FACILITIES SYSTEMS 9.1 INTRODUCTION The objective of this chapter is not to prepare the facilities planner to become an architect, mechanical engineer, structural engineer, or builder, Rather, itis to pro- vide the facilities planner with a unified picture of the building technology and the interrelationship of the facility systems so that the interior handling system and the layout will not be made without recognizing the reality of the facility con- straints, The intent is to provide an understanding of the various system elements within the facility, not to prepare the facilities planner to design a structure or its heating, ventilation and air conditioning, ot other systems, The intent is to provide an overview of how the systems’ elements impact the overall process of facilities planning Planning facility systems is typically not the responsibility of the facilities plan- ner. However, specifying what systems are required where and integrating those systems into the overall facility are the responsibility of the facilities planner. The facilities planner must be aware that 1. The cost of constructing, operating, and maintaining a facility is significantly impacted by the facility systems, 2. Acritical factor affecting facility flexibility is the facility's systems. 3. A facility plan is not complete until all systems are specified 4. Facility systems have an important impact on employee performance, morale, and safety 5. Facility systems have an important impact on the fire protection, maintenance, and security of a facility474 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES Fl TONS ‘The facility systems considered in this chapter are Structural systems Atmospheric systems Enclosure systems Lighting and electrical systems Life safety systems Sanitation systems Building automation systems Computerized maintenance management systems MaAWeauNe » 9.2 STRUCTURAL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 9.2.1 Column Spacing The most common structural types for industrial facilities are the steel skeleton frame or reinforced concrete skeleton frame, Many factors will impact the choice of the structural type or the choice of materials, for example, fire protection (steel is notorious for losing its strength when heated above 1000°F), environment (steel be- comes brittle below —20'F and fails easily), and the overall planning grid or mod- ule, For facilities planners, the structure and planning needs should mesh, as the jad the layout will affect the structural column configuration will impact the layout, design. The reverse is also true. The structural design and the grid configuration chosen (e.g., 20’ X 30" or 25’ X 25°) will impact the layout, which will impact the planner’s options with respect to interior flow. The facilities planner must insist that the structural grid spacing optimize the function of the facility. For example, in a warehouse, the cohimn spacing should be dictated by the rack dimensions and the access aisles between racks. That is, the clear spacing between columns must be compatible with the storage system. In a parking garage, the grid element should be a multiple of the car bay width and length and the circulation needs. The facili- ties planner must recognize that the structural dimensions of the building grid can be secondary to the optimal layout of the facility without affecting its structural in tegrity. Given today's mill capability, specific structural members other than 20 foot and 40 foot lengths can be obtained without a significant penalty cost. Therefore, if, a 24" X 36! bay will optimize the layout, then this grid configuration should be specified instead of the more traditional 20’ X 40" grid. If alternatives for the struc- tural framing system are considered, then the depth of these members usually drives the need for a taller building. But the added skin area is usually offset by a much lighter structure, Preengineered metal buildings can also provide a very economical structure and achieve greater open spans than can be economically achieved with a conventional steel or open web system. Clear height is important in the planning process because lower clear height may demand a larger footprint, Higher clear heights can impact racking systems and be restricted by local zoning and ordinance requirements.9 FACILITIES S 9.2.2 Design for Requirement A common error in designing warehousing facilities is using building cost criteria to define column spacing and determine the grid configuration. Steel mills generally produce structural members in 20 and 40 foot lengths. Architects and structural en- gineers habitually use these lengths in designing a storage system, However, the structural dimensions of the steel be ms and girders or other structural members should be secondary to the storage system for which the facility is intended. For ex- ample, if as shown in Figure 9.1 a 48" by 40" pallet is used and a normal 4" clear- ance is allowed between pallets and between uprights and pallets, then a minimum of 92" clear distance will be required between the faces of the uprights in a pallet rack, If the pallet rack is a conventional four-high unit capable of carrying 2000 Ib t loads, then the uprights will normally be 4”. Thus, the overall width of the pal let rack is 100", or 96” centerline to centerline of the columns. Racking should drive the column spacing, but you must not allow the spacing to get excessive and impact the economy of the structure Carrying this analysis a step further, a typical 26 foot-clear storage building will require 12" heavy wall pipe columns or 12" by 12” flange beams or box Arangement without building column fries between pallets 14" rack back te typ. —f | — 20 } — 40 4H Fee —] # eo fe Arrangement with building column Atypical ot 1 builing col rom) | suitdng Xu Typ. of above except where noted Figure 9.1 Plan view rack detail. (Courtesy of Tompkins et al. (15])476 Part Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FUNCTIONS $$ $$$ yp) —$$$-p 4120 ' Traek aren 8 I ' I I ! i i _ ' Jes ' I ba I 415" 20" I ' — I I I ° ' I \ 15: Shipment | *, chime 1 —crossatcsiste —t Erp ales ——_ I Green tine [Red ine Figure 9.2 Basic dock layout. (Courtesy of Tompkins et al. (151.) columns. If pallet racks will be used and three sections of pallet racks are placed be- tween each pair of columns, then the clear space betwe: the faces of the columns or (96" X 3) + 4" A four-unit bay would require 32’ 4” or (96" X 4) + 4 Placement of six double-pallet-width units requires a clear space of 49° 8" or ((6" X 3) + 4") X 2 + 12" for the column. Thus, in a typical warehouse design, a 33’ by 51’ centerto-center bay spacing with 12” columns would probably accom: modate rack storage in either direction and would provide optimum flexibility of layout with elimination of column loss. In such a design pattern, arranging the 33’ bay parallel with the truck docks provides further advantages. The placement of the truck docks on 15" cente docks in each bay, and the 51” span allows a column-fiee truck service area behin the docks (Figure 9.2). If, as is normally recommended, truck docks and rail docks are at right angles on one comer of the building, then putting rail docks along the 51’ span would allow optimum flexibility for placement of cars varying in length from 40’ to 60 or even 90’, The 33" bay would provide approximately 20’ from the face of an inside rail dock to the column line, or 33" from the outer wall with clear spacing if building face doors were used. Needless to say, different pallet sizes affect the dimensions of the racks, and rack dimensions affect column spacing. Thus, before designing a building, it is es: sential to determine how the facility is to be used. Since the 48” X 40" pallet is the Grocery Manufacturers Association's standard and is the most commonly used size in consumer and many industrial distribution systems, the dimensional analysis must be 24 above will probably provide a suitable basis for most warehouse designs where conventional rack systems are used, This dimensional pattern eliminates the need to modify the building in accordance with vehicle dimensions, since the racks will fit between the columns in either configuration and aisle spacing is at the option of the layout designer. In the event that the storage machine or forklift truck requires a dif- ferent aisle width, a modification in column dimensions may be appropriate.477 9. FACILITIES SYS 9.2.3. Types of Columns In this analysis, the size and character of the columns must also be considered. Heavy-wall round or square tubular columns should be used in warchouses. These types of columns eliminate rodent and vermin nesting places, ensure easy maint nance and cleanliness, provide the ability to place downspouts within the columns, and minimize the effect of denting on column strength. Such columns are a little more expensive than H beams but provide a much better facility in the long run. ‘They also eliminate the corners that can pull packages from pallets when forklift truck operators move too close to the column, In an all-concrete structure, a square column is normally preferable. Because of their rectangular shape, tube columns provide a finished edge all around. They also can provide lateral bracing in the structure, thereby eliminating the need for *X bracing.” 9.2.4 Considerations Wall selections are normally architectural in nature. They are usually driven by local building restrictions or by a desired look for “curb appeal.” However, the insulation value must be considered because it can significantly impact the heating and cool ing requirements for the building In the final analysis, however, the building's structural integrity is the objective of the structural engineer and the architect. And the building must exhibit stability under the following various load conditions: + Gravity: continuous, dead loads—roofs, floors + Gravity: intermittent, live loads—snow, equipment, people © Wind: hours, days © Seismic: seconds, minutes In short, the objective of the structural system is to ensure that the building will be stable. The degree of stability required and designed into the building is dic tated by the load conditions. The facilities planner must be cognizant of the envi- ronment where the facility will be located and the types of load conditions that might render the building unstable 9.3 ENCLOSURE SYSTEMS The enclosure system provides a barrier against the effects of extreme cold or heat, lateral forces (wind), water, and undesirable entries (humans, insects). It is also used as a controlling mechanism. Doors and windows act as filters to provide not only a barrier that controls access to desirables, but also ventilation, light transmis- sion (privacy), and sound, ‘The facility’s enclosure is dictated by different and con- flicting influences. The enclosure elements are floor, walls, and roof. All three elements are in- tended to provide the facility with a specified comfort level, which is often impacted478. Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES Fl TONS by the thermal performance of the building enclosure. The tendency, however, is to ignore or underestimate the enclosure’s thermal role and rely on environmental sys- tems to make it right, In fact, the following generalization holds true: Building Enclosure + Services Input = Comfort 9.3.1 Thermal Performance ‘Thermal performance is usually required to rectify the heat transmission imbalance between inside and outside areas of the enclosure. Because this transmission is con tingent on the temperature differential, climate is the major determinant. One of the major problems in thermal performance, therefore, is how to make effective use of solar gain. Solar transmission, if effectively controlled, can significantly reduce the building's dependence on artificial atmospheric systems. Figure 9.3 shows how so- lar gain can be controlled, In Figure 9.34, 90% of the incident solar rays are trans- mitted due to the poor absorption and reflection qualities of the single-glazed element. Note in Figure 9.36 that a double-pane configuration with a heat-absorbing clement reduces the amount of transmission from 90 to 45%. The solar gain can be reduced additionally from 90 to 25% if a reflective glass member is substituted for a heat-absorbing member in the double-pane configuration shown in Figure 9.3c Retlected \ ransmited Releases by conan Ce Single-gazes leer @ 00% A N wr Sn “a Heat. Clear absorbing w o Figure 9.3. Controlling solar transmission. (Courtesy of Reid (11)479 9. FACILITIES SYS 9.3.2 Barrier Performance ‘Typically for manufacturing and warehousing facilities, keeping undesirables out is key. As such, the material selected (metal, plastic, or masonry cladding) should be more impervious to penetration. Thermal performance coupled with water exclusion forms the backbone of most enclosure systems. There are two areas of consideration. above the ground and below the ground. Above ground, facilities planners must be aware of the problems that a poorly designed roof can cause. The primary perform ance need of the roof is water exclusion. However, the importance of thermal com- fort necessitates the need for adequate insulation. Vapor migration, good insulation, and water barrier and removal are essential to an effective roofing system ‘The built-up roof, shown in Figure 9.4, details an effective flat roof design. Note that a membrane layer to prevent water penetration, an insulation layer to as: sist with thermal comfort, and a vapor check to stop vapor migration are integral el- ements of the system. Other roofing alternatives include metal roof systems and membrane roofs that are ballasted, mechanically attached, or fully adhered, Another alternative is the “green roof.” This roof is similar in construction to a typical ballasted roof, only the ballast is replaced with a layer of vegetation (Figure 9.5) ‘This roof alternative has advantages in reducing heating and cooling requirements, protecting roof components from UV rays, dealing with wind and temperature Flashing Protective metal lashing Reflective chips LLL f _- Membrane Cant Boek iz = ~ Insulation > vapor neck Cconeete topping Flashing cartes collected ‘awit Water out trough fnal weep hols Brick covering | slige secured By ‘angle clip Figure 9.4 ‘Typical effective built-up roof system,480 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FUNCTIONS Poet Figure 9.5. Principal green roof technology components. fluctuations, and reducing a site’s impervious surface area (thus allowing for more parking or a larger building for the same site) (www. [Link]) The ground and below-ground condition for industrial facilities is typically a concrete slab sitting directly on the ground. The primary concerns with ground con- ;ns are water penetration and vapor migration. As swimming pools must be sealed to keep water in, similarly, elements making contact with the ground must be sealed to keep water out. There are two principal ways to accomplish this: vapor retarders and vapor barriers. ‘The moisture sensitivity of the materials to be applied to the floor surface (such as linoleum, carpet, wood, vinyl, etc.) or of the materials to be stored in the enclosure will determine the degree of protection that is required from the barrier material, Vapor retarders are materials that are intended to minimize the transition of moisture upward through the slab to a level of less than 0.3 perm as determined by the ASTM E 96. True vapor barriers are characterized by having a permeance of 0.0 perm when tested in accordance to ASTM E 96 (American Concrete Institute— ACI 302.1R-04, March 2004) Integral waterproofing consists of an additive to the concrete to make it water- tight. This method, however, is not very effective in controlling vapor migration Typically, it can take 12" or more of concrete to prevent vapor penetration inward from the surrounding wet soil. Membranes have the potential to be 100% effective in handling vapor and wa- ter penetration, but poor design and shoddy installation can make them ineffective. When membranes are applied to the internal surface, problems may occur with ad- hetence, as the hydrostatic pressure increases. A more effective method is to apply the membrane to the external surface. This position will allow the membrane to work in conjunction with the hydrostatic pressure of the wet soil surface, and the membrane will be pressed more firmly against the structure as the hydrostatic pres he enclosure sure increases, However, regardless of the design metho ing in cracked or punctured membranes will make the: poor installation result ineffective, 9.3.3 Floor Performance In most manufacturing and warehousing facilities, the floor is second only to the roof in performance requirements. Over time, concrete slab floors tend to crack481 9. FACILITIES SYS TEMS dust, and generally deteriorate, Some tips for preventing some of these conditions are as follows: Cracks: + Steel Fibers—See fibers mixed into the concrete will not prevent cracks but will reduce the width of cracks once they occur, + Synthetic fibers—polypropylene, polyethylene, and nylon are examples of synthetic fibers that are mixed into the concrete to reduce segregation of the concrete mixture as it dries, and therefore help to reduce the formation of shrinkage cracks. + Post-tensioning reinforcements—High-strength steel tendons that introduce a relatively high compressive stress counter the crack-producing tensile stresses, that develop during the curing process. Dusting. Dry Shake improves the wear characteristics and reduces concrete dust. It can be mixed into the concrete or applied on top (American Concrete Institute—ACI 302.1R-04, March 2004) is a metallic or mineral hardener used in concrete that 9.4 ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEMS Atmospheric systems provide for the health and comfort of occupants and for the needs of building equipment and machinery. The criteria for equipment and machin are dictated by manufacturer's specification, but the criteria for human comfort ‘were vague and intuitive until 1900, However, as new technologies were developed for controlling building atmospheres, the criteria became more precisely defined, The definitive study of human comfort criteria was done in the early 1960s at Kansas State University using large groups of college students. The data gathered were used to develop equations for comfort parameters using the following variables. + Temperature + Humidity + Clothing + Metabolic activity Atmospheric systems respond to these criteria by heating and cooling building, ait and by controlling humidity. Air speed is usually held very low, so it is not read- ily perceived, Clothing and metabolic activity are assumed to be constant. 9.4.1 Maintaining the Work Environment Codes require only minimum indoor temperatures in winter, Market standards for different building types provide more precise responses involving cooling and humidification One example of such a standard is found in healtheare facilities, where hu- midity is held close to 50%, This humidity level is the optimum for inhibiting the48: Part Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FUNCTIONS Table 9.1 Typical Air Change Rates Use Supply Airf'/mint® Exhaust Airi/ min Air Changes/hr Residence Toilet room 15 10 Kitchen - 15 Other rooms Natural ventilaion—5% of floor area = Office/commercial 06 03 4 School 15 075 9 Public assembly 3.0 1s — Hospital 20 10 13 Labs 12 12 8 Animal laboratory = 30 0 growth of viruses and bacteria, Oxygen in air is essential for building occupants to breathe, but oxygen depletion would occur only at very high population densities This is usually not a consideration in building air quality ‘A more significant problem is the introduction of inorganic chemical pollutants into building atmospheres from sources in the building. One important pollutant par ticularly found in single-story buildings is radioactive radon gas, which occurs natu- rally in the earth and groundwater and seeps into buildings. Such pollutants are best handled by removing the sources from the building or blocking the seepage. ‘The major air quality problem in most buildings is the buildup of odor and air- borne particulate matter, By definition, the rate of dilution is expressed as ft'/min-ft? of floor area. One can see that the way to eliminate unwanted substances is to di- lute them both by mixing stale air that is in the building and by adding fresh out: door air. This air exchange (dilution rate) is typically expressed in air changes per hour and is stipulated by local code requirements as it pertains to the building use ‘Table 9.1 shows typical air change rates for several building use types. Because of the importance of eliminating unwanted substances, the equip- ‘ment to bring in fresh air and remove stale air is a primary consideration in planning a facility. This space requirement is governed by the size of the equipment room, the air speed capabilities of main and branch ducts, and the louver size needed to accommodate the required exhaust and intake needs as follows: Equipment Rooms. Central equipment rooms can be estimated roughly from Table 9.2, Note that as the air change rate increases, the handling equipment area also increases. Table 9.2 Central Equipment Room Area by Use Use ‘Area of Equipment Rooms Residential 2% Office /industrial 57% Public assembly 10-15% Hospital 25% Laboratory 25-50% Animal laboratory 50%483 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS Duct sizes. Duct sizes can be estimated from air quantities and air speeds in ducts, Main duct—1800 feet per minute Branch ducts—900 to 1110 feet per minute Louver Sizes. These areas are also estimated from air quantities and air speeds, Exhaust louvers: Recommended air speed of 2000 feet per minute Intake louvers: Recommended air speed of 1000 feet pet minute ‘The following example illustrates how atmospheric space is allocated, Example 9.1 Considering the light assembly operation shown in Figure 9.6, what space requirements, should he considered for atmosphere systems? First, allocate the mechanical equipment room space, Then, 1. Calculate total gross area: 240’ X 120’ = 28,800', From Table 9.2, using office/industrial use type, assume 5% of gross area for mechanical equipment space Assume the system will be roof mounted, Second, determine the air handling requirements ‘Minimum air supply rate: 0.6 f°/mins? Maximum ais supply rate: 1.0 /min-f Exhaust 0.3 A°/minse ‘Air supply: 28,800 f° 1.0 f'/min-? = 28,800 ft/min (CEM), ‘Ai exhaust: 28,800 X 0,3 f'/min-f ~ 8640 f/min (CEM Determine louver cross-section using respective CFM requirements and allowable ais speeds Supply: 28,800 f¢/min 1000 fimin ust: 8640 fn 2000 F/min 2s. fe = 43K Note supply and exhaust louvers must be 15! apart to avoid “short circuit” of exhaust air back into building So 120" Figure 9.6 Light assembly plant dimensions for Example 9.1484 Par Three ENGILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS Fi reo 28,800 0.05 = 1440 #2 Figure 9.7. Assembly plant with roof-mounted air handling unit for Example 9.1 Main duct calculation and layout. Main duct sizing is determined as follows: ‘Two main duets, each covering half of the building's area, multiplied by the air supply rate 0.5 X 28,800 ft? x 1 '/min-f? = 14,400 f*/min CFM. See Figure 9.7 Divide this airflow rate by the main duct air speed to obtain the cross-sectional area =a Main duct can be 2’ X 4’, See Figure 9.8 Branch duct calculation and layout, For each main duct, assume 10 branch duets. Divide flow rate for each branch duct by the number of branches to obtain the branch flow rate, 14,400 fe'/min = 1440 ft/min 10 Divide the branch flow rate by the allowable branch duct air speed. 1440 ft/min 1000 ft/min: Mf ee . 4 : [main duct T_ main duct | 7 oie 120 —__+ Figure 9.8 Main duct cross-sectional area,485 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS Tre o0 ] PiowsSa | / w 5 7 | Branch su | Celling Figure 9.9 Cross section of main and branch ducts. For the example problem, two main ducts 2! 0" by 4” 0" with ten 14" by 1’ 0" branch ducts would provide the required air dilution to meet the ait handling needs Figure 9.9), Although the air dilution method is prevalent and widely accepted, it has some drawbacks. The major drawback to this method is that when you exhaust the air, you are removing heat and/or air conditioning. Therefore, there is a substantial loss of energy. To reduce the volume of makeup air required, many operations use mechani- cal filtration or electrostatic precipitation. Mechanical filtration removes contami- nants by passing air through filtering material, sometimes called media or impingement filters, to remove particulate matter. Electrostatic precipitation re. moves particulates by charging the air particles and collecting them on oppositely charged plates. The air passes through a prefilter and then into the ionizer section of the unit. Here the particles receive a positive charge. These positively charged particles are then attracted to and collected on high-voltage, negatively charged col- lecting plates. The cleaner air is then returned to the area Maximum Particles/m* IFED STD 2098 Class |= 0.1 xm |= 0.2 pm|= 0.3 wm| = 0.5 am | = =5um| Equivalent 1801 10 z 1502 100 mA 10 4 1503 1000) 237 102 35 8 Class 1 104] 10,000] 2370[ 1020, 352 83 ‘Class 10 1505] 100,000] 23,700| 10,200, 3520 352] 29 | _ Class 100, 150 6 | 1,000,000] 237,000[ 102,000 35,200 8320 293 | Class 1000, 1807 352,000 | _83,200[ 2930 | Class 10,000 1808 3,520,000 | _832,000| 29,300 | Class 100,000 1509 35,200,000 | 8,320,000 | 293,000 | _Room air486 Par Three EAGIITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FU TONS 9.4.2 Clean Rooms Facilities planners are often called upon to design carefully controlled environments for electronics, pharmaceuticals, or food processing operations. These controlled environments are known as clean rooms, These rooms are kept under positive air pressure to prevent dust infiltration, The classification for clean rooms falls under the ISO 14644 standard. US FED STD 209E was dropped in 2001 in favor of the in ternational standard, but the former is still referenced today. Large numbers like “class 100” or “class 1000” refer to US FED STD 2098 and denote the number of par- ticles of size 0.5 um or larger permitted per cubic foot of air. Small numbers refer to the ISO 1464-1 standard, which specifies the decimal logarithm of the number of particles 0.1 wm or larger permitted per cubic meter of air. So, for example, an ISO class 5 clean room has, at most, 10° = 100,000 particles per m* One widely recognized method used to achieve these air quality levels is with the use of HEPA (high-efficiency particulate air) filters. These filters are used in a wide variety of industrial, commercial, and institutional installations where the high- est possible degree of air cleaning is required. They are also used when it is neces sary to remove radioactive or toxic dust, pathogenic organisms, or mold spores ‘They ate available in efficiencies of 95.00, 99.97, and 9.999% guaranteed minimum in removing 0.3 micron particles or larger, and they utilize high-energy ultraviolet light to kill bacteria and viruses trapped in the filter media. In actual operation, the HEPA filter is 100% efficient in removing all known airborne organisms since ba ria, pollens, yeast, and fungi range up in size from 0.5 micron. 9.4.3 HVAC Design ‘The purpose of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVAC) is to control the temperature, humidity, and cleanliness of the environment within a facility. HVAC is important for employee comfort, process control, and/or product control. HVAC is an extremely complex field and is undergoing continuous change. A facilities plan- ner must realize the complex and dynamic nature of HVAC and not make the mis take of attempting to design HVAC for a facility ‘The input required by an HVAC expert to design an HVAC system includes the facility layout and the construction specifications, The facilities planner should be able to provide the HVAC expert with this input as well as understand how the HVAC expert translates this input into HVAC requirements. The heating requirement for a facility is referred to as heat loss and is calculated using Equation 9.1 Q1 = Or + Ox + Qe + Op + Qw + Br ov where Q,; = total heat loss Op = heat loss through the floor Qe = heat loss through the roof Qc = heat loss through glass windows Qp = heat loss through doors Qw = heat loss through walls Q; ~ heat loss due to infiltration487 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS Each of the individual heat losses is calculated using Equation 9.2 = AUG, - 1) 02 where = heat loss for facility component area of facility component coefficient of transmission of facility component temperature inside the facility 1, = temperature outside the facility ‘The air conditioning requirement for a facility is referred to as the cooling load and is obtained from Equation 9.3 Qe= Or + Qe + Qe * Op * Qw Qv* O54 Qe * Qn 03) where: Qe = total cooling load Qp = cooling load due to the floor Qk = cooling load due to the roof Qc = cooling load due to glass windows Qp = cooling load due to doors cooling load due to walls cooling load due to ventilation cooling load due to solar radiation cooling load due to lighting cooling load due to personnel ‘The cooling loads On Qe Qe Qo, Qirs and Qyare determined using Equation 9.4 Q- AUU, = 1) oa where: Q = cooling load for facility component A, U, ty, and ta 's defined for Equation 9.2 ‘The cooling load from solar radiation Qs is computed using Equation 9.5: 2= AES 05) where: A= area of glass surface 11 = heat absorption of the building sus 5'= shade factor for various types of shading ce ‘The cooling load from lighting Q, may be calculated by using the following conver- sion factors: Incandescent (, Btu 36) Qu(incandescent) ( wattage \(aeea5) ee Fluorescent. Btu D Q, (fluorescent) ( wattage Nf 25 aw ;) on488. Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FU TONS Table 9.3 Heat Gains for Men and Women Performing Light and Heavy Work Activity Heat Gains Gitu/hn) ‘Man—light work '800 ‘Man—heavy work 1500 700 1300 ‘The cooling load from personnel Qp may be calculated by determining the number of men and women performing light and heavy work and multiplying that times the heat gain factors given in Table 9.3. Example 9.2 ‘An 18'-tall facility having the dimensions 250" X 100" has eight 4° X 8" double-pane glass windows and two 3' X 8” glass doors on both the front and back sides. The facility is made of 8" solid cinder block and a 1" metal insulated roof with an insulated ceiling and an unin- sulated slab floor. The facility is located in Chicago, Illinois. What is the heat loss? The following data needed to calculate the heat loss may be obtained from a variety of sources (9 Up = 081 BuMhNGCH) 1, = 70°F Ug = 0.20 Bru hh CP) F Ug = 0.63 Buu/hXECP ‘Then, using Equation 9.2, Op = (25,000 F)0.81 Bru/Chs Xf \CEIICO'F — O°F) Op = 14,175 X 10° Brasher Qe = (25,000 f10.20 Bru/Chs)f\CEIICO'F — 0°F) Op = 3.5 X 10° Brush Qe = (160032 £10.63 Bru/thNE?ICHICO'E — OF) Qc = 0.226 10° Op = N24 FNC.13 Bru/hNEECEIICGO'E — 0°F) Qp = 0.076 X 10° Brus Ow = 132 AP) = EA H>N0.39 Brw/aNGICE) Ow = 3.274 X 10° Buu/he = (€25,000 F?) + (12,600 f)1(0.20 Bru/CheXECEIIO'F — OF) Q, = 0.526 x 10° Buw/hr ‘Then, using Equation 9.1, the total heat loss may be calculated as follows Oy = 14175 X 10° Bru/hr + 3.5 X 10° Buu/hr + 0.226 X 10° Beu/hr + 0.076 X 10° Brush + 3.274 X 10° Bru/he + 0.526 X 10° Bru/he Oy = 21.777 X 10° Brush489 Ties SYSTEMS Example 9.3 For the facility described in Example 9.2, given the following additional information, what is the cooling load? The front of the facility faces west, and all windows and doors have awnings. The lighting within the facility consists of $75 fluorescent luminaries, each contain. ing two 60 watt lamps. Within the facility, 75 men performing light work and 50 women, performing light work will be employed. The outside design temperature is 97°F, and the inside design temperature is 78°F [3] Using Equation 9.4 results in the following cooling loads for facility components: Op = (25,000 £2Y0.81 Brule \GENCRNOTE — 78°F) p= 3.85 x 10° Bowe Op = (25,000 £510.20 Buw/Che)GEYCEIOTE — 78°F) Og = 0.95 10° Buu/hr Qe, = (16)G2 910.63 Bua/(hxE°CFIOTF — 78°F) Qc; = 0.06 x 10* Bru/hr Op = MRA IGA3 Bel NGACHIOT ~ 78°F) Qp = 0.02 X 10° Bru/hr Qe = 124500 £2) + (2,800 FE) — (16X32 MP) — LAK fe) 10.39 Beu/ChXAACP] OFF — 78°) Oy = 0.88 X 10° Bru/he 2 = (25,000 fe) + (12,600 (0.20 Bru/yAMACHIKOMF ~ 78°) y= 1.43 10° Bru/hr ‘The heat absorption factor for the west side of a facility in Chicago, Illinois, is 100 Bru/(hs)(fP), and for the east side, 75 Bru/(hs)(fe?) [10], The shade factor awnings are 03 10), Using Equation 9 5, the cooling load from solar radiation may be calculated as 25 = (G2 AE) + (VA E)IL100 Bru/NKEPHO 39] + (GZ A + OA 175 Bru/heXFP9CFICO.3)) 25 = 0.16 X 10° Bru/hr “The cooling load from lighting may be calculated via Equation 9.7, as follows: Bu Ox fruosescent) = (575)2){60 watts) 425) FE y= 2.93 X 10° Bru/hr ‘With the aid of Table 9.2, the cooling load from personne! may be calculated as Op = 75(800 Bru/he) + 50(700 Beu/hr) Qp = 0.95 X 10° Btu/hr ‘Then, using Equation 9.3, the total cooling load may be calculated as follows: Qe= 3.85 X 10° + 0.95 X 10° + 0.06 x 10° + 0.02 X 10° + 0.88 x 10° + 0.14 x 10° + 0.16 X 10° + 2.93 x 10° + 0.95 x 10° Qe = 9.94 x 10° Buh (Or, utilizing the conversion factor 12,000 Btu/hr = 1 ton, a total cooling load of 83 tons is required to air condition the total facility490 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES Fl TONS 9.5 ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING SYSTEMS The facilities planner's responsibility is to specify what level of service is required and where it is required. The power company needs the electrical load requirement for a facility well before construction begins. This usually requires a facilities plan- ner to have a good preliminary estimate, since the detailed design of the facility is often not finalized when this information is required. In general, every electrical sys- tem should have sufficient capacity to serve the loads for which it is designed, plus spare capacity to meet anticipated growth 9.5.1 Future Planning Allowance for load growth is probably the most neglected consideration in the planning and design of the electrical system. The facilities planner must ensure that major load requirements, both present and future, are included in the design data so that the design engineer can adequately size mains, switchgear, transformers, feed- ers, panel boards, and circuits to handle the future electrical needs of the facility ‘The process begins with analyzing the building type and its traditional electrical loads. The facilities planner should then determine all unusual and special electrical requirements for the building type under consideration, as well as current trends and practices. An idea of the average load requirement for several building types is shown in Table 9.4 Once this activity is complete, a st of load categories can be generated, including Lighting + Miscellaneous power, convenience outlets, and small motors + HVAC + Plumbing and sanitary equipment * Transportation equipment + Processing equipment * Kitchen equipment + Special equipment The point of service, service voltage, and metering location should then be estimated with the local utility company. In addition, the facilities planner should determine with the client the type and rating of all equipment to be used in the facility. The space required for electrical equipment and electrical closets is then Table 9.4 Average Load Requirements Building Type Toad Requirements Plants 20 watts per f Office buildings 15 watts per ft? Hospitals 3000 watts per bed Schools 3-7 watts perf? Shopping centers 3-10 watts per ft”491 9 FACILITIES SYS TEMS determined, Care should be given to the location of this equipment and closets as it is very expensive to move in future facility rearrangements. Finally, the facil- ities planner should provide detailed input for the lighting requirements for the facility, Facilities lighting should not be planned by the same person planning the electrical services because illumination should be custom designed for the areas within a facility. A facilities planner fully understands the tasks to be performed within a facility and is in the best position to custom design the lighting system. 9.5.2 Lighting Lighting systems may be designed using the following eight-step procedure: Step 1: Determine the level of illumination ‘The minimum levels of illumination for specific tasks are given in Table 9.5. When selecting the level of illumination for a particular workstation, the following criteria must be considered © The nature of the tasks * The amount of reflectivity of the workstation, component: * The current levels of natural or general lighting * The need for natural illumination * The worker's age and visual acuity and surrounding Step 2: Determine the room cavity ratio (RCR) ‘The RCR is an index of the shape of a room to be lighted. The higher and narrower a room, the larger the RCR and the more illumination needed to achieve the re quired level of lighting, The RCR may be calculated using Equation 9 8: oye fom ine working Room toon) surface to the luminaris /\length " width RR (fer) (er) tength width Step 3: Determine the ceiling cavity ratio (CCR) 8) If luminaries are ceiling mounted or recessed into the ceiling, then the reflective property of the ceiling will not be impacted by the luminaries’ mounting height, so the CCR need not be considered, The greater the distance from the luminaries to the ceiling, the greater will be the CCR and the reduction in ceiling reflectance. The CCR may be calculated using Equation 9.9 Height from ( ight fi exc Juminaties to ceiling COR = ~THeight from the working oO surface to the luminaries492 Par Three ENGILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS Fi THES Fi Table 9.5 Minimum Illumination Levels for Specific Visual Tasks ‘Task Level (footcandles) ‘Assembly Rough easy-seeing 30 Rough difficult-seeing 50 Medium, 100 Fine 500 Extra fine 1000 Inspection. Ordinary 50 Difficult 100 Highly difficult 200 Very difficult 500 Most difficult 1000 Machine Shop Rough bench and machine work Medium bench and machine work, ordinary automatic machines, rough grinding, medium buffing and polishing. Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic machine, medium 500 grinding, medium buffing and polishing Extra-fine bench and machine work, fine grinding 1000 Material Handling ‘Wrapping, packing, labeling 50 Picking stock, classifying 30 Loading 20 Offices Reading high or well-printed material; tasks not involving critical 30 ‘or prolonged seeing, such as conferring, interviewing, and inactive files Reading or transcribing handwriting in ink or medium pencil on. ‘good-quality paper; intermittent filing Regular office work; reading good reproductions, reading or 100 ‘anscribing handwriting in hard pencil or on poor paper, active filing; index references; mail sorting Accounting, auditing, tabulation, bookkceping, business machine 150 ‘operation; reading poor reproductions; rough layout drafting Cartography, designing, detailed drafting 200 Corridors, elevators, escalators, stairways 20 Paint Shops Dipping, spraying, rubbing, firing, and ordinary hand pain 50 Fine hand painting and finishing 100 Extrafine hand painting and finishing 300 Storage Rooms and Warehouses 2 Inactive 5 Active Rough bulky 10 Medium 20 Fine 50 Welding General illumination 50 Precision manual arc welding 1000493, 9. FACILITIES SYS TEMS Table 9.6 Approximate Reflectance for Wall and Ceiling Finishes Materials “Approximate Reflectance (6) White paint, light-colored paint, mirrored glass, and 30 porcelain enamel ‘Aluminum paint, stainless steel, and polished aluminum. 6 Medium-colored paint 50 Brick, cement, and concrete 35 Dark-colored paint, asphalt 10 Black paint 5 Source: [14] Step 4: Determine the wall reflections (WR) and the effective ceiling reflectance (ECR) ‘The WR and a base ceiling reflectance (BCR) value can be obtained from Table 9.6 If the luminaries are to be ceiling mounted or recessed into the ceiling, the ECR is ‘equal to the BCR. If luminaries are to be suspended, the ECR is determined from the CCR, WR, and BCR using Table 9.7. Step 5: Determine the coefficient of utilization (CU). ‘The CU is the ratio of lumens reaching the work plane to those emitted by the lamp, It is a function of the luminaries used, the RCR, the WR, and the ECR, The CU for standard luminaries is given in Table 9.8. Step 6: Determine the light loss factor (LLF). ‘The two most significant light loss factors are lamp lumen depreciation and luminary dirt depreciation. Lamp lumen depreciation is the gradual reduction in lumen output over the life of the lamp. Typically, lamp lumen depreciation factors are expressed as the ratio of the lumen output of the lamp at 70% of rated life to the initial value. The lumen outputs for various lamps given in Table 9.9 include the lamp lumen deprecia tion; therefore, no additional consideration is needed. Luminary dirt depreciation is the light loss associated with the conditions under which the luminary operates. The lumi- nary dirt depreciation varies with conditions and the length of time between cleanings. Step 7: Calculate the number of lamps and luminaries. Utilize Equation 9.10 to calculate the number of lamps and Equation 9.11 to calcu late the number of luminaries Number (Roque ot) (av) Maer Aof illumination /\_be lit m 10) la cir ( AMP ouput 2) fears saa s5 of rated life Number of Number 1 of | = Ps Fe ow luminaries Lamps pet luminary6p Table 9.7 The Percent (%) Bective Ceiling Reflectance (ECR) for Various Combinations of Ceiling Cavity Ratios (CCR), Wal Refetances (WR), and ‘Base CetingReflectances (BCR) Boe w & 3 7 76 5 ap ans weD sD sw ewe sm ee SUS WSO e 0 SWS o5|7 71 72 69 56 6 58 56 54 52] 49 «7 45 HH 42 A136 34 32 51 29 nun 98s sk 7 6 55 rolrt 71 67 53 60 55.55 19 45 4a] an A 45 39 36 55]35 55 51 20 25 win 9 slo 7 8 7 54 is|72 67 62 55 Se 52 49 44 38 6] 47 44 40.35 a1 2n[35 33 20 26 21 win salam 9 7 44 20/6 65 56 4 55 49 44 $8 52 40/46 42 47 31 26 a5]85 52 28 28 8 73 10 8 fis 2 1 7 44 asfer @ 51 43 5445 40. $8 26 a5]a6 40 35 28 22 21/85 $1 26 21 16 3a 7 5{i7 as wo 8 38 30/65 57 a7 38 582 38 29 2 21f4s 39 92 95 19 Ia [ss Mm 29 4 m3 0 7 sf is os 8s 55|s5 51 43 34 5239 33 26 1 17/46 38 30.23 17 6 [38 S128 Ie 2113 10 7 sf a6 os 33 Gale 52 46 31 So 37 3123 15 fae ae 28 21 15 13)34 30 23 17 10 mii 73am 2 a 32 so]ss as 35 26 33 2618 9 ala a5 a5 a8 9 B10 63/28 B 8 32 sofso so 2517 ofan a ts ts sfa0 3019 is ns ww 5 afwiy a 6 31Table 98 Coefficients of Uication for Standard Luoinaries, ‘Spacing Not wR WR Wk a Migioenssy | 18 ze pase er or os (execu. height oe A Sips] 51 spain Se spe pa ‘sem, | one Pe ee ee ee ee fourescent tax z ST & Si 3 4 31 | SI Os Se promatciens | fea [3 ES496 Par Three EAGIITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FL TONS Table 9.9 Lamp Output at 70% of Rated Life Lamp Output at 70% off Lamp Type Watts Rated Life (lumens) Filamel 100 1600 150 2600 300 5000 500 10,000 750 15,000 1000 21,000, High-intensity discharge 400 15,000 700 28,000 1000 38,000 Fluorescent 40 2500 60 3300 60 3300 85 5400 110 7500) Source: (14 Step 8: Determine the location of the luminaries The number of luminaries calculated via Equation 9.11 will result in the correct quantity of light. In addition to the quantity of light, the quality of light must be con- sideted. The most important factors affecting the quality of light are glare and diffu- sion. Glare is defined as any brightness that causes discomfort, interference with vision, or eye fatigue. The brighter the luminary, the greater the potential for glare. Several design considerations result from observations concerning glare overly bright luminaries should not be used, light sources should be mounted above the normal line of vision, ceilings and walls should be painted with light col ors to reduce contrast, and background lighting should be provided if supplemen- tary lighting is used Diffusion of light indicates that illumination results from light coming from many directions. The greater the number of luminaries, the more diffuse the light, Fluorescent luminaries provide more diffuse light than incandescent luminaries. Also, light will not diffuse properly if luminaries are spaced too far apart Because shadows produce eye fatigue, many luminaries should be used to illuminate an area, The selection of fluorescent versus diffusion and the available diffusion panels and hoods should be considered during lighting design. To ob- tain properly diffused light, use the maximum permissible ratio of luminary spac ing to mounting height above the working surface as given in Table 9.8 in the column labeled "Spacing Not to Exceed.” Example 9.4 A machine shop 100" X 40" with a 13° ceiling will be illuminated for automatic machining and sough grinding. Uniform lighting is required throughout the machine shop. If t naries are to be ceiling mounted, all ceilings minaries are to be cleaned every 24 months, what lighting should be specified?” 3 lumi nd walls are to be painted white, and all lu-497 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS Step 1: Determine the level of illumination. From Table 9.5, a minimum illumination level of 100 footcandles is requied. Step 2: Determine the room cavity ratio, Assume all working surfact floor, Using Equation 9.8 to caleulate the RCR results in the following are 3! from the (a3 — 9400 + 40) ‘o0yC40 RCR = = 175 Step 3: Determine the ceiling cavity ratio. The © luminaries are ceiling mounted. Step 4: Determine the wall reflections and the effective ceiling reflectance. According to Table 9.6, the WR and BCR are 80%, Because the luminaries are to be ceiling mounted, the ECR is also 80% Step 5: Determine the coefficient of utilization. If fluorescent lamps in uncovered fixtures are to be utilized, the CR may be interpolated in Table 9.8 as being between 0.88 and 0.78. A CU of 0.80 will he utilized Step 6: Determine the light loss factor. For fluorescent lamps in uncovered fixtures in a “mediumdirty environment” that are cleaned every 24 months, a lamp luminary dint depreciation factor of 0.85 may be obtained from Table 9.10, Therefore, the LLF 1s 085, Step 7: Calculate the number of lamps and luminaries, According to Equation 9.20, the number of lamps required if 69 watt fluorescent lamps ate used is need not be considered, as (a00x(1007¢40) (.0.8NGS00 Number of lamps = 179 Iftwo lamps are placed in each uminary, according to Equation 9.11, then 90 luminaries are required. Step 8 Determine the location of the luminaries. Table 9.8 indicates that for a mount. ing height 10° above the work surface, the luminaries should be spaced no more than 13! apart. Each fluorescent fixture is 4° long. By placing nine rows of 10 lumi- naries across the room with the first and last rows 6" from the wall and the other rows 11" apart, the illumination level within the room will be evenly distributed and will be adequate to perform the tasks within a machine shop, The lighting layout is shown in Figure 9.10. 100’ =] 0 luminaries per bank ee _Trbutory bt Figure 9.10 Luminaries configuration for 10" above work surface965 Table 910_Lamp Luminary Dirt Depreciation Factors Dacca ean Offices, Light Ascrly, of Inepestion Medhan—Mil Offices Paper Processing or Light Machining inj Heat eating, High-speed Pasting or Medina Machin ery Duty—Poundey or Heavy Machining Months between Cleaning Months between Cleaning uminates ‘2 4 « fe 2 4 «© w]e Bm % «| ® Hamontrellecorlamps 095 094 08) OSG Os3[o9I Os) OSS OSI UTH[osT Om O79 O7% O70] Os OTM O60 O56 Om Highancensty 094 090 om O80 O75/a92 ORF 080 O74 O69]09 DAs 075 O68 O61] OR O79 O69 068 O57 Forecentlampsin 097 091 OB O87 o85]095 09 O85 O85 O79]o95 OT O80 O75 oToJ OR O85 O75 a7 O64 ‘uncovered fates Hiucreseatlampein 092 088 088 080 o78[ass om 077 075 o71]oR? a7 O71 O67 062 [a7 072 064 06 O51 Prismatic lens fue “formation under ished om499 9 FACILITIES SYS Example 9.5 Do the lighting requirements change for the machine shop described in Example 9.4 if he luminaries are still to be hung at 13° but suspended from a 41’ ceiling? Steps 1 and 2. The same as Example 9.4 Step 3. According to Equation 9.9, the CCR may be calculated as 13) cor a3 — 3) x 175 =49 Step 4. Asin Example 9.4, the WR and BCR are 80%. According to Table 9.7, the ECR 1s 58% Step 5. Given that fluorescent lamps in uncovered fixtures are still to be utilized, the J may be interpolated from Table 9.8 as .75. Step 6. Unchanged from Example 9.4 Step 7. According to Equation 9.10, the number of lamps required if 60 watt fluores- cent lamps are utilized is (a00}(100)¢40) er of | (0.75)(0.85)(3300) 91 Iftwo lamps are placed in each luminary according to Equation 9.11, then 96 luminaries are required. Step 8. Table 9.8 indicates that for a mounting height 10” above the work surface, the luminaries should be spaced apart no more than 13’. Each fluorescent fixture is 4’ long. By placing four sows of 24 luminaries along the long axis of the ma. chine shop so that each row begins and ends 2' from the wall and the first and last rows are 5! from the wall and all other rows are spaced 10" apart, the illumi- nation level within the room will be evenly distributed and adequate to pesform the required tasks. This lighting layout is shown in Figure 9.11 ‘The lighting information given to the person planning the electrical services should include a lighting layout and a description of the type of luminaries and lamps to be used. With this information and the location of the equipment required for electrical service , as described on the department service and area requirement sheets, the total electrical service requirement can be planned. er BSSSSSSS S333 SSS S53 355}— 20 tuminaries oO BSSSSSSSSSS5SS555555) _ Tributary Ke — 40" Figure 9.11 Luminaries configuration for 13’ above work surface500 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FL TONS 9.6 LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS Life safety systems are designed to control emergency situations that will disrupt normal operations. These emergencies are created primarily by Fire 2. Seismic events 3. Power failure Fire is the most pervasive of the three and accounts for the majority of costs, associated with disaster, Fire resistance is therefore critical in the design of any facility. Fire protection for buildings is governed by the Uniform Building Code (UBC). UBC is a model building code that outlines the protection features that must be included in the building design, The features that are typically covered are fire ratings of walls, floors, and roofs as well as egress, sprinklers, and stand- pipe requirements. 9.6.1 Fire Protection and Safety ‘The first objective of the facilities planner is to determine the building's function and construction type as defined by the occupancy classification. These occupancy classifications are based on the International Building Code (IBC). In general, the following facility types typically account for all occupancy classifications in the United States: ‘Group. Type A “Assemblies, theaters E Educational facilities 1 Institutional occupancies (occupants unable to leave under their own power) H Hazardous occupancies (fuel, paint, chemicals) B Business, office, government buildings R Residential M Mercantile Fr Factories, manufacturers, and processing (other than hazardous) s Storage (other than hazardous) vu Utility and miscellaneous ‘The type of structure also governs the degree of fire resistance. These con- struction types range from Type I (nearly fireproof) to Type D (conventional wood: frame construction), Fire resistance, therefore, refers to the ability of a structure to act as a barrier that will not allow the fire to spread from its point of origin, Even with these design efforts, there is no such thing as a fire-immune building. Given this fact, facilities planners must be cognizant of the need to provide for safety routes as an integral part of the layout. The International Building Code requires that means of egress be provided in every facility from every part of every floor to an501 9. FACILITIES SYS TEMS be 20 Diagonal 120 Figure 9.12 Plan of warchouse facility for Example 9.6, outside safe area, The minimum requirement is based on the intended occupancy and the number of people that could be inside the building at any given time as well as their relative locations. In general, most buildings require two or more exits. This is done so that other exits are available if one is blocked by fire. In addition, most lo- cal building codes will require that maximum allowable time or distance to exit the building not be violated. This could be the time or distance to reach a protected area, that is, outside the building, or to get to another compartment if the facility has fully fireproof, segregated compartments. Also, no point can be more than 200’ from an exit (250' in a building with sprinklers, and up to 400" in a building with early sup pression/fast response [ESFR] fire protection and automatic smoke and heat vents), and access must be provided for handicapped persons. This may entail ramps ot an exit passageway to a protected compartment. It is important to note that the use of elevators is to be avoided. In general, elevator shafts collect smoke from the floor that is on fire, so their use is strongly discouraged, In any event, facilities planners must recognize that when a fire occurs, the order of priority is LoL 2. The building ves of occupants in the facility 3. The goods and equipment in the building As an example, consider the determination of the exits for a warehouse shown in Figure 9.12. Example 9.6 ‘Using the International Building Code from Table 9.11 (maximum floor area allowances per ‘oceupant) for industrial are 100 f per occupant isthe recommended area: 120 ft X 200 100 f/person = 240 people Maximum population = From Table 9.12 (minimum number of exits for occupant load), given the population, the ‘minimum number of exits required is two. From Table 9.13, the remoteness requitements can be addressed. That is, how far apart should these doors be to safely move occupants out of the Facility?502 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FUNCTIONS Table 9.11 (2003 IBC Table 1004.1.2) Maximum Floor Area Allowances per Occupant Use Floor Area per Occupant G® “Agricultural building 300 gross Aircraft hangers 500 gross Airport terminal Baggage claim 20 gross Baggage handling 300 gross Concourse 100 gross Waiting areas 15 gross Assembly Gaming floors (keno, slots, ete.) 11 gross Assembly with fixed seats See Section 10032.2.9 Assembly without fixed seats Concentrated (chairs only—not fixed) 7 net Standing space 3 net Unconcentrated (ables and chairs) 5 net Bowling alleys allow five persons for each alley, including 15’ of runway, and for additional areas Business areas ‘Court rooms—other than fixed seating arcas Dormitories 50 gross Educational Classroom area 20 net Shops and other vocational room areas Exercise rooms 50 gross HS fabrication and manufacturing areas 200 gross Industrial areas 100 gross Institutional areas Inpatient treatment areas 240 gross ‘Outpatient areas 100 gross Sleeping areas 120 gross Kitchen, commercial 200 gross. Library Reading rooms 50 net Stack areas 100 gross Mercantile Basement and grade floor areas 30 gross Areas on other floors 60 gross Storage, stock, shipping areas 300 gross Parking garages 200 gross Residential 200 gross. Skating rinks, swimming pools Rink and pool 50 gross Decks 15 gross Stages and platforms 15 net Accessory storage areas, mechanical equipment room, 300 gross, Warehouses 500 gross Note: 1ft = 3048 mm; 18 = 0.093 m. Source: 2003 IBC (31503 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS Table 9.12 BOAC Table 809.2) Minimum Number of Exits for Occupant Load ‘Occupant Load Minimam Number of Exits 500 or less 2 501-1000 3 Over 1000 4 Source: 2003 IBC (3) Table 9.132003 IBC Remoteness Requirements 1014.2.1 Two exits or exit access doorways. Where two exits or exit access doorways are required from any portion of the exit access, the exit doors or exit access doorways shall be placed a distance apart equal to not less than one-half of the length of the ‘maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building of area to be served measured straight line between exit doors or exit access doorwat bbe counted as one exit stairway. Interlocking or scissor stairs shal Source: 2003 IBC [3 For the building shown in Figure 9.12, ‘The diagon dimension a 4 d= (200'* + (120'7)*"? = 233° ‘The distance between exits = Note: If the building does not have sprinkl Using Table 9.12, we can now det exits should be a2 ine the allowable minimum width for each door 240 people Capacity per exit = Fe 120 people/exit Minimum width = 120 X 0.2" = 24" Since the minimum width is below the 2/ 8" recommended for barrier free access, each. door should be increased to 2’ 8" in width (see Figure 9.13). Finally, check the recommended. solution to determine if the allowable length of travel exiting the building is satisfied, From. Table 9.14, for use group (1) with fire suppression, travel distance to exits is okay ‘The planner must balance the number of exits with the maximum allowable travel distance required by code. From Table 9.14, the maximum allowable travel distance for industrial use groups with a fire suppression system is 250 feet. This suggests that both doors could be on the sam elevation of the warehouse Table 9.14 Length of Exit Access Travel (feet) Without Fire With Fire Use Group Suppression System Suppression System AB EFLTLMRSI 200 250 F-2, $-2, U 300 400 H — 200 12,13,14 150 200 Source: 2003 IBC (3504 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES Fl TONS _@ 210° exit ip 2-8 width cp icp 9 ext —> 8" wath —> Figure 9.13 Exit requirements for 200" x 240" w/h. 9.6.2. Fire Suppression Industrial engineers are often concerned with fire protection systems for rack storage facilities. It is necessary to adequately protect rack storage facilities with the correct fire suppression system, The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) addresses these types of storage systems in NEPA Standard 230, “Standard for the Fire Prot tion of Storage.” NFPA Standard 230 also references NFPA Standard 13, “Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems,” for protection of rack storage facilities, tis im- portant to note that there are four classes of fire: A, B, C, and D. These classifications are determined by what is burning and the extinguishment method. Class A fires in volve organic material such as wood, paper, and cloth and can be easily extin- guished with water. Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gases such as gasoline, paint thinner, propane, and acetylene. NFPA Standard 30 discusses the pro tection of flammable liquid storage facilities. An aqueous film-forming foam is the recommended extinguishing agent for Class B fires, Class C fires involve energized electrical equipment such as motors, computers, and panel boxes. Water must not be used on these fires due to its conductive properties. However, if the equipment can be de-energized, then the fire can be fought with water. Class D fires involve exotic metals such as magnesium, sodium, and titanium. Burning metal fires are rare and must be dealt with by professionals. A chemical called Met-L-X is the recommended extinguishing agent for burning metal fires, NEPA 13's hazard categories are established based on the design of automatic sprinkler systems. These automatic sprinkler systems are a widely used and very ef: fective means of extinguishing or controlling fires in their early stages. This effective- ness is due principally to the fact that being automatic, they can provide protection during periods when the facility is unoccupied. Automatic sprinklers, therefore, be cause of their effectiveness, are mandatory in certain occupancy classifications. They ate not mandatory in rack storage systems, but their usefulness is quite evident Within a rack storage system, sprinklers are generally located along the longitudinal flue spaces (the space between rows of storage perpendicular to the direction of loading) or transverse flue spaces (the space between rows of storage parallel to the direction of loading). If these sprinklers are located along the longitudinal flue pas- ges, they are generally known as in-rack sprinklers. However, if they are located in transverse flue spaces along the aisle or in the rack within 18” of the aisle face, they505 9 FACILITIES SYS Og O. o ee By OC] O00 ch oo HO Oh Plan view eatin Figure 9.14 ‘Typical in-rack sprinkler arrangement for storage over 25" high, are known as face sprinklers, This particular sprinkler location is designed to oppose vertical development of a fire on the external face of the rack. ‘The design requirements of a rack storage sprinkler system are quite involved. 1e designer must consider a variety of design elements such as height of storage sprinkler spacing, sprinkler pipe size, water shield location, discharge pressure, water demand requirements, and so on in order to properly determine the in-rack sprinkler arrangement, One such arrangement is shown in Figure 9.14. The objective here is not to make facilities planners fire protection experts but to provide them with a sense of the complex nature of providing an adequate fire protection system. 9.7 SANITATION SYSTEMS Sanitation systems consist of a hot and cold water supply, a distribution network to supply potable and cleansing water, and a collection network for refuse. Refuse han- dling goes beyond collecting and disposing of wastewater and “soil solids” (known as sewage). It also includes refuse chutes, incinerators, and shredders. The plumbing system, Which typically handles the supply of hot and cold water, and the sewage system form the bulk of the sanitation system, A discharge system typically consists of a series of lateral branches tied to a vertical stack. The system is designed to handle both soil (solid waste material) and wastewater (discharge from basins, baths, and washing machines), The primary problem with drainage networks is the prob- lem of preventing odor passing back into the facility. The water seal trap shown in Figure 9.156 is the most common way of alleviating this problem. This method, however, is not foolproof, and even with design precautions, such as making the trap deeper, itis wise to use venting. Venting is widely used to ensure that odors are507 9. FACILITIES SYS Gases Vent stack Figure 9.16 Vent used to improve water seal integrity. (Source: Reid [11] effectively removed from the facility and vented to the atmosphere. Figure 9.15¢ shows how the trap can be made more effective by introducing an air vent to break the siphon, A typical trap with air vent arrangement is shown in Figure 9.16 9.7.1 Plumbing Systems Plumbing systems within a facility may be required for personnel, processing, and fire protection, Personnel plumbing systems include drinking fountains, toilets, uri- nals, sinks, and showers, The facilities planner should supply the person planning the overall plumbing systems with the location of all personnel plumbing systems and the number of personnel who will use these services Example 9.7 For the office building with a floor area as shown in Figure 9.17, the facilities planner is requited to determine the plumbing requirements for each floor. eg Comriger TL Mecnanicals ity area Figure 9.17 Typical office building floor area508 Part Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES FUNCTIONS ‘Table 9.15 Plumbing Fixture Requirements for the Example Problem ‘Women ‘Men Plumbing Fixture ‘Option 1 Option 1 Option > Water closet 6 6 4 Lavatories 7 7 7 Urinals 2 Note up to 1/3 water cosets can be replaced by urinals, Area of floor = 120" x 240" = 28,800 (using International Building Code Table 9.11) Minimum recommended space is 100 f'/person. For business use type, the maximum allow- able floor population is 800 fe 100 f?/person 288 persons Assume 144 men, 144 women Using Table 9.15, the minimum number of fixtures needed was obtained. The adjusted re- quirement for urinals is as shown in Table 9.15. For industrial or plant operations, the facilities planner must provide process water and drain requirements to the person planning the plumbing serv- ices. In addition, the facilities planner must also provide the composition of all process liquids. The treatment or filtering of these liquids must be carefully planned Plumbing services for fire protection require not only that the proper quan- tity of water be available, but also that the proper water pressure be provided. ‘The most common approach to fire protection is automatic sprinkler systems. The facilities planner’s input into the planning of fire protection plumbing services is a facility layout and a description of the activities to be performed in various areas within the facility. 9.8 BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEMS In many cases, the facilities planner will also play a key role in the transition from construction to the actual operations of the facility in performing its design function as a warchouse, manufacturing plant, service center, or research facility. Building automation systems link most of the previously discussed systems together via sys- tems integration into a central control point of process control devices, temperature and humidity measurements, alarm and security systems, lighting controls, and HVAC monitoring and control. Building automation systems in hospitals, research facilities, and refrigerated warehouses all impact the employee as well as product quality within many operations. “Smart facilities” can be monitored on-site from a central location or monitored remotely via modem connectors.509 9. FACILITIES SYS TEMS One of the things that a facilities planner must consider is how to link sepa- rate facility systems controls and achieve an effective computer-integrated building operation. 9.8.1 ‘Types of Systems Often, there are a number of possible systems: the building management system for HVAC, humidity control, and HVAC power monitoring; energy management systems for lighting; security systems that control access to the facility; or a computerized maintenance management system to control and manage the facility maintenance process. In addition, there can be condition-monitoring systems that create alarms for taking action for repairs, for preventive maintenance (PM) services, or simply for ‘emergency shutdown of specific equipment. Process controls, which can have sig- nificant impact on throughput and quality, add one more stand-alone system also needing effective monitoring 9.8.2 Integration ‘The next step beyond modem connectivity is integration software that allows multi- ple systems to appear as a single system accessible over the Internet from a single location. Processes for monitoring and controlling the building automation system, ‘energy management, the facility maintenance management system, and other stand- alone systems software can now be integrated and viewed over the Internet. Via the Internet, facility operations can start and stop equipment, turn lights ‘on and off, adjust air flows based on outside air temperatures, reset alarms, operate itrigation systems, and schedule occupancy times, Multiple stand-alone systems can now be integrated into a total facility solution by third parties that provide true com: puter-integrated building operations. Today's information technology can provide a ‘one-stop Web site that contains documentation about facility operations, such as ac- cess to current drawings, system operating and repair procedures, preventive main tenance schedules, maintenance records, safety records, MSDS records, room utilization, real-time graphs and trending, and the ability to make and track appoint- ments and to make work requests online. During the planning process for construction of all the facilities systems dis. cussed, the facilities planner must consider how best to have the facility fully ready for transition to operations and commissioning, Facility operators no longer have the time to learn five or more different monitoring and control systems, yet they ‘want to maintain the flexibility to choose the best control system for each applica- tion involved. The fitst need is the ability to easily understand and operate the fa- ry. A second need is the capability to monitor it and to operate it from anywhere, on any computer, without expensive proprietary software. Today's suc- cessful facilities planner will understand facility systems and understand the typical challenges during transition to facilities operations. A successful facilities planner will consider how best to integrate stand-alone systems into an effective operating facility and to use today’s best practices for building automation and information technology. ili510 Par Three FACILITY DESIGN FOR VARIOUS FACILITIES Fl TONS 9.9 FACILITIES MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Successful transition to facility operation comes after good facilities planning, effec- tive systems design, and construction. The design-build phase is extremely short compared with the long-term operation of the facility. Therefore the successful fa- cilities planner understands and considers one more essential system—the facilities maintenance management system (FMMS). Often termed computerized mainte: nance management systems (CMMS) or enterprise asset management (EAM), the MMS supports long-term physical asset management and day-to-day maintenance. is will include all building-related assets—the facilities systems that were dis cussed previously. It will encompass maintenance of internal equipment, whether manufacturing, warehousing, or service related, It includes all mobile equipment as- sociated with the facility, and it can be used to monitor and control contracted maintenance services as well. Simply stated, FMMS is the business management sys. tem for effective facilities management and maintenan Briefly, the FMMS as a business management system may include modules with system functionality for + Asset data and equipment history + Planning, scheduling, work + Parts and material inventory dispatching management + Facility specifications and + Work management and control documentation + Budget control + Occupancy management + Preventive maintenance procedures + Project management + Materials requisitioning and + Regulatory compliance data purchasing + Life-cycle cost data ‘The facilities planner may or may not be directly involved with the selection and implementation of FMMS but should understand basic functionalities and re quirements for implementing an effective FMMS. To facilitate a future FMMS and transition to operations, the facilities planner should support these key areas + Ensure asset/systems documentation «Strive to standardize system is complete. components + Ensure that spare parts are in + Ensure that a facility PM program place and material inventory is is in place on day of established. commissioning, + Validate that regulatory issues and + Ensure that training on all facility all life safety issues have been systems has been established and resolved, ‘occurs before commissioning, 9.10 SUMMARY Planning facility systems is typically not the responsibility of the facilities planner. Nevertheless, the facilities planner will be required to interact with the architects and engineers responsible for planning and designing a facility's systems andSin 9 FACILITIES SYSTEMS should therefore be familiar with the approaches used to plan these systems. Faci ities planners may not be at the facility during actual operation, However, they must envision the transition to facility operations and take steps during the planning process to consider what maintenance will be required during operations. This chapter presents an introduction to the approaches used to plan structural, atmos- pheric, enclosure, lighting and electrical, life safety, and sanitation systems. It has shown how these systems, once designed and operating, can be monitored, con- trolled, and maintained with today's information technology. REFERENCES Fire Resistance Directory, Underwriters Laboratories, Northbrook, IL, 1993, luminating Engineering Society, IESNA Lighting Handbook, th ed., New York, 2002, www ies org, 3. _ International Building Code, 2003. 4. Kuehn, T. 1, 2005 ASHIRAE Handbook: Fundamentals Inch-Pound Edition, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York, 2005, [Link], 5. Life Safety Code Handbook, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1990. 6, National Fire Protection Association—Section 231C, NFPA Publications, Quincy, MA, 1992. 7. NFPA, National Fire Protection Handbook, 2008, www [Link], 8. Niebel, B., and Freivaldis, A. Methods, Standards, and Work Design, WCB/Me Inc, 2002. 9. Olivieri, J.B., How to Design Heating-Cooling Comfort Systems, Business News Publish- ing, Birmingham, MI, 1987. 10, Ramsey, C. G,, and Sleeper, H. R., Archilectural Graphics Standards, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1988, 11 Reid, E., Understanding Buildings, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1989, 12, Schiller, M., Arcbilectural License Seminars, ALS Publishing, Los Angleles, 1988 13, Stanford, H. W., Analysis & Design of Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning S)s- tems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988. 14, Stein, B., Reynolds, J S., and MeGuinness, W. J., Mechanical and Blectrical Equipment for Buildings, 7th ed., John Wiley, New York, 1986, 15. Tompkins, J. A., and Smith, J. D., The Warehouse Management Handbook, McGraw. Hill, New York, 1988. 16. Westinghouse University, www swestinghousclighting com. sw Hill PROBLEMS SECTION 9.2 9.1 Asa facilities planner, is the following statement true or false: “The grid structure should defer to the function of the facility?” Give the reasons for your answer. SECTION 9.3, 9.2 How can the thermal performance of a facility be improved? What is the primary pus- pose of an enclosure system for a manufacturing facility?