Module 3

Phases and Process of Curriculum Development

At the end of this module, the pre- service teachers (PST) are expected to:

1. Demonstrate knowledge of curriculum planning, design and organization,

implementation, evaluation, and improvement.
2. Analyze what is change process in the curriculum implementation.
3. Expanded knowledge about different curriculum evaluation model.
4. Justify the need for either change or innovation on matters pertaining to curriculum.
5. Prepare developmentally-sequenced lesson plans with well-aligned learning
outcomes and competencies based on curriculum requirements.

A. Curriculum Planning

What is curriculum planning?

Curriculum planning is the process of structuring academic experiences, using

expertise knowledge of the teacher. It is the activity which teachers get involved in
before the actual implementation.

It is the process whereby the advance arrangement of learning opportunities for a

particular population of learners is created.

It is a continuous process which involves activities characterized by

interrelationships among individuals and groups as they work together in studying,
planning, developing and improving the curriculum, which is the total environment
planned by the school.

Why Plan in the First Place?

 Decide how and where to set priorities in the use of limited human economic
resources.
 Decide how to accomplish not only your short-range goals but also your medium
and long-range goals.
  Build on the strong and successful parts of the program. As well as to identify
and improve the weak parts.
 Reach agreement in the school community about what to do and how to do it.

What a Good Planning Process is?

 It is organized thinking that helps in deciding what needs to be done, how it will
happen, and who will do it.
 It is the setting of priorities in the use of resources: people, money, time and
materials.
 It is trying to anticipate the future.
 It is adapting and modifying steps or processes until they work for you.
 It is using leadership to motivate people and to coordinate their activities
 It is reflecting on what has been planned already and how it is working.
 It includes the periodic recording of planning decision for future reference.

What a Good Planning Process Should Do?

 It should stimulate change and improvement.

 It should help you figure out what will happen and how it should happen.
 It should share awareness about what is being done and why.
 It should build a trail of activities over time so you can look at what has worked
well and what has not.
 It should produce a blueprint, road map, or recipe to be used
 It should decrease fear about the process of change and its result.

Importance of Curriculum Planning

“Unplanned teaching and learning is a recipe of wasting time”

 Curriculum planning develop well-coordinated, quality teaching, learning and

assessment programs, which build students’ knowledge, skills and behaviors in
the disciplines, as well as their interdisciplinary and/or physical, personal and
social capabilities.
 Curriculum planning ensure:
  A shared vision
 Shared understandings and a common language in the school community
 Optimum coverage of all domains within the curriculum
 Continuity of learning between domains across year level
 The full range of learning needs of the students are addressed
 Students are given opportunities to develop deep understanding
 Cohesiveness in teaching, learning and assessment practices
 Elimination of repetition of learning activities without depth or breadth
across levels
 Improved student learning outcomes

The need for exactness and particularity in making decisions about ends and
means demands scientific curriculum planning.

The curriculum is likely to be a good one if there is good curriculum planning; and
conversely, the curriculum is likely to be mediocre one if there is a mediocre curriculum
planning.

Bases of Curriculum Planning

 History
 Philosophy
 Social forces
 Psychology
 Religion
 Contemporary Issues

Lack of Curriculum Planning and Framework will result to:

 Sari-sari (hodgepodge)
 Pira-piraso (piemal)
 Tagpi-tagpi (patchwork)
 Sabog (lack of focus)
 Malabo (vague)
  Lakas ng kutob (gutfeel)
 Hula-hula (hunches)
 Gaya-gaya (patterned from an existing model)
 Bahala na (by chance)
 Patama-tama (non-deliberate)

Participants of curriculum planning get involved in variety of activities

such as:

 Discussing common problems

 Making decisions
 Developing a functional philosophy
 Studying learners and the environment
 Keeping up to date with the knowledge
 Studying ways to improve instructions
 Carrying research and evaluation

2 Factors in Curriculum Planning

1. Identifying relevant substantive decisions at increasing levels of specifity and

precision
2. Checking for consistency between and among the ends-and-means decisions by
a two-way process of derivation and evaluation at each stage and by referring to
data sources for basic information.

Characteristics of a Curriculum Planner

1. Openminded
 Is an indispensable characteristic in those who plan the curriculum.
 Understanding of the values of the past practices and of school
community and tradition is important
 Must analyze and evaluate all aspects of the program of the schools to
make certain in providing the best program. And to avoid hindering the
acceptance of new ideas.
 2. Willing to Listen
 Well-founded criticism on the curriculum and education must be listened to
by the curriculum planners
 Remediation of the curriculum ills strengthened the school program.

3. Ready to Adapt
 There is a wisdom adopting relevant foreign educational practices and
must resist change and experimentation
 Curriculum leaders should critically and thoroughly educational practices
in other countries seeking new plans, methods, and programs that will be
useful in improving the curriculum of our country.

The Use of Research in Curriculum Planning

Research affects many curricula in many ways like for example:

1. Sounds proposal presented for considerations, (hypotheses to be tested by

actual tryout in school programs)
2. People who engaged in curriculum planning can do their jobs effectively because
they are aware of the latest or least review, related studies about curriculum
change and etc.

B. Curriculum Design and

Organization Approaches to
Curriculum Design

Child or Learner-Centered Approach – this approach to curriculum design Is

based in the underlying philosophy that the child is the center of the educational
process. It means that the curriculum is constructed based on the needs, interest,
purposes and abilities of the learners. The curriculum is also built upon the learner’s
knowledge, skills, learning and potentials.
From its design how should a child-centered or learner-centered
curriculum be approached? Let us consider these:

1. A new respect for the child is fundamental.

2. A new freedom of action is provided.
3. The activity is divided into units of work.
4. The recognition of the need for using and exploring many media for self-
discovery and self-direction is embraced.

Subject-Centered Approach – anchored on the curriculum design which

prescribes different and separate subjects into one broad field, this approach considers
the following:

1. The primary focus is the subject matter.

2. The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which are detached from life.
3. The continuing pursuit of learning outside the school is not emphasized. Learning
should only take place inside the classroom.
4. The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems in living.

Problem-Centered Approach – this approach is based on a curriculum design

which assumes that in the process of living, children experience problems. Thus,
problem solving enables the learners to become increasingly able to achieve complete
or total development as individuals.

This approach is characterized by the following views and beliefs:

1. The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in resolving

problems, thus they become independent learners.
2. The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct
participation in different activities.
3. The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems
and in seeking solutions. The learners are considered problem solvers.
 While the three curricular design approaches are distinct from each other, most
practitioners: teachers, principals, school managers utilize the three in their design.
Each design approach gives the school a special character. However, most
implementers meld the designs in their school. No such case, it would be difficult to
identify distinctly each one specific design.

Types of Curriculum Design

Crafting a curriculum is like writing a lesson plan. It is like making something with
the different components, and putting them together in a very creative way. It is a task
that all teachers should know and understand, or better still, to know how to craft one.

A curriculum can be organized either horizontally or vertically. Horizontal

organization means, that the direction of the curriculum elements is sideways.

For example:

1. The subject social studies move horizontally along history, geography, civics and
culture.
2. Taking contents in mathematics and relating these to science is also an example
of horizontal curriculum design.
Using a vertical arrangement or sequence of curricular elements follows a vertical
design.

Examples:
1. In social studies content, putting the “family” ahead of the topic “community” is
vertical articulation
2. In science the bigger topic on “living things” comes ahead of the topic on “plants”
and “animals”.
Curriculum design may also follow the following structures.

1. Subject-centered design

 This model focuses on the content of the curriculum.

 Corresponds mostly to the textbook, written for the specific subject.
 Schools divide the school hours to different subjects such as reading, grammar,
literature, mathematics, science, history and geography.
 In the Philippines, our curricula in any level are also divided in different subjects
or courses. Most of the schools using this kind of structure aim for excellence in
the subject matter content.

Example of subject-centered curriculum

a. Subject design – what subjects are you teaching? What subjects are you
taking? These are two sample questions to which the teacher and the learner
can easily give an answer. It is so because they are familiar with the subject
design curriculum.
 Subject design curriculum is the oldest and so far the most familiar design for
teachers, parents and other laymen.
 According to the advocates, subject design has an advantage because it is easy
to deliver. Complementary books are written and support instructional materials
are commercially available.
 In the Philippine educational system, the number of subjects in the elementary
education is fewer than in the secondary level. In college, the number of subjects
also differs according to the degree program being pursued.
 The drawback of this design is that sometimes, learning is so compartmentalized.
It stresses so much the content that it forgets about students’ natural tendencies,
interests and experiences. The tendency of the teacher is to pour in so much
content to the learner so that the students become simply the empty vessel that
receives the information or content.
b. Discipline design – this curriculum model is related to the subject design.
However, while subject design centers only on the cluster of content, discipline
design focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge
learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific content of
their fields.
 Example:
Students in history should learn the subject matter like historians, students in
biology should learn how biologists learn, and so with students in mathematics
should learn how mathematicians learn.

 The discipline design model of curriculum is often used in college, but not in the
elementary or secondary levels. So, from the subject-centered curriculum,
curriculum moves higher to a discipline when the students are more mature and
are already moving towards their career path or disciplines as science,
mathematics, psychology, humanities, history and others. Discipline becomes the
degree program.

c. Correlation design – this comes from a core, correlated curriculum design that
links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are
related to one another but each subject maintains its identity.
Example:
English literature and social studies correlate well in the elementary level. In the
two subjects, while history is being studied, different literary pieces during the
historical period are being studied. The same is true when science becomes the
core, mathematics is related to it, as they are taken in chemistry, physics and
biology. Another example is literature as the core and art, music, history,
geography will be related to it. To use correlated design, teachers should come
together and plan their lessons cooperatively.

d. Broad field design/ interdisciplinary – broad field or interdisciplinary design is

a variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to prevent the
compartmentalization of subjects and integrate the contents that are related to
each other.
Example:
Subjects such as geography, economics, political science, anthropology,
sociology and history are fused into one subject called social studies. Language
arts will
 include grammar, literature, linguistics, spelling and composition. Sometimes
called holistic curriculum, broad field design draws around themes and
integration.

2. Learner-Centered Design – among the progressive educational psychologists,

the learner is the center of the educative process. This emphasis is very strong in
the elementary level, however more concern has been placed on the secondary
and even the tertiary levels. Although in high school, the subject or content has
become the focus and in the college level, the discipline is the center, both levels
still recognize the importance of the learner in the curriculum.

Here are some examples of the learner-centered designs.

a. Child-centered design – this design is often attributed to the influence of

John Dewey, Rouseeau, Pestallozi and Froebel.
 The curriculum design is anchored on the needs and interests of the child.
The learner is not considered as a passive individual but as one who
engages with his/her environment. One learns by doing. Learners actively
create; construct meanings and understanding as viewed by the
constructivists. In the child-centered design, learners interact with the
teachers and the environment, thus there is a collaborative effort on both
sides to plan lessons, select content and do activities together. Learning is
a product of the child’s interaction with the environment.

b. Experience-centered design – this design is similar to the child-centered

design. Although, the child remains to be the focus, experience-centered
design believes that the interests and needs of learners cannot be pre-
planned. Instead, experiences of the learners become the starting point of
the curriculum, thus the school environment is left open and free.
 Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher
provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from
the different opportunities given by the teacher, in a school where
experience- centered curriculum is provided, different learning centers are
found, time is flexible and children are free to make options.
  Activities revolve around different emphasis such as touching, feeling,
imagining, constructing, relating and others. The emergence of multiple
intelligence theory blends well with experience-centered design
curriculum.
c. Humanistic design – the key lead personalities in this curriculum design
were Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow’s theory of self-
actualization explains that a person who achieves this level:

1. is accepting of self, others and nature;

2. is simple, spontaneous and natural;
3. is open to different experiences;
4. possesses empathy and sympathy towards the less fortunate, among
many others.
 Carl Rogers, on the other hand, believed that a person can embrace self-
directed learning by improving self-understanding and basic attitudes to
guide behavior.
 In humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate
objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of
thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the
curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-concept and
interpersonal skills.
3. Problem-Centered Design – generally, problem-centered design draws on
social problems, needs, interest and abilities of the learners. Various problems
are given emphasis. There are those that center on life situations, contemporary
life problems, areas of living and many others. In this curriculum, content cuts
across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and
abilities of the students. Two examples are given for the problem-centered
design curriculum. These are:
a. Life-situation design – what makes this design unique is that the
contents are organized in ways that allow students to clearly view problem
area clearly. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a
means to analyze the basic areas of living. As a starting point, the
pressing
 immediate problems of the society and the students’ existing concerns are
utilized. Based on Herbert Spencer’s curriculum writing, his emphases
were activities that sustain life, enhance life, aid in rearing children,
maintain the individual’s social and political relations and enhance leisure,
tasks and feelings. The connection of subject matter to real situations
increases the relevance of the curriculum.
b. Core design – in centers on general education and the problems are
based on common human activities. The central focus of the core design
includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners.
Popularized by Faunce and Bossing in 1959, they presented ways on how
to proceed following a core design of a curriculum as follows:
1. The problem is selected by either the teacher or students.
2. A group consensus is made to identify the important problems
and interest of the class.
3. Problems are selected on the basis of developed criteria
for selection.
4. The problem is clearly stated and defined.
5. Areas of study are decided, including dividing the class by
individual or group interests.
6. Needed information is listed and discussed.
7. Resources for obtaining information are listed and discussed.
8. Information is obtained and organized.
9. Information is analyzed and interpreted.
10. Tentative conclusions are stated and tested.
11. A report is presented to the class on an individual or group basis.
12. Conclusions are evaluated.
13. New avenues of exploration toward further problem solving
are examined.
THE SIX ELEMENTS OF A CURRICULUM

1. Who teaches? – The Teacher

Quality Education requires quality teachers. Good teachers bring a shining light
into the learning environment. They are ideal companions of the learners. With the
advances in communication technology, good teachers are needed to sort out the
information from the data that surround the learners. Good teachers are needed to sort
out the knowledge from the information but even more important, excellent teachers are
needed to sort the wisdom from the knowledge. Institutions are as good as its teachers.
Hence, the right individuals who are expected to be recruited are those with excellent
and relevant preparation. These teachers should be given support with their continuing
development in order to keep abreast with the changing demands of a learning society.

2. Who do the teachers teach? - the Learners

The learners are at the center stage in the educative process. They are the most
important factors in the learning environment. There is no teaching without them.
Hence, teachers should understand and accept the learner’s diverse background. Each
one of them is a unique individual. They come from different sectors of society of
different cultural background, socio-economic profile, orientation and varied
experiences. Considering the domain of diversity of learners will allow the individual
learner to develop his multiple intelligences at his own pace. Hence, their needs should
be addressed and be met that’s why teachers are to provide learning opportunities and
varied experiences.

3. What do the teachers teach? – Knowledge, Skills, Values

“To help the learners cope with rapid changes to understand and to succeed in
the new work in the workplace, we must design a curriculum oriented to tomorrow.” It
should be remembered that what students learn will be obsolete in ten years, and half of
what they need to know to succeed in work and in life has not yet been fully developed
and will have to be learned as they go along in the future. Calculators and typewriters
are made obsolete by computers and the next generation will see these being replaced.
And so, the
value of the educational process lies not just in what they learn, but how they learn, and
how good they will be in continuing to learn after they leave school.

The learning episode influences the teaching-learning process. The teacher is

expected to prepare his syllabus or a course of study as his vehicle for instruction. The
learning goals, instructional procedures and content must be clearly explained to
students. There must be a balance of theory and practice. Learners’ sustained interest
in the subject should be made meaningful and relevant.

4. How do teachers teach? – Strategies and Methods

Researchers show that there is no best strategy that could work in a million of
different student background and characteristics. However, for teachers to teach
effectively, they must use appropriate methodologies, approaches and strategies
“capped with compassionate and winsome nature”. Teachers should select teaching
methods, learning activities and instructional materials or resources appropriate to
learners and aligned to objectives of the lesson. Situations should be created to
encourage learners to sue higher order thinking skills. Good teachers utilize information
derived from assessment to improve teaching and learning and adopt a culture of
excellence.

5. How much of the teaching was learned? – Performance

When teachers teach, they formulate objectives to be accomplished by the

learners. A curriculum should be clear at the beginning with what knowledge, skills and
values should be developed by the learners. These are the guiding posts of the
teachers. These are stated in behavioral terms which will guide the actions of the one
who teach. At the end of the teaching act, it is necessary to find out if the objectives set
were accomplished. In curriculum, we call this the learning outcomes. These learning
outcomes indicate the performance of both the teachers and the learners. Learning
outcomes are the product performance of the learners as a result of teaching.
Performance is a feature of a curriculum that should be given emphasis. The curriculum
is deemed to be successful if the performance of the learners is higher than the targets
set. However, if the performance of the learners is low then it follows that the curriculum
has failed. A good curriculum is one that results in high or excellent performance.
6. With whom do we teach? - Community Partners

Teaching is a collaborative undertaking. While teachers are the focal point in the
learning process, they must draw upon the resources if their environment and if their
partners to be effective. Teachers must establish relationship with parents, NGO’s and
their stakeholders. Partnership is a means and not an end to be pursued in itself. An
absence of partnership often means a poor definitions of education ends. However, as
society changes, teachers will have a new beginning, an opportunity to recast their role
in their communities, to change their attitude to their communities, to change the
attitude of their communities and societies about them.

Dimensions and Principles of Curriculum Design

Curriculum designs provide clear relationship between and among the

different elements of the curriculum: objectives, contents, activities, and
evaluation. Considering all of these elements, as a curriculum designer, one has to
look into the parameters or dimensions upon which a design can be crafted.

Let us always focus on the four elements of a curriculum as bases in

identifying what to be considered in designing a curriculum. Many curricularists
suggest to view a design from the following dimensions: scope, sequence,
continuity, integration, articulation and balance.

Dimension of Curriculum Design

 SCOPE – Tyler in Ornstein (2004) defines scope as all the content, topics,
learning experiences and organizing threads comprising the educational plan.
Scope does not only refer the cognitive content, but also the affective and
psychomotor content. It is the depth, as well as the breadth of these contents.
The terms broad, limited, simple, general are few of the words that can describe
the scope. With the limitless knowledge that abounds, scope provides
boundaries in curriculum as it applies to the different educational levels. It is here
where the decision-making skill of the teacher is needed. Curriculum is time-
bound; hence the appropriate scope should
 be provided such that the curricular coverage should not be too much nor too
minimal. Other considerations in the determination of the scope should includ4e
time. Diversity and maturity of the learners, complexity of content, and level of
education.
Scope refers to the coverage of the curriculum.

The scope of the curriculum can be divided into chunks called units, sub-
units, chapters or sub-chapters as the case may be. Each chunk is guided by the
general curriculum objectives or goals. The division of the content may use the
deductive principle form the whole to the parts which will have a cascading
arrangement or the inductive principle from the examples to the generalization.
Inductive arrangement of a scope begins with simple concepts to general
content. Topical arrangement or content outline of the curriculum may follow
some design as thematic, linear or logical.

 SEQUENCE – To provide continuous and cumulative learning, a vertical

relationship among the elements of the curriculum provides the sequence.
Contents nd experiences are arranged in hierarchical manner, where the basis
can either be logic of the subject matter or on the developmental patterns of
growth of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Some schools
formulate their curricular objectives, content, and experiences by grade levels
and consider the stages of thinking.
Smith, Stanley and Shore (1957) introduced four principles for sequence. These are
the following:

1. Simple to complex learning – content and experiences are organized from

simple to complex, from concrete to abstract, form easy to difficult. This
principle is in consonance with developmental theories of learning and
cognition.
2. Prerequisite learning – it means that there are fundamental things t be
learned ahead. Like addition before multiplication in mathematics or letters
before words, words before phrases and phrases before sentences.
 3. Whole to part learning – this principle has a relation to gestalt. The forest
before the trees. The overview before the specific content or topics. The
meaning can very well be understood if everything will be taken as a whole.
4. Chronological learning – the order of events is made as a basis of
sequencing the content and the experiences. This principle is closely allied to
history, political science or world events. Time is the factor to be considered.
The sequence can be arranged from the most recent to the distant past or
vice versa.

On the other hand, Posner and Rudnitsky (1994) presented five major principles
for organizing content in units, which can also be applied to a curriculum. In each major
type are subtypes which explain in detail the principle.
1. WORLD-RELATED SEQUENCE – what relationship exists among people,
objects or events of the world? How can content and experiences be arranged so
that they will be consistent with the world?
a. Space – spatial relations will ne the basis for the sequence.
Closest to farthest, bottom to top or east to west. Teach the
parts of the plants from the roots to the stem to the leaves,
flowers and fruits.
b. Time – this is similar to the chronological principle of Smith, et.
Al. the content is based from the earliest to the more recent.
Teach the Philippine presidents from the first to the current.
c. Physical attributes – this principle refers to the physical
characteristics of the phenomena such as age, shape, size,
brightness, and others. For example, Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, before Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto; this sequence
considers the attribute distance from the Sun.

2. CONCEPT-RELATED SEQUENCE – this arrangement reflects the organization

of the conceptual world, how ideas are related together in a logical manner.
 a. Class relations – class concepts refers to the group or set of
things that share common practices. Teaching the
characteristics of the class ahead of the characteristics of the
member of the class. For example, teach mammals before
teaching specific animals or compare sound and light before
discussing about wave motion.
b. Propositional relation – a proportion is a statement that
asserts something. Sequence is arranged so that evidence is
presented ahead before proposition. Example will be to teach
the topics on the principle of equal protection under the law
before studying Supreme Court decisions.

3. INQUIRY-RELATE SEQUENCE – this is based on the scientific method of

inquiry. Based on the process of generating, discovering and verifying
knowledge, content and experiences are sequenced logically and
methodically.

4. LEARNING-REALTED SEQUENCE – this is based on the psychology of

learning and how people learn.

a. Empirical prerequisite – sequence is primarily based on

empirical studies where the prerequisite is required before
learning the next level. An example is teach skill in
discriminating initial consonants, before teaching word attack or;
in softball, teach catching and throwing the ball before batting.
b. Familiarity – prior learning is important in sequence. What is
familiar should be taken up first before the unfamiliar. In
teaching currencies, teach the peso before the dollar.
c. Difficulty – easy content is taken ahead than the difficult one.
Or teach rhymes before blank words.
d. Interest – contents and experiences that stimulate interest are
those that are novel. These arouse curiosity and interest of
 learners. Use these contents and experiences to whet their
appetite for learning. An example is identifying the different
volcanoes in the Philippines before teaching about volcanism.

 CONTINUITY– vertical repetition and recurring appearances of the content

provide continuity in the curriculum. This process enables the learner to
strengthen the permanency of learning and development of skills. Gerome
Bruner calls this “spiral curriculum” where the content is organized according to
the interrelationship between the structure of the basic ideas of a major
discipline. For learners to develop the ideas, these have to be developed and
redeveloped in a spiral fashion- in increasing depth and breadth as the learner’s
advance. Example is the concept of living things in science which continuously
recurs in the elementary curriculum but with different complexity from level to
level.

 INTEGRATION- “everything is integrated and interconnected. Life is a series of

emerging themes”. This is the essence of integration in the curriculum design.
Organization is drawn from the world themes from real life concerns. Subject
content or disciplined content lines are erased and isolation is eliminated.
 ARTICULATION – this can be done either vertically or horizontally. In vertical
articulation, contents are arranged from level to level or grade to grade so that
the content in a lower level is connected to the next level. Horizontal articulation
happens when the association is among or between elements that happen at the
same time like social studies in grade six is related to science in grade six.

 BALANCE– equitable assignment of content, time, experiences and other

elements to establish balance is needed in curriculum design. Too much or too
little of these elements maybe disastrous to the curriculum. Keeping the
curriculum “in balance” requires continuous fine tuning and review for its
effectiveness and relevance.
 Guidelines in Curriculum Design

After looking into various designs in curriculum, perhaps it would help

future curriculum makers like you to take into consideration some pointers, here are
some pointers:

 Curriculum design committee should involve teachers, parents,

administrators and even students.
 School’s vision, mission, goals and objectives should be reviewed and
used as a bases for curriculum design.
 The needs and the interests of the learners, in particular, and the society,
in general, should be considered.
 Alternative curriculum design should consider advantages and
disadvantages in terms of costs, scheduling, class size, facilities and
personnel required.
 The curriculum design should take into account cognitive, affective,
psychomotor skills, concepts and outcomes.

C. Curriculum Implementation
After a Curriculum planning and designing, the next step is to implement it.
Curriculum implementation is now giving life to the written material. In doing this, the
LEARNERS will serve as another actor because curriculum will not succeed without the
leaners. The role of the teacher now is to shifts from planning to doing. Teacher implies
guiding, facilitating, and directing activities which will be done by the students, the
methods to be utilized, the materials to be used and the choice of activities are some of
the considerations that the teachers should have in curricular implementation.

Teachers are the most crucial persons in the implementation of a curriculum.

Being the adult in the teaching- learning process, he/ she holds the key in
operationalizing what activities have been planned. Teachers shape the school
curriculum by sharing the experiences that they have and the resources they are
capable of giving or imparting to the learners. Teacher will serve as an implementor and
a manager as well. The teaching
styles of a teacher will add more meaning to the various activities in the classroom. As a
teacher, you have to make the day of the learners more interesting, engaging and
unforgettable.

Different definition of Curriculum Implementation:

1. Curriculum Implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum

that has been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides and
subjects. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)
2. It is a process wherein the learners acquire the planned or intended
knowledge, skills and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to
function effectively in society. ( SADC MoE Africa, 2000)
3. It is the phase where teacher action takes place. (Tyler, Taba, Saylor
and Alexander or Lewis).
4. It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum development. (Tyler,
Taba, Saylor and Alexander or Lewis)
5. Curriculum Implementation simply means that implementation should bring
the desired change and improvement. (Loucks anf Lieberman, 1983)
6. In the classroom content, it means “teaching” what has been written in the
lesson plan. It involves the different strategies of teaching with the support
instructional materials to go with the strategy.
7. In larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum
into operation with the different implementing agents.
8. In higher education, curriculum implementation happens for a course, a
degree program, the institution, or the whole higher education system.
9. Curriculum Implementation defined as the interaction between the curriculum
that has been written and planned and the teachers who are in charge to deliver
it. (Ornstein and Hunkins)
According to them, the curriculum implementation implies the
following:

a. Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum.

b. Change in knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved.
c. Change in behavior using new strategies and resources.
d. Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.

Models of Curriculum Implementation

There are several models of curriculum implementation but for the purpose of
this work only the selected ones that are applicable in implementing curriculum in our
various institutions are discussed below:

ORC model (Overcoming Resistance to Change)

The letters 'ORC' stands for 'Overcoming Resistance to Change'. This model
rests on the assumption that the success or otherwise of curriculum implementation
primarily depends on the impact the developer makes on the users of curriculum such
as, teachers, students and the society in general. If we desire change then we
must address people's misgivings, their misapprehensions, or other such related
factors.
1. ORC model (Overcoming Resistance to Change)
The letters 'ORC' stands for 'Overcoming Resistance to Change'. This model
rests on the assumption that the success or otherwise of curriculum implementation
primarily depends on the impact the developer makes on the users of curriculum such
as, teachers, students and the society in general. If we desire change then we must
address people's misgivings, their misapprehensions, or other such related factors.

Curriculum developers should, therefore, identify and deal with the concerns of
the staff in various educational institutions when implementing new curriculum. We can
group the concerns into the following four broad developmental stages:
Developmental stage versus Developmental concerns:

1. Unrelated Concerns: At this stage, teachers do not perceive a relationship

between themselves and the suggested changes. For example, if a new programme is
being developed, a teacher at this stage may or may not be aware of this effort. If
he/she is aware of it, he/she may not consider it something that concerns him her.

2. Personal Concerns: At this stage, the teacher will react to the innovation in relation
to his/her personal situation. He/she is concerned with how the new programme
compares to the one already in use.

3. Task-related Concerns: This stage relates to the actual use of the innovation. The
teacher at this stage will be concerned with the time required for teaching the new
program, availability of materials, strategies to be adopted, etc.

4. Impact-related Concerns: The teacher at this stage will be concerned with how the
innovation will influence others. When working with the ORC model, we must deal
directly with the concerns at stages 2, 3 and 4 in order to serve the purpose for which
the change is affected.

2. LOC model (Leadership-Obstacle course model)

LOC is the acronym for 'Leadership-Obstacle Course' model. This model treats
staff resistance to change as problematic and proposes that we should collect data to
determine the extent and nature of the resistance in implementing the curriculum. This
can be carried out by the following:

1. the organizational members must have a clear understanding of the

proposed innovation;
2. the individuals within the organization must be given relevant skills so that they
possess the capabilities requisite for carrying out the innovation;
 3. the necessary materials and equipment for the innovation must be furnished;
4. if need be, the organizational structure must be modified so that it is compatible
with the innovation being suggested;
5. the participants in the innovation must be motivated to spend the required
time and effort to make the innovation a success.
The LOC model considers educational change as a sequence of three stages:
1. initiation;
2. attempted implementation; and
3. incorporation.

3. Linkage model

The 'linkage' model recognizes that there are innovators in research and
development centers such as the universities. Educators in the field sometimes
however, find some attempts that are innovative and inappropriate for solving the
problems. What is therefore needed is a match between the problems and innovations
to establishment of linkages with the established research centers.

This model envisages two systems: user system and resource system. There
has to be a link between these two systems. The resource system should have a
clear picture of the curriculum user's problems, if it is to retrieve or create appropriate
educational packages. A successful resource system must proceed through a
cycle of diagnosis, search, retrieval, fabrication of solution, dissemination and
evaluation in order to test out its product. Thus, in the linkage model, the basic process
is the transfer of knowledge.

4. RCA (Rand Change Agent model)

The Rand Change Agent (RCA) model suggests that organizational dynamics
seem to be the chief barriers to change. As in ORC and LOC models it puts forward the
following three stages in the change process:
 a. Initiation: At this stage, the curriculum developers work to secure the support for
the anticipated change. To support a change, such as a new program people
must understand and agree that it is legitimate. Thus, curriculum implementation
activity requires the personal backing of the individuals involved. For example,
at this stage, we should inform the teachers about the need for change and how
it might take place.
b. Implementation: At this stage, the proposed change, i.e., the new program
and the organizational structure are adjusted to operationalize the change.
c. Incorporation: During this stage, the changes implemented become part of the
established program. The assumption behind this is that the success of the
implementation is a function of:

1. the characteristics of the proposed change;

2. the abilities of the academic and administrative staff;
3. the readiness of the local community; and
4. the organizational structure.

During the incorporation stage, the changes implemented become part

of the established program. At this stage the program implemented is provided with
the necessary personnel and financial support.

Factors that Influence Curriculum Implementation

1. The Teacher
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers
are central to any curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better
learning because they are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum
in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the teachers
have to make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers also
influence curriculum implementation.

The teacher may need to create lesson plans and syllabi within the framework
of the given curriculum since the teacher’s responsibilities are to implement the
curriculum to meet student needs (Carl, 2009). Many studies support empowerment of
teachers through participation of curriculum development. For example, Fullan (1991)
found that the level of teacher involvement as a center of curriculum development
leads to effective achievement of educational reform. Therefore, the teacher is an
important factor in the success of curriculum development including the steps of
implementation and evaluation. Handler (2010) also found that there is a need for
teacher involvement in the development of curriculum. Teachers can contribute by
collaboratively and effectively working with curriculum development teams and
specialists to arrange and compose textbooks, and it’s content. Teacher involvement in
the process of curriculum development is important to align content of curriculum with
students needs in the classroom.

2. The Learners
Learners are also a critical element in curriculum implementation. While teachers
are the arbiters of the classroom practice, the learners hold the key to what is actually
transmitted and adopted from the official curriculum. The official curriculum can be quite
different from the curriculum that is actually implemented. The learner factor influences
teachers in their selection of learning experiences, hence the need to consider the
diverse characteristics of learners in curriculum implementation. For example, home
background and learner ability can determine what is actually achieved in the
classroom.

3. Resource Materials and Facilities

In Curriculum Implementation, it is suggested that the central government must
also provide physical facilities such as classrooms, laboratories, workshops, libraries
and
sports fields in order to create an environment in which implementation can take place.
The availability and quality of resource material and the availability of appropriate
facilities have a great influence on curriculum implementation.

4. Interest Groups
A number of these interest groups exist in almost all societies. These include
parents, parents’ and teachers’ associations, religious organizations, local authorities,
companies and private school proprietors. These groups can influence curriculum
implementation in the following ways:

1. Provide schools with financial resources to purchase required materials.

2. Demand the inclusion of certain subjects in the curriculum.
3. Influence learners to reject courses they consider detrimental to the interests
of the group.

5. The School Environment

One other factor that influences curriculum implementation concerns the
particular circumstances of each school. Schools located in rich socio-economic
environments and those that have adequate human and material resources can
implement the curriculum to an extent that would be difficult or impossible for schools in
poor economic environments to implement.

6. Culture and Ideology

Cultural and ideological differences within a society or country can also influence
curriculum implementation. Some communities may resist a domineering culture or
government ideology and hence affect the implementation of the centrally planned
curriculum.
7. Instructional Supervision
Curriculum implementation cannot be achieved unless it has been made possible
through the supervisory function of the school head. The head does this through:
 deploying staff,
  allocating time to subjects taught at the school,
 providing teaching and learning materials, and
 creating an atmosphere conducive to effective teaching and learning.

As stated in Curriculum Implementation, the head “monitors and guides

curriculum implementation through ensuring that schemes of work, lesson plans and
records of marks are prepared regularly”. The head teacher maintains a school tone
and culture that create the climate of social responsibility. Effective curriculum
implementation does not take place in a school where the head is incapable of
executing supervisory functions.

8. Assessment
Assessment in the form of examinations influences curriculum implementation
tremendously. Due to the great value given to public examination certificates by
communities and schools teachers have tended to concentrate on subjects that
promote academic excellence and little else on the rest. This action by the teacher
obviously can affect the achievement of the broad goals and objectives of the
curriculum.

9. Unconducive School Environment

It is believed that learning can only take place in a conducive environment.

By a conducive learning environment, we meant spacious and well-ventilated
classrooms and seats. There should be no distraction of any kind or noise, no
interference to disrupt the learning activities. A school environment where all these
ingredients are found wanting, curriculum implementation will be hindered and the
teacher in question will not be able to carry out his/ her duties effectively and
efficiently. This implies that the school environment is not student friendly.

10. Heavy Academic Load

According to Afangideh (2009) in Obilo and sangoleye (2010), some global and
emerging issues such as family life education, citizenship, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse
 among others are introduced as curriculum content to be learned by students/pupils.
This is in addition to the already existing school subjects. time allotted for the
implementation of these heavy academic load is not adequate teachers now combine
normal class period with school lessons especially in the primary and secondary
schools, whereas in the tertiary institutions they combine both sandwich, evening and
regular program with other programs like distance and weekend programs. All this
possess big challenge for the teacher as a curriculum implementer.

11. Teacher Factor

Teachers are the determinant of effective and efficient curriculum
implementation at every level, so they should be graded in their respective
areas of specialization. National Policy on Education, NPE (2004), stated that no
nation will rise above the qualities of its teachers. Teachers of today once they are
employed, they feel they don’t need education/learning again, they relax and become
lazy and at the same time, obsolete. This possess a big challenge to them for they can
no longer move along with the emergence of different teaching and learning
innovations.

12. Student Factor

Students practice examination malpractice, extortion of money, they threaten
their teachers once they discipline/punish them for unruly behavior in the school.
This constitute a big challenge to the teacher as a curriculum implementer.

13. Parent Factor

Most parents, especially the illiterate and ignorant ones do not know the value of
education and so don’t provide their children/wards with school materials like
textbooks, writing materials. Most at times they threaten the teachers for punishing
their children either due to truancy or any other form of indiscipline.

14. Working Conditions

Government does not take good care of the teachers as should be. Teachers are
being neglected by the government. Teachers’ salaries are being delayed together with
their allowances. They are not being properly placed in terms of salary structure. Due to
these kinds of working conditions, teachers have no job satisfaction and so their
working condition possess a big challenge to them that can influence curriculum
implementation.

Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process

Kurt Levin’s Force Field theory and Curriculum Change
Kurt Levin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change.
The model can be used to explain curriculum change and implementation.
There are two forces that oppose each other in the education process. These are
the driving force and the restraining force. When these two forces are equal, the state is
balance. There will be a status quo, hence there will be no change, the situation or
condition will stay the same. And when the driving force, overpowers the restraining
force, then change will occur. If the opposite happens that is when the retraining force is
stronger than the driving force, change is prevented. We shall use this theory to explain
curriculum change.
Here is the illustration that shows there are driving forces on the left and the
resisting forces on the right. If you look at the illustration, it is equal. It means, if the
driving force is equal to the restraining force, will change happen?
Driving Force E Restraining Force

Government Intervention Fear of the unknown

Q
Society’s Values Negative Attitude to Change

Technological Changes Tradition Values

U
Knowledge Explosion I Limited Resources

Administrative Support L Obsolete Equipment

I
B

R
I
 U
M
Based on Kevin’s Force Field Model
Categories of Curriculum Change
According to McNeil in 1990, categorized curriculum change are as follows:

1. Substitution- It means the current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a

new one.
Example: changing an old book to entirely new one, not merely a revision.

2. Alteration- It means, there is a minor change to the current or existing curriculum.

Example: instead of using a graphing paper for teaching mathematics, graphing
calculator can be altered.

3. Restructuring- In here, building a new structure would mean a major change or

modification in the school system, degree program or educational system.
Example: an integrated curriculum will be use for the whole school for K to 12
requires the primary and secondary levels to work as a team.

4. Perturbations- changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to them
within a short time.
Example: if the principal changes the time schedule because there is a need to
catch up with the national testing time or the dean, the teacher has to shorten schedule
to accommodate unplanned extracurricular activities.

5. Value Orientation- this is a type of curriculum change. (Mc Neil)

Example: when new teachers who are recruited in religious school give
emphasis on academics and forget the information of values or faith, they need a
curriculum value orientation. As a process, curriculum implementation should be
developmental participatory and supportive.

 Developmental. In the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives,

increase integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of
openness and trust and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher.
Stages in the
 developmental change process for the teachers, First, is the orientation and
preparation. The initial use is very mechanical or routinely, second, refinement,
this means adjustments are made to be better meet the needs of the learners
and achieve the learning outcomes.

 Participatory. In order to succeed the implementation of the curriculum, it should

be participatory. Involvement and participation of all the stakeholders encourage
sense of ownership and accountability. Participation builds a learning community
which is very necessary in curriculum implementation.

 Supportive. The school leader or head should provide full support to the
implementation of the new curriculum. They play an important role in shaping
and implementing the curriculum because they are the people who are
responsible in the formulation of the school’s vision, philosophy, mission and
objectives. Material and human support is very much needed.

Institutionalization

Institutionalization in this model is the final stage of the change process (until we
start again with a better innovation). At this stage the organization fully supports and
“owns” what was once a “new” initiative. It becomes just another program that happens
as a part of routine business and it is supported with policy and resources. It can even
survive the retirement of the person who first started and organized the innovation. The
long-term continuation of the change is no longer at risk and the embedding process is
secure.

D. Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation- is a component of curriculum development that

responds to public accountability. It looks into educational reforms or innovations that
happen in the teacher’s classrooms, the school, district division or the whole
educational system as well.
 Curriculum evaluation- is an essential phase of curriculum development.
Through evaluation a faculty discovers whether a curriculum is fulfilling its purpose and
whether students are actually learning.

Curriculum evaluation- refers to the formal determination of the quality,

effectiveness or value of the program, process, and product of the curriculum.

Curriculum evaluation- refers to an ongoing process of collecting, analyzing,

synthesizing, and interpreting information to aid in understanding what students know
and can do. It refers to the full range of information gathered in the school district to
evaluate (make judgments about) student learning and program effectiveness in each
content area.

Curriculum evaluation must be based on information gathered from a

comprehensive assessment system that is designed for accountability and committed to
the concept that all students will achieve at high levels, is standards-based, and informs
decisions which impact significant and sustainable improvements in teaching and
student learning.

Curriculum evaluation as part of total educational evaluation refers to a

systematic process of judging the value, effectiveness and adequacy of a curriculum: its
process, product and setting which will lead to informed decision. Evaluation should be
useful and systematic. The information gathered should be important for the
improvement of and for final judgment of the curriculum being evaluated.

D.1 REASONS FOR CURRICULUM EVALUATION

• Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weaknesses of an existing

curriculum that will be the basis of the intended plan, design or implementation.
• When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum development, it will tell if the
designed or implemented curriculum can produce or is producing the desired results.

• Based on some standards, curriculum evaluation will guide whether the results have
equaled or exceeded the standards, thus can be labeled as success.

• Curriculum evaluation provides information necessary for teachers, school managers,

curriculum specialist for policy recommendations that will enhance achieved learning
outcomes

D.2 TYPES OF EVALUATION

1. DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
- Is normally undertaken before instruction, in order to assess
students’ prior knowledge of a particular topic or lesson.

2. FORMATIVE EVALUATION
- Is usually administered during the instructional process to provide
feedback to students and teachers on how well the former are
learning the lesson being taught.

3. SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
- Is undertaken to determine student achievement for grading purposes.

D.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models

Evaluation Models

Researchers have developed models to guide trainers in conducting effective

evaluations. Each of these four models has a somewhat different perspective, but there
are also similarities.
 1. Stufflebeam's Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) Model

 Developed by Phi Delta Kappa chaired by Daniel Stufflebeam (1971)

 Is one evaluation model that is used for evaluating management training. It
involves four types of evaluation and has some connections to the Instructional
Systems Design model. The CIPP model emphasizes collecting information from
a variety of sources to provide data for making better decisions.

a. Context evaluation – is intended to continuously assess needs and problems in

context in order to help decision makers determine goals and objectives.
b. Input evaluation – is used in assessing alternative means for achieving those
goals and objectives in order to help decisions makers choose means.
c. Process evaluation – refers to the ways and means how the curriculum has
been implemented.
d. Product evaluation – indicates if the curriculum accomplishes its goals.
Glatthorn (1987) points out that all throughout the four stages of the model, the following
specific steps are undertaken:

a. Identify the kinds of decisions.

b. Identify the kinds of data needed to make those decisions.
c. Collect those data needed.
 d. Establish criteria for determining quality.
e. Analyze data collected on the bases of established criteria.
f. Provide needed information to decision makers explicitly.

2. Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model

The Tyler model, a curriculum evaluation model that takes into account information
from the active learner and pays close attention to how well the goals and objectives of
the curriculum are supported by the experiences and activities provided, was named
after its creator, Ralph Tyler, (Father of Evaluation).

Tyler’s Objectives-Centered Model (1950) focuses on four main areas:

 The purpose of the curriculum being evaluated (the objectives)

 The experiences that are provided to support that purpose (the
strategies and content)
 How these experiences are organized (organization of the content)
 How the outcomes are evaluated (assessment)

In Curriculum development process, Tyler’s Ends-Means Model begins with defining the
teacher’s philosophy, followed with identifying the desired outcomes spelled out in the
forms of educational goals, purposes and objectives, and then proceeding with
designing and evaluating the curriculum accordingly by means of examining the three
essential elements:
a. The learners
b. The life in the community
c. The subject matter
1. Kirkpatrick's model
-is a four-level model of training evaluation that allows the measurement of
different training outcomes including participant reactions, learning, on-the-job
behavior, and organizational results. Donald Kirkpatrick developed one of the
most commonly used models for evaluating training.
 3. Taba Model

The Taba model, a curriculum evaluation model emphasizing inductive reasoning, was
created by Hilda Taba who believed that true curriculum should be developed by the
teacher, rather than decided upon by administration or another authority. The Taba
model, also called the ''Inductive Approach,'' uses a series of stages or steps, which can
be applied in both the development and evaluation of curriculum.

Hilda Taba is the developer of the Taba Model of learning. This model is used to
enhance the thinking skills of students. Hilda Taba believed that there must be a
process for evalutating student achievement of content after the content standards have
been established and implemented. The main concept of this approach to curriculum
development is that teachers must be involved in the development of the curriculum.

These stages are:

1. Deciding on objectives
2. Selecting content
3. Organizing content
4. Selecting learning experiences and activities
5. Organizing learning experiences and activities
6. Deciding what and how to evaluate
 Strengths of using the Taba Model in the classroom:

 Gifted students begin thinking of a concept, then dive deeper into that concept
 Focuses on open-ended questions rather than right/wrong questions
 The open-endedness requires more abstract thinking, a benefit to our gifted students
 The questions and answers lend themselves to rich classroom discussion
 Easy to assess student learning
Limitations of using the Taba Model in the classroom:

 Can be difficult for non-gifted students to grasp

 Difficult for heterogeneous classrooms
 Works well for fiction and non-fiction, may be difficult to easily use in all subjects

4. Stake's Model (Countenance Model)

In the 1950s, Robert Stake formulated the Countenance model, also known
as Stake's model, which looks at curriculum from a more scientific point of view by
examining three distinct areas of the curriculum. These areas are:

a. Antecedents- which refers to the conditions existing prior to intervention.

 b. Transactions- which pertain to events or experiences that constitute
the program.
c. Outcomes-which are the effects of the program.

5. Eisner’s Connoisseurship Model

Developed by Elliot Eisner (1979) through his background in aesthetics and
education. This model is an approach to evaluation that gives emphasis to
qualitative appreciation. The word “connoisseurship” comes from the Latin word
cognoscere, meaning to know. He claimed that a knowledgeable evaluator can
determine whether a curriculum program has been successful using a
combination of skills and experience.

The evaluator:
 Provides a description and interpretation of the curriculum plan implemented
 Records the actions, the features of the environment and experiences
of students, teachers and administrators
 Explains the meaning of events reported by putting it in its context
 Observes what is going inside the classroom
 Records teachers and students in action
  Keep notes of what is done, what is said and more importantly what is not said
 Interviews students, teachers, and administrators about the quality of
the curriculum
 Analyzes students’ work

E.1. Levels of Curriculum Improvement/Development

Concept of Change

Change is a constant law of nature. It brings improvements. Change is an

ongoing process.
Not all Changes lead to improvement, but all improvement requires change. The
ability to develop, test, and implement changes is essential for any individual, group, or
organization that wants to continuously improve.

Features of Change

 It’s a PROCESS not an EVENT.

 It requires time, energy and resources.
 It is achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills.
Process of Curriculum Change

May be assisted by permissiveness and support in accordance of with a helpful

improvement in curriculum. Changing curriculum changes individuals.
It must be necessary in consideration that the resources of implementation of
curriculum are available or not.

Categories of Curriculum Change

1. Substitution – replace the present with a new one.

2. Alteration – introduce minor changes or modification on the current one.
3. Restructuring – introduce major modification of the current curriculum.
4. Perturbation – changes happen within a fairly short time.
5. Value Orientation – respond to shift in emphasis within the vision/mission of
the school.

Strategies for Curriculum Change and Innovation

A strategy of innovation refers to the planned procedures and techniques used in

the desire for change Harris et al. (1978), as cited in Curriculum Implementation
(University of Zibabwe), 1995), developed certain models in strategizing to effect
curriculum change and innovation.

A. Strategies

1. Participative Problem-Solving Strategy

- This strategy focuses on the users, their needs and how they satisfy
these needs. The system identifies and diagnoses its own needs, finds its
own solution, tries out and evaluates the solution and implements the
solution if it is satisfactory. The emphasis is on local initiative.
 2. Planned Linkage
- The intermediate agencies, such as schools, bring together the users
of the innovation in this model.
- Hoyle (1993), linkage process is based on the link between the school and
the various specialized/ centralized agencies linkage centres.
- These agencies are the linkage point between the national agencies of
curriculum development, change and innovating schools, to provide
consultancy services and to offer in- service training for teachers and
users.
3. Coercive Strategies
- Work on the bases of power and coercion by those in authority, using laws
directories, circulars and others. Change is accomplished through
application of power with those holding greater power enforcing
compliance by those with less power.

4. Open Input Strategies

- These are sets of approaches to curriculum change and innovation that
make use of ideas and resources from practically all forms or kinds of
sources, thus making this strategy flexible, open, and pragmatic.

B. Models

Three principal models illustrating how change takes place in curriculum

were outlined by Tanner and Tanner (1980), as cited in Curriculum
Implementation (University of Zimbabwe, 1995).

1. The Research, Development and Diffusion Model

- was conceived from the perspective of developing and
implementing research-based curriculum innovations (Gottschalk et al.,
1981 Havelock, 1969). Finally, diffusion aims at facilitating dissemination
and adoption.
 - The processes of change, which is conceptualized at the head or center,
are viewed as a rational sequence of phases in which an innovation:
a. Invented or discovered
b. Developed
c. Produced
d. Disseminated to the user

2. Problem Solving Model

- This model observes the following steps:
a. Determine the problem
b. Search for innovation
c. Evaluate the trials
d. Implement the innovation
3. Social Interaction Model
- This model (University of Zimbabwe, 1995), describes change as one that
proceeds or diffuses through formal and informal contacts between
interacting social groups.
- Today’s social media technology may be used as potent venue for
exchange of views and opinions regarding efforts and initiative towards
making the curriculum a more relevant and responsive one to the
changing educational requirements. It is based on the following:
a. Awareness of innovation
b. Interest in the innovation
c. Trial
d. Adoption for permanent use

Planning and Implementing Change and Innovation

Change and innovation efforts to be implemented and executed, certain
processes have to be considered in planning for such change implementation in the
curriculum. Bishop (1986) as cited in Curriculum Implementation (University of
Zimbabwe, 1995), explains the four factors that are involved in such process to include:
1. The Change Agent
- This includes the teachers, school heads, local authorities, or the
Department of Education, in the case of the Philippines. In many cases, in
the context of Philippine educational practices, any innovation or curricular
changes may have been the offshoot of supervisory experiences of school
heads, or the teachers’ experiences and exposures as they implement the
curriculum.
2. The Innovation
- This is simply the implementation of change and innovation, thus putting
such change in actual use or operation.
3. The User System
- This pertains to persons or group of people at which the change or
innovation effort is directed.
4. Time
- Refers to a particular period of time used or spent in implementing an
innovation or change.

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