Symposium on Animal Behavior

Diagnosis and Treatment of

Separation-Related Behavior Problems
in Dogs

Peter L. Borchelt, Ph.D.,*

and Victoria L. Voith, D.V.M., Ph.D.t

One of the common complaints of dog owners is that the dog engages
in a problem behavior when the owner is not present in the home. Typical
problems involve urination or defecation (or both), whining, barking, or
howling, and destructive chewing or digging. Typically the dog is well
behaved when the owners are present. For instance, the dog may be
housebroken. When the owner is home, the dog will not eliminate indoors
and may even signal to go outside. However, when the owner leaves, the
dog defecates several times. The dog may be relatively silent when with
the owner and does not bark at outside sounds or strangers entering the
home. However, the dog howls when the owner is at work. Some dogs,
long past the puppy-chewing stage, rip up furniture, rugs, linoleum, and
wallpaper, and scratch through doors or walls when left alone.
Popular Views of These Problems
These problems have been popularly portrayed as "spite," lack of
obedience, a dominance problem, or the result of "spoiling the dog." The
concept of "spite" suggests that the dog is "getting even" with the owner
for leaving it alone. "Spite" implies a degree of cognition or forethought,
for which there is no evidence. Behaviors termed "spite" can be explained
by simpler, more behavioral concepts. Neither is disobedience likely to
cause separation-behavior problems. Most dogs displaying these problems
are, in fact, quite obedient to the owner and actually may have done very
well in obedience training classes. Nor is dominance in any way correlated
with separation behavior problems. (See the article on "Diagnosis and
Treatment of Dominance Aggression in Dogs" in this symposium.) A
submissive dog that is attached to the owner is as likely to engage in a
separation behavior problem as is a dominant dog. "Spoiling," per se, does

*Director, Animal Behavior Clinic, The Animal Medical Center, New York; President, Animal
Behavior Consultants, Inc., Forest Hills, New York
"Director, Animal Behavior Clinic, Department of Clinical Studies, University of Pennsylvania
School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

\·eterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice-Yo!. 12, No.4, November 1982
625
626 PETER L. BORCHELT AND VICTORIA L. VOITH

not cause separation anxiety problems. Most pet dogs are described by
their owners as "spoiled," and many dogs that meet this criterion do not
engage in disruptive behavior when left alone. Depending on one's view,
"spoiling" can mean either being pampered, catered to, and "not treated
like a dog," or it can mean being loved, receiving a lot of affection, and
"being treated like one of the family."
A Scientific View of These Problems
Since these behaviors can occur in otherwise obedient, friendly dogs
and only in the owner's absence, it is logical to propose that the behavior
problems result from separation from the person(s) to whom the dog is
most socially attached. The scientific literature describes attachment and
separation behavior in a wide range of species. This information is valuable
in understanding and treating separation-related behavior problems in dogs.
Most social species (ranging from insects to primates) have a basic
drive or motivation for social contact. The earliest research on this topic
involved imprinting in birds. 7 Newly hatched chicks, ducklings, or goslings
follow and stay in close contact with the first moving object they see, which
is usually the mother. Later in life, the birds direct their social and sexual
behaviors toward the object to which they are imprinted. This type of very
early social attachment occurs in any social species, including monkeys, 4
humans, 2 and dogs. 10
When separated from parents, young animals engage in a variety of
unconditioned behaviors that function to regain or maintain social contact.
Birds peep,, chirp, and run after the mother; monkeys vocalize, become
hyperactive, and sometimes throw things; human. infants cry to attract
maternal attention; and puppies whine, cry, and try to follow the attachment
figure. The variety of behaviors that occur and the obvious emotional
component to them suggests that a general "anxiety" response occurs when
a young animal is separated from its mother. These behaviors, in the
natural environment, result in rejoining the young and parent. These
behaviors cease when the parent returns or when the young reaches the
attachment figure.
The separation behavior of puppies has been described in laboratory
situations, 11 but very little information has been published about separation-
related behavior problems in adult dogs kept in the human family as
companion animals. In the dog kept as a companion animal, social attach-
ment shifts to the owner when the puppy is brought home. In the normal
puppy or dog, social attachment is inevitable and separation behaviors are
highly likely until the animal learns to tolerate some degree of social
isolation. Some of the problems that arise when pet dogs are separated
from their owners and some treatment techniques for these problems have
already been described. 6 • 12 • 13 In this article, we will supplement previously
published information on the variety of behaviors known to be related to
attachment and separation and discuss a wide variety of treatment tech-
niques.
Separation-Elicited Behavior in the Dog
Table 1 illustrates the relations among the attachment behavior system,
the separation-anxiety behavior problem, and the various signs of separation
SEPARATION-RELATED BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN Docs 627
Table 1. Overview of Separation-Elicited Behavior Problems in Dogs

BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR
SYSTEM PROBLEM SIGNS

Vocalization
Elimination
Destruction
Attachment Separation anxiety Behavioral depression
I
I Psychosomatic response
Arrival elation ------ Hyperactivity
Other (mouthing, nipping,
growling, coprophagia)

anxiety that are known to occur. The most common separation-related

behavior problems in dogs involve vocalization, elimination, and destruction
(Fig. 1). There are other behaviors, however, that also occur as a result of
separation. Many dogs do not eat or drink when the owner is absent but
do so immediately after the owner returns. Sometimes owners will describe
the dog as "looking sad," "depressed," or "moping" when they are getting
ready to leave the home. A long-lasting behavioral depression involving
anorexia and lethargy may occur when the owner is absent for prolonged
periods of time, such as a vacation that lasts several weeks. Coprophagia is
not an uncommon problem in puppies and often occurs when dogs are
separated from their owners; many puppies "outgrow" the problem. Some-
times, a punishment technique (for example, applying a bitter substance to
the feces) may stop this behavior.
In some cases, dogs exhibit physiologic responses such as vomiting,
diarrhea, bloody stool, increased heart rate or respiration, or self-injurious
behaviors such as hair chewing, pulling out hair, or excessively licking their
body when separated from the owner.
Sometimes, dogs socially attached to the owner become aggressive
when prevented from accompanying the departing owner. These dogs may
mouth, growl at, or bite the owner who prevents the dog from following.
Sometimes, these dogs become agitated or aroused as the owner prepares
to depart and may bark aggressively or nip at the owner. This may be a
displacement activity or a consequence of chaining from behavior occurring
as the owner actually departs. Usually dogs exhibiting signs of aggression
related to separation demonstrate aggression to the owners in other contexts
as well.
When the owner returns home, these dogs exhibit pronounced greeting
responses. The dog may jump up, run around in circles, wag its tail and
body, lick, whine, or fetch a toy and may continue this behavior for several
minutes. The intensity of this greeting is usually greater than that shown
by dogs without separation behavior problems. In a few cases, this "arrival
elation" continues for a long period of time and/or is readily re-elicited by
even a small degree of attention from the owner. Owners often describe
such dogs as "hyperactive." Individual differences occur in the expression
of separation-elicited behavior. A dog may exhibit one sign, any combination
of signs, or all of these signs. 1
There do not. appear to be any consistent correlations between sepa-
628 PETER L. BoRCHELT AND VICTORIA L. VOITII

Figure l. Destruction of sofa (A) and wall (B) by one dog with a separation-related
behavior problem.
SEPARATION-RELATED BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN Docs 629
ration-related behavior problems and other types of behavior problems
such as aggression and phobias. At the present time, the reasons why a
particular dog engages in a particular separation problem are not known.
A number of factors appear to predispose dogs to separation problems.
Dogs who are infrequently or have previously never been left alone usually
demonstrate distress when separated from an owner. Sometimes, a dog
with a history of tolerating separation develops separation behavior prob-
lems. For instance, after an owner has spent several weeks or more at
home (vacation, illness, unemployment), the dog subsequently shows
separation problems when the owner resumes working. Dogs with a history
of traumatic separation (placed in shelters or simply turned loose as a stray)
have a high likelihood of exhibiting separation behavior problems. Dramatic
changes in the owner's routine, such as longer or additional daily departures,
or a move to a new home can precipitate or intensify a separation behavior
problem.
Some dogs will tolerate a regular long daily departure; however, if the
owners leave a second time, later in the day, the dog exhibits an anxiety
response and problem behavior.
Stimulus Specificity and Temporal Characteristics of Separation
Behavior
The onset of separation anxiety is clearly related to a specific set of
stimuli-namely, the impending and actual absence of the owner. It is
obvious that many dogs learn to' anticipate their owners' departure. For
instance, dogs may learn that a particular activity of the owner (for example,
showering, putting on make-up, eating breakfast, returning from the
morning walk, turning the lights off, taking keys) or particular articles of
clothing (shoes, uniforms, coats, purses) are correlated with the prolonged
absence of the owner. If the owner's absence elicits anxiety, the stimuli
that precede the absence will also elicit a degree of anxiety. As the owners
prepare to leave, the dog may begin following them around the home.
Other anticipatory behaviors include flattening of the ears, lowering or
tucking of the tail, shaking, shivering or whining, and facial or bodily
postures described as "depressed or frightened."
Usually the problem reaches a peak intensity shortly after the owner
leaves. Hothersall and Tuber report a case in which whining occurred in
less than one minute and barking in less than ten minutes after the owner's
depature. 6 The authors have observed dogs engaged in their full repertoire
of separation behaviors within five minutes of the owner's departure from
the home. Separation behavior problems usually cease after a period of
time. However, some owners report that neighbors complain about rela-
tively constant barking or howling throughout the day. In some instances,
the amount of damage caused by digging and chewing indicates several
hours of work by the dog.

TREATMENT OF SEPARATION ANXIETY

This section will discuss some of the commonly used techniques and
will outline the most effective ones for the treatment of separation problems.
There are no single and simple panaceas for these (or any other) behavior
630 PETER L. BoRCHELT AND VICTORIA L. VOITH

problems. For any type of problem, any technique will work some of the
time, and no specific technique will work all of the time.

Obedience Training
As discussed previously, lack of obedience is not correlated with
separation behavior problems. However, there are some cases in which
obedience training itself is helpful in reducing separation anxiety. For
instance, in the context of obedience sessions, the attachment relationship
between the dog and owner may change. During obedience sessions, the
dog is separated to some degree from the owner. This occurs during sit-
stay and down-stay procedures. The dog gradually learns to tolerate short
separations from the owner. Furthermore, the general interaction between
the dog and owner may change as a result of obedience training. The dog
may be "treated like a dog" (that is, receives less intense social and body
contact) and thus may be able to better tolerate separation from the owner.
In these cases, obedience techniques are helpful, but ·not because the dog
is any more obedient. In most cases, and certainly in severe ones, obedience
training is irrelevant to the problem.

Punishment and Correction

A commonly recommended technique for treating separation problems
is for the owner to wait outside the home, or pretend to leave but hide
inside the home and then catch the dog in the act of a separation behavior.
The dog is then "corrected" or punished with a jerk on the leash, a loud
"no," or the sound of a can containing pennies or pebbles shaken or thrown
near it. The idea is to apply an aversive stimulus coincident with the
separation behavior. This procedure meets one of the important criteria for
the correct use of punishment techniques, namely, close temporal associa-
tion between aversive stimulus and behavior. Such punishment, however,
often has undesirable side effects. The dog may simply learn to delay the
onset of the separation behavior for increasing periods of time, or the dog
may engage in another separation behavior-for instance, a dog may cease
barking hut begin to eliminate or become destructive.
Punishment is most effective in reducing or suppressing specific
learned or conditioned behaviors and is not an effective technique for
reducing or suppressing unconditioned behaviors or motivational states
such as anxiety. A number of studies have shown that aversive stimuli can
actually potentiate attachment behavior. When they experience aversive or
painful stimuli, young chicks, monkeys, and puppies may increase their
approach and contact behavior toward attachment figures. 4 • 5• 11 Thus, pun-
ishment (whether correctly or incorrectly applied) can paradoxically increase
attachment and may make separation behavior problems worse.
Of course, a punishment technique used incorrectly is even more
likely to have negative side effects. For instance, the procedure of taking
the dog to the "spot" when the owner returns and then administering
punishment results in the dog's associating punishment with behaviors
other than the separation behavior. The dog may learn to anticipate
punishment when the owner returns. In this case, the dog may show
anticipatory submissive behaviors or fear behaviors, which owners often
SEPARATION-RELATED BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN Docs 631
interpret as a dog "looking guilty." This unfortunately may result in
escalation of punishment, which further intensifies the entire problem.
Two commonly recommended techniques sometimes circumvent the
long delay between the performance of the behavior and the return of the
owner. One involves taking the dog to the "spot," forcefully applying an
aversive gustatory stimulus to the dog (forcing the dog to taste and smell
alcohol, Tabasco sauce, chili pepper), then applying this stimulus to the
"spot." This technique is usually used when the dog eliminates in the
home. The other technique, usually used for destructive chewing, is to
fasten the object to the dog (tie it in the dog's mouth or around its neck)
so that the dog cannot escape it. Although these techniques might work to
suppress the specific undesirable response, they do not reduce the general
anxiety state or prevent the dog from shifting to another behavior (for
example, defecating rather than chewing). These techniques may teach the
dog only to avoid the specific "spot" or object that was associated with the
aversive stimulus.

Confinement
Another common recommendation for treating separation behaviors is
to confine or "crate" the dog when it is left alone. The basis for this
technique is the supposition that canids (including dogs) are "den-dwelling"
animals. It is true that many canid species prepare dens for parturition and
raising the young or occasionally use them for resting places. It is predom-
inately the young that spend time in a relatively restricted area. Further-
more, as the young develop, they are gradually exposed to the environment
outside of the enclosure. They spend an increasing amount of time away
from the den, often in the absence of the mother. The enclosure (den) is
used only as a source of protection against predators, inclement weather,
or sleeping and resting for short periods of time during the day. There is
no gate or door to the "den" to prevent the animals from leaving.
· Although dogs in the home develop preferences for particular resting
and sleeping locations, they also generally prefer to move around during
the day or night to various locations. It is not necessarily true that every
dog should have a "place" in which it stays under the owner's control. It
is also mistakenly assumed that since most dogs can be readily conditioned
to enter a location, enclosure, or crate (for food and water), they therefore
prefer to remain there all day. An enclosure is not necessarily the most
biologically or psychologically appropriate solution to preventing or treating
a separation problem.
Enclosures for adult dogs typically are recommended to be just big
enough to allow the dog to turn around. If such an enclosure is used during
a long departure by the owner (for example, when the owner leaves for
work), the dog is severely restricted for movement, stretching, and explo-
ration during this time. Although many dogs, if unconfined, do, in fact,
sleep most of the day when the owner is at work, they at least have the
opportunity to move around, sleep in different postures or locations,
explore, or play with toys. It is interesting that the typical cage or crate
used to contain the dog does not meet the minimum size requirements for
housing and maintaining laboratory dogs.
632 PETER L. BORCHELT AND VICTORIA L. VOITH

Sometimes, confinement during the day can cause other problems

such as overactivity when the dog is no longer confined. Confinement also
reauces the degree of protection the dog might provide. Protection may or
may not be a problem, depending on the owner's desire that the dog be
protective.
· Using a confinement technique to treat a dog already exhibiting a
separation problem may exacerbate it, particularly if the. problem is severe.
A dog confined for whining or barking, for example, may become destructive
(scratching or chewing on the crate) or exhibit a psychosomatic (such as
diarrhea or vomiting) or self-injurious behavior.
Some degree of limited confinement of a new puppy is usually helpful
to prevent injury to the pup and to reduce the extent of damage in the
home prior to successful elimination training and during the early stages of
chewing and teething. As the puppy matures, it can be gradually exposed
for longer periods of time to the entire home environment under unsuper-
vised situations.

Exposure Techniques
If separation problems in dogs are viewed as resulting from a psycho-
biologic state best described as anxiety, then a number of well-researched
behavior modification techniques are applicable. Separation problems have
many of the characteristics of phobias and fears, such as specific eliciting
stimuli, physiologic arousal, and anticipatory responses. Extensive literature
exisfs ·on the use of exposure techniques for treating human and animal
fears. 8• 9 Exposure techniques can be easily employed, with adaptations, to
treat separation problems in dogs.
The theory and application of an exposure technique is fairly straight-
forward. It is necessary to describe precisely the relationship between the
eliciting stimuli and the sequence of separation behavior. A detailed
behavioral history, obtained by interviewing the owner or observing the
dog, will allow specification of the dog's sequence of behaviors as the owner
gets ready to leave and then does so. Descriptions of the dog's behavior or
the state of the home on the owner's return after various departure durations
will indicate the relationship between time out of the home and the
magnitude of the separation problem.
The essence of the exposure technique is to expose the dog gradually
and repeatedly to the eliciting stimuli-that is, the owner's predeparture
behavior and the length of absence of the owner. In order to keep the
anxiety responses at a minimum intensity, the stimuli are presented many
times gradually during many practice sessions. Exposure techniques employ
either habituation or counterconditioning procedures to reduce the mag-
nitude of responses.
Habituation. Habituation is an elementary form of learning. It in-
volves the repetition of a stimulus and the gradual diminution of the
associated response. Habituation can be influenced by a number of complex
variables. In general, the more intense the stimulus (and consequentlythe
response), the less likely habituation is to occur and the greater the number
of trials required. Dogs that are left alone when the owner is at work all
day and show extreme levels of anxiety are unlikely ever to habituate to
SEPARATION-RELATED BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS IN Docs 633
repeated occurrences of such long departures. Dogs have been known to
exhibit separation problems for years without habituating.
Another variable influencing habituation is the interval between stim-
ulus presentations (predeparture behavior of owner or owner's absence).
Very long intervals between departures, such as one departure per day, do
not usually result in habituation. Habituation is facilitated by frequent
stimulus presentations. The time intervals between stimulus presentations
should be short but spaced so that the dog's response level decreases to
zero between them. For example, the anxiety level of the dog should
decrease to zero between departures of the owner.
A typical treatment plan for habituating a dog's low-level anxiety
response to the owner's predeparture behavior might involve 20 to 30
repetitions of the predeparture stimulus per day (for example, putting on a
coat, picking up the keys, walking to the door). This can easily be
accomplished during the evening when the owner is home. Somewhat
fewer trials can be presented in the morning prior to the owner's going to
work. This daily regimen might continue for a week or more.
In some cases, dogs do not respond noticeably to the owner's prede-
parture behavior but will respond to a short departure of only a few seconds
or so. In other cases, no obvious sign of anxiety will occur to such short
departures, but the dog will show a moderate arrival elation response. This
may indicate that a low level of anxiety did occur. Many repetitions of short
departures of a few seconds or less are indicated to habituate arrival elation
responses that occur during practice sessions. Subsequent sessions involve
gradually increasing the duration of the departures.
A complicating factor in most separation problems is that the owner
must depart, often for long periods of time and often every day. During
the initial stages of treatment, this long departure will continue to elicit
the separation problem and may even tend to inhibit progress during the
treatment sessions. In some cases, there is little choice but to accept this
inevitable setback. In other cases, the problem can be temporarily managed
by one or more procedures. On a short-term basis, the dog might be taken
to work with the owner or a "pet sitter" might be found. Sometimes,
antianxiety drugs, such as amitriptyline, progestins, and diazepam, are
helpful as a temporary adjunctive treatment. It should be kept in mind
that these drugs are not approved for the treatment of behavior problems
in dogs. Even though confinement might exacerbate the separation anxiety
and increase the problem behavior, this negative side effect might be
temporarily necessary to reduce the extent of damage to the home. The
benefit of saving the furniture might be worth the temporary negative side
effects of confinement.
We have found that most separation problems can be solved within
reasonable constraints of time and effort of most owners. It is not necessary
for owners to take an extended vacation or quit their jobs in order to solve
the problem. Usually, 15 to 30 minutes of work per day, several days per
week, is sufficient to solve most problems. Depending on the dog, the
duration of the problem, and the number of stimuli to which the dog
attends, most separation problems can be solved in a week to a month.
We have also found that most problems are completely solved once
the dog has learned to be nonanxious to departnres of abont 30 to 90
634 PETER L. BORCHELT AND VICTORIA L. VOITH

minutes. Thus, owners do not .have to schedule repeated departures that

gradually increase up to the length of the work departure (eight to ten
hours). It appears that the association of nonanxiety with short departures
readily generalizes to nonanxiety states during moderate or long departures.
The critical duration of separation time that the dog must learn to tolerate
is quite variable.
Counterconditioning. A counterconditioning technique is conducted
exactly as a habituation procedure, except that the dog is explicitly rewarded
for responses that are inhibitory to, or compete with, the identified anxiety
behaviors. The owners must be shown and taught the correct identification
of responses and timing of rewards, or else counterconditioning will not
work. Most commonly, the dog is rewarded with food, praise, petting,
play, and the like for sitting and staying (that is, not following) as the owner
gradually presents relevant predeparture stimuli (such as getting dressed,
putting on shoes, walking toward the door, reaching for the door knob).
Then the dog is rewarded for sitting and staying as the owner leaves for a
few seconds and then for progressively longer periods of time. It is
unnecessary that the dog remain sitting as the owner increases the duration
of departures beyond a few minutes.
Counterconditioning techniques are very effective in getting a dog to
assume a nonanxious state in the presence of predeparture behavior of the
owner. They also are effective in reducing anxiety during very short (one
to two minutes) departures of the owner. Once the dog has "gotten the
idea" of remaining relaxed and nonanxious for a reward as the owner
departs, the reward can be easily withdrawn and a habituation technique
substituted.
Side Effects of Exposure Techniques. A possible side effect of expo-
sure techniques is that done incorrectly they may make the problem worse.
For instance, repeatedly exposing the dog to departures of five minutes,
which elicit whining and arrival elation, will probably lead to an increase
in predeparture signs of anxiety and an increase in barking during the five-
minute departures. It is critical for success that exposure techniques start
at the lowest identifiable point on the response sequence. The problem
also can be exacerbated if the owner engages in multiple departures close
together without allowing the dog to resume a nonanxious state between
departure trials.
Exposure techniques often require continuous adjustment to ensure
that the most appropriate stimulus level is being used. It is not recom-
mended that the owner be given an inflexible series of departure durations.
It is impossible to predict in advance the rate at which each dog will
habituate or countercondition. It is also impossible to predict how great an
increase in stimulus intensity will be required at each point during
treatment. It is more effective to teach the owner the theory and general
procedures so that they can finely adjust the details as treatment progresses.

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In Proceedings of the International Conference on Human/Companion Animal Bond.
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