivers, which
carry them to the oceans.

Boats and other watercraft can

leak oil, gasoline, and other
chemicals into the water.

TAKE A LOOK
7. Identify Give three
People use chemicals to help examples of nonpoint-source
their lawns grow. Rain can wash
pollution.
the chemicals into rivers, which
carry them to the oceans.

How Can We Protect Our Ocean Resources?

People have begun to take steps to save and protect
our ocean resources. From international treaties to vol-
unteer cleanups, efforts to conserve and protect ocean
resources are making a difference around the world.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 227 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

SECTION 4 Ocean Pollution continued

NATIONS TAKE NOTICE

In the 1970s and 1980s, ocean pollution was very bad.
Many countries realized that they would need to work
together to reduce ocean pollution. In 1989, 64 countries

Critical Thinking
signed a treaty that bans the dumping of many harmful
materials into the ocean.
8. Infer Why do countries Many other treaties and laws have also been passed
need to work together to to help protect the oceans. For example, Congress
reduce ocean pollution?
passed the Clean Water Act in 1972. This law gave the
Environmental Protection Agency more control over the
trash that is dumped into the ocean.
Another law, the U.S. Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act, was also passed in 1972. This law
forbids people from dumping harmful materials into the
oceans. These laws have helped to reduce the pollution
entering the oceans. However, waste dumping and oil
spills still happen.

CITIZENS TAKE CHARGE

Citizens of many different countries have demanded
that their governments do more to prevent ocean
pollution. They have also begun to take the matter into
their own hands. For example, people began to organize
beach cleanups. Millions of tons of trash have been
gathered from beaches. Also, people are helping to
spread the word about the problems with dumping
READING CHECK wastes into the oceans.
9. Explain How can
individual people help to
reduce ocean pollution?

During a beach cleanup, many people work together to

remove trash from a beach. This helps make the beach safer
for people, other animals, and plants.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 228 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.6.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
nonpoint-source pollution pollution that point-source pollution pollution that comes
comes from many sources rather than from a from a specific site
single, specific site

1. Compare How is point-source pollution different from nonpoint-source pollution?

2. Describe Fill in the table below to describe different sources of ocean pollution.

Type of pollution Description

Trash dumping

Oil spills

Chemical leaks

3. Infer Most of the trash in the United States is buried instead of being dumped
into the oceans. However, there is still trash in the oceans. Why is this?

4. Identify What type of pollution is most ocean pollution?

5. Describe Why is nonpoint-source pollution hard to control?

6. List Give two United States laws that protect ocean resources.

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 229 Exploring the Oceans
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 13 The Movement of Ocean Water

SECTION

1 Currents
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.3.c, 6.4.a, 6.4.d
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What factors affect ocean currents?
• Why are ocean currents important?

What Are Surface Currents?

STUDY TIP Imagine that you are stranded on an island. You write a
Summarize As you read, note and put it into a bottle. You throw the bottle into the
make a diagram showing the ocean to communicate with the outside world. Can you
types of ocean currents and
the factors that affect them.
predict where the bottle will end up? If you understand
ocean currents, you can! The oceans contain many
streamlike movements of water called ocean currents.
There are two main kinds of ocean currents: surface
currents and deep currents.
Surface currents are horizontal, streamlike
movements of water that are found at or near the
surface of the ocean. Surface currents can be up to
several hundred meters deep. They can be as long
as several thousand kilometers. Three factors affect
surface currents: global winds, the Coriolis effect, and
READING CHECK continental deflections.
1. Define Write your own
definition for surface current.

œÀ̅
TREAM

“iÀˆV> LF3
'U

!TLANTIC/CEAN

TAKE A LOOK
2. Read a Map In what
direction does the Gulf
Stream flow?
The Gulf Stream is one of the largest surface currents in the world. Every year, it
transports at least 25 times as much water as all of the rivers on Earth combined!

Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.

Interactive Reader and Study Guide 230 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Currents continued

GLOBAL WINDS
Have you ever blown across a bowl of hot soup?
You may have noticed that your breath pushes the soup
across the surface of the bowl. In much the same way,
winds that blow across the surface of Earth’s oceans push
water across Earth’s surface. This process causes surface
currents in the ocean. READING CHECK
Many winds blow across Earth’s surface, but they do 3. Explain How do winds
not all blow in the same direction. Near the equator, the cause surface currents?
winds blow mostly east to west. Between 30º and 60º north
and south latitudes, the winds blow mostly west to east.

CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.4.a Students know the sun is
the major source of energy for
phenomena on Earth’s surface;
it powers winds, ocean currents,
and the water cycle.

Word Help: major

of great importance or
Winds are important in producing surface currents. The winds near Earth’s surface large scale
do not all blow in the same direction.
Word Help: source
The sun causes winds to blow, and winds cause surface the thing from which
something else comes
currents to form. Therefore, the major source of the
energy that powers surface currents is the sun. The sun Word Help: energy
heats air near the equator more than it heats air at other what makes things happen
latitudes. As a result, the air near the equator is warmer Word Help: phenomenon
and less dense than the surrounding air. The warm air rises (plural, phenomena) any
facts or events that can
and produces an area of low pressure. Cooler air rushes
be sensed or described
into this area of low pressure, producing wind. scientifically
4. Explain How does
CONTINENTAL DEFLECTIONS the sun power surface
If Earth’s surface were covered only with water, surface currents?
currents would travel across the oceans in a uniform
pattern. However, water does not cover all of Earth’s
surface. Continents cover about one-third of Earth’s
surface. When surface currents meet continents, the
currents deflect, or change direction. The figure on the top
of the next page shows this process.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 231 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Currents continued

TAKE A LOOK
5. Predict Consequences l Cu r r e n t
qu a to r i a
What would probably happen hE
to the South Equatorial ut
So
Current if South America
were not there? The South Equatorial Current flows

t
en
toward South America. When the

urr
current meets the continent, the

il C
current is deflected and flows south.

B ra z
THE CORIOLIS EFFECT
Earth’s rotation also affects the paths of surface
currents. If Earth did not rotate, surface currents would
flow in straight lines. However, because Earth does rotate,
the currents travel along curved paths. This deflection of
moving objects from a straight path because of Earth’s
READING CHECK rotation is called the Coriolis effect.
6. Describe How does As Earth rotates, places near the equator travel faster
Earth’s rotation affect the than places closer to the poles. This difference in speed
paths of surface currents? causes the Coriolis effect. Wind or water moving from the
poles to the equator is deflected to the west. Wind or water
moving from the equator to the poles is deflected east. The
figure below shows examples of these paths.
Earth’s
rotation

TAKE A LOOK
7. Apply Concepts A surface
current starts at the equator
near the west coast of Africa
and begins moving north.
In which direction will the
Path of wind without Coriolis effect
current end up moving? Approximate path of wind

The Coriolis effect causes wind and water to move along curved paths.

The Coriolis effect is most noticeable for objects that

travel very fast or travel over long distances. Over short
distances or with slow moving objects, the rotation of the
Earth does not make much of a difference.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 232 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Currents continued

HOW SURFACE CURRENTS DISTRIBUTE HEAT

Surface currents help to move heat from one part of
Earth to another. Water near the equator absorbs heat
energy from the sun. Then, warm-water currents carry the
heat from the equator to other parts of the ocean. The heat
from the warm-water currents moves into colder water or
into the atmosphere. This transfer of energy through the
movement of matter is called convection.

!RCTIC/CEAN
,ABRA

RIFT
HIO C$
DOR

NTI

I
AS

/YASH
/Y .ORTH
!TLA %UROPE
!MERICA RT H
.O
.ORTH !SIA
0ACIFIC F .ORTH

I O
ARY
ALIFORNIA

L
'U

/CEAN

+UROSH
!TLANTIC
#AN

/CEAN !FRICA
.O R
# TH%QUATORIAL
.ORTH%QUATORIAL
%QUATORIAL#OUNTERCURRENT %QUATORIAL %QUATOR
3OUTH
3OUTH%QUATORIAL !MERICA 3OUTH%QUA )NDIAN
TORIA
0E

L /CEAN
RU

3OUTH !USTRALIA
3OUTH
NGUELA

0ACIFIC !TLANTIC
/CEAN /CEAN
"E

!NTARCTIC !NTARCTIC
TAKE A LOOK
!NTARCTICA 8. Identify Which surface
7ARMCURRENT current carries warm water
#OLDCURRENT along the equator toward the
west coast of South America?
This map shows Earth’s major surface currents. Surface currents help to distribute
heat across Earth’s surface.

What Are Deep Currents?

Not all ocean currents are found at the surface.
Movements of ocean water far below the surface are called
deep currents. Unlike surface currents, deep currents are
not controlled by wind. The movements of deep currents
are controlled by differences in water density. READING CHECK
Density is the amount of matter in a given space or 9. Compare How are deep
volume. The density of ocean water is affected by salinity currents different from
and temperature. Salinity is a measure of the amount surface currents? Give two
ways.
of salts or solids dissolved in a liquid. Water with a high
salinity is denser than water with a low salinity. Cold water
is denser than warm water.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 233 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Currents continued

HOW DEEP CURRENTS FORM

Deep currents form when the density of ocean water
Critical Thinking increases, causing it to sink toward the bottom of the
10. Infer Why do most deep ocean. There are three main ways that the density of ocean
currents form near the poles?
water can increase.
• Temperature can decrease when heat moves from warm
water to cold air or water.
• Salinity can increase when ocean water freezes.
• Salinity can increase when ocean water evaporates.
The figure below shows how these three processes can
affect density.

Decreasing Temperature Cold air Dissolved salt

Near the poles, heat moves
from ocean water into the
colder air. The water becomes
colder. The particles in the
water slow down and move
closer together. The volume
TAKE A LOOK of the water decreases, which
makes the water denser.
11. Explain How does
freezing cause ocean water Water molecules
to become denser? Increasing Salinity Through
Ice
Freezing When ocean water
freezes, the salt in the ocean
water does not become part of
the ice. The salt remains in the
water that has not frozen. This
process increases the salinity
of the water, and the water
becomes denser.

Heat
Increasing Salinity Through Water vapor
Evaporation When ocean
water evaporates, the salt in
the water remains in the liquid.
This process increases the
salinity of the water, and the
water becomes denser.

There are several main deep currents in the ocean. The

deepest and densest water in the ocean is the Antarctic
Bottom Water, which forms near Antarctica. North Atlantic
Deep Water is less dense and forms in the North Atlantic
Ocean. Water that is less dense stays above denser water.
Therefore, North Atlantic Deep Water stays on top of
Antarctic Bottom Water when the two meet.
Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Interactive Reader and Study Guide 234 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Currents continued

How Do Convection Currents Affect Earth?

Remember that convection is the transfer of heat as
matter moves. Both surface currents and deep currents
transfer energy. Therefore, they are also called convection
currents. Convection currents carry heat from the equator CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
toward the poles. The figure below shows a model of how 6.4.d Students know convection
convection currents work. currents distribute heat in the
atmosphere and oceans.
A. Water near the ocean’s surface absorbs heat from
the sun. Surface currents carry the warmer, less-dense Word Help: distribute
Poles water from the equator toward the poles.
to spread out over an area
B. Warm water in surface currents cools as it moves 12. Explain Why are
toward the poles. As the water cools, it becomes
B denser and sinks. surface and deep currents
considered convection
C. The cold water moves along the ocean currents?
floor in deep currents. The deep currents
O
ce

carry cold water from the poles

an

C A toward the equator.

D. Water in deep currents rises to

replace water that moves away
D in surface currents. The cold
Earth water absorbs heat from the
sun as it gets near the
surface, and the
cycle continues.
Equator

Why Are Ocean Currents Important?

Deep currents and surface currents are like highways
that molecules of water travel on. However, currents carry
more than just water around Earth. Materials in the water
also move within currents.
Remember that convection currents carry heat
throughout the oceans. Ocean currents also carry oxygen
and nutrients. Deep currents transport oxygen from the
surface to the deep ocean. As water rises to the surface,
nutrients from deep in the ocean are brought to the
surface along with the water.

No r t h
Am e ric a
Europe
N o r th Asia
A merica

Africa TAKE A LOOK

wa
mr

su
13. Identify Name three
,

r fa
ce
cu
rre
S outh
A merica
nt

c urr
en
t things that ocean currents
cold

fa
ce
transport.
, dee

ur Australia
rm
,s Surface currents
wa
pc

nt
rre
ur

nt cu
re

p
ee
d, d
col Deep currents

Antarctica

This map shows the main paths of global ocean circulation.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 235 The Movement of Ocean Water
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.3.c, 6.4.a, 6.4.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
convection current any movement of matter deep current a streamlike movement of ocean
that results from differences in density; may be water far below the surface
vertical, circular, or cyclical surface current a horizontal movement of
Coriolis effect the curving of the path of a ocean water that is caused by wind and that
moving object from an otherwise straight path occurs at or near the ocean’s surface
due to the Earth’s rotation

1. Define Write your own definition for convection current.

2. Identify What is the main source of power for surface currents in the ocean?

3. List Give three ways that the density of ocean water can increase.

4. Describe What are three factors that control the path that a surface current may
take?

5. Infer Deep currents carry oxygen from the surface to the deep ocean. What is the
most likely reason that there is more oxygen in water near the surface?

6. Predict Consequences If there were no continents on Earth, what paths would the
ocean’s surface currents take? Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 236 The Movement of Ocean Water
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CHAPTER 13 The Movement of Ocean Water

SECTION

2 Currents and Climate

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.4.e
these questions:
• How do surface currents affect climate?
• How do changes in surface currents affect climate?

How Do Surface Currents Affect Earth?

Surface currents can have a large impact on climate. STUDY TIP
The temperature of the water at the surface of the ocean Summarize in Pairs Read
affects the air above it. Warm water can heat air and this section quietly to
yourself. Then, talk about
produce warmer air temperatures. Cold water can absorb the section with a partner.
heat and produce cooler air temperatures. Together, try to answer any
questions that you have.
WARM-WATER CURRENTS AND CLIMATE
Surface currents can make coastal areas warmer than
inland areas at the same latitude. For example, Great
Britain and Newfoundland, Canada, are located at about
the same latitude. However, the Gulf Stream flows close to
Great Britain. The warm water of the Gulf Stream warms
the air around Great Britain. As a result, Great Britain has
a milder climate than Newfoundland.

TAKE A LOOK
Newfoundland Great Britain 1. Explain Why is Great
Britain’s climate milder than
The Gulf Stream carries warm tream
water from the Tropics to the Gulf S Newfoundland’s?
North Atlantic Ocean.

The Gulf Stream flows to Great Britain

and creates a relatively mild climate for
land at such a high latitude.

COLD-WATER CURRENTS AND CLIMATE

Cold-water currents also affect coastal areas. Coastal
areas near cold currents tend to have cooler climates
than inland areas at the same latitude. For example, the
California Current is a cold-water current that flows
near the West Coast of the United States. As a result, the
climate along the West Coast is usually cooler than the
climate of areas further inland. The figure on the top of the
next page shows the location of the California Current.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 237 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 2 Currents and Climate continued

Cold water from The cold-water current keeps

the northern temperatures moderate along
Pacific Ocean is the West Coast.
carried south to
Mexico by the
California Current.
TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify In which
direction does the California
California
Current flow?
Current

How Do El Niño and La Niña Affect Climate?

Every 2 to 12 years, the South Pacific trade winds move
less warm water to the western Pacific than usual. As a
result, surface-water temperatures along the west coast
of South America rise. Over time, this warming spreads
westward. This periodic change in the location of warm
and cool surface waters is called El Niño. El Niño events
can last a year or longer.
Sometimes, El Niño is followed by La Niña. La Niña
happens when surface-water temperatures in the eastern
Pacific become unusually cool.

EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA, AND WEATHER PATTERNS

Both El Niño and La Niña change the way the ocean
and atmosphere interact. Changes in the weather during
El Niño show how the atmosphere, ocean, and weather
patterns are related. Scientists can predict the changes in
Critical Thinking the weather on land that might be caused by El Niño by
studying the atmosphere and the ocean.
3. Apply Concepts El
Niño happens when there
is warmer water near STUDYING AND PREDICTING EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA
the west coast of South
America. Why do scientists
To study El Niño and La Niña, scientists collect data
collect information about air with buoys anchored to the ocean floor along the equator.
temperatures in order to help The buoys record data about water temperature, air
them predict El Niño and La temperature, currents, and winds. The data sometimes
Niña?
show that the South Pacific trade winds are weaker than
usual. The data may also show that the surface-water
temperatures in the oceans have increased. Either of these
changes can tell scientists that El Niño is likely to happen.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 238 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 2 Currents and Climate continued

EFFECTS OF EL NIÑO
El Niño can have a major effect on weather patterns. Say It
Flash floods and mudslides may happen in areas of the Discuss You may have heard
world that usually receive little rain, such as Peru and the news reports about the
effects of El Niño. In a small
southern United States. Other areas of the world, such as
group, talk about some of
Indonesia and Australia, may receive less rain than usual. the effects of El Niño that you
heard about on the news.
How Does Upwelling Affect Climate?
Ocean upwelling happens when warm surface water is
replaced by cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean.
Upwelling is caused by local winds. These winds blow
toward the equator along the northwest coast of South
America and west coast of North America. The winds
cause the local surface currents to move away from the
shore. The warm surface water is then replaced by cold
deep water. READING CHECK
Upwelling is important for ocean life. Nutrients support 4. Define What is upwelling?
the growth of plankton, which is the base of the food chain
in the ocean. On the California coast, upwelling is usually
strongest from March to September. El Niño can interrupt
the process of upwelling and reduce the diversity of
organisms near the ocean’s surface.

Surface winds Surface water

Upwelling

TAKE A LOOK
5. Explain How do winds
cause upwelling?

Upwelling can happen along coastlines when the wind conditions are right. Winds
can blow surface water away from the shore. Then, deep, nutrient-rich water can
rise toward the surface.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 239 The Movement of Ocean Water
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Section 2 Review 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
El Niño a change in the surface water upwelling the movement of deep, cold, and
temperature in the Pacific Ocean that nutrient-rich water to the surface
produces a warm current
La Niña a change in the eastern Pacific Ocean in
which the surface water temperature becomes
unusually cool

1. Explain Why do surface-water temperatures on the west coast of South America rise
during El Niño?

2. Apply Concepts City A and city B are the same height above sea level. Based on the
figure below, make a prediction about the average temperature in city A compared to
city B. Explain your answer.

Ocean

Continent

City B City A warm surface current

3. Explain Why is upwelling important for marine life?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 240 The Movement of Ocean Water
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CHAPTER 13 The Movement of Ocean Water

SECTION

3 Waves and Tides

BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.3.a
these questions:
• How do waves form?
• What are the parts of a wave?
• What causes tides?

How Does a Wave Form?

A wave is any disturbance that carries energy through STUDY TIP
matter or empty space. Waves in the ocean carry energy Compare As you read, make
through water. a chart describing the causes
and features of high tides,
low tides, spring tides, and
WAVE FORMATION neap tides.
Ocean waves form when energy is transferred from a
source to the ocean water. Most ocean waves form as wind
blows across the water’s surface and transfers energy to
the water. However, some waves form when energy from
an earthquake or meteorite impact is transferred to the
ocean water. READING CHECK
Ocean waves can travel at different speeds. They can 1. Identify Give two sources
be very small or extremely large. The size and speed of a of energy that can cause
wave depend on the amount of energy the wave carries. ocean waves.

PARTS OF A WAVE
Waves are made up of two main parts: crests and
troughs. A crest is the highest point of a wave. A trough
is the lowest point of a wave. The distance between one
crest and the next, or one trough and the next, is the
wavelength of the wave. The distance in height between
the crest and the trough is called the wave height.
Parts of a Wave

Wavelength
TAKE A LOOK
2. Define Write your own
Crest
definition for wavelength.

Wave height
Trough

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 241 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 3 Waves and Tides continued

WAVE MOVEMENT
If you have ever watched ocean waves, you may have
Critical Thinking noticed that water seems to move across the ocean’s
3. Predict Consequences surface. However, this movement is only an illusion. The
People who own boats often energy in the wave causes the water to rise and fall in
leave the boats anchored
a short distance away from
circular movements. The water does not move horizontally
the shore. The boats stay in very much. The figure below shows how waves can move
about the same place over energy without moving water horizontally.
many days. What would
happen to these boats if
waves caused water to move
horizontally?

TAKE A LOOK The bottle shows the circular

motion of matter when a wave
4. Describe What is the moves in the ocean. The energy in
shape of the path that the the wave makes matter near the
bottle takes as the wave surface move in circular motions.
The matter does not move
passes by it?
horizontally.

WAVE ENERGY
The size of a wave is related to the amount of energy
it is carrying. When the wind begins to blow over the
water, small waves called ripples form. If the wind keeps
blowing, the ripples receive more energy and grow into
larger waves. Large waves form when the wind blows in
the same direction for a long time. When this happens, a
lot of energy is transferred to the water.
Surface wave energy decreases as water depth
increases. This means that most waves affect only the top
of the water. Deeper water is not affected by the energy of
surface waves.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 242 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 3 Waves and Tides continued

WAVE SPEED
Waves travel at different speeds. To calculate wave
speed, scientists must know the wavelength and the wave
period. Wave period is the time between the passage
of two wave crests or troughs at a fixed point. Dividing
wavelength by wave period gives you wave speed, as
shown below.
Wavelength (m)
_______________
Wave period (s)
= Wave speed (m/s)
Math Focus
5. Calculate A water wave
Increasing the wave period, the time between wave has a speed of 5 m/s. If its
crests, will decrease the wave speed. Decreasing the wave wavelength is 50 m, what is
period will increase the wave speed. The figure below its wave period? Show your
work.
shows how the period of a wave can be measured.

Direction of wave
movement
Wave Wave Wave Wave Wave
A B A B A

Wavelength

1. The waves are moving 2. The timer begins 3. The timer stops when TAKE A LOOK
from left to right. The reef running as the crest of the crest of wave B 6. Identify What part of
is a fixed point because it wave A passes the center passes the center of the wave B is passing the reef
is not moving. The dotted of the reef. reef. The time that the when the timer is stopped?
line marks the center of timer recorded, 5 s, is the
the reef. wave period.

WAVES REACHING THE SHORE

When waves reach water shallower than one-half their
wavelength, they begin to interact with the ocean floor. As
waves begin to touch the ocean floor, the waves transfer
energy from the wave to the ocean floor. As a result, the
water at the bottom of the waves slows down. However,
the water at the top of wave continues to travel at the
original speed. Eventually, the wave crest crashes onto the
shore as a breaker. READING CHECK
The energy of the wave is transferred to the beach 7. Describe What happens
environment at the shore. The energy of the wave and the to a wave’s energy as the
angle at which the wave hits the shore determine how wave moves close to the
shore?
much energy is transferred to the shore.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 243 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 3 Waves and Tides continued

Breakers Wavelengths Wavelengths are

form. shorten. constant.

W avelength

1/ 2 w avelength

W ater
depth

TAKE A LOOK
8. Describe What are
breakers?
Water depth is less than Water depth is greater than
1/2 wavelength. 1/2 wavelength.
As the wave moves toward the shore, wave height increases. Breakers form when
wave crests crash onto the shore.

What Are Tides?

Wind and earthquakes can move ocean water and
produce waves. Other forces can also move ocean water
in regular patterns, such as tides. Tides are daily changes
in the level of the ocean water. Both the sun and the moon
READING CHECK influence the level of tides.
9. Define Write your own
definition for tides. WHY TIDES HAPPEN
The moon’s gravity pulls on every particle on Earth.
However, the moon’s gravity doesn’t pull on every particle
with the same strength. The moon’s gravitational pull on
Earth decreases with distance from the moon. Therefore,
the pull on some parts of Earth is stronger than on other
parts.
The difference in the moon’s pull is more noticeable in
liquids than in solids because liquids can move more easily.
Therefore, the effects of the moon’s pull on the oceans is
more noticeable than on the land.

WHERE TIDES HAPPEN

The part of Earth that faces the moon is pulled toward
the moon with the greatest force. Therefore, the water
on the side of Earth that faces the moon bulges toward
the moon. The water on Earth’s opposite side is pulled
toward the moon the least. Therefore, it bulges away
from the moon. The figure at the top of the next page
shows these bulges.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 244 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 3 Waves and Tides continued

Low tide

Moon
High tide High tide

TAKE A LOOK
10. Explain Why does the
water on the side of Earth
North Pole
that is farthest from the
moon bulge outward?
Low tide

Water bulges toward the moon on the side of Earth that faces the moon. Water
bulges away from the moon on Earth’s far side. As a result, these two sides of Earth
experience high tide. In this image, the sizes and locations of Earth, the oceans, and
the moon are not drawn to scale.
HIGH TIDES AND LOW TIDES
The bulges that form in the oceans because of the
moon’s pull are called high tides. In high-tide areas, the
water level is higher than average sea level. In areas
between high tides, low tides form. In low-tide areas, the
water level is lower than average sea level because the
water is pulled toward high-tide areas.
Remember that Earth rotates on its axis. As a result,
high tides happen in different places on Earth at different
times of day. However, because Earth’s rotation is
predictable, the tides are also predictable. Many places on
Earth experience two high tides and two low tides every
day. READING CHECK
11. Describe Why are the
TIMING THE TIDES tides predictable?
The moon revolves around Earth much more slowly
than Earth rotates. As the figure below shows, a place that
is facing the moon takes 24 h and 50 min to rotate to face
the moon again. Therefore, high and low tides at that place
happen 50 min later each day.
High and low tides
Tuesday, 11:00 A.M. Wednesday, 11:50 A.M. happen about
50 min later each
day at a given
place. This happens
because Earth
rotates faster than
the moon orbits
Earth. If Earth
rotated at the
same speed as the
moon orbits Earth,
tides would not
alternate between
high and low.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 245 The Movement of Ocean Water
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SECTION 3 Waves and Tides continued

How Do Tides Vary?

The sun and the moon affect the tides. Even though the
sun is bigger than the moon, it is much farther away from
Earth than the moon is. Therefore, the sun’s effect on tides
is less than the moon’s. The combined forces of the sun
and the moon on Earth produce different tidal ranges. A
tidal range is the difference between levels of ocean water
READING CHECK at high tide and low tide.
12. Explain Why does the
sun affect the tides less than SPRING TIDES
the moon does? Tides that have the largest daily tidal range are spring
tides. Spring tides happen when the sun, Earth, and the
moon are aligned, as shown in the figures below. Spring
tides happen during the new-moon and full-moon phases,
or every 14 days. During these times, the pull of the sun
and moon produces one pair of very large tidal bulges.
Spring tides happen when 3UN 3UN
the sun, the moon, and Earth
are aligned. This can happen
in two ways. One way is
when the moon is between
TAKE A LOOK Earth and the sun, as shown
13. Describe Draw an oval in the left-hand figure. The
around Earth in each picture other way is when Earth is
between the moon and the
to show where the tides are sun, as shown in the right-
highest and where they are hand figure.
lowest during spring tides.

NEAP TIDES
Tides that have the smallest daily tidal range are called
neap tides. Neap tides happen when the sun, Earth, and
the moon form a 90º angle, as shown in the figures below.
They happen halfway between the spring tides, during the
first-quarter and third-quarter phases of the moon. During
these times, the pull of the sun and moon produces smaller
tidal bulges.
3UN 3UN
Neap tides
happen
when the
sun, the
moon, and
Earth form a
90º angle.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 246 The Movement of Ocean Water
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Section 3 Review 6.3.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
neap tide a tide of minimum range that occurs tide the periodic rise and fall of the water level
during the first and third quarters of the moon in the oceans and other large bodies of water
spring tide a tide of increased range that occurs wave a periodic disturbance in a solid, liquid, or
two times a month, at the new and full moons gas as energy is transmitted through a medium

1. Describe How do ocean waves form?

2. Identify Relationships How does the length of time that wind blows over water
affect the amount of energy in a wave? Explain your answer.

3. Calculate A wave has a wave period of 20 s and a wavelength of 100 m. What is its
speed? How would the speed change if the wave period increased?

4. Summarize What causes tides?

5. Explain Why is the moon’s pull more noticeable in liquids than in solids?

6. Apply Ideas If you have a calendar that shows only the phases of the moon, can
you predict when spring tides and neap tides will happen? Explain your answer.

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CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere

SECTION

1 Characteristics of the Atmosphere

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.4.b, 6.4.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is Earth’s atmosphere made of?
• How do air pressure and temperature change as you
move away from Earth’s surface?
• What are the layers of the atmosphere?

What Is Earth’s Atmosphere Made Of?

STUDY TIP An atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds a
Define When you come planet or moon. On Earth, the atmosphere is often called
across a word you don’t just “the air.” When you take a breath of air, you are
know, circle it. When you
figure out what it means,
breathing in atmosphere.
write the definition in your The air you breathe is made of many different things.
notebook Almost 80% of it is nitrogen gas. The rest is mostly
oxygen, the gas we need to live. There is also water in the
atmosphere. Some of it is invisible, in the form of a gas
READING CHECK called water vapor.
1. List Which two gases Water is also found in the atmosphere as water
make up most of Earth’s droplets and ice crystals, like those that make up clouds.
atmosphere? The atmosphere contains tiny solid bits, or particles,
too. These particles are things like dust and dirt from
continents, salt from oceans, and ash from volcanoes.
Gases in Earth’s Atmosphere

Nitrogen
78%

Math Focus
2. Analyze Data About how
many times more nitrogen Oxygen
than oxygen is there in 21%
Earth’s atmosphere?
Other
1%

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 248 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 1 Characteristics of the Atmosphere continued

Why Does Air Pressure Change with Height?

Air pressure is how much the air above you weighs.
It is a measure of how hard air molecules push on a
surface. We don’t normally notice air pressure, because
our bodies are used to it.
As you move up from the ground and out toward
space, there are fewer gas molecules pressing down from
above. Therefore, the air pressure drops. The higher you
go, the lower the air pressure gets. READING CHECK
Lower 3. Explain Why does air
pressure pressure drop as you move
away from Earth’s surface?

TAKE A LOOK
4. Compare How is the air
pressure around the tree
Higher different from the air
pressure pressure around the plane?

Why Does Air Temperature Change

with Height?
Like air pressure, air temperature changes as you
move higher in the atmosphere. Air pressure always gets
lower as you move higher, but air temperature can get
higher or lower. The air can get hotter or colder. READING CHECK
Air temperature depends on a number of things, 5. Summarize What is the
including the gases that are present in the atmosphere. main idea of this paragraph?
There are different layers of the atmosphere. Each layer
is made of a different combination of gases. Some gases
absorb energy from the sun better than others. When a gas
absorbs energy from the sun, the air temperature goes up.

What Are the Four Layers of the

Atmosphere?
There are four layers of the atmosphere: troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. You
cannot actually see these different layers. The atmosphere
is divided into layers based on how each layer’s
temperature changes. The table on the next page shows
the features of the different layers of the atmosphere.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 249 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 1 Characteristics of the Atmosphere continued

Critical Thinking Layer How temperature and

pressure change as
Important features

6. Explain Events How do you move higher

you think scientists found out
that there are four layers of Troposhere temperature decreases densest layer
the atmosphere? pressure decreases where most of the
atmosphere is
where weather happens
where clouds are

Stratosphere temperature increases gases are arranged in

pressure decreases layers
contains the ozone layer

Say It Mesosphere temperature decreases has the lowest

Make Up a Memory Trick In
pressure decreases temperature
groups of two or three, make
up a sentence to help you
remember the order of the
layers of the atmosphere. Thermosphere temperature increases has the highest
The words in the sentence temperature
pressure decreases
should start with T, S, M, and
T. For example, “Tacos Sound
Mighty Tasty.” A sentence like
this is called a mnemonic.

Outer space
600

500

100 Thermosphere

90

80
Altitude (km)

70
Mesosphere
60

TAKE A LOOK 50
7. Identify At what altitude
does the mesosphere end 40 ozone layer
and the thermosphere begin?
30
Stratosphere
20
8. Identify Sketch clouds 10
in the proper place in the Troposphere
figure. 0
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 250 The Atmosphere
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Section 1 Review 6.4.b, 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
air pressure a measure of the force with which stratosphere the layer of the atmosphere that
air molecules push on a surface is above the troposphere and in which
atmosphere a mixture of gases that surrounds a temperature increases as altitude increases
planet or moon thermosphere the uppermost layer of the
mesosphere the layer of the atmosphere atmosphere, in which temperature increases
between the stratosphere and the thermosphere as altitude increases
and in which temperature decreases as altitude troposphere the lowest layer of the atmosphere,
increases in which temperature decreases as altitude
increases

1. Define In your own words, explain what air pressure is.

2. Explain Why does air temperature change as you move up from the Earth’s
surface?

3. Graph Data The graph below shows how the temperature changes as you move
up through the atmosphere. On the graph, draw a curve showing how the
pressure changes.
700

500
Thermosphere
100
Altitude (km)

80

60 Mesosphere

40
Stratosphere
20
Troposphere
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20
Temperature (ºC)

4. Identify Relationships How does the sun affect air temperatures?

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CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere

SECTION

2 Atmospheric Heating
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d, 6.4.a, After you read this section, you should be able to answer
6.4.b, 6.4.d these questions:
• How does energy travel from the sun to Earth?
• What are the differences between radiation,
conduction, and convection?
• Why is Earth’s atmosphere as warm as it is?

How Does Energy Travel from the Sun

to Earth?
STUDY TIP Most of the heat energy on Earth’s surface comes from
Outline In your notebook, the sun. Energy travels from the sun to Earth by
write an outline of this radiation, which means that it travels through space as
chapter. Use the questions in
bold to make your outline. As
waves. As solar energy (energy from the sun) is absorbed
you read, fill in information by air, water, and land, it turns into heat energy. This
about each question. energy from the sun causes winds, the water cycle, ocean
currents, and changes in the weather.

travels to Earth gets

Energy from by
by water, land, and

causes the winds, the

TAKE A LOOK turns into

cycles, ocean
1. Summarize Use the
information in the text to fill and changes in
in the blanks in the graphic
organizer.

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

All energy that travels in waves is radiation. The waves
that make up all forms of radiation are called
electromagnetic waves. These waves travel through space
READING CHECK at very high speeds—about 300,000 km/s.
2. Explain What is radiation? Almost all of the energy that reaches Earth from the
sun is in the form of electromagnetic waves. The
electromagnetic spectrum is made of all the types of
electromagnetic waves.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 252 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 2 Atmospheric Heating continued

WAVELENGTHS
Different types of electromagnetic radiation have Math Focus
different wavelengths. A wavelength is the distance from 3. Build Models In the
space below, use a ruler
any point on a wave to the same point on the next wave. to draw a wave that has a
Visible light is made of light with different wavelength of 1 cm. Label
wavelengths. People see the different wavelengths as the beginning and the end
of one wavelength.
different colors. Ultraviolet rays, X rays, and gamma rays
have shorter wavelengths than the wavelengths of visible
light. Infrared and radio waves have wavelengths longer
than those of visible light.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Gamma Ultraviolet
Rays Rays Infrared FM Shortwave
X-rays Rays Radar TV AM
TAKE A LOOK
Visible light 4. Identify Relationships
10 -14
10 -12
10 -10
10 -8 -6
10 10 -4 -2
10 1 10 10 2 4 Which types of radiation have
Wavelength (m) wavelengths shorter than
visible light?
Increasing energy

Increasing wavelength

What Happens to Radiation from the Sun?

Not all of the radiation from the sun reaches Earth’s
surface. Much of it gets absorbed by the atmosphere.
Some of it is scattered and reflected by clouds and gases.

About 25% is
scattered and TAKE A LOOK
reflected by 5. Identify How much of the
clouds and air.
sunlight that gets to Earth is
About 20% is absorbed by absorbed by Earth’s surface?
ozone, clouds, and gases
in the atmosphere.

6. Summarize What
happens to the sunlight that
About 50% is absorbed
is not absorbed by Earth’s
by Earth’s surface. surface?
About 5% is reflected
by Earth’s surface.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 253 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 2 Atmospheric Heating continued

How Is Heat Transferred by Contact?

Once sunlight is absorbed by Earth’s surface, it is
converted, or changed, into heat energy. Then, the heat
can be transferred to other objects and moved to other
places. When a warm object touches a cold object, heat
moves from the warm object to the cold one. This
movement of heat is called thermal conduction.
When you touch the sidewalk on a hot, sunny day, heat
energy is conducted from the sidewalk to you. The same
thing happens to air molecules in the atmosphere. When
READING CHECK they touch the warm ground, the air molecules heat up.
7. List Name two ways that
air gets heated. How Is Heat Energy Transferred by Motion?
If you have ever watched a pot of water boil, you have
seen convection. In convection, warm material, such as
air or water, moves from one place to another.
When you turn on the stove under a pot of water, the
water closest to the stove heats up. When it heats up, the
water’s density decreases. The warm water near the stove
is not as dense as the cool water near the air. So the cool
water sinks while the warm water rises.
As it rises, the warm water begins to cool. When it
cools, its density increases again. It becomes denser than
the layer below, so it sinks back to the stove top. This
cycle causes a circular movement called a convection
current.
Convection currents also move heat through the
atmosphere. In fact, most heat energy in the atmosphere
is transferred by convection. Air close to the ground is
heated by conduction from the ground. It becomes less
READING CHECK dense than the cooler air above it. Then, it starts to
8. Explain How is most heat convect. The warmer air rises while the cooler air sinks.
energy in the atmosphere The ground warms up the cooler air by conduction, and
transferred from one place to
another?
the warm air rises again.
Convection Current
Warm air
cools down.

TAKE A LOOK
9. Describe In a convection Warm, less Cooler,
dense air denser
current, what happens after rises. air sinks.
cool air sinks?

Cool air
warms up.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 254 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 2 Atmospheric Heating continued

1. The sun heats up the ground by

2. The ground heats up the air by

TAKE A LOOK
10. Sequence Fill in the
3. Warm air moves by blanks in the boxes to show
how heat moves in Earth’s
atmosphere.

Why Doesn’t All the Heat in the Atmosphere

Escape Back Out into Space?
A gardener who needs to keep plants warm uses a
glass building called a greenhouse. Light travels through
the glass into the building, and the energy is absorbed
by the air and plants inside. The energy is converted to
heat, which cannot travel back through the glass as easily
as light came in. Much of the heat energy stays trapped
within the greenhouse, keeping the air inside warmer
than the air outside.
Earth’s atmosphere acts like the glass walls of a
greenhouse. Sunlight travels through the atmosphere
easily, but heat does not. Gases in the atmosphere, such
as water vapor and carbon dioxide, absorb heat energy
coming from Earth and radiate it back to Earth’s surface.
This is known as the greenhouse effect. READING CHECK
The Greenhouse Effect 11. List Name two gases
in Earth’s atmosphere that
1. Light energy from the sun
passes through the atmosphere
absorb heat.
and is absorbed by clouds and
by Earth’s surface. Sun

2. Clouds and Earth’s surface

radiate the energy back out as
heat energy.

TAKE A LOOK
12. Identify On the drawing,
Earth label the light coming from
the sun with an L. Label the
heat energy that is trapped
3. Heat energy warms Earth’s by Earth’s atmosphere with
atmosphere. an H.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 255 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 2 Atmospheric Heating continued

Why Doesn’t Earth Get Hotter and Hotter?

Critical Thinking Every day, Earth receives more energy from the sun. If
13. Apply Concepts How none of this energy could escape, Earth would get hotter
will global warming affect the and hotter. However, much of the energy does eventually
amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere? Explain your
get radiated back out into space. The balance between
answer. energy coming in and energy going out is known as the
radiation balance.

What Is Global Warming?

Many scientists are worried that Earth has been getting
warmer over the past hundred years. This increase in
temperatures all over the world is called global warming.
Scientists think that human activities may be causing
global warming. When we burn fossil fuels, we release
greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, into the
Say It atmosphere. Because greenhouse gases trap heat in the
Predict How might global atmosphere, adding more of them can make Earth even
warming affect your warmer. Global warming can have a strong effect on
community? What can you
do to slow global warming?
weather and climate.
In groups of two or three,
discuss how global warming
might affect your lives.

TAKE A LOOK
14. Explain What is one
possible reason that Earth is
getting warmer?

This photo shows traffic on the Golden Gate bridge. Cars burn
fossil fuels and produce greenhouse gases.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 256 The Atmosphere
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Section 2 Review 6.3.a, 6.3.c, 6.3.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.4.d

SECTION VOCABULARY
convection the transfer of thermal energy by the greenhouse effect the warming of the surface
circulation or movement of a liquid or gas and lower atmosphere of the Earth that occurs
electromagnetic spectrum all of the when water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic gases absorb and reradiate thermal energy
radiation radiation the transfer of energy as
global warming a gradual increase in average electromagnetic waves
global temperatures thermal conduction the transfer of energy as
heat through a material

1. Explain Explain how energy gets from the sun to Earth. Use at least one of the
vocabulary words in the box above.

2. Compare Fill in the table below to name and describe the three ways energy is
transferred in Earth’s atmosphere.

Type of energy transfer How energy is transferred

Energy travels as electromagnetic waves.

Conduction

3. Explain How does most of the heat in Earth’s atmosphere move from place to place?

4. Identify Relationships Explain how global warming and the greenhouse effect are
related.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 257 The Atmosphere
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CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere

SECTION

3 Air Movement and Wind

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.4.a, 6.4.d, 6.4.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What causes wind?
• What is the Coriolis effect?
• What are the major global wind systems on Earth?

What Causes Wind?

STUDY TIP Wind is moving air. It is caused by differences in air
Underline Each head in this pressure. Air moves from areas of high pressure to areas
section is a question. of low pressure. The greater the pressure difference, the
Underline the answer to each
question when you find it in faster the air moves, and the stronger the wind blows.
the text. You can see how air moves if you blow up a balloon
and then let it go. The air inside the balloon is at a higher
READING CHECK
pressure than the air around the balloon. If you open the
end of the balloon, air will rush out.
1. Define What is wind?

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify On the drawing,
label the high-pressure area
with an H and the
low-pressure area with an L.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 258 The Atmosphere
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 Air Movement and Wind continued

What Causes Differences in Air Pressure? CALIFORNIA

Differences in air pressure on Earth are caused mainly STANDARDS CHECK
6.4.A Students know the sun is
by differences in temperature. The air over some parts the major source of energy for
of Earth gets more energy from the sun than others. For phenomena on Earth’s surface;
it powers winds, ocean currents,
example, the sun shines more directly on the equator and the water cycle.
than on the poles. As a result, the air is warmer near the
Word Help: major
equator. of great importance or
The warm air near the equator is not as dense as the large scale
cool air near the poles. Because it is less dense, the air Word Help: energy
at the equator rises and forms an area of low pressure. what makes things happen
Word Help: phenomena
The cold air near the poles sinks and forms areas of high
any facts or events that can
pressure. The air moves in large circular patterns called be sensed or described
convection cells. These convection cells are shown from scientifically
the side in the drawing below.
Convection Cells 3. Explain How does the
sun cause the wind?
Low pressure

High pressure High pressure

0˚
Equator
Low pressure Low pressure

High High
pressure pressure
90˚S 90˚N

What Are the Major Global Wind Systems?

Global winds are large-scale wind systems. There
are three major global wind systems: polar easterlies,
prevailing westerlies, and trade winds. The direction the
winds blow is controlled by the convection cells and by
Earth’s rotation.
².
0OLAREASTERLIES
Global Winds
².

0REVAILINGWESTERLIES TAKE A LOOK

². 4. Identify Which wind
system do you live in?
4RADEWINDS
²%QUATOR

4RADEWINDS 5. Identify In which

²3 direction do all of the wester-
0REVAILINGWESTERLIES lies blow?
²3

0OLAREASTERLIES
7INDDIRECTION
²3

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 259 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 3 Air Movement and Wind continued

Why Do Winds Curve?

Critical Thinking Pressure differences cause air to move from the poles
6. Predict If air is moving toward the equator. However, if you look at the global
south from California, which wind map, you will see that the winds don’t actually
way will it tend to curve? travel straight north or south. The winds have curved
paths.
Winds traveling from the equator to the poles curve
to the east. Winds traveling from the poles toward the
equator curve to the west. This is known as the Coriolis
effect. The Coriolis effect happens because Earth is
rotating, or turning on its axis.

What Are Local Winds?

Most of the United States is in the belt of prevailing
westerly winds, which move from west to east. Yet,
you’ve probably noticed that the wind can blow from
the north, south, east, west, or anywhere in between.
These are local winds. Local winds move relatively short
READING CHECK distances and can blow from any direction.
7. Compare Describe one Like the other wind systems, local winds are caused by
difference between global differences in pressure, which are caused by differences
winds and local winds. in temperature. These temperature differences are caused
by geographic features such as mountains and bodies of
water.

Day

TAKE A LOOK
8. Identify In the figures, Cool air over the ocean
flows toward the land. This Air over land heats up
label the high-pressure areas quickly and rises.
with an H and the creates a sea breeze.
low-pressure areas with an L.

Night
Say It
Share Experiences Have
you ever been in a very Air over the land cools off quickly.
strong wind? In groups of Air over the ocean stays It sinks and flows out toward the
two or three, discuss the warmer than the air ocean. This creates a land breeze.
strongest or worst wind. over the land. It rises.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 260 The Atmosphere
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.4.a, 6.4.d, 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
Coriolis effect the apparent curving of the path wind the movement of air caused by differences
of a moving object from an otherwise straight in air pressure
path due to the Earth’s rotation

1. Identify The drawing below shows a convection cell. Put arrows on the cell to
show which way the air is moving. Label high pressure areas with an H and low
pressure areas with an L. Label cold air with a C and warm air with a W.

2. Identify Cause and Effect Complete the Cause-and-Effect Table below.

Cause Effect
differences in air pressure

Differences in air pressure

winds that curve to the east as they flow

toward the poles

3. Identify Name the three global wind systems.

4. Apply Concepts Would there be winds if Earth’s surface were the same
temperature everywhere? Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 261 The Atmosphere
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CHAPTER 14 The Atmosphere

SECTION

4 The Air We Breathe

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.6.a, 6.6.b
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is air pollution?
• What causes air pollution?
• How does air pollution affect the environment?
• How can people reduce air pollution?

What Is Air Pollution?

STUDY TIP Air pollution is the addition of harmful substances
Make a List As you read, to the atmosphere. An air pollutant is anything in the air
make a list of the sources of that can hurt the environment or make people sick. Some
air pollution discussed in the
text. air pollution comes from natural sources. Other forms
of air pollution are caused by things people do. There
are two kinds of air pollutants: primary pollutants and
secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants are pollutants that are put directly
into the air. Dust, sea salt, volcanic ash, and pollen are
primary pollutants that come from natural sources.
Smoke, chemicals from paint, and vehicle exhaust are
primary pollutants that come from human activities.
Secondary pollutants form when primary pollutants
react with each other or with other substances in the air.
Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. It forms on
sunny days when chemicals from burning gasoline react
with each other and with the air. Ozone damages human
READING CHECK lungs and can harm other living things, as well.
1. Explain Why is ozone
called a secondary pollutant? Pollutant Primary pollutant or Natural or
secondary pollutant? human-caused?
Car exhaust primary human-caused
Dust
Ozone
Paint chemicals
Pollen
TAKE A LOOK Sea salt
2. Fill In Use the information
Volcanic ash
in the text to fill in the table.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 262 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 4 The Air We Breathe continued

3. Ozone mixes with other

pollutants to form smog. Smog
Smog
Sun

1. Vehicles like cars

Ozone TAKE A LOOK
3. Identify What is the
give off exhaust.
primary pollutant in this
Exhaust 2. Exhaust reacts with the figure?
air and with sunlight to
form ozone.

What Is Smog?
On a hot, still, sunny day, yellowish brown air can
cover a city. This is called smog. Smog forms when ozone
mixes with other pollutants. During summer in cities
such as Los Angeles, a layer of warm air can trap smog
near the ground. In the winter, a storm can clear the air.

Say It
Discuss In a small group,
discuss how the pollution
shown in this photograph
This is Los Angeles on a clear day. Here Los Angeles is covered in smog. formed.

How Do Humans Cause Air Pollution?

Many of our daily activities cause air pollution. The
main source of human-caused air pollution in the United
States is motor vehicles. Cars, motorcycles, trucks, buses,
trains, and planes all give off exhaust. Exhaust contains READING CHECK
pollutants that create ozone and smog. 4. Identify What is the main
Factories and power plants that burn coal, oil, and gas source of human-caused
also give off pollutants. Businesses that use chemicals, air pollution in the United
such as dry cleaners and auto body shops, can add to air States?

pollution.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 263 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 4 The Air We Breathe continued

What Causes Air Pollution Indoors?

Sometimes the air inside a building can be more
polluted than the air outside. Because there is no wind to
blow pollutants away and no rain to wash them out of the
air, they build up inside. It is important to air out
buildings by opening the windows or using fans that
READING CHECK bring fresh air in from outside.
5. Explain Why can air Sources of Indoor Air Pollution
pollution indoors be worse Nitrogen oxides from unvented gas Fungi and bacteria from dirty
than air pollution outdoors? stove, wood stove, or kerosene heater heating and air conditioning ducts

Chlorine and
ammonia Carbon
from monoxide
household from faulty
cleaners furnace and car
left running

Solvents from

TAKE A LOOK
paint strippers
and thinners
6. Identify Name two
Chemicals
sources of indoor air from dry
pollution shown here that cleaning

may be in your own home.

Formaldehyde from furniture, carpeting, Gasoline from car

particleboard, and foam insulation and lawn mower

What Is Acid Precipitation?

Acid precipitation is rain, sleet, or snow that
contains acids from air pollution. When we burn fossil
fuels, pollutants such as sulfur dioxide are released
into the air. These pollutants combine with water in the
atmosphere to form acids.
Acid precipitation can kill or damage plants, change
what soil is made of, and poison water. When acid rain
flows into lakes, it can kill fish and other aquatic life.

Coal is burned.

TAKE A LOOK Acid rain falls in the lake.

7. Sequence Complete the
graphic organizer to show
how burning coal can cause Fish die.
fish to die.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 264 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 4 The Air We Breathe continued

What Is the Ozone Hole?

Close to the ground, ozone is a pollutant formed by
human activities. However, high in the stratosphere,
ozone is an important gas that forms naturally. The ozone
layer absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Ultraviolet (UV) rays harm living things. UV light can
cause skin cancer in humans. READING CHECK
In the 1980s, scientists noticed that the ozone layer over 8. Explain How is ozone
the poles was getting thinner. This hole in the ozone layer helpful to humans?
was being caused by chemicals called CFCs, which destroy
ozone. CFCs were being used in air conditioners and
chemical sprays. Many CFCs are now banned. The ozone
layer may slowly recover, but it will take a long time. CFCs
can remain in the atmosphere for 60 to 120 years.

Ozone in the statosphere Ozone near the ground

Naturally formed TAKE A LOOK
9. Compare Fill in the
Not a pollutant chart to show the differences
between ozone in the
harmful to living things atmosphere and ozone near
the ground.

How Does Air Pollution Affect Human

Health?
Air pollution can cause many health problems. Some
are short-term problems. They happen quickly and go
away when the air pollution clears up or the person
moves to a cleaner location. Other are long-term health
problems. They develop over long periods of time and are
not cured easily. The table below lists some of the effects
of air pollution on human health. READING CHECK
10. Compare What is the
Short-term effects Long-term effects difference between
headache emphysema (a lung disease) short-term effects and
nausea and vomitting lung cancer long-term effects?
eye, nose, and throat irritation asthma
coughing permanent lung damage
difficulty breathing heart disease
upper respiratory infections skin cancer
asthma attacks
worsening of emphysema

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 265 The Atmosphere
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SECTION 4 The Air We Breathe continued

What Can We Do About Air Pollution?

Believe it or not, air pollution in the United States is
not as bad now as it was 30 years ago. People are now
much more aware of how they can cause air pollution.
Air pollution can be reduced by new laws, by technology,
and by people changing their lifestyles.
The United States government and the governments of
other countries have passed laws to control air pollution.
These laws limit the amount of pollution that sources
such as cars and factories are allowed to release. For
example, factories and power plants now have scrubbers
on smokestacks. A scrubber is a tool that helps remove
pollutants from smoke before it leaves the smokestack.
Cars are more efficient now than they used to be, so
they run on less fuel. Individuals can do a lot on their
own to reduce air pollution, as well. For example, we can
READING CHECK walk or bike instead of driving.
11. Identify Name two
things you can do to limit air
pollution.

Critical Thinking
12. Analyze Processes
Electric cars don’t give off any
exhaust. They don’t cause
pollution in the cities where
they are driven. However,
driving them can cause
pollution in other places. In Copenhagen, Denmark, companies lend bicycles for anyone to use for free.
How? The program helps reduce automobile traffic and reduce air pollution.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 266 The Atmosphere
Name Class Date

Section 4 Review 6.6.a, 6.6.b

SECTION VOCABULARY
acid precipitation rain, sleet, or snow that air pollution the contamination of the atmo-
contains a high concentration of acids sphere by the introduction of pollutants from
human and natural sources

1. Identify Relationships How are fossil fuels related to air pollution and acid
precipitation?

2. Compare Complete the table below to compare different pollutants.

Pollutant Source Negative effects Solutions
CFCs

Ozone

Sulfur dioxide

3. List Name three things, other than humans, that could be hurt by air pollution.

4. Explain Why is the ozone hole dangerous?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 267 The Atmosphere
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 15 Weather and Climate

SECTION

1 Water in the Air

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.4.a, 6.4.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What is weather?
• How does water in the air affect the weather?
• What are the forms of water found in the air?

What Is Weather?
STUDY TIP Knowing about the weather is important in our daily
Outline Before you read, lives. Your plans to play outside can change if it rains.
make an outline of this Being prepared for extreme weather conditions, such as
section using the question in
bold. As you read, fill in the hurricanes and tornadoes, can even save lives.
main ideas of the chapter in Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a
your outline. certain time and place. The condition of the atmo-
sphere depends a lot on the amount of water in the air.
Therefore, to understand weather, you need to under-
READING CHECK stand how water moves through the atmosphere.
1. Define Write your own
definition for weather. THE WATER CYCLE
The movement of water between the atmosphere, the
land, and the oceans is called the water cycle. The sun is
the main source of energy for the water cycle. The sun’s
energy heats Earth’s surface. This causes liquid water
to evaporate, or change into water vapor (a gas). When
the water vapor cools, it may change back into a liquid
and form clouds. This is called condensation. The liquid
water may fall as rain on the land.
Condensation is the process
by which water vapor changes
from a gas to a liquid. Clouds
form by this process.
Evaporation is the
process by which Precipitation is rain,
liquid water changes snow, sleet, or hail
into water vapor, that falls from clouds
which is a gas. to Earth’s surface.

TAKE A LOOK Runoff is water that flows over

land and into rivers, streams,
2. Describe How does and eventually the ocean.
water move from oceans into
the atmosphere?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 268 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Water in the Air continued

What Is Humidity?
Water vapor makes up only a few percent of the mass
of the atmosphere. However, this small amount of water
vapor has an important effect on weather and climate.
When the sun’s energy heats up Earth’s surface, some
of the water in oceans and water bodies changes to a
gas, water vapor. The amount of water vapor in the air is
called humidity. READING CHECK
Humidity depends on the rates of evaporation and con- 3. Identify What causes
densation. In general, evaporation happens faster when water in the oceans to turn
air temperature is higher. The rate of condensation is into water vapor?
affected by vapor pressure. Water vapor, like all gases in
the atmosphere, adds to the total atmospheric pressure.
The portion of air pressure that is caused by water vapor
is called vapor pressure. READING CHECK
As vapor pressure increases, the rate of condensation 4. Explain What two things
increases. When evaporation and condensation happen at does humidity depend on?
the same rate, the air is said to be saturated with water.
The temperature at which this happens is called the dew
point. At temperatures below the dew point, liquid water
droplets can form from the water vapor in the air.

20°C 20°C

Water vapor
Increasing Moist air
No vapor vapor
pressure pressure
Dry air

Evaporating
water
TAKE A LOOK
molecules 5. Describe How does air
Water pressure change as water
The dry air in this flask has no When water comes into contact vapor pressure increases?
water in it. Therefore, it has no with dry air, some of the water
water vapor pressure. evaporates. The water molecules
in the air exert a pressure called
vapor pressure.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 269 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Water in the Air continued

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Scientists often describe the amount of water in the
air using the term relative humidity. Relative humidity
is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the
greatest amount the air can hold. In other words, relative
humidity is a measure of how close air is to its dew point.
Math Focus To calculate relative humidity, divide the amount of
6. Calculate What is the water in the air by the maximum amount of water the air
relative humidity of 25˚C can hold. Then, multiply by 100 to get a percentage. For
air that contains 10 g/m3 of
water vapor? Show your work. example, 1 m3 of air at 25°C can hold up to about 23 g of
water vapor. If air at 25°C in a certain place contains only
18 g/m3 of water vapor, then the relative humidity is:
3
18 g/m
_______
3
⫻ 100 ⫽ 78% relative humidity
23 g/m
Scientists measure relative humidity using special tools.
These tools have sensors that absorb water from the air.
When humidity increases, the sensors absorb more water.
When humidity decreases, the sensors release water to the
air. As the sensors absorb and release water, they send
electrical signals to a computer. The computer interprets the
signals as a measurement of relative humidity.

Scientists use tools like this

to measure relative humidity.

What Affects the Dew Point?

Remember that the dew point is the temperature
at which air is saturated with water. At the dew point,
condensation and evaporation happen at the same rate.
READING CHECK When the temperature of the air is below the dew point,
7. Explain What happens liquid water droplets can condense from water vapor.
when the temperature of air
is below its dew point?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 270 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Water in the Air continued

REACHING THE DEW POINT

Condensation happens when air is saturated with water Critical Thinking
vapor. Air can become saturated if water evaporates and 8. Apply Concepts People
enters the air as water vapor. Air can also become saturated who wear glasses may notice
when it cools below its dew point. that their glasses fog up when
they go indoors on a cold day.
You have probably seen examples of air becoming Why does this happen?
saturated because of a temperature decrease. For example,
when you add ice cubes to a glass of water, the temperatures
of the water and of the glass decrease. The glass absorbs
heat from the air, so the temperature of the air near the
glass decreases. When the air’s temperature drops below
its dew point, water vapor condenses on the glass. The
condensed water forms droplets on the glass.

The glass absorbs heat from the air.

The air cools to below its dew point.
Water vapor condenses onto the side TAKE A LOOK
of the glass. 9. Describe Where did the
liquid water on the outside
of the glass come from?

When air is nearly saturated, only a small temperature

drop is needed for condensation to happen. During the night,
objects can lose heat and become cooler. Air may cool below
its dew point when the air touches the cool objects. The
water droplets that form are called dew.

How Do Clouds Form?

A cloud is made of millions of tiny water droplets or ice
crystals. Clouds form as air rises and cools. When air cools
below the dew point, water droplets or ice crystals form.
Water droplets form when water condenses above 0°C. Ice
crystals form when water condenses below 0°C.
Clouds are classified by their shapes and by their altitudes. READING CHECK
The three main cloud shapes are stratus clouds, cumulus 10. Explain How are clouds
clouds, and cirrus clouds. The three altitude groups are low classified?

clouds, middle clouds, and high clouds. The figure on the top
of the next page shows these different cloud types.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 271 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Water in the Air continued

(IGHCLOUDSAREFOUNDABOVEM -IDDLECLOUDSAREFOUNDBETWEENM

4HETEMPERATUREATTHISHEIGHTISVERYLOW ANDM-IDDLECLOUDSCANBEMADE
4HEREFOREHIGHCLOUDSAREMADEOFICE OFWATERDROPLETSORICECRYSTALS4HEPREFIX
CRYSTALS4HEPREFIXCIRRO ISUSEDTO ALTO ISUSEDTOINDICATEMIDDLECLOUDS
INDICATEHIGHCLOUDS

Say It
M #IRRUS

#IRROCUMULUS #IRRUSCLOUDSARETHIN
Observe and Describe Look FEATHERY LOOKINGCLOUDS4HEY
ONLYFORMATHIGHALTITUDES
at the clouds every day for a #IRROSTRATUS
week. Each day, write down
the weather and what the
clouds looked like. At the
end of the week, share your M #UMULONIMBUS
observations with a small
!LTOSTRATUS
group. How was the weather
related to the kinds of clouds
you saw each day?

M
#UMULUSCLOUDSLOOK
!LTOCUMULUS PUFFYLIKECOTTONBALLS

R
ATO
#UMULUS %QU

M 3TRATUSCLOUDSARELAYEREDCLOUDS
THATSTRETCHACROSSTHESKY
TAKE A LOOK 3TRATOCUMULUS
11. Compare How is a .IMBOSTRATUS
3TRATUS
nimbostratus cloud different
from a stratus cloud?

4HEPREFIXNIMBO ANDTHE
,OWCLOUDSAREFOUNDBELOWM4HEY SUFFIX NIMBUSAREUSEDTO
AREMADEOFONLYWATERDROPLETS4HEREISNO INDICATECLOUDSTHATARE
PREFIXTHATISUSEDTOINDICATELOWCLOUDS PRODUCINGPRECIPITATION

PRECIPITATION
Water droplets in clouds are very tiny. As droplets
combine, they become larger. When a droplet reaches
a certain size, it falls to Earth’s surface as precipitation.
Precipitation is any form of water that falls to Earth’s
READING CHECK surface from clouds.
12. Define What is There are four main forms of precipitation: rain, snow,
precipitation? sleet, and hail. Rain and snow are the most common kinds
of precipitation. Hail and freezing rain are less common.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 272 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

Section 1 Review 6.4.a, 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
condensation the change of state from a gas to precipitation any form of water that falls to
a liquid Earth’s surface from the clouds
dew point at constant pressure and water vapor relative humidity the ratio of the amount of
content, the temperature at which the rate of water vapor in the air to the amount of water
condensation equals the rate of evaporation vapor needed to reach saturation at a given
humidity the amount of water vapor in the air temperature
weather the short-term state of the atmosphere,
including temperature, humidity, precipitation,
wind, and visibility

1. Identify Relationships How is dew point related to condensation?

2. Identify What is the main source of energy for the water cycle?

3. Describe How does vapor pressure affect condensation?

4. Explain How do clouds form?

5. Apply Concepts Fill in the spaces in the table to describe different kinds of clouds.

Name Altitude Shape Precipitation?

Cirrostratus high no

Altocumulus puffy

Nimbostratus

Cumulonimbus low to middle

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 273 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 15 Weather and Climate

SECTION

2 Fronts and Weather

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.2.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What causes weather?
• What is severe weather?

What Are Fronts?

STUDY TIP Have you ever been caught outside when it suddenly
Summarize As you read, started to rain? What causes such an abrupt change in the
make a chart comparing the weather? Changes in weather are caused by the move-
four kinds of fronts. In your
chart, describe how each ment of bodies of air called air masses. An air mass is a
kind of front forms and what very large volume of air that has the same temperature
kind of weather it can cause. and moisture content.
When air masses meet, the less-dense air mass rises over
the denser air mass. Warm air is less dense than cold air.
Therefore, a warm air mass will generally rise above a cold
air mass. The place where two or more air masses meet
is called a front. There are four main kinds of fronts: cold
READING CHECK fronts, warm fronts, occluded fronts, and stationary fronts.
1. Define What is a front?
COLD FRONTS
A cold front forms when a cold air mass moves under a
warm air mass. The cold air pushes the warm air mass up.
The cold air mass replaces the warm air mass. Cold fronts
can move quickly and bring heavy precipitation. When a
cold front has passed, the weather is usually cooler. This is
because a cold, dry air mass moves in behind the cold front.

#OLDFRONT
7ARMAIRMASS

TAKE A LOOK #OLDAIRMASS

2. Describe What happens
to the warm air mass at a
cold front? A cold front forms
when a cold air mass
pushes a warmer air
mass away. The front
moves in the direc-
tion that the cold air -OVEMENTOFFRONT
mass is moving.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 274 Weather and Climate
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SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather continued

WARM FRONTS
A warm front forms when a warm air mass moves
over a cold air mass that is leaving an area. The warm air
replaces the cold air as the cold air moves away. Warm
fronts can bring light rain. They are followed by clear,
warm weather. READING CHECK
3. Define What is a warm
front?
Warm front
Warm air mass

Cold air mass

A warm front forms

when a warm air mass
moves in and replaces
a cold air mass. The
front moves in the
Movement of front direction the warm air
mass is moving.

OCCLUDED FRONTS
An occluded front forms when a warm air mass is caught
between two cold air masses. Occluded fronts bring cool
temperatures and large amounts of rain and snow.

Warm air mass Warm air mass

Occluded Occluded
front front

Cold air mass Cold air mass TAKE A LOOK

4. Describe What happens
An occluded front to the warm air mass in an
forms when a warm
air mass is trapped
occluded front?
between two cold air
masses. The cold air
masses move together
and push the warm air Movement of front
out of the way.

STATIONARY FRONTS
A stationary front forms when a cold air mass and
a warm air mass move toward each other. Neither air
mass has enough energy to push the other out of the way.
Therefore, the two air masses remain in the same place.
Stationary fronts cause many days of cloudy, wet weather.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 275 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather continued

TAKE A LOOK 3TATIONARY

5. Infer What do you think FRONT
is the reason that stationary
fronts bring many days of the
same weather? #OLDAIRMASS 7ARMAIRMASS

A stationary front forms

when air masses stay in
one place.

How Does Air Pressure Affect Weather?

Remember that air produces pressure. However, air
CALIFORNIA
pressure is not always the same everywhere. Areas with
STANDARDS CHECK different pressures can cause changes in the weather.
6.4.e Students know differences These areas may have lower or higher air pressure than
in pressure, heat, air movement, their surroundings.
and humidity result in changes
of weather. A cyclone is an area of the atmosphere that has lower
6. Describe Why do
pressure than the surrounding air. The air in the cyclone
clouds often form in a rises. As the air rises, it cools. Clouds can form and may
cyclone? cause rainy or stormy weather.
An anticyclone is an area of the atmosphere that has
higher pressure than the surrounding air. Air in anticyclones
sinks and gets warmer. Its relative humidity decreases. This
warm, sinking air can bring dry, clear weather.

What Causes Thunderstorms?

A thunderstorm is an intense storm with strong winds,
heavy rain, lightning, and thunder. Two conditions are
necessary for a thunderstorm to form: warm, moist air
near Earth’s surface and an unstable area of atmosphere.
Critical Thinking The atmosphere is unstable when a body of cold air
7. Infer Why does air near is found above a body of warm air. The warm air rises
the surface have to be moist and cools as it mixes with the cool air. As the warm air
in order for a thunderstorm
reaches its dew point, the water vapor condenses and
to form?
forms cumulus clouds. If the warm air keeps rising, the
cloud may become a dark cumulonimbus cloud.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 276 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather continued

LIGHTNING AND THUNDER

As the cloud grows bigger, parts of it begin to develop
electrical charges. The upper parts of the cloud tend
to become positively charged. The lower parts tend to
become negatively charged. When the charges get big
enough, electricity flows from one area to the other.
Electricity may also flow between the clouds and the
ground. These electrical currents are lightning. . READING CHECK
8. Describe How does
lightning form?

Different parts of thunderclouds and the ground can have different electrical
charges. When electricity flows between these areas, lightning forms.

You have probably seen large lightning bolts that travel

between the clouds and the ground. When the lightning
moves through the air, the air gets very hot. The hot air
expands rapidly. As it expands, it makes the air vibrate. The
vibrations release energy in the form of sound waves. The
result is thunder. READING CHECK
9. Define What is thunder?
How Do Tornadoes Form?
Fewer than 1% of thunderstorms produce tornadoes.
A tornado can form when a rapidly spinning column of
air, called a funnel cloud, touches the ground. The air in
the center of a tornado has low pressure. When the area
of low pressure touches the ground, material from the
ground can be sucked up into the tornado.
A tornado begins as a funnel cloud that pokes through the
bottom of a cumulonimbus cloud. The funnel cloud becomes
a tornado when the funnel cloud touches the ground. The fig-
ures on the top of the next page show how a tornado forms.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 277 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather continued

1 Wind moving in opposite directions 2 Strong vertical winds cause the

causes a layer of air in the middle of spinning column of air to turn
a cloud to begin to spin. into a vertical position.

TAKE A LOOK
10. Describe When does
a funnel cloud become a
tornado?
3 The spinning column of air moves 4 The funnel cloud becomes a
to the bottom of the cloud and tornado when it touches down
forms a funnel cloud. on the ground.

How Do Hurricanes Form?

A hurricane is a large, rotating tropical weather system.
Hurricanes have wind speeds of over 120 km/h. They can be
160 km to 1,500 km in diameter and can travel for thousands
of miles. They are the most powerful storms on Earth.
Most hurricanes form between 5°N and 20°N latitude
or between 5°S and 20°S latitude. They form over the
warm, tropical oceans found at these latitudes. At higher
READING CHECK latitudes, the water is too cold for hurricanes to form.
11. Explain Why don’t Hurricanes are powered by solar energy. The sun’s
hurricanes form at high energy causes ocean water to evaporate into water vapor.
latitudes? As the water vapor rises in the air, it cools and condenses.
A group of thunderstorms form. They produce a large, spin-
ning storm. A hurricane forms as the storm gets stronger.
The hurricane will continue to grow as long as it is
over warm ocean water. When the hurricane moves over
colder waters or over land, the storm loses energy. This is
why hurricanes are not common in California. Hurricanes
that move toward California quickly lose their energy
over the cold coastal waters.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 278 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 2 Fronts and Weather continued

Surrounding the eye is the eye At the center of Beyond the eye wall, spiral-
wall—a group of cumulonimbus the hurricane is ing bands of clouds called rain
clouds that produce heavy rains the eye—a core of bands circle the center of the
and strong winds. The winds warm, relatively hurricane. The rain bands pro-
can reach speeds of 300 km/h. calm air with low duce heavy rains and high winds.
The eye wall is the strongest pressure and light Within this area of the hurri-

TAKE A LOOK
part of the hurricane. winds. cane, wind speed decreases as
the distance from the eye wall
increases.
Updraft Downdraft 12. Define What is the eye
of a hurricane?

Although hurricanes are very destructive storms, the eye at the center of the
tropical storm is relatively calm.

What Are the Dangers of Severe Weather?

Severe weather can cause property damage, injury,
and sometimes even death. Hail, lightning, high winds,
tornadoes, and flash floods are all part of severe weather.
Strong winds can knock down power lines and damage
homes. Lightning starts thousands of fires every year.
Heavy rains can cause flooding and major property
damage. Flash floods are also responsible for many
weather-related deaths. Much of the damage caused by
hurricanes comes from the heavy rains and storm surge that
these storms produce. A storm surge is a rise in sea level
that happens during a storm. The storm-surge flooding from
Hurricane Katrina in 2005 caused more damage than the
high-speed winds from the storm.

SEVERE-WEATHER SAFETY
During severe weather, it is important for you to listen to
a local TV or radio station. Severe-weather announcements
will tell you where a storm is and if it is getting worse. READING CHECK
During most kinds of severe weather, it is safest to stay 13. Explain Why should
inside, away from windows. However, there are times when you listen to weather reports
you will need to evacuate, or leave your home. For example, during severe weather?
if your home is in a low-lying area, you should not stay there
during a flash-flood warning. Instead, you should leave and
move to higher ground. However, you should never enter
floodwaters. Even shallow floodwater can be dangerous.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 279 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

Section 2 Review 6.2.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
air mass a large body of air throughout which lightning an electric discharge that takes place
temperature and moisture content are similar between two oppositely charged surfaces,
cyclone an area in the atmosphere that has such as between a cloud and the ground,
lower pressure than the surrounding areas and between two clouds, or between two parts of
has winds that spiral toward the center the same cloud
Wordwise: The root cycl means “circle” or thunder the sound caused by the rapid
“wheel.” Other examples are bicycle, cyclic, expansion of air along an electrical strike
and cycle. tornado a destructive, rotating column of air that
front the boundary between air masses of different has very high wind speeds and that may be
densities and usually different temperatures visible as a funnel-shaped cloud

1. Identify Relationships How are fronts and air masses related?

2. Compare Fill in the table to describe cyclones and anticyclones.

Name The pressure in the The air inside it . . . The kind of weather it
middle is . . . causes . . .
Cyclone . . . lower than the
surrounding pressure.
Anticyclone . . . sinks and warms.

3. Explain Why do thunder and lightning usually happen together?

4. Describe How can flooding affect people?

5. Analyze How does energy from the sun power hurricanes?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 280 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 15 Weather and Climate

SECTION

3 What Is Climate?
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.4.b, 6.4.d, 6.4.e
these questions:
• What is climate?
• What factors affect climate?
• How does climate differ around the world?

What Is Climate?
How is climate different from weather? Weather is STUDY TIP
the condition of the atmosphere at a certain time. The Ask Questions As you read
weather can change from day to day. However, climate this section, write down any
describes the average weather conditions in a region over questions that you have.
When you finish reading, talk
a long period of time. The climate of an area includes the about your questions in a
area’s average temperature and amount of precipitation. small group.
Different parts of the world have different climates.

What Factors Affect Climate?

Climate is mainly determined by temperature and
precipitation. Temperature and precipitation can
be affected by four factors: latitude, wind patterns,
landforms, and ocean currents. READING CHECK
1. List What are the two
SOLAR ENERGY AND LATITUDE main things that determine
The latitude of an area is its distance north or south climate?
of the equator. In general, the temperature of an area
depends on its latitude: higher latitudes tend to have
colder climates. Latitude affects temperature because
latitude determines how much direct solar energy an area
gets. This is shown in the figure below.
4HESUNSRAYSTRAVELINPARALLEL
STRAIGHTLINES

4HESUNSRAYSHITTHEEQUATOR
ATNEARLYAŽANGLE4HE
ENERGYISFOCUSEDONASMALL
AREAOF%ARTH4HESMALLAREA

TAKE A LOOK
ABSORBSALLOFTHEENERGYSO
ITTENDSTOHAVEHIGH
TEMPERATURES
R 2. Explain Why do areas
ATO
%QU 4HESUNSRAYSHITTHEPOLESAT near the equator tend to
ASMALLERANGLETHANATTHE
EQUATOR4HEENERGYISSPREAD have high temperatures?
OVERALARGERAREA%ACHPART
OFTHEAREAABSORBSLESS
ENERGYSOTHEAREATENDSTO
HAVELOWTEMPERATURES

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 281 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 What Is Climate? continued

LATITUDE AND SEASONS

Most places in the United States have four seasons
during the year. However, some places in the world do
not have such large seasonal changes. For example,
places near the equator have about the same tempera-
tures and amount of daylight all year.
Seasons happen because Earth is tilted on its axis by
about 23.5°. The tilt affects how much solar energy an
area gets as Earth orbits the sun. The figure below shows
how Earth’s tilt affects the seasons.
Winter During its winter, the
Northern Hemisphere is tilted
away from the sun. It receives less
direct sunlight than the Southern
Hemisphere. Therefore, the North-
ern Hemisphere experiences lower

TAKE A LOOK March 21 temperatures and shorter days.

Spring
3. Explain Why don’t areas
near the equator have large June 21
December 21
Winter
seasonal changes in weather? Summer

September 22
Summer During its summer, the
Fall
Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the
sun. It receives more direct sunlight than
the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore, Areas near the equator do not tilt
the Northern Hemisphere experiences toward or away from the sun very much.
warmer temperatures and longer days. Therefore, they do not experience large
changes in weather during the year.

WINDS
Winds move in predictable patterns over Earth’s
surface. The wind patterns on Earth are caused by the
uneven heating of Earth’s surface. This uneven heat-
ing forms areas with different air pressures. Wind forms
when air moves from areas of high pressure to areas of
READING CHECK low pressure.
4. Identify What causes
Winds affect climate and weather because they move
wind to form? solar energy from one place to another. This can cause
the temperature in one place to decrease and the temper-
ature in another place to increase.
Winds also affect the amount of precipitation an area
gets. Winds can carry water vapor away from the oceans.
The water vapor can condense and fall to the land some-
where far from the ocean.
The figure on the top of the next page shows the major
wind systems, or wind belts, on Earth. Notice that most
wind belts blow from west to east or from east to west.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 282 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 What Is Climate? continued

90°N
Polar easterlies
Polar easterlies

60°N

Prevailing westerlies
Prevailing westerlies
30°N

Trade winds
Trade winds
0° Equator

Trade winds
Trade winds
30°S
TAKE A LOOK
Prevailing
Prevailing westerlies
westerlies 5. Read a Map In which
60°S direction do the Prevailing
Westerlies blow?
Polar easterlies
Polar easterlies
90°S Wind direction

TOPOGRAPHY
The topography of an area affects its climate.
Topography is the sizes and shapes of the land-surface
features of a region. Topography can affect the tempera-
ture and precipitation of an area. For example, elevation
can have a large impact on temperature. Elevation is the
height of an area above sea level. As elevation increases,
temperature tends to decrease. READING CHECK
Mountains can also affect precipitation. As air 6. Describe In general,
rises to move over a mountain, the air cools. The cool air how does elevation affect
condenses, forming clouds. Precipitation may fall. This temperature?
process causes the rain-shadow effect, which is illus-
trated in the figure below.

Air rises to flow over mountains. The air cools as The air on this side of the mountain
it rises, and water vapor can condense to form contains much less water vapor. As
clouds. The clouds can release the water as pre- the air sinks down the side of the
cipitation. Therefore, this side of the mountain mountain, it becomes warmer. The
tends to be wetter, with more vegetation. warm air absorbs moisture from
the land. Therefore, this side of the
mountain tends to be drier and
more desert-like.

TAKE A LOOK
7. Explain Why do clouds
form as air moves over a
mountain?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 283 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 What Is Climate? continued

LARGE WATER BODIES

Large bodies of water can affect an area’s climate.
Water absorbs and releases heat more slowly than land.
This quality helps regulate the air temperature over the
land nearby. This is why sudden temperature changes are
READING CHECK not very common in areas near large bodies of water.
8. Explain Why aren’t An example of this effect is the climate of California.
sudden temperature changes The Pacific Ocean off California’s coast keeps the tem-
common near large bodies of perature fairly mild all year round. Other states at the
water?
same latitude as California, but far from the oceans, have
much less mild climates than California.

OCEAN CURRENTS
The currents that move along the ocean’s surface can
have a big effect on a region’s climate. Surface currents
are paths of flowing water found near the surface of the
ocean. As surface currents move, they carry warm or
Critical Thinking cool water to different places. The temperature of the
9. Describe Processes Cool
water affects the temperature of the air above it. For
surface currents can cause example, warm currents can heat the surrounding air.
the air above them to California’s climate is affected by a cool ocean current.
become cooler. Explain how Cold water from the northern Pacific Ocean moves south
this happens.
toward Mexico in the California current. You can see
other currents in the figure below.
Arctic Ocean

North Europe
America
North Asia
Pacific North
Ocean Atlantic
Ocean Africa

Equator
South
America Indian
Ocean

TAKE A LOOK South

Pacific
Ocean
South
Atlantic
Australia

Ocean
10. Identify What kind of
surface current is found off
the East Coast of the United
Antarctica
States?
Warm current
Cold current

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 284 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

SECTION 3 What Is Climate? continued

What Are the Different Climates Around

the World?
Earth has three major climate zones: tropical,
temperate, and polar. The figure below shows where
these zones are found.
Polar
66.5°N

Temperate
23.5°N
Tropical
Earth’s three major climate zones
0° are determined by latitude.
Tropical TAKE A LOOK
23.5°S 11. Identify What
Temperate determines Earth’s major
climate zones?
66.5°S
Polar

Each climate zone has a certain range of temperatures.

The tropical zone, near the equator, has the highest
temperatures. The polar zones, located at latitudes above
66.5°, have the lowest temperatures. READING CHECK
Each climate zone contains several different kinds 12. Describe Which
of climates. The different climates are the result of climate zone has the highest
topography, winds, and ocean currents. The figure below temperatures?
shows the different kinds of climates on Earth.

ARCTIC OCEAN
60°N
EUROPE

NORTH ASIA
PACIFIC AMERICA
OCEAN
AFRICA PACIFIC 20°N
OCEAN

Equator 0°
SOUTH
AMERICA ATLANTIC INDIAN
OCEAN OCEAN 20°S
AUSTRALIA

60°S
TAKE A LOOK
SOUTHERN
OCEAN
13. Explain Why are there
ANTARCTICA different climates in each
Temperate Climates
climate zone, even though
Highland Polar Climates
Marine west coast Subarctic
the areas are found at similar
Tropical Climates
Steppe Tundra latitudes?
Rain forest
Humid continental Polar icecaps
Desert
Humid subtropical
Savanna
Mediterranean

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 285 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

Section 3 Review 6.4.b, 6.4.d, 6.4.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
climate the average weather conditions in an latitude the distance north or south from the
area over a long period of time equator; expressed in degrees
elevation the height of an object above sea surface current a horizontal movement of
level ocean water that is caused by wind and that
occurs at or near the ocean’s surface

1. Describe How is climate different from weather?

2. Apply Concepts Nome, Alaska, lies at 64°N latitude. San Diego, California, lies at
32°N latitude. Which city receives more sunlight? Explain your answer.

3. Explain What causes some places on Earth to have seasons?

4. Identify What are four things that can affect climate?

5. Explain Describe how the rain-shadow effect works.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 286 Weather and Climate
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 15 Weather and Climate

SECTION

4 Changes in Climate
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.2.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.6.a
these questions:
• How has Earth’s climate changed over time?
• What factors can cause climates to change?

How Was Earth’s Climate Different in the Past?

The geologic record shows that Earth’s climate in the STUDY TIP
past was different from its climate today. During some Learn New Words As
periods in the past, Earth was much warmer. During other you read, underline any
words that you don’t know.
periods, Earth was much colder. In fact, much of Earth was When you figure out what
covered by sheets of ice during some times in the past. they mean, write the words
An ice age happens when ice at high latitudes expands and their definitions in your
notebook.
toward lower latitudes. Scientists have found evidence of
many major ice ages in Earth’s history. The most recent
one began about 2 million years ago. READING CHECK
Many people think of an ice age as a time when the 1. Define Write your own
temperature is always very cold. However, during an ice definition for ice age.
age, there can be periods of colder or warmer weather.
A period of colder weather is called a glacial period. A
period of warmer weather is called an interglacial period.
During glacial periods, large sheets of ice grow. These
ice sheets form when ocean water freezes. Therefore,
sea level drops during glacial periods. The figure below
shows the coastlines of the continents during the last
glacial period. Notice that the continental coastlines
extended further into the ocean than they do today.
!2#4)#/#%!.

%52/0%
./24(
!-%2)#! !3)!

0!#)&)#

TAKE A LOOK
0!#)&)# !&2)#! /#%!.
/#%!.

3/54(
!-%2)#! !4,!.4)#
).$)!.
/#%!.
2. Explain Why is more
/#%!.
!5342!,)! land exposed during glacial
periods than at other times?

!.4!2#4)#!

%XTENTOFLANDMASSATGLACIAL %XTENTOFCONTINENTALGLACIATION
MAXIMUM
#URRENTLANDMASS %XTENTOFSEAICE

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 287 Weather and Climate
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SECTION 4 Changes in Climate continued

What Factors Can Cause Climates to Change?

Scientists have several theories to explain ice ages and
other forms of climate change. Factors that can cause
climate change are Earth’s orbit, plate tectonics, the sun’s
cycles, asteroid impacts, volcanoes, and human activities.

CHANGES IN EARTH’S ORBIT

A Serbian scientist, Milutin Milankovitch, found that
changes in Earth’s orbit and tilt can affect Earth’s climate.
He modeled the way Earth moves in space and found
Critical Thinking that Earth’s movements change in a regular way. These
3. Infer Could changes in changes happen over tens of thousands of years. For
climate over 100 years be example, Earth’s orbit around the sun is more circular at
caused by changes in Earth’s
some times than others.
orbit and tilt? Explain your
answer. These variations in Earth’s orbit and tilt affect how
much sunlight Earth gets. Therefore, they can also affect
climate. The figure below shows how these factors can
change the amount of sunlight Earth gets.
23.5°
0° 22.2°
A less-circular orbit causes more variation in sunlight. N
24.5°
N
Earth

Sun

Earth
S

TAKE A LOOK
S
A circular orbit causes less variation in sunlight.
4. Identify How does
the shape of Earth’s orbit Earth’s orbit is more circular Earth’s tilt on its axis Earth’s axis wobbles
change? at some times than at other can vary. When the slightly. This affects
times. The amount of solar tilt is greater, the how much sunlight
energy that Earth gets from poles get more solar Earth’s surface gets
the sun varies more when energy. at different times of
Earth’s orbit is less circular. the year.

PLATE TECTONICS
Plate tectonics and continental drift also affect Earth’s
climate. When a continent is closer to the equator, its
climate is warmer than when it is near the poles. Also,
remember that continents can deflect ocean currents and
winds. When continents move, the flow of air and water
around the globe changes. These changes can strongly
affect Earth’s climate.

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SECTION 4 Changes in Climate continued

THE SUN
Some changes in Earth’s climate are caused by
changes in the sun. Many people think that the sun is
always the same, but this is not true. In fact, the amount
of energy that the sun gives off can change over time.
The sun follows a regular cycle in how much energy it
gives off. Because the sun’s energy drives most cycles on
Earth, these changes can affect Earth’s climate. READING CHECK
5. Explain Why do changes
IMPACTS in the sun’s energy affect the
Sometimes, objects from outer space, such as aster- climate on Earth?
oids, crash into Earth. An asteroid is a small, rocky
object that orbits the sun. If a large asteroid crashed into
Earth, the climate of the whole planet could change
When a large object hits Earth, particles of dust and rock
fly into the atmosphere. This material can block some sun-
light from reaching Earth’s surface. This can cause tempera-
tures on Earth to go down. In addition, plants may not be Critical Thinking
able to survive with less sunlight. Without plants, many ani- 6. Identify Relationships
mals would die off. Many scientists believe that an asteroid Why may animals die off
impact may have caused the dinosaurs to become extinct. if there are fewer plants
around?

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Volcanic eruptions can affect Earth’s climate for a
short time. They send large amounts of dust and ash
into the air. As with an asteroid impact, the dust and ash
block sunlight from reaching Earth’s surface. The figure
below shows how volcanic dust can affect sunlight.

Sun’s rays

Mount St. Helens

TAKE A LOOK
7. Compare How are
the effects on climate of
volcanic eruptions and
asteroid impacts similar?

Volcanic eruptions can

release dust and ash into Dust layer
the atmosphere. This
plume of dust and ash was The dust and ash from the volcano can
produced by the eruption spread throughout the atmosphere. Sunlight
of Mount St. Helens, in reflects off this dust and ash. Less sunlight
Washington, in 1980. reaches Earth’s surface.

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SECTION 4 Changes in Climate continued

HUMAN ACTIVITIES
A slow increase in global temperatures is called global
warming. One thing that can cause global warming is
an increase in the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse
effect is Earth’s natural heating process. During this
process, gases in the atmosphere absorb energy in sun-
light. This energy is released as heat, which helps to keep
Earth warm. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth’s sur-
READING CHECK face would be covered in ice.
8. Define What is global
One of the gases that absorbs sunlight in the atmosphere is
warming? carbon dioxide (CO2). If there is more CO2 in the atmosphere,
the greenhouse effect can increase. This can cause global
warming.
Much of the CO2 in the atmosphere comes from natural
processes, such as volcanic eruptions and animals breathing.
However, human activities can also increase the amount of
CO2 in the atmosphere.
When people burn fossil fuels for energy, CO2 is
released into the atmosphere. When people burn trees to
clear land for farming, CO2 is released. In addition, plants
use CO2 for food. Therefore, when trees are destroyed, we
lose a natural way of removing CO2 from the atmosphere.
Many scientists think that if global warming continues,
the ice at Earth’s poles could melt. This could cause sea
level to rise. Many low-lying areas could flood. Global
READING CHECK warming could also affect areas far from the oceans.
9. Explain Why may sea
level rise if global warming WHAT PEOPLE CAN DO
continues? Many countries are working together to reduce the
effects of global warming. Treaties and laws have helped
to reduce pollution and CO2 production. Most CO2 is
produced when people burn fossil fuels for energy.
Therefore, reducing how much energy you use can
reduce the amount of CO2 produced. Here are some ways
you can reduce your energy use:
• Turn off electrical equipment, such as lights and com-
puters, when you are not using them.
• Ride a bike, walk, or take public transportation instead
of using a car to travel.
• Turn the heat to a lower temperature in the winter.
• Turn the air conditioner to a higher temperature in the
summer.
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Section 4 Review 6.2.d, 6.4.a, 6.4.b, 6.6.a

SECTION VOCABULARY
global warming a gradual increase in average ice age a long period of climatic cooling during
global temperature which the continents are glaciated repeatedly
greenhouse effect the warming of the surface
and lower atmosphere of Earth that occurs
when water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other
gases absorb and reradiate thermal energy

1. Identify Relationships How is global warming related to the greenhouse effect?

2. Describe What did Milutin Milankovitch’s research show can affect Earth’s climate?

3. Identify Give two ways that plate tectonics can affect an area’s climate.

4. Predict Consequences How could global warming affect cities near the oceans?
Explain your answer.

5. List Give three ways that human activities can affect the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere.

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CHAPTER 16 Interactions of Living Things

SECTION

1 Everything Is Connected
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.b, 6.5.e After you read this section you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What do organisms in an ecosystem depend on for
survival?
• What are biotic and abiotic factors?
• What are the levels of organization in the environment?

What Is the Web of Life?

STUDY TIP All organisms, or living things, are linked together in
Underline As you read, the web of life. In this web, energy and resources pass
underline any new science between organisms and their surroundings. The study of
terms. Find their definitions
in the section review or a how different organisms interact with one another and
dictionary. Make sure you their environment is ecology.
learn what each term means A hungry bear may go to a river to catch a fish or
before you move to the next
section.
look for berries to eat. In both examples, the bear is
interacting with the environment, which includes other
organisms. The bear depends on the other organisms, and
they depend on the bear. For example, after the bear eats
berries, it spreads the berry plant’s seeds to new areas in
its waste.

TAKE A LOOK
1. Identify List three things
the bear in this figure
depends on to survive in its
environment.

An environment has both biotic and abiotic factors.

READING CHECK
2. Compare What is the What Are the Two Parts of an Environment?
difference between biotic
and abiotic factors?
An organism’s environment is made up of biotic
and abiotic factors. Biotic factors are the living parts
of the environment, such as fish. Abiotic factors are
the nonliving parts of the environment, such as rivers.
Organisms need both biotic and abiotic factors to live.
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SECTION 1 Everything Is Connected continued

How Is the Environment Organized?

The environment can be organized into six levels.
Individual organisms are at the first level. The higher
levels include more and more parts of the environment.
The highest level is the largest. It is the biosphere.
1. An individual is a single organism.

2. A population is a group of individuals of the same

species in the same area. For example, all the black
bears in the same forest make a population. The whole
population uses the same area for food and shelter. Critical Thinking
3. Making Inferences Could
a community be made up
of only one population of
organisms? Explain.

3. A community is made up of all the different popu-

lations that live and interact in the same area. The
different populations in a community depend on each
other. For example, bears eat fish and berries. Berry
plants depend on bears to eat their berries, which
moves their seeds to other areas. River plants are food
for some water animals, and they shelter fish that are
hiding from bears.
TAKE A LOOK
4. Identify Use colored
pencils to make circles on
the picture.
Circle an individual in red.
Circle a population in blue.
Circle a community in brown.
Circle an ecosystem in green.
4. An ecosystem is made up of a community and its
abiotic environment. The abiotic factors provide
resources for all the organisms and energy for some.
A river, for example, can provide water for river plants
and many animals, and shelter for water insects. It
can provide nutrients for plants, as well as food for
fish and bears.

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SECTION 1 Everything Is Connected continued

5. A biome is a large area made of many similar ecosys-

tems with the same climate. The climate determines
the kinds of organisms that live there. The organisms
in a biome must be adapted to live in the conditions in
that biome. For example, a temperate deciduous for-
est biome is warm and moist in summer but dry and
cold in winter. Only animals and plants that can live
through the winter will survive there. Bears and many
other animals there sleep for most of the winter, while
food is harder to find. Deciduous trees shed their
leaves so that they won’t dry out.

Say It
Interpret Look at the map
and read the text above it.
With a partner, discuss what
the map shows, and what
the different patterns on the
map mean.
6. The biosphere is the part of Earth where life exists.
The biosphere is the largest environmental level. It
reaches from the bottom of the ocean and the Earth’s
crust to high in the sky. Scientists study the biosphere
and its abiotic factors, such as atmosphere, water,
soil, and rock, to learn how life survives.

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Section 1 Review 6.5.b, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
abiotic describes the nonliving part of the community all of the populations of species that
environment, including water, rocks, light, and live in the same habitat and interact with each
temperature other
biome a large region characterized by a specific ecology the study of the interactions of living
type of climate and certain types of plant and organisms with one another and with their
animal communities environment
biosphere the part of Earth where life exists ecosystem a community of organisms and their
biotic describes living factors in the environment abiotic, or nonliving, environment
population a group of organisms of the same
species that live in a specific geographical area

1. Compare What is the difference between a community and an ecosystem?

2. Organize Complete the chart below to describe the six levels of the environment,
from smallest to largest.
Level Description
a single organism

Population

all of the populations of species that live in the

same habitat and interact with one another

Ecosystem

a large region with the same climate and same

types of organisms

Biosphere

3. Identify What two kinds of factors does an organism depend on for survival?

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CHAPTER 16 Interactions of Living Things

SECTION

2 Living Things Need Energy

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.a, 6.5.b, 6.5.c, 6.5.e After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• How do producers, consumers, and decomposers get
energy?
• What is a food web?
• How does the amount of resources in an area affect
the organisms living there?

How Do Organisms Get Energy?

STUDY TIP Eating gives organisms two things they cannot live
Circle Choose different without—energy and nutrients. Prairie dogs, for example,
colored pencils for producers, eat grasses and seeds to get their energy and nutrients.
primary consumers,
secondary consumers, and Like all organisms, prairie dogs need energy to live.
decomposers. As you read, Organisms in any community can be separated into
circle these terms in the text three groups based on how they get energy. These groups
with the colors you chose.
Use the same colors to circle
are producers, consumers, and decomposers.
animals in any figures that
are examples of each group. PRODUCERS
Producers are organisms that use the energy from
sunlight to make their own food. This process is called
photosynthesis. Most producers are green plants, such as
grasses on the prairie and trees in a forest. Some bacteria
READING CHECK and algae also photosynthesize to make food.
1. Explain Why is sunlight
important to producers? CONSUMERS
Consumers cannot make their own food as producers
can. Consumers need to eat other organisms to obtain
energy and nutrients.
Consumers can be put into four groups. A herbivore
is a consumer that eats only plants. Prairie dogs and
Critical Thinking bison are herbivores. A carnivore is a consumer that
2. Apply Concepts What eats other animals. Eagles and cougars are carnivores.
types of consumers are the An omnivore is a consumer that eats both plants and
following organisms?
animals. Bears and raccoons are omnivores. A scavenger
tigers is a consumer that eats dead plants and animals. Turkey
deer vultures are scavengers. They will eat animals and plants
humans that have been dead for days. They will also eat what is
left over after a carnivore has had a meal.
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SECTION 2 Living Things Need Energy continued

DECOMPOSERS CALIFORNIA
Decomposers recycle nature’s resources. Decomposers STANDARDS CHECK
get energy by breaking down dead organisms into simple 6.5.c Students know
populations of organisms can
materials. These materials, such as carbon dioxide be categorized by the functions
they serve in an ecosystem.
and water, can then be used by other organisms. Many
bacteria and fungi are decomposers. Word Help: categorize
to put into groups or
classes
What Is a Food Chain?
Word Help: function
A food chain is the sequence of organisms that pass use or purpose
energy and nutrients from one to the next. Producers
3. Define What is the
form the beginning of the food chain. Energy passes role of decomposers in an
through the rest of the chain as one organism eats ecosystem?
another.
• Producers are eaten by primary consumers.
• Primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers.
• Secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers.
In the food chain below, the grasses are the producers.
The grasses are eaten by prairie dogs, which are the
primary consumers. The prairie dogs are eaten by
coyotes, which are the secondary consumers. When
coyotes die, they are eaten by turkey vultures, which are
the tertiary consumers. The tertiary consumer is usually
the end of the food chain.

A Prairie Ecosystem Food Chain

TAKE A LOOK
4. Identify Label the food
chain diagram with the
following terms: energy,
producer, primary consumer,
secondary consumer, tertiary
consumer, decomposer.

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SECTION 2 Living Things Need Energy continued

What Is a Food Web?

Simple food chain diagrams do not show how energy
really moves through an ecosystem. A food web is a
system of many connected food chains in an ecosystem.
Organisms in the different food chains feed upon one
another. A food web is more accurate than a food chain
READING CHECK because most animals eat more than one kind of food.
5. Explain Why does a In a food web, energy moves from one organism to the
food web show feeding next in one direction. The energy in an organism that is
relationships better than a eaten goes into the body of the organism that eats it.
food chain?

Simple Food Web

CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS CHECK
6.5.a Students know energy
entering ecosystems as sunlight
is transferred by producers
into chemical energy through
photosynthesis and then from
organism to organism through
food webs.

Word Help: transfer

to carry or cause to pass
from one thing to another
6. Predict Consequences
What do you think would
happen if all of the plants MANY AT THE BASE
were taken out of this food
web? Only a small part of the energy stored in an organism’s
body is passed on to the next consumer in a food chain
or web. Because of this, many more organisms have to
be at the base, or bottom, of the food chain than at the
end, or top. For example, in a prairie community, there is
more grass than prairie dogs and there are more prairie
dogs than coyotes.

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SECTION 2 Living Things Need Energy continued

What Is an Energy Pyramid?

Energy is lost as it passes through a food chain. An
energy pyramid is a diagram that shows energy loss in
an ecosystem. The bottom of the pyramid is larger than
the top. There is less energy for use at the top of the
pyramid than at the bottom. This is because most of the
energy is used up at the lower levels. Only about 10% of Math Focus
the energy at each level of the energy pyramid passes on 7. Calculate How much
energy is lost at each level of
to the next level. the energy pyramid?

Energy Pyramid

TAKE A LOOK
8. Explain In which level of
this energy pyramid do you
think deer would belong?
Explain.

EFFECT OF ONE SPECIES

A single species can change the flow of energy in an
ecosystem. For example, gray wolves are at the top of
their food chains. They eat a lot of different organisms
but are usually not eaten by any other animal. By eating
other organisms, wolves help control the size of those
READING CHECK
populations.
At one point, wolves were found across the United 9. Summarize Why did
a change in the wolf
States. As settlers moved west, most wolves moved population affect the other
away or were killed. With few wolves left to feed on organisms in the community?
the primary consumers, the population of elk began to
grow. The elk ate all the grass, and there was none left
for the smaller herbivores, such as hares. As these small
herbivores died, there was less food for the secondary
consumers. When wolves were removed from the food
web, the whole ecosystem was affected.
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Section 2 Review 6.5.a, 6.5.b, 6.5.c, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
carnivore an organism that eats animals food web a diagram that shows the feeding
energy pyramid a triangular diagram that relationships between organisms in an
shows an ecosystem’s loss of energy, ecosystem
which results as energy passes through the herbivore an organism that eats only plants
ecosystem’s food chain omnivore an organism that eats both plants and
food chain the pathway of energy transfer animals
through various stages as a result of the
feeding patterns of a series of organisms

1. Explain Why are producers important in an ecosystem?

2. Connect Make a food chain using the following organisms: mouse, snake, grass,
hawk. Draw arrows showing how energy flows through the chain. Identify each
organism as a producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, or tertiary
consumer.

Hawk

Secondary consumer

3. Make Inferences Do you think you could find a food chain that had 10 organisms?
Explain.

4. Decide A food chain off the California coast includes kelp, which is eaten by sea
urchins. The urchins are eaten by sea otters, which are eaten by sharks. Can you
combine this food chain with the one in question 2 to make a food web? Explain
your answer.

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CHAPTER 16 Interactions of Living Things

SECTION

3 Types of Interactions
BEFORE YOU READ California Science
Standards
After you read this section, you should be able to answer 6.5.a, 6.5.b, 6.5.c, 6.5.e
these questions:
• What determines an area’s carrying capacity?
• Why does competition occur?
• How do organisms avoid being eaten?
• What are three kinds of symbiotic relationships?

How Does the Environment Control

Population Sizes?
Most living things have more offspring than will STUDY TIP
survive. A female frog, for example, may lay hundreds of Make a List As you read
eggs in a small pond. If all of the eggs became frogs, the this section, write down
any questions you may
pond would soon become very crowded. There would have. Work with a partner
not be enough food for the frogs or other organisms in to find the answers to your
the pond. But in nature, this usually does not happen. questions.
The biotic and abiotic factors in the pond control the frog
population so that it does not get too large. CALIFORNIA
Populations cannot grow without stopping, because STANDARDS CHECK
the environment has only a certain amount of food, 6.5.e Students know the
number and types of organisms
water, space, and other resources. A resource that keeps an ecosystem can support
a population from growing forever is called a limiting depends on the resources
available and on abiotic factors,
factor. Food is often a limiting factor in an ecosystem. such as quantities of light and
water, a range of temperatures,
and soil composition.
What Is Carrying Capacity?
The largest number of organisms that can live in an Word Help: resource
anything that can be used
environment is called the carrying capacity. When a to take care of a need
population grows beyond the carrying capacity, limiting
Word Help: available
factors will cause some individuals to leave the area or to
that can be used
die. As individuals die or leave, the population decreases.
The carrying capacity of an area can change if the Word Help: range
a scale or series between
amount of the limiting factor changes. For example, the limits
carrying capacity of an area will be higher in seasons
1. Define What is a
when more food is available. limiting factor?

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SECTION 3 Types of Interactions continued

How Do Organisms Interact in an Ecosystem?

Populations are made of individuals of the same
species. Communities are made of different populations
that interact. There are three main ways that individuals
and populations affect one another in an ecosystem:
in competition, as predator and prey, and through
READING CHECK symbiosis.
2. List What are three
ways that organisms in an Why Do Organisms Compete?
ecosystem interact? Competition happens when more than one individual
or population tries to use the same resource. There may
not be enough resources, such as food, water, shelter, or
sunlight, for all the organisms in an environment. When
one individual or population uses a resource, there is less
for others to use.
Critical Thinking Competition can happen between organisms in the
3. Prediction In a prairie same population. For example, in Yellowstone National
ecosystem, which two of the Park, elk compete with one another for the same plants. In
following organisms most
likely compete for the same the winter, when there are not many plants, competition
food source: elk, coyotes, is much higher. Some elk will die because there is not
prairie dogs, vultures? enough food. In spring, when many plants grow, there is
more food for the elk, and competition is lower.
Competition can also happen between populations. In
a forest, different types of trees compete to grow in the
same area. All of the plant populations must compete for
the same resources: sunlight, space, water, and nutrients.

How Do Predators and Prey Interact?

Another way organisms interact is when one organism
eats another to get energy. The organism that is eaten is
called the prey. The organism that eats the prey is called
the predator. When a bird eats a worm, for example, the
bird is the predator, and the worm is the prey.

PREDATORS
Predators have traits or skills that help them catch and
kill their prey. Different types of predators have different
skills and traits. For example, a cheetah uses its speed to
catch prey. On the other hand, lions have colors that let
them blend with the environment so that prey cannot see
them easily.

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SECTION 3 Types of Interactions continued

PREY
Prey generally have some way to protect themselves
from being eaten. Different types of organisms protect
themselves in different ways:

1. Run Away When a prairie dog is chased, it runs under- Say It

ground. Give examples In small
groups, talk about other
animals that escape
2. Travel in Groups Some animals, such as bison, travel predators in the four ways
described in the text.
in herds, or groups. Many fishes, such as anchovies,
travel in schools. All the animals in these groups can
help one another by watching for predators.

3. Show Warning Colors Some organisms have bright colors

that act as a warning. The colors warn predators that the
prey might be poisonous. A brightly colored fire sala-
mander, for example, sprays a poison that burns.

TAKE A LOOK
4. Color A fire salamander
has a black body with bright
orange or yellow spots. Use
colored pencils to give this
salamander its warning colors.

4. Use Camouflage Some organisms can hide from preda-

tors by blending in with the background. This is called
camouflage. A rabbit’s natural colors, for example,
may help it blend in with dead leaves or shrubs so
that it cannot be seen. Some animals may look like
twigs, stone, or bark.

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SECTION 3 Types of Interactions continued

What Is Symbiosis?
Some species have very close interactions with other
species. A close association between two or more species
is called symbiosis. Each individual in a symbiotic
relationship may be helped, hurt, or not affected by
another individual. Often, one species lives on or in
another species. Most symbiotic relationships can be
divided into three types: mutualism, commensalism, and
READING CHECK
parasitism.
5. List List the three types of
symbiotic relationships. MUTUALISM
When both individuals in a symbiotic relationship are
helped, it is called mutualism. You can see mutualism in
the relationship between a bee and a flower.

Who is hurt? Who is helped? Example

No one both organisms A bee transfers pollen
for a flower; a flower
provides nectar to a
bee.

COMMENSALISM
When one individual in a symbiotic relationship
is helped but the other is not affected, this is called
commensalism.

Who is hurt? Who is helped? Example

No one one of the organisms A fish called a remora
attaches to a shark
and eats the shark’s
leftovers.

PARASITISM
A symbiotic relationship in which one individual
is hurt and the other is helped is called parasitism.
The organism that is helped is called the parasite. The
READING CHECK organism that is hurt is called the host.
6. Define In parasitism, is
the host helped or hurt? Who is hurt? Who is helped? Example
Host parasite A flea is a parasite on
a dog.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 304 Interactions of Living Things
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Section 3 Review 6.5.b, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
carrying capacity the largest population that an predator an organism that kills and eats all or
environment can support at any given time part of another organism
commensalism a relationship between two prey an organism that is killed and eaten by
organisms in which one organism benefits and another organism
the other is unaffected symbiosis a relationship in which two different
mutualism a relationship between two species organisms live in close association with each
in which both species benefit other
parasitism a relationship between two species
in which one species, the parasite, benefits
from the other species, the host, which is
harmed

1. Identify What are two resources for which organisms are likely to compete?

2. Identify Relationships Complete the chart below to describe the different kinds of
symbiotic relationships.
Example organisms Type of symbiosis Organism(s) helped Organism(s) hurt
Flea and dog host (dog)

Bee and flower mutualism

Remora and shark none

3. Describe Give an example of a predator-prey relationship. Be sure to identify

which is the predator and which is the prey. Choose a example different from the
one in the text.

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CHAPTER 17 Biomes and Ecosystems

SECTION

1 Studying the Environment

California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.a, 6.5.b, 6.5.c, 6.5.d, 6.5.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What are abiotic factors?
• What are the two roles organisms play in an environment?
• Why do similar biomes occur in similar climates?

How Are Environments Different?

STUDY TIP How is a desert different from a forest? Is it that a forest
Summarize After reading gets more rainfall than a desert? Is it that the kinds of organ-
each of the subsections, isms in a desert and a forest are different? Actually, it is both
write a short answer to
the question asked by the of these, along with other characteristics, that help separate
subsection title. these two types of environment from each other.
You may know that the biotic factors of the environ-
ment include organisms, or living things. The nonliv-
ing parts, such as rainfall, are called abiotic factors.
Organisms interact with the abiotic parts of their sur-
roundings in different ways. The table below lists some
abiotic factors and tells why they are important.

Abiotic factor Importance to organisms

Sunlight Plants use sunlight to make food. If sunlight is lacking,

plants cannot live. For example, no plants live in the
deep ocean, because no sunlight reaches there.

Temperature Most living things survive better in warm environments.

Colder areas have fewer living things than warmer
areas. For example, tropical rain forests have more kinds
of organisms than colder forests in the north or south.

Rainfall Areas that get a lot of rain generally have more plants
than areas that are dry. Areas with many plants have
more animals than areas with few plants.
Critical Thinking Soil Plants rely on chemical nutrients in the soil to grow. If
1. Apply Concepts Explain the soil is lacking nutrients, plants do not grow as well.
why adding chemical
fertilizers to soil can improve There are two main kinds of abiotic factors. Some
crop growth.
abiotic factors in an area are resources that organisms
can use there. For example, organisms can use nutrients
in soil as a resource to help them grow. Other abiotic fac-
tors are conditions that organisms must adapt to in order
to live there. Organisms must adapt to the temperature in
an area to live there.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 306 Biomes and Ecosystems
Name Class Date

SECTION 1 Studying the Environment continued

How Are Biomes Different from Ecosystems?

Ecosystems are made up of the organisms and abi-
otic factors in an area. Biomes are made up of many
connected land and water ecosystems. Therefore, most
biomes are much larger than ecosystems. Biomes have
certain types of plants that support certain types of animals.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Infer Find the tundra
biomes on the map. What
kind of climate do you think
tundra biomes have? Explain
your answer.

This map shows some of the major land biomes on Earth.

The climate of a biome affects what kinds of organ-

isms can live there. The climate of an area is the overall
weather conditions in a region over a long time. Climate is CALIFORNIA
caused mainly by a few abiotic factors, such as the amount STANDARDS CHECK
of rainfall and the temperatures at different times. 6.5.c Students know that
populations of organisms
can be categorized by the
What Are the Roles of Organisms functions they serve in an
ecosystem.
in an Ecosystem?
The biomes and ecosystems on Earth contain many Word Help: categorize
to put into groups or
kinds of organisms. However, each organism has one of
classes
two main functions, or ecological roles, in an ecosystem.
Those roles are producer and consumer. Word Help: function
use or purpose
Producers are organisms that make their own food.
Plants and many kinds of bacteria are producers. Most 3. Explain Predators are
producers make their food from sunlight. Other produc- animals that kill and eat
other organisms. Why
ers, like some bacteria, make their food from chemicals are both predators and
that other organisms cannot use for food-making. decomposers categorized
Consumers are organisms that cannot make their own as consumers?
food. All animals are consumers. One important kind of
consumer is a decomposer. Decomposers get their food
by breaking down dead organisms. As they eat the dead
organisms, decomposers also break them down into sim-
ple chemicals that other organisms can use.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 307 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 1 Studying the Environment continued

Why Do Similar Biomes Occur

in Similar Climates?
In places with similar climates, the biomes have
similar plant and animal communities. The latitude
and height above sea level affect the temperature and
rainfall of a location. As you move away from the
equator or travel higher up in the mountains, it generally
READING CHECK gets colder and drier.
4. Explain In general, what These changes in climate help explain why biomes
happens to temperature as found at similar latitudes and similar heights have many
you move away from the
things in common. For example, much of California is at
equator?
the same latitude as the area around the Mediterranean
Sea. The two places have similar biomes. The kind of
biome found in California and near the Mediterranean
READING CHECK Sea is called chapparal.
5. Identify Why is the climate
near the Mediterranean Sea
Precipitation (cm)

15
similar to the climate in much
of California? 10

0
J FMAM J J A S OND
Months
This graph shows the average monthly precipitation in the
chaparral biome in Santa Barbara, California.

Math Focus
Temperature (˚ C)

6. Read a Graph In which 30

month does Santa Barbara
have the highest average 20
temperature?
10

7. Read a Graph About how 0

much precipitation does FMAM J J A S OND
Santa Barbara get in the Months
month of February?
This graph shows the average monthly temperature in the
chaparral biome in Santa Barbara, California.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 308 Biomes and Ecosystems
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Section 1 Review 6.5.a, 6.5.b, 6.5.c, 6.5.d, 6.5.e

1. Compare What can producers do that consumers cannot do?

2. Identify How are biomes and ecosystems different?

3. Describe How do abiotic factors affect living things?

4. Explain Why do fewer kinds of organisms live in desert biomes than in forest
biomes?

5. Apply Concepts Give two examples of producers. The examples that you give
should be from different biomes.

6. Infer What would happen to an ecosystem if all of the decomposers disappeared?

Explain your answer.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 309 Biomes and Ecosystems
Name Class Date

CHAPTER 17 Biomes and Ecosystems

SECTION

2 Land Biomes
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.c, 6.5.d, 6.5.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What are the eight kinds of land biomes?
• How are organisms adapted to survive in each land
biome?
• What organisms fill the ecological roles of producer
and consumer in each land biome?

What Is a Desert?
STUDY TIP Why are some kinds of organisms common in some
Summarize As you read areas but not other areas? The reason is that each
about each type of land of Earth’s biomes has different abiotic factors. The
biome, write down its
important features. When organisms that live in a biome are adapted to the biome’s
you finish reading this abiotic factors.
section, write a summary Deserts are very dry biomes, and most are very hot.
of the features of each type
of land biome into your
The Mojave Desert in California is an example of a
notebook. desert. The organisms that can live in a desert have
special features that let them survive in the desert.
Many desert plants have roots that spread near the
surface. This allows them to take up water quickly after a
rain, before it evaporates.
Desert animals also have ways to survive the hot,
dry desert conditions. Some live underground, where
READING CHECK it is cooler. They come only out at night, when air
1. List What are two ways temperatures are lower. Others, such as the fringe-toed
that burrowing under the lizard, bury themselves in the loose sand to escape the
ground helps the fringe-toed heat and avoid predators.
lizard? Desert
• Average Yearly Rainfall
less than 25 cm
Some flowering plants • Average Temperatures
bloom, bear seeds, and die
within a few weeks after a Summer: 38ºC (100ºF)
Math Focus heavy rain.
Winter: 7ºC (45ºF)
2. Calculate About how Cactuses store
water in their
many inches of rain does a stems and roots.
desert get every year? Show
your work.
Kangaroo rats do not
Huge ears help need to drink. They
jack rabbits get rid recycle water from the
of body heat. foods that they eat.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 310 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

What Is a Chaparral?
A biome that has a fairly dry climate but receives more
rainfall than a desert is called a chaparral. In chaparral
biomes, summers are warm and dry, and winters are mild
and wet. Chaparral biomes can be found in California and
around the Mediterranean Sea. READING CHECK
The plants in a chaparral grow close to the ground. 3. Identify Where are
Many are small evergreen trees and shrubs that have chaparral biomes found?
wide, flat leaves. Evergreen plants are plants that keep
their leaves all year round. Many chaparral plants have
leaves that help them store water.
During natural fires, chaparral shrubs and trees are
destroyed. After a fire, the shrubs grow back more Critical Thinking
quickly than the trees. Natural fires prevent the trees 4. Predict How would
from competing with the shrubs for resources. Therefore, putting out all natural fires
affect the types of plants
natural fires are an abiotic factor that helps maintain the found in a chaparral?
chaparral.
The animals of the chaparral also have features to help
them survive. Lizards, chipmunks, and mule deer are usu-
ally gray and brown, which helps them blend into their
surroundings and hide from predators.
Mule deer are herbivores that eat grasses and shrubs.
Lizards and chipmunks are omnivores that eat insects
and parts of plants. Bobcats are carnivores that eat other
animals.
Chaparral
• Average Yearly Rainfall
25 to 43 cm (10 to 17 in.)
• Average Temperatures
Plants of the chaparral
Summer: 22ºC (71.6ºF)
are adapted to recover Winter: 17.8ºC (64ºF)
quickly after a natural
fire.

TAKE A LOOK
5. Identify What kind of
plant is most common in the
chaparral?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 311 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

What Are Two Kinds of Grassland?

A grassland is a biome made up mainly of grasses,
small flowering plants, and a few trees. The two main
kinds of grassland are temperate grasslands and savannas.

TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
In temperate grasslands, the summers are warm and
the winters are cold. The soils of temperate grasslands
are very rich in nutrients. Fires, droughts, and grazing
prevent trees and shrubs from growing.
Many seed-eating animals, such as prairie dogs and
mice, live in this kind of grassland. They use camouflage
READING CHECK
and burrows to hide from predators, such as coyotes.
6. Identify What are two Prairie
ways small animals hide
from predators? • Average Yearly Rainfall
25 to 75 cm (10 to 29.5 in.)
• Average Temperatures
Summer: 30ºC (86ºF)
Winter: 0ºC (32ºF)

Large herbivores, such as these

bison, graze on the abundant
grass in temperate grasslands.

SAVANNAS
The savanna is a grassland that has a lot of rainfall
during some seasons and very little rainfall in other sea-
sons. During the dry season, savanna grasses dry out and
turn yellow. However, the roots can live for many months
without water.

,ARGEPREDATORSSUCHASTHIS
LIONHUNTTHEHERBIVORES 3CAVENGERSSUCHAS
HYENASEATANYTHINGLEFT
TAKE A LOOK OVERBYTHEPREDATORS

7. Compare How does the Savanna

amount of rainfall in a tem-
perate grassland compare • Average Yearly Rainfall
with the amount of rainfall in 150 cm (59 in.)
a savanna? ,ARGEHERBIVORESSUCHAS
THESEZEBRASANDWILDEBEESTS • Average Temperatures
LIVEINTHESAVANNA
Dry season: 34ºC (93ºF)
Wet season: 16ºC (61ºF)

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 312 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

What Is a Tundra?
Imagine a place on Earth that is too cold for trees
Say It
Share Experiences Have
to grow. A tundra is a biome that has very cold tem- you ever been to a very cold
peratures and little rainfall. Tundras can be found near place? In a group, discuss
the North and South Poles. In a tundra, the layer of soil what it was like.
below the surface stays frozen all year long. This layer is
called permafrost.
During the short, cool summers, only the water in the
soil at the surface melts. This surface soil is too shallow
for most plants. Only plants with shallow roots, such
as grasses and small shrubs, are common. Mosses and
lichens grow beneath these plants. Growing close to the
ground helps the plants resist the wind and the cold. READING CHECK
Animals of the tundra also have ways to live in this 8. Explain How does
biome. In the winter, food is hard to find and the weather growing close to the ground
is very harsh. Some animals, such as bears, sleep through help tundra plants?
much of the winter. Other animals, like the caribou, travel
long distances to find food. Many animals have extra lay-
ers of fat to keep them warm.
During the summer, the soil above the permafrost
becomes muddy from melting ice and snow. Insects, such
as mosquitoes, lay eggs in the mud. Birds that prey on
these insects are carnivores. Other carnivores, such as
wolves, prey on herbivores, such as caribou and musk
oxen.
Tundra
• Average Yearly Rainfall
30 to 50 cm (12 to 20 in.)
• Average Temperatures
Summer: 12ºC (54ºF)
Winter: –26ºC (–15ºF)
Caribou are large
herbivores that
live in the tundra. TAKE A LOOK
9. Describe How are the
ecological roles of a caribou
in a tundra and a zebra in a
savanna similar?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 313 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

What Are Three Forest Biomes?

Three forest biomes are coniferous forests, temperate
deciduous forests, and tropical rain forests. All of these
forests receive plenty of rain, and the temperatures are
not extreme. The kind of forest that forms in an area
depends on the area’s climate.

CONIFEROUS FORESTS
The coniferous forest gets its name from conifers,
the main type of tree that grows there. Conifers produce
seeds in cones. They have special needle-shaped leaves
covered in a thick waxy coating. These features help the
tree conserve water during the dry winters. The waxy
coating also protects the needles from being damaged by
READING CHECK cold weather. Most conifers are evergreens.
10. Identify Where do conifers
In a coniferous forest, decomposition is slow. The
produce their seeds? ground is often covered by a thick layer of needles.
The conifers stop most of the sunlight from reaching
the ground. Because there is little light there, not many
plants live under the conifer trees.
The animals in a coniferous forest are adapted for cold
winters. Like animals in the tundra, they may hibernate
or travel to warmer climates in the winter.

A coniferous forest is
home to many insects
and to birds that eat These conifer leaves
those insects. are adapted to
conserve water.

TAKE A LOOK
11. Explain Why is it
important for trees in a
coniferous forest to Coniferous Forest
conserve water?
Herbivores that live in the • Average Yearly Rainfall
coniferous forest include 35 to 75 cm (14 to 29.5 in.)
deer, moose, porcupines,
and squirrels. • Average Temperatures
Summer: 14ºC (57ºF)
Winter: –10ºC (14ºF)

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 314 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FORESTS

Have you seen trees with leaves that change color and
then fall off the trees? If so, you have seen deciduous
trees. The word deciduous comes from a Latin word that
means “to fall off.” Deciduous trees shed their leaves to
save water during the winter. Temperate deciduous for-
ests contain many deciduous trees.
Since deciduous trees lose their leaves, the ground in
deciduous forests gets a lot of sunlight during part of the
year. Therefore, small trees and shrubs can grow on the
forest floor. READING CHECK
Animals live in different parts of the deciduous forest. 12. Compare Why does
Black bears and rabbits live on the forest floor. Bears the floor of a temperate
are omnivores that eat nuts, berries, and small animals. deciduous forest have more
small plants than the floor of
Rabbits are herbivores.
a coniferous forest?

7OODPECKERSARE
OMNIVORES4HEYEATINSECTS
)NFORESTSPLANTGROWTH
NUTSANDTREESAP
HAPPENSINLAYERS4HE
LEAFYTOPSOFTHETREES
REACHHIGHABOVETHE
FORESTFLOORWHERETHE
LEAVESCANGETSUNLIGHT

7OODYSHRUBSCATCHTHE Temperate Deciduous Forest

LIGHTTHATFILTERSTHROUGH
THETREES
• Average Yearly Rainfall
75 to 125 cm (29.5 to 49 in.)
• Average Temperatures
Summer: 28ºC (82ºF)
Winter: 6ºC (43ºF)

&ERNSANDMOSSESARE
SCATTEREDACROSSTHE
FORESTFLOOR&LOWERING
PLANTSOFTENBLOOMIN
EARLYSPRINGBEFORETHE
TREESGROWNEWLEAVES

TAKE A LOOK
13. Identify What are two
producers in a temperate
deciduous forest?
3QUIRRELSAREOMNIVORESTHAT
EATNUTSSEEDSANDINSECTS

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SECTION 2 Land Biomes continued

TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

Tropical rain forest biomes contain the greatest variety
of plants and animals on Earth. The warm temperatures
and high rainfall allow a lot of plants to grow. Trees grow
very tall and dense. Their leaves prevent much light from
reaching the forest floor, so not many small plants live
on the forest floor. The plants support a large diversity of
animals.
Most of the animals in a rain forest live in the trees.
Birds such as toucans are omnivores that eat fruits, rep-
tiles, and other birds. Carnivores, such as harpy eagles,
eat other animals, such as howler monkeys. Howler mon-
READING CHECK
keys are herbivores that eat fruits, nuts, and leaves.
You may think that the soil in a rain forest is very
14. Describe Where in a
rain forest are most animals rich in nutrients because of all the plants that live there.
found? However, most of the nutrients in the tropical rain for-
est are found in plants, not in soil. The soil is so thin that
many trees grow roots above-ground for support.
Tropical Rain Forest
Trees form a continuous
green roof, or canopy,
• Average Yearly Rainfall
that may extend 60 m up to 400 cm (157.5 in.)
above the forest floor. • Average Temperatures
Daytime: 34ºC (93ºF)
Nighttime: 20ºC (68ºF)

Woody vines climb

the tree trunks to
TAKE A LOOK reach sunlight.
15. Infer Why do many
vines grow on tree branches
instead of on the forest floor?

Little light reaches the

ground. Low-growing
plants in the rain forest
don’t need a lot of light.

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Section 2 Review 6.5.c, 6.5.d, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
chaparral a type of vegetation that includes grassland a region that is dominated by grasses,
broad-leaved evergreen shrubs and that is that has few woody shrubs and trees, that
located in areas with hot, dry summers and has fertile soils, and that receives moderate
mild, wet winters amounts of seasonal rainfall
desert a region that has little or no plant life, tundra a treeless plain found in the Arctic, in the
long periods without rain, and extreme Antarctic, or on the tops of mountains that is
temperatures: usually found in hot climates characterized by very low winter temperatures
and short, cool summers

1. Explain The tundra has been called a “frozen desert.” Explain why this is a good
name for the tundra.

2. Compare Compare the temperate grassland and the savanna by filling in the blank
spaces in the table below.

Temperate grassland Savanna

Abiotic factors constant warmth with

seasonal rains

Types of producer grass with a few trees

Types of consumer

3. List What are some of the adaptations that allow desert plants to live in such a
hot, dry environment?

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CHAPTER 17 Biomes and Ecosystems

SECTION

3 Marine Ecosystems
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.a, 6.5.c, 6.5.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What abiotic factors affect marine ecosystems?
• What are the major zones found in the ocean?
• What kinds of organisms are found in marine
ecosystems?

What Abiotic Factors Affect Marine Ecosystems?

STUDY TIP
Oceans cover almost three-fourths of Earth’s surface!
Compare Create a table
comparing the locations, Scientists call the ecosystems in the ocean marine
abiotic factors, and organisms ecosystems. Marine ecosystems, like all ecosystems, are
for each marine ecosystem. affected by abiotic factors.

WATER DEPTH AND SUNLIGHT

Two abiotic factors that affect marine ecosystems
are water depth and sunlight. The average depth of the
oceans is 4,000 m, but sunlight does not reach deeper
Math Focus than 200 m. Producers that carry out photosynthesis,
1. Calculate What such as algae, can live only above 200 m.
percentage of the water in
the oceans receives sunlight? Phytoplankton are tiny producers that float near the
Show how you got your surface of the ocean. Algae and phytoplankton are the
answer. producers at the base of most ocean food chains. Large
consumers, such as whales, feed on these tiny producers.

Marine ecosystems support many different organisms.

Both large humpback whales and tiny phytoplankton
live near the surface of the ocean.

TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify In the picture,
which organism is the
producer and which is the
consumer?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 318 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

TEMPERATURE
A third abiotic factor in marine ecosystems is the
temperature of the water. The water near the surface
is much warmer that the rest of the ocean because it
is heated by the sun. Ocean water becomes colder as it
gets deeper.
Water temperatures at the surface are also affected by
latitude. Water near the equator is generally warmer than
water closer to the poles. The water at the surface is also
warmer in summer than winter. READING CHECK
Temperature affects the animals that live in marine 3. List What are the three
ecosystems. For example, fish that live near the poles main abiotic factors that
have a special chemical in their blood that keeps them affect marine ecosystems?
from freezing. Most animals that live in coral reefs need
warm water to live.
Most marine organisms live in the warm waters near
the surface. Some animals, like whales, migrate from cold
areas near the poles to warm areas near the equator to
reproduce.
Water temperature also affects whether some animals,
such as barnacles, can eat. If the water is too hot or
too cold, these animals may not be able to eat. If the
temperature changes suddenly, they may die. READING CHECK

Ocean Temperature and Depth 4. Identify Why do most

barnacles live in water with a
0 constant temperature?

200
Water depth (m)

400

600

800
TAKE A LOOK
1,000 5. Analyze About how
much colder is ocean water
1,200 at 600 m depth than at
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 400 m depth?
Water temperature (°C)

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 319 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

What Are the Major Zones in the Ocean?

The ocean can be divided into zones based on things
such as distance from the shore, water depth, the amount
of sunlight, and water temperature.

THE INTERTIDAL ZONE

Say It The intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the
Share Experiences In a shore. The organisms of the intertidal zone are covered
group, discuss the abiotic fac- with water at high tide and exposed to air at low tide.
tors and the living organisms
you have seen or might see
at the beach.

TAKE A LOOK
6. Explain Why is it difficult
for many sea creatures to live The Intertidal Zone Sea grasses, peri-
in the intertidal zone? winkle snails, and herons are common
in an intertidal mudflat. Sea stars and
anemones often live on rocky shores,
while clams, crabs, snails, and conchs are
common on sandy beaches.

THE NERITIC ZONE

The neritic zone is further from shore. In this zone, the
water becomes deeper as the ocean floor starts to slope
downward. This water is warmer than deep ocean water
and receives a lot of sunlight. Corals and producers thrive
in this zone. Sea turtles, sea urchins, and fishes are some
of the consumers of this zone.

The Neritic Zone Although phyto-

plankton are the major producers in
this zone, seaweeds are common, too.
Sea turtles and dolphins live in the
neritic zone. Other animals, such as
TAKE A LOOK corals, sponges, and colorful fishes,
contribute to this vivid landscape.
7. Identify What are the two
main kinds of producer in the
neritic zone?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 320 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

THE OCEANIC ZONE

In the oceanic zone, the sea floor drops off quickly.
The oceanic zone extends from the surface to the deep
water of the open ocean. Phytoplankton live near the sur-
face, where there is sunlight. READING CHECK
Consumers such as fishes, whales, and sharks live in 8. Explain Why do
the oceanic zone. Some of the animals live in deep waters, phytoplankton need to live
where there is no sunlight. These animals feed on each near the surface?

other and on material that sinks from the surface waters.

TAKE A LOOK
9. Explain How can the
consumers that live in deep
waters survive if there are no
producers present?

The Oceanic Zone Many unusual animals are adapted for the deep
ocean. Whales and squids can be found in this zone. Also, fishes that glow
can be found in very deep, dark water.

THE ABYSSAL ZONE

The abyssal zone is the ocean floor. It does not get any
sunlight and is very cold. Fishes, worms, and crabs have
special features to live in this zone. Many of them feed on
material that sinks from above.
Some organisms, such as angler fish, eat smaller fish.
Other organisms, such as bacteria, are decomposers and
help break down dead organisms.

TAKE A LOOK
10. Describe What abiotic
factors do organisms that live
in the abyssal zone need to
adapt to?

The Abyssal Zone Organisms such as bacteria, worms, and sea urchins
thrive on the sea floor.

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 321 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

Critical Thinking What Kinds of Ecosystems Are in

11. Predict Consequences the Marine Biome?
How would humans be Life on Earth depends on the ocean. The water that evap-
affected if there were no
orates from the ocean creates most of the rain and snow
oceans?
that falls on land. The ocean affects world climates and
wind patterns. Many people depend on the ocean for food.
Many different kinds of organisms live in the ocean.
They live in the many ecosystems in the different zones
of the ocean.

INTERTIDAL ECOSYSTEMS
Organisms in intertidal ecosystems must be able to live
both underwater and in the air. Those that live in mudflats
and sandy beaches may dig into the ground during low tide.
On rocky shores, organisms have adaptations to keep
from being swept away by crashing waves. For example,
seaweeds use structures called holdfasts to attach them-
selves to rocks. Other organisms, such as barnacles,
attach themselves to rocks with a special cement. Sea
READING CHECK stars feed on these organisms.
12. Describe How do organ-
isms of intertidal ecosystems Ecosystem Location Abiotic Organisms
factors
protect themselves from be-
ing washed away by waves? Intertidal intertidal zone: times under worms, clams,
mudflats, water, times crabs, birds,
sandy beaches, above water seaweed
rocky shores

ESTUARIES
An estuary is an area where fresh water from streams and
rivers flows into the ocean. The water in an estuary is a mix
of fresh water from rivers and salt water from the ocean.
Organisms that live in estuaries must be able to survive
the changing amounts of salt in the water. The fresh water
that flows into an estuary is rich in nutrients washed from
the land. The nutrients in the water support large numbers
of producers, such as algae. The algae are able to support
many consumers, such as fish, oysters, and crabs.
TAKE A LOOK
13. Compare What unusual Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms
abiotic factor do organisms in
Estuaries areas where changing large amount
an estuary need to adapt to? rivers and amounts of salt of algae, many
streams flow in the water; consumers
into oceans nutrient-rich
water

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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are named for the small animals called
corals that form the reefs. Many of these tiny animals live
together in a colony, or group
Most coral reefs are built on the skeletons of a kind
of coral called stony coral. The skeleton of a stony coral
is made up of a hard chemical called calcium carbonate.
When the corals die, their hard skeletons remain. New
corals grow on these hard remains.
Over time, layers of skeletons build up and form a
rock-like structure called a reef. This reef provides a
home for many marine animals. These organisms include
fishes, sponges, sea stars, and sea urchins. Because so
many kinds of organisms live there, coral reefs are some
of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. READING CHECK
14. Explain How is a coral
Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms reef both a living and a
nonliving structure?
Coral reefs shallow areas warm water, corals,
of the neritic sunlight algae, fishes,
zone sponges, sea
stars, sea
urchins

KELP FORESTS
Kelp forests are found in cold, shallow areas of the
neritic zone. Kelp are large brown algae that grow well
in nutrient-rich waters, such as areas along the coast of
California. Some kelp can be as much as 33 m (108 ft) long!
Many consumers, such as sea otters, fishes, crabs, and
sea urchins, are found in kelp forests. Sea urchins eat the
algae growing on rocks. Sea otters eat many of the organ-
isms in the kelp forest, including sea urchins. READING CHECK
15. Identify What are the
Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms ecological roles of the sea
urchin and sea otter in the
Kelp forests shallow areas cold water, kelp, sea kelp forest?
of the neritic sunlight, otters, fishes,
zone nutrient-rich crabs, sea
water urchins

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SECTION 3 Marine Ecosystems continued

DEEP SEA HYDROTHERMAL VENTS

In some places on the ocean floor, heat from within
the Earth heats the ocean water. The water can get as hot
as 350°C! The hot water moves out of cracks in the ocean
floor called hydrothermal vents.
These vents release chemicals from beneath the sur-
face into the seawater. The chemicals can be made into
food by special kinds of bacteria. These bacteria are
considered producers. Many unusual consumers, such as
READING CHECK tube worms, rely on the bacteria for energy.
16. Explain Why are
Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms
bacteria at hydrothermal
vents producers if they do Deep sea abyssal zone hot water with bacteria, vent
not use sunlight to make food? hydrothermal chemicals, high worms, clams
vents pressure

THE SARGASSO SEA

Floating mats of algae in the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean make up the Sargasso Sea ecosystem. Algae
called sargassums are at the base of this ecosystem.
Sargassums float at the surface because parts of the algae
are filled with air.
Many animals live in this ecosystem. Most of these
are omnivores that can eat many different organisms
throughout the year.
TAKE A LOOK
17. Explain Why is it helpful Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms
for the organisms living in Sargasso Sea Atlantic Ocean much sunlight floating
sargassums to be omnivores? near the sargassum
surface algae, fishes,
mostly
omnivores

POLAR ICE
The icy waters near the poles are rich in nutrients that
support large numbers of phytoplankton. These producers
can support many types of consumers. One of these is a
small shrimplike organism called krill. Larger consumers
eat krill and, in turn, serve as food for other consumers.

Ecosystem Location Abiotic factors Organisms

Polar ice Arctic Ocean, cold, nutrient- phytoplankton,
Antarctica rich water krill, fishes,
seals, whales,
polar bears

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 324 Biomes and Ecosystems
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Section 3 Review 6.5.a, 6.5.c, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
estuary an area where fresh water mixes with phytoplankton the microscopic, photosynthetic
salt water from the ocean organisms that float near the surface of marine
or fresh water
Wordwise The prefix phyto- means “plant.”

1. Describe What are some of the different kinds of producers found in the marine
biome?

2. Apply Concepts Draw a food chain that shows the flow of energy through a polar
ice ecosystem.

3. Explain Why are there few producers below 200 m in the ocean?

4. Identify What abiotic factors make the neritic zone a good home for many differ-
ent organisms?

5. List Give two ecosystems that are found in the neritic zone.

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CHAPTER 17 Biomes and Ecosystems

SECTION

4 Freshwater Ecosystems
California Science BEFORE YOU READ
Standards
6.5.c, 6.5.e
After you read this section, you should be able to answer
these questions:
• What organisms live in stream and river ecosystems?
• What are the three zones in a pond or lake?
• What are the two kinds of wetlands?

What Are Stream and River Ecosystems?

STUDY TIP
One important abiotic factor that affects freshwater
Answer Questions Before
reading this section, write
ecosystems is how quickly the water is moving. In riv-
the three Before You Read ers and streams, the water is moving faster than in other
questions on a piece of paper. freshwater ecosystems.
As you read, write down the The water in streams may come from melted ice or
answers to the questions.
snow. It may also come from a spring. A spring is a place
where water from under the ground flows to the surface.
Each stream of water that joins a larger stream is
called a tributary. As more tributaries join a stream, it
becomes stronger and wider. A very strong, wide stream
is called a river.
Springs or melting
snow and ice

Tributary

TAKE A LOOK River

1. Describe What happens Ocean

to the size of a stream when

a tributary flows into it?

Stream and river ecosystems are full of life. Plants live

along the edges of streams and rivers. Fish live in the open
waters. Clams and snails live in the mud at the bottom.
Organisms that live in fast-moving water have to keep
themselves from being washed away. Some producers,
such as algae and moss, are attached to rocks. Consumers,
such as tadpoles, use suction to hold themselves to rocks.
Other consumers, such as crayfish, hide under rocks.

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SECTION 4 Freshwater Ecosystems continued

What Are Pond and Lake Ecosystems?

The water in ponds and lakes is not moving very much
compared with rivers and streams. As a result, they have
different types of ecosystems. Like marine ecosystems,
pond and lake ecosystems are affected by water depth,
sunlight, and temperature.
0LANTSANDOTHER??????????????
GROWINTHELITTORALZONEANDTHE
OPEN WATERZONE4HESEZONESGET
PLENTYOF?????????????????????

?????????????AND????????????
LIVEINTHEDEEP WATERZONEANDEAT
DEADORGANISIMSTHATFALLFROMTHE
WATERABOVE
TAKE A LOOK
2. Identify Fill in the blank
spaces in the figure with the
correct words.

LIFE NEAR THE SHORE

The area of water near the edge of a pond or lake is
called the littoral zone. Sunlight reaches the bottom,
which allows producers such as algae to grow in this
zone. Plants, such as cattails and rushes, grow here too,
farther from shore.
Many consumers, such as tadpoles and some insects,
eat the algae and plants. Some consumers, such as snails
and insects, make their homes in plants. Consumers that
live in the mud include clams and worms. Other consum-
ers, such as fishes, also live in this zone. READING CHECK
3. Identify Which
LIFE AWAY FROM THE SHORE consumers of the littoral
zone are herbivores?
The area of a lake or pond away from the littoral zone
near the surface is called the open-water zone. This
zone is as deep as sunlight can reach. Producers such as
phytoplankton grow well here. This zone is home to bass,
lake trout, and other consumers.
Beneath the open-water zone is the deep-water zone, READING CHECK
where no sunlight reaches. Photosynthetic organisms 4. Explain Why can’t
cannot live in this zone. Scavengers, such as catfish and producers live in the
deep-water zone?
crabs, live here and feed on dead organisms that sink
from above. Decomposers, such as fungi and bacteria,
also help to break down dead organisms.
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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 327 Biomes and Ecosystems
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SECTION 4 Freshwater Ecosystems continued

What Is a Wetland?
A wetland is an area of land that is sometimes under-
water or whose soil contains a lot of water. Wetlands
help control floods. During heavy rains, wetlands soak up
large amounts of water. This water sinks into the ground
READING CHECK and helps refill underground water supplies.
5. Define What is a wetland?
Wetlands contain many different plants and animals.
There are two main types of wetlands: marshes and
swamps.

TAKE A LOOK
6. Compare What is a quick
way to tell the difference
between a marsh and a
swamp?

How Can an Ecosystem Change?

Did you know that a pond or lake can disappear? The
water flowing into the lake carries sediment. The sedi-
ment, along with dead leaves and other materials, sinks
to the bottom of the lake.
Critical Thinking Bacteria decompose the material at the bottom of the
7. Apply Concepts Why is lake. The decay process uses up some of the oxygen in
the amount of oxygen in the water. As the amount of oxygen in the water goes
pond water an abiotic factor?
down, fewer fish and other organisms can live in it.
Over time, the pond or lake is filled with sediment.
New kinds of plants grow in the new soil. Shallow places
fill in first, so plants grow closer and closer to the cen-
ter of the pond or lake. What is left of the pond or lake
becomes a wetland. As the soils dry out and the oxygen
levels increase, forest plants can grow. In this way, a
pond or lake can become a forest.

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Section 4 Review 6.5.c, 6.5.e

SECTION VOCABULARY
deep-water zone the zone of a lake or pond open-water zone the zone of a pond or lake
below the open-water zone, where no light that extends from the littoral zone and that is
reaches only as deep as light can reach
littoral zone the shallow zone of a lake or pond swamp a wetland ecosystem in which shrubs
where light reaches the bottom and nurtures and trees grow
plants wetland an area of land that is periodically
marsh a treeless wetland ecosystem where underwater or whose soil contains a great deal
plants such as grasses grow of moisture

1. Compare Why are the kinds of producers in the littoral zone of a lake different
from the producers in the open-water zone?

2. Compare How are the producers in a swamp different from those in a marsh?

3. Explain What ecological role do the fishes in the open-water zone and the fishes
in swamps fill?

4. Describe What abiotic factors do organisms living in rivers and streams have to
adapt to?

5. Describe How can a pond become a forest?

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Interactive Reader and Study Guide 329 Biomes and Ecosystems