CHAPTER 2

DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY
Components of Roads
1. Carriage Way
2. Shoulder
3. Margin
4. Roadway
5. Right of Way
6. Median or Traffic Separator
7. Guard Rail or Traffic Barriers
8. Kerbs/ Curbs
9. Bicycle and Parking Lane
[Link] Bays
[Link] Path or Side Walk
 A carriageway or roadway consists of a width of road on which a vehicle
Carriage Way is not restricted by any physical barriers or separation to move laterally.

Two Types of Road

Single Carriage Way Double Carriage Way
Carriage Way
Carriage Way
Single Carriage Way

A single carriage way or

undivided highway is a
road with 1,2, or 3 ways
lanes arranged within a
single carriage way with
no central reservation to
separate opposite flows of
traffic.
Carriage Way
Double Carriage Way

A double carriage way

or divided highway is a
class of highway with
carriageways for
traffic travelling in
opposite directions,
separated by a central
reservation
Shoulder

A shoulder, hard shoulder or

breakdown lane, is an
emergency stopping lane by
the verge of a road or
motorway, on the right side
in countries which drive on
the right, and on the left
side in countries which drive
on the left.
 Shoulder Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:
1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide of truck volume is
more than 2.50 in the design hour. (ADT)
2. The recommended width of left shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 metes with at least 1.20 meters
paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if
truck volume in the design hour exceeds 2.50.
4. For arterials with ADT less that 4.00 the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.29 meters
minimum, although 2.40 meters wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 4.00, the usable minimum shoulder width is
2.40 meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Arterial Road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed
drainage.
7. The width of shoulder on four lanes divided arterials is fixed at 90 centimeters as minimum.
8. For six or more lanes, 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is recommended.
9. For Rural Collector Roadway, 60 centimeters wide graded shoulder is required for ADT’s
less that 400.
10. For ADT’s over 2000, 2.40 meters wide shoulder is recommended.
Shoulder

Table 2-3 Width of Roadway for Undivided Highway

Total Travel Way Shoulder Width Roadway Width Speed of Reference
14.00 m 3.25 20.50 100 – 80 – 60 -40
12.00 m 3.25 18.50 60 – 40
7.00 m 2.75 12.50 100 -80 – 60 – 40
7.00 m 2.00 11.00 80 – 60 – 40
6.70 m 2.75 12.20 100 – 80 – 60 -40
6.70 m 2.00 10.70 80 – 60 – 40
6.00 m 2.75 11.50 80 – 60 -40
6.00 m 1.50 9.00 80 – 60 -40
Margin

It is the
small
portion of
the road
provided
after
shoulder
Road Way

A road is a wide way

leading from one place to
another, especially one
with a specially prepared
surface which vehicles can
use.
Roadway is the
combination of carriage
way and shoulder
Right of Way
Right of way is "the legal right,
established by usage or grant, to
pass along a specific route
through grounds or property
belonging to another", or "a path
or thoroughfare subject to such
a right".
Whole length of road is right of
way.
It is the combination of carriage
way, shoulder and margin.
Median or Traffic Separator

It is the reserved area

that separates opposing
lanes of traffic on divided
roadways.
Divided roadways, dual
carriage ways,
motorways and freeways.
Median or Traffic Separator
Deterring Devices
• Two sets of double strip painted on the existing pavement, raised diagonal bars, low
curbing and shallow ditches
Median or Traffic Separator
Non Traversable Energy Absorbing Devices (Metal Guard Rail)
• The line chain link fence, 1 meter high supported by steel post augmented by cables at the
bottom or midpoint.
Median or Traffic Separator
G.M. Barriers (New Jersey)
• A high non-mountain sloped face concrete/plastic barriers.
Guard Rail or Traffic Barriers

They are provided at the edge of

the shoulder.
They are boundary feature to
prevent vehicles from riding out
from roads.
Fixed on side of the roads.
Fixed on side of the roads
especially on curves.
Kerbs/ Curbs

It is the dividing line between

carriageway and footpath.
They provide strength to the
sides of the road pavements.
They aid car drivers in driving
safely.
Bicycle and Parking Lane

Bicycle Lane:
• It is a portion of Roadway designated by
striping, signing or pavement, signing or
pavement markings for exclusive use by
bicycles and other non motorized vehicles.
• The deign speed is 20 to 30 kilometers per
hour for flat section.
• The width is 2.00 meters minimum for a 2-
way travel.
• The grade of the lane is 5% maximum on
short distances.
Bicycle and Parking Lane

Parking Lane:
• It is an additional lane provided on
Urban roads & streets for on-street
parking
Bus Bays

They are provided so that they

do not obstruct the movement
of the vehicles in the carriage
way.
They should be at least 75m
away from the intersection.
Footpath or Sidewalk

They are exclusive right

of way to pedestrians,
especially in urban
areas.
They are provided for the
safety of pedestrians.
Minimum width is 1.5m &
may be increased based
on the traffic.
Factors to be Considered when Designing a Highway

1. Number of Lanes
2. Width of Pavement
3. Cross Slope
4. Cut or Fill Slope
5. Vertical Curve over Crest
6. Stopping Sight Distance
Number of Lanes

The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the estimated traffic
volume for the design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.

AASHTO policies accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway with four lanes in each direction
for an inner freeway and four more lanes in each direction on the outside.

There are some instances where a reversible lane is located at the center of freeways with
unbalanced heavy traffic flow.
Width of Pavement

Highway Capacity

Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that are

reasonably expected to pass a given point over a given period of time usually
expressed as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about 2,000
passenger cars per hour.
2. Two-lane road can carry up to 1,000 passenger cars per hour in each
direction.
As the volume of traffic approaches capacity, the average speed is markedly
reduced.
Width of Pavement
DESIGN SPEED
Table 2-1 Minimum Recommended Design Speed
DESIGN SPEED
FACILITY
URBAN Km/hr RURAL Km/hr
Freeway 80-95 preferred 110-95
Arterial 64-95 but 48 in built up 80-110
areas
Collectors 48 km/hr 48 km/hr
Local 32-48 km/hr 32-48 km/hr
Width of Pavement

Cross section of typical highway

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude or variables to consider

such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristic of motor vehicles and of the driver.
Width of Pavement
For safety

1. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 18% less accident compared with pavement narrower
than 5.50m wide.
2. A 7.20 meters wide pavement has 4% fewer accidents than the 6.00 meters wide
roadway.
3. Accident records showed no difference between the 6.60 meters and the 7.20 meters
wide pavement.
4. For the 6.00m. and 6.60m. And 7.20meters wide pavement decreases by 30% compared
to 0 to 0.60m wide shoulder. And 20% compared with a 0.90 to 1.20 meters wide
shoulder.
Cross Section of Typical Highway

Two Lane Rural Highways

A 7.20 meters wide surface is required for safe clearance between commercial vehicles and
is recommended for main highways.
Collector Roadway
6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for low volume traffic including few trucks
traveling thereon.
Local Rural Roadway
The minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30km/hr design speed.
Urban Roadway
The minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is allowed where space is
limited.
Width of Pavement

Figure 2-1 Cross Section of Typical two Lane Highways

Width of Pavement

Figure 2-2 Multi Lane Highways and Freeways (Half Section)

Cross Slope
Figure 2-12 High Type Pavement Slope

For high type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However,
steeper slopes are strongly recommended because rain water, flow away
more rapidly reducing the water thickness on the road pavement.
Cross Slope
Figure 2-11 Paved and Gravel Shoulder Cross Slope

The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6% although 4% is the

most common.
For gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 7% slope is effective
drainage for turf (grass) surfaces.
Cross Slope

Figure 2-13 Parabolic Pavement Section

On a very wide street, the parabolic crown surface makes the centerline
makes the centerline almost flat unless gutters are sufficiently deep enough
to convey water.
 Cut or Fill Slope

The objectives of cuts and fills are:

1. To create space for the road template and driving surface
2. To balance material between the cut and fill
3. To remain stable over time
4. To not be a source of sediment and,
5. Minimize long-term cost
Cut or Fill Slope
Advantage of Flat Side or Back Slope:
1. With back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars
could be directed back into the road and will
come to stop or continue down the slope with
no risk of over turning.
2. Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles
at full extent giving the roadway safer
appearance.
3. With visible slope for being low and flat,
vehicles could be positioned or parked closer
to the edge, an on two lane roadway facilities
parking would be farther from the opposing
traffic.
Cut or Fill Slope
Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is defined as the longest distance that the driver could see the top of an object
15 centimeters above the road surface where the design height of the driver’s eye above the pavement is 105
centimeters.

Stopping Distance is Made – up of two elements:

1. The distance traveled after the obstruction or object is seen and before the driver applies brakes.
2. The second distance is consumed while the driver applies brakes for the vehicle to stop.
Breaking sight distance:
(𝒎/𝒔)𝟐
𝒅=
𝟐 𝒈𝒎 𝒇
Where:
m/s –initial speed, in meter per second
t - detection, recognition, decision and response initiation (brake reaction time)
gm – acceleration of gravity, 9.80 meters per second squared.
f – coefficient of friction between the tire and the pavement

The above formula assumes that the highway level is flat. If the car is travelling uphill, the
braking distance is decreased, and for downhill, braking distance is increased.
The braking distance on slope is expressed by the following formula:

Braking distance (m) d =

(𝒎/𝒔)𝟐
𝟏𝟗. 𝟖 (𝒇 + 𝒈)

Where:
g – longitudinal slope of the roadway or % grade/100

Uphill grade is positive (+)

Downhill grade is negative (-)
Stopping Sight Distance
Table 2-6 Minimum Stopping Sight Distance Wet Road
Assumed Break Reaction Stopping Sight Distance
Design Speed Coefficient of
Speed for Time Distance Computed Rounded for
(km/h) Friction
Condition (Sec) (Meter) Meter Design (m)
30 30-32 2.5 22-24 0.40 31.8 – 35.8 36-38
45 40-50 2.5 31-33 0.35 53.4 – 58.8 60-60
60 55-60 2.5 40-44 0.32 80.1 – 94.2 82-97
75 65-75 2.5 48-55 0.30 112.8 -132.3 112-142
90 80-90 2.5 57-66 0.29 150.2 – 190.2 157-195
100 85-95 2.5 61-71 0.29 165.0 – 217.2 165-195
105 90-100 2.5 646-77 0.28 183.9 – 252.0 187-255
110 90-110 2.5 67-83 0.28 200.1 – 283.0 202-285
120 95-120 2.5 71-88 0.27 222.3 – 324.9 225-330
Passing Sight Distance
The passing sight distance is the longest distance that a driver can see the top of an oncoming vehicle
where the driver’s eye level is 1.05 meters above the pavement surface.
Passing Sight Distance
The relationship between the passing sight distance, the algebraic difference in grades, and the length of
vertical curve is represented by the following equations:
𝟗𝟒𝟑
𝑳 = 𝟐𝑺 − Where S is greater than L
𝑨

𝑨𝑺𝟐 Where S is less than L

𝑳= L is length in meters
𝟗𝟒𝟑

L = length required of vertical curve

S = Specified sight distance
A = Algebraic difference in grades expressed in percent
Passing Sight Distance
Table 2-7 AASHTO Minimum Passing Sight Distance For Design of
Two Lane Highways
Minimum Passing Sight Distance in
Assumed Speed
Meter
Design Speed Passed Vehicle Overtaking Vehicle
Computed Rounded
(km/hr) (Km/hr) (Km/hr)
35 35 48 234 240
50 42 58 327 320
65 55 70 444 440
80 65 82 552 550
95 75 91 642 640
100 80 96 693 690
110 86 102 747 740
120 90 105 780 780
135 95 110 822 820
Passing Sight Distance

Table 2-8 AASHTO Recommended Maximum Coefficient of Side Friction

Design Speed Km/hr 32 48 64 80 97 113 129
Coefficient of Friction .17 .16 .15 .14 .12 .10 .08
Circular Curves

• A vehicle travelling in curved road is subject to centrifugal force. This force is balanced by actual and
opposite forces developed through the super elevation and side frictions.
• However, neither the side friction on the super elevation, could overcome nor exceed the maximum
control and limit on the sharpness of the curves with a prescribed design speed.
• The sharpness of a curve is dependent on its radius.
• Sharpness is expressed in terms of a curve degrees, and the degrees of curve is inversely proportional
with the radius.
• The degree of the curve is expressed either by the ARC definitions or Chord definitions.
Table 2-9 DEGREE OF CURVES
Degree of Curve Radius in Meter Degree of Curve Radius of Meter
0°30′ 3,491.75 6°00′ 291.06
1°00′ 1,746.38 10°00′ 174.63
2°00′ 873.19 20°00′ 87.32
 Island

• Traffic Island is physical structure or a painted object found on roads and roadside. Traffic island serve
various purposes depending it type.
• It is usually seen as a raised area along the road for a better & orderly flow of traffic or act as a
stopping/ resting area for pedestrians.
• These may be raised structures made up of concrete or a physical structure in form of boards,
barricades, traffic cones etc.
• The terminology differs as traffic islands are also known as painted islands, ghost islands, roundabouts,
refuge islands, rotary etc.
Island
Island is included in the design of intersection for the following purposes:
1. Separation of vehicular flows.
2. Separation of conflicts.
3. Reduction in excessive pavement areas.
4. Reduction of traffic and indications of proper use of intersections.
5. Arrangement to favor a prominent turning movement.
6. Location to traffic control devices.
 Island Design and Geometrical Features of Traffic Islands
Since traffic island is a common name given to various road structure and markings, these can be grouped based on the use,
location, size, construction type and material etc.

[Link] and size: The shape & size of traffic island is determined on the basis of function it is meant to serve. Like in case of
median its much longer in length than width because its function is to divide the flow of traffic. In case of a channelizer the
function of traffic island is to channelized the flow of traffic in a particular direction. These are sometimes elongated like in case
of a channelizers. These can also be round like in case or rotatory and round about which are used for giving a larger maneuvering
space to drivers.

[Link]: Traffic island can be present on the side of road, across the road or even in mid way along the road. The functional
classification of island is the most important determining factor of the location of an island.

[Link] type: The decision of using a painted, concrete structure, traffic cone etc rests with the transportation department and can
be chosen as per the economics and the extent to which these fulfil the requirement. However if the traffic volume is substantial,
concrete structure is generally used as it forces the user to follow it, painted lines work where people are law-abiding and the
flow of traffic is relatively less.
Island Classification and Types of Traffic Island
There are three main classifications involved based on the purpose they serve. The purposes served
may be more than one depending on their geometry, location, size and shape.

▪ Channelizing Island: These go by the name and functions like a channelizer which provides direction to the
vehicles. The most prominent use of this type is at the turning points, these allow smooth and easy turning
of traffic and prevents interference with the other straight moving vehicles. These are also found where
the roads converge or diverge as they helps in reducing conflict points and allow easy merging and
diverging of traffic. These can be raised or marked off area, a painted island or a pedestrian refuge.
Island Classification and Types of Traffic Island
There are three main classifications involved based on the purpose they serve. The purposes served
may be more than one depending on their geometry, location, size and shape.

▪ Divisional Island: These are used along the roads. These are elongated structures which can be considered
as median or divider but used for the traffic moving in the same direction. These also provide slip roads
which are meant to bypass the traffic signal for straight moving vehicles. These are not meant to aid
turning but helps in orderly movement of vehicles and might form a part of channelizing island which
further assist in reducing conflict points. These can be placed near the road shoulder or form a part of
road surfaces.
Island Classification and Types of Traffic Island
There are three main classifications involved based on the purpose they serve. The purposes served
may be more than one depending on their geometry, location, size and shape.

▪ Refuge Island: These are large in size and are meant for pedestrians rather than the vehicles. These are
provided to serve as a safe zones for walkers and facilitates road crossings. These are raised structures
large enough for a person or a group of people to stand. These can be located on a mid section of a road at
point of pedestrian crossing as these provide a safe and raised surface where driver can see them and
remain alert.
Types of Interchange
Sometimes you will find interchanges which are intersection of two roads, where one road is for exiting and
the other road is for entering the freeway. Negotiating these interchanges requires cooperation and
communication. Cars exiting have the right-of-way unless there is a safety threat.
Types of Interchange
Diamond Interchange
The diamond interchange allows for interchange of a major roadway with a secondary dual or multi-lane
roadway. The diamond interchange may have traffic control devices on the intersecting secondary roadway
that allows for left and right turns onto the secondary roadway.
Types of Interchange
Trumpet Interchange
The trumpet interchange allows for interchange of secondary two-way streets to a multi-lane roadway
with minimal traffic mix. It takes the place of a T-intersection which is often used when a roadway ends at
the intersection of another roadway.
Types of Interchange
Cloverleaf Interchange
A cloverleaf interchange allows for interchange of two freeways with minimal disruption of speed or
movement. The cloverleaf usually has characteristic weave lanes as traffic enters from one roadway and
exits from another. Curved exits lead to braking and steering problems as drivers adjust from high speed to
the speed of a curve.
Types of Interchange
Frontage road Interchange
Frontage road interchanges allow for interchange of vehicles using parallel secondary two-way or one-way
roadways and a major multi-lane roadway. Frontage road turnarounds allow drivers to exit a multi-lane
roadway and use the opposing frontage road to enter the multi-lane roadway in the opposite direction.
Definition of Terms
Roads and Highways
Defined as the strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for the
movement of people and goods.
Road
Road has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to describe
a public thoroughfare. It can also refer t railways.
Highways
The term was used to describe a public road built by digging ditches on both sides
ang heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the adjacent
land.
Definition of Terms
Expressway
Is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with full or partial control or
access and generally provided with grade separation at major intersections.
Freeway
An expressway with full control of access.
Control of access
A condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other
persons access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully or
partially controlled by public authority.
Definition of Terms

Full Control of Access

The authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic
by providing access connections to selected public roads only. Crossing at grade
or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.
Partial Control Access
The authority o control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic.
Although in addition to access connections with selected public roads, there may
be some crossings at grade and some private driveway connections allowed.
Definition of Terms
Through Street or Through Highway
Every highway or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given preferential
right of way, and at the entrance to which vehicular traffic from intersecting
highways is required by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such through
highway in obedience to either stop sign or yield signs erected thereon.
Parkway
An arterial highway fir non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of
access usually located within a park or ribbon park-like development.
Definition of Terms

Arterial Street
An arterial route that carries traffic to the nearest access point or through traffic.
It often serves as the most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel.
Highway Capacity

AADT or ADT
Refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as measured by the number of vehicles passing a partial
station during a given interval of time.
It is called “Average Annual Daily Traffic” if the period is less than one year.
Volume may be stated on hourly “Observed Traffic Volume” or estimated 30th hour volume commonly used
for design purposes.