Explosives

An explosive substance is a solid or liquid substance (or mixture of substances) which is in itself
capable by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such
a speed as to cause damage to the surroundings.

Types of an explosive

1. Low explosives:

When a low explosive is blasted the process of oxidation of the constituent substances is
propagated by rapid combustion from particle through the mass of the explosive and the effect
of explosion is relatively low. A low explosive is fired by ignition or a flame.

Ex: Gun powder, Fireworks.

[Link] Explosives:

High explosive always contains an ingredient which is explosive in itself, at least when
sensitized by proper means. A high explosive explodes when a violent shock is applied to it with
the help of a detonator; the process of oxidation does not proceed from particle to particle, but is
instantaneous and the constituents react with high velocity. High explosives therefore produce a
shattering effect.

Ex: Nitroglycerine, Ammonium nitrate,TNT, Special gelatin, Slurry explosives,

Emulsion explosives,collodion cotton,Liquid Oxygen Explosives.

Gunpowder:

This is the earliest known explosive and contains the following constituents (by weight, approx.)

Charcoal 15%, Sulphur 10%, Potassium Nitrate 75%.

None of the constituents is explosive by itself. Gunpowder is cheap, stable, safe to handle and it
does not adversely affect the roof in underground mines as its action has a heaving effect. It is
easily manufactured and is available from local supply contractors in many mining localities. It is
however, not used on a large scale as it loses its explosive power when damp and it is not as
strong as other high explosives. Moreover, during blasting, it produces flame of long, duration
and the burning particles are liable to remain in contact with the surrounding atmosphere for
some time. For these reasons gunpowder is not used in wet place and in underground coal
mines. The explosive is fired by safety fuse.

Nitroglycerine:

It is an oily fluid with sp. gr. of 1.6 and freezing point at 13°C. It is insoluble in water and is very
sensitive to explosion by shock of any nature. The sensitivity to shock increases when
nitroglycerine freezes. To render it suitable for industrial use, it must either be absorbed by
some inert material or be gelatinized. NG based explosives are available in 3 consistencies;

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gelatinous, semi gelatinous and powdery. All explosives containing NG have a highly shattering
effect and they produce fumes which cause headache after long exposure. Explosives
containing NG are liable to freeze when the temperature falls to 8° or less and are then more
sensitive to detonation by friction and impact. To avoid this, a low freezing agent, usually di
nitro-glycol which is itself as powerful an explosive as NG, is used. Low freezing explosives are
designated by such prefix as "Polar", e.g Polar viking, Polar special gelatin, etc.

Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3):

It is a white hygroscopic salt, very soluble in water and is comparatively very safe to handle.
When it is detonated it is, however, a powerful explosive. Though ammonium nitrate is more
powerful than the low explosives it is not as powerful as N.G. and it is difficult to denote it by
itself with the help of a detonator, but it can be detonated by a booster of high explosive.

To use ammonium nitrate as an explosive, it should be mixed with diesel oil, N.G. or TN.T.
Ammonium nitrate is an interesting compound, in that it is a high explosive, an oxidizing agent,
and a cooling agent at one and the same time. Prilled ammonium nitrate of fertilizer grade
mixed with diesel oil is used for large dia. holes in quarries.

Ammonium nitrate does not occur in nature and it is preparedby reacting ammonia gas with
nitric acid. When detonated by extremeshock NH NO, decomposes according to the equation.

2NH4NO3= 4H2O +O₂+2N,2346 kcal/gm.

This property comes into play in the utilization of NH4NO3 as an explosive.

Collodion cotton:

A reaction between cellulose compounds and nitric acid yields collodion cotton, a high
explosive. To render it safe to handle it is gelatinized

T.N.T:

Reaction between nitric acid and benzene or toluence compounds yields Trinitrotolune (T.N.T.)
which is highly [Link] of the high explosives can be blasted with the help of detonators
and are said to be cap-sensitive. A detonator has to explosiveor kept in intimate contact with it.
Such cap-sensitive explosive can beblasted with the help of a detonating fuse like cordtex also if
the latteris in close contact. The detonating fuse itself needs to be detonated bya detonator. An
explosive which is not cap-sensitive is blasted bykeeping it in close contact with a booster which
itself needs to beinitiated by a detonator or a detonating fuse. A non cap-sensitiveexplosive is
also known as "booster sensitive". An explosive used inunderground mines has to be cap-
sensitive but the explosive used inquarries may be cap sensitive or booster sensitive.

AN-diesel explosives are not cap-sensitive and have to be blasted by keeping them in intimate
contact with an explosive (booster) which itself is detonated with the help of a detonator. Some

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of the slurry explosives like energel, supergel and powerflow 1, 2, 3, are not cap-sensitive while
most others are.

Explosives with NG base which have to be used in watery places should be of gelatinous or
semi-gelatinous consistency but not powdery and they should sink in water i.e. they should have
sp. gr. of more than 1.0..

Booster:

For effective detonation of some slurry explosives and AN-FO mixture such as GN-1, use of a
high detonation-velocity booster is necessary. ICI India Ltd. manufactures a booster with the
trade name "Primex" which is a mixture of PETN and TNT. It is water resistant, has a velocity of
detonation of 7,000 m/sec, weight strength as 82 and it can be detonated by a detonating fuse
or, a detonator. The booster manufactured by IDL Chemicals Ltd. is marketed by the trade
name "Pentolite" which has a sp. gr. of 1.55 to 1.61. Compared with normal explosives boosters
are quite costly. Primex is cast in cylindrical pellets provided with two logitudinal holes for
threading on to a down line of detonating fuse. For priming, a detonating fuse is threaded
through the two holes in the Primex pellet and a knot tied at the top. This assembly is then
inserted into a cartridge of slurry and its mouth re-tied by a wire. After lowering the primer
cartridge, are freely dropped down the hole.

A cast booster is not a substitute for the explosive charge; it may be compared with a very
powerful detonator of large size and is preferred for deep large dia. blast-holes in opencast
mines. During use a cast booster is knotted to the detonating fuse for placement at the bottom
of the blast-hole and additional boosters are threaded in the same detonating fuse so that their
positions coincide with the level of hard rock when the fuse is in position in the blast-hole. After
lowering the booster by the detonating fuse, AN-based site-mixed or plant-mixed slurry is
poured or pumped in the hole. As the slurry is pumped in, special ingredients are added to it at
intervals to cover the hard-rock portion.

Gelatinous NG-based explosives

having high NG content like OCG or special gelatine can be used as a booster or primer
explosive. Pentolite boosters manufactured by IDL Chemicals Ltd. do not contain NG or other
headache - causing ingredients. They are equipped with 2 holes for easy initiation with
detonating cord or detonators. A PETN based booster in a shot-hole occupies only 1 to 2% of
the total explosive charge but a high explosive like OCG, if used as a booster, occupies 15-20%
of the total explosive charge.

AN-Fuel Oil Explosives (ANFO) :

Ammonium nitrate, mixed with diesel oil, is used on a large scale for blasting in the quarries of
coal and metal mines. The most effective and oxygen-balanced explosive mixture is one with 5
to 6% of diesel oil (by wt.) It has a sp. gr. of 0.8 to 1.0, wt. strength of 75-80 and velocity of
detonation at 3500 m/sec. In the dry season, 7 litres diesel for 100 kg of AN suffice but in wet

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season, the quantity should be increased to 9 litres. Diesel oil in excess of 8% tends to lower
the sensitivity of ANFO to initiation. The mixture causes irritation of the skin and the workers
should, therefore, wear gum boots and rubber hand gloves. The mixing should be done with
wooden shovels avoiding contact with iron. The mixture is safe to handle and without formation
into cartridges can be mechanically loaded into blast-holdes. Where ANFO consumption is
heavy stationary ANFO mixer similar to the concrete mixer, may be placed at a centrally
selected site. In case of a pneumatic ANFO loader, an electric detonator should not be used
unless steps are taken to prevent premature initiation due to static electricity.

As the mixture cannot be initiated in the normal way by a detonator it is necessary to prime it
with a small quantity of O.C.G. or a booster. It is a good practice to use high explosive primer
cartridges at the top as well as at the bottom of the hole explosives are difficult to sink in water
due to low density of AN, and should preferably not be used in watery holes. If however, AN-fuel
oil mixture has to be used n watery holes it should be packed in polythene bags and forced
down the hole with the weight of a high explosive and the stemming above it. Holes of 62 mm
dia. and above are considered economic for use of AN-FO explosives.

An increase in blast-hole dia. beyond 300 mm decreases the sensitivity to initiation of ANFO
explosives. With above 4 percent water an ANFO, the velocity of detonation decreases sharply
and the mixture with 9 percent or more water cannot be detonated. When using ANFO,it is
essential to have uniform mixing of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil. If the ammonium nitrate is not
of adequate porous quality, it may separate from fuel oil resulting in inferior performance.

AN-FO explosive cannot be initiated direct by No. 6 detonator. It can, however, be blasted by a
detonating fuse which needs no. 6 detonator for initiation. It may be initiated by no. 8 detonator
whichis not much used in mining practice.

Slurry Explosives:

The slurry explosives are with jelly like consistency and are water gels. (The water-gel is a
mixture of an oxidizer and fuel sensitizer in an aqueous medium, thickened with a gum and
gelled with cross linking agent). In the case of a permitted slurry, a coolant is added to reduce
incendivity.

Emulsion Explosives:

An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two liquids that do not dissolve in each other. In more
technical terms, an emulsion is described as a two-phase system in which an inner or dispersed
phase is distributed in an outer or continuous phase. Emulsions have for many years,
contributed to our daily lives in such products as insecticides, photographic films and papers
and cosmetics.

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Liquid Oxygen Explosives:

Oxygen gas liquefies at 183°C. A given volume of liquid oxygen, when gaseous, is equivalent to
840 times at N.T.P. i.e. it has as much oxygen as would be available from 4000 times its volume
of atmospheric air. If a combustible ingredient, made in the form of a cartridge, is soaked in
liquid oxygen and then subjected to reaction takes place with such terrific speed that large
volume of a gas is instantaneously released at high temperature so as to cause explosion. The
velocity of detonation under suitable conditions of confinement can be faster than 5000 m/sec.
This is the principle behind the use of liquid oxygen (LOX) as explosive.

LOX is used for removal of overburden as well as mineral in the quarries of coal as well as
metaliferrous mines. But its use is prohibited in underground coal mines. LOX is marketed by
Indian Oxygen Ltd. in cartridges of two types.

i. Small cartridges of dia. 25 mm to 90 mm

ii. Large cartridges of dia over 100 mm upto 210 mm.

For small as well as large cartridges there is a "standard “cartridge. For small group the
standard cartridge is 38 mm dia x 300 mm long. The standard cartridge of large group is called
"Full cartridge" and it is 190 mm dia x 600 mm long. The other cartridges are specified in terms
of volume of the standard cartridge. In blasting performance, a full cartridge of LOX according to
LOX dealers and results in the field, is considered equivalent to 18 kg of conventional
explosives.

A LOX cartridge ready for blasting is prepared at the depots by soaking an absorbent cartridge
in liquid oxygen. The basic ingredient of an absorbent cartridge is a cellulosic substance like
crushed jutestalk or other agriculture product though other substances such as hydrocarbons or
metallic powders, are used to impart to the soaked cartridge the properties of an industrial
explosive. The absorbent cartridge for use in coal contains a special composition called "Loxite
C", with a view to reduce the temperature of the gaseous products after the blasting an such
cartridges for use in coal are called LOX-C. The absorbent cartridge consists of the above
ingredients wrapped in paper covered by cloth. Loxite factory at Ranchi manufactures absorbent
cartridges which are kept in stock at the depots. LOX cartridges are not stored in colliery
magazines, but are supplied by depots on 2 to 3 hours' prior intimation of the exact requirement
for blasting.

For small consumers within 300 km of oxygen factories liquid oxygen is supplied in special
containers of 26 liters by train.

During transit some evaporation, 5 to 10%, does take place. The small consumers have to
obtain lixite absorbent cartridges, soaking boxes and other equipment to prepare LOX
cartridges on the spot. Only small cartridges are prepared at the quarries in this manner for use
in holes drilled by jack hammers or wagon drills.

LOX cartridges are inflammable and the flow of gaseous oxygen emanating from a cartridge will
cause smouldering material, glowing coals, and cigarette stubs to burst into flames. LOX should
therefore be kept away from such burning or smouldering [Link] of LOX are

5
not constant. It depends much on the time that has elapsed between removal from the soaking
vessels and firing. It is therefore not possible to specify the weight strength of LOX cartridge.
LOX does not require a booster for blasting.

The LOX cartridges should be used in the field without delay (within half an hour in the case of
large cartridges) to prevents loss of absorbed liquid oxygen. Grease or oil should not come in
contact with the cartridges at any stage. If the oxygen of LOX cartridge evaporates, the
absorbent, cartridge can be used again to prepare LOX cartridge at the depot. The 'Life' of a
LOX cartridge in open is about one hour i.e. its full blasting power is available when used within
that period but diminishes gradually after that period. The "Life" however, considerably
increases in the confinement of the hole. The cartridge loses its oxygen by gradual evaporation
if it comes in contact with water. For use in watery holes only H-type cartridges wrapped in a
polythene bag before lowering in the hole should be used. The toe will be not being sufficiently
loosened if LOX is used without such precautions in watery holes.

LOX can be fired with or without the help of a detonator. A hole charged with LOX can be fired
with safety fuse alone like gunpowder. In small-hole blasting, detonators are not much used as
safety fuse is economic. Holes deeper than 3 m are fired by a detonating fuse.

Classification of explosives: According to explosive rules the explosives and their

accessories are classified into eight classes these are

• Class-1:Gunpowder

• Class-2: Nitrate mixtures (like ANFO, Aquadyne, Energel, GN-1, Godyne, Permadyne, . .
Powerflow, Permallow. Powerite. Superdyne. Supergel, Toeblast.)

• Class-3: Nitro compounds

Div:-1:Blasting gelatine, Special gelatine, O.C.G. Ajax-G, Viking-G, Soligex, etc.

Div:-2: Gun cotton, PETN, TNT, etc.

• Class -4 : Chlorate mixtures

•Class-5: Fluminate

•Class-6: Ammunition

Div-1: Safety fuse, Igniter cord, Connectors, Electric lighters etc,

Div- 2 :Cordiex, Detonating fuse, Plastic igniter cord, fuse, igniters, etc.

Div-3: Detonators, Delay detonator, relays, etc.

•Class 7 Fireworks

•Class-8: Liquid Oxygen Explosive (LOX).

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Explosive properties:

The main parameters that influence the performance and selection of an explosive are:

 Effective energy
 Velocity of detonation
 Density
 Detonation
 Sensitivity
 Water resistance
 Physical characteristics
 Storage life
 Fume characteristics

1. Effective energy:

Some explosive energy is always wasted (vented to the atmosphere, lost as heat, etc) and so it
is more realistic to express explosive strength in terms of the amount of energy a user can
expect to have available to do useful work (ICI 1997). This parameter is termed the effective
energy and is used by all major mining companies in Australia to compare explosive strengths.
Effective energy is defined as the total energy released by the explosive gases as they expand
and do useful work from the initial detonation down to a cut-off pressure of 100 MPa. A cut-off
pressure is used because it is recognized that the ability of a gas to do work diminishes as the
confining pressure drops (ICI 1997).

a) Relative effective energy:

Manufacturers tend to use their own methods for determining explosive energies and it can be
misleading to compare quoted values from different suppliers. A more useful indication of the
strength of an explosive is the relative effective energy. Relative weight effective energy
(RWEE). RWEE is defined as the effective energy of an explosive compared to the effective
energy of an equal weight of standard ANFO (i.e., 94% AN, 6% FO. density=0.8 g/cm³). RWEE
is expressed as a percentage, with hat of ANFO being 100%.

b) Shock and heave energy:

Energy is delivered by an explosive in two main forms, shock energy and heave energy. At
detonation, the rapidly expanding gases compress the rock around the charge and cause a
shock wave to travel through the surrounding rock mass. The gases continue to expand, forcing
their way into fractures created by the shock wave, and displace the fractured rock outwards.
This latter effect of the expanding gases is termed heave. The mechanism by which an
explosive breaks rock is explained in more detail in section 4.

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[Link] of Detonation (VOD):

The velocity of detonation (VOD) is the rate at which the detonation wave travels along an
explosive column. The greater the VOD the greater the power or 'shattering effect of an
explosive. High VOD explosives are more suitable in hard rock and low VOD in softer rock.
Generally, explosives with a lower VOD tend to release gas over a longer period and
consequently have more "heave. The VOD range in commercial explosives is 2500-7500 m/s.

[Link]:

The density of a explosive determines the charge weight per meter of hole.

4. Detonation pressure:

Detonation pressure is the pressure in the reaction zone as an explosive detonates. It is a

significant indicator of the ability of an explosive to produce good fragmentation. A high
detonation pressure is one of the desirable characteristics in a primer (Atlas 1987).

[Link]:

Sensitivity is a measure of the ease with which an explosive can be detonated by heat, friction
or shock and of its ability to propagate that detonation. As described in section 3.1.2, modern
commercial explosives can be grouped into two main categories according to their sensitivity,
detonator sensitive explosives and blasting agents. Some explosives with very high sensitivity.
Such as pure nitroglycerin or dynamite, can be detonated by mechanical impact or friction.

The sensitivity of an explosive has other operational implications. If the sensitivity is too low, the
detonation within a blast hole can be interrupted if there are gaps or obstacles between the
charges. An explosive that is too sensitive can result in propagation of a detonation from one
blast hole to another (sympathetic detonation). There are various measures of sensitivity (Atlas
1987).

Minimum Booster The smallest detonator or primer charge that will produce detonation

Gap Sensitivity The ability of an explosive to propagate across an air gap. The test is
conducted on unconfined cartridges.

Critical Diameter The smallest diameter at which the detonation will propagate along a
column of explosive.

Pressure Tolerance The static pressure in a blast hole at which the explosive will fail to
detonate.

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6. Fume characteristics:

The gases produced by the detonation of an explosive consist mostly of non-toxic carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and steam. However, small amounts of toxic gases are also produced, the
main ones being carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen.

a) Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is produced by incomplete combustion of carbonaceous material. Some

properties are:

 extremely toxic -0.1% collapse, 1% immediate death

 colorless, odorless, tasteless
 highly flammable- burns with blue flame 12.5% to 74.2%
 explosive - maximum violence at 29% by volume in air

b) Oxides of nitrogen

The oxides of nitrogen are nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Of
these, nitrogen dioxide is the most toxic. The gas dissolves readily in the water in eyes and
lungs to form both nitrous and nitric acids which cause irritation and, at higher concentration,
corrosion of the eyes and respiratory system. At a concentration in the air of 100 ppm, coughing
may commence and a concentration of 200 ppm is likely to be fatal (McPherson 1991, p182).

Fortunately, even under extreme conditions, the concentrations of these gases in explosive
fumes. Are very small (of the order of 0.1%). Their effects are minimized by after blasting; wait a
set time before re-entering the area to allow fumes to clear. Provide sufficient ventilation to
disperse the fumes

7. Storage properties:

Explosives deteriorate and shelf life is particularly affected by both climate and magazine
conditions. Statutory authorities in each State and Territory are responsible for the approval and
licensing of magazines used for storing explosives. The maintenance of explosives magazines
is also subject to Statutory Regulations. Explosive manufacturers specify the storage properties
or shelf life of their products, based on normal magazine conditions (ICI 1997).

Nitroglycerin products are the most susceptible to deterioration during storage. Dynamite
undergoes a normal aging process which rarely affects the energy output but can affect the
appearance and sensitivity.

8. Water resistance:

Blasting often takes place in wet conditions, even underwater for special tasks. In these cases,
the water resistance of an explosive is a very important consideration. ANFO has no water
resistance whilst emulsions and slurries have excellent water resistance. The water resistance
of an explosive can be classified by testing its ability to detonate after exposure to water for
certain time periods (Atlas 1987).

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9. Physical characteristics:

The physical characteristics of an explosive can be important with respect to handling and
loading into blast holes. ANFO is a granular material, which is loose and free-flowing. It can be
readily poured into a blast hole from bags or blown in from a large container by means of
compressed [Link] emulsions are gel-like in consistency and can be pumped into blast holes
from large containers; other emulsions are more like putty and can be packaged in plastic
sausage-shaped cartridges that are easy to load by hand into a blast hole.

Permitted Explosives:

All explosives create heat and some flame when fired. To avoid explosion of gas or coal dust in
an underground coal mine, it is essential that the heat and flame produced by an .explosive
should be incapable of igniting the gas or coal dust. For this reason explosives for use in
underground coal mines are approved by the CMRS and DGMS after certain tests.

A permitted explosive is one which has been subjected to stringent test by the CMRS and found
to be incapable of igniting firedamp or coal dust when used in charges up to a specified weight.
Each cartridge of permitted explosive is contained in a wrapper clearly marked with the letter P.

The safety of "Permitted Explosive" depends primarily upon (i) low temperature, and (ii) duration
of flame produced, the flame lasting only 1/1,000th second. A cooling agent like sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, sodium fluoride, etc. is an essential constituent of a permitted
explosive and the main constituents are NG (only in some explosives), ammonium nitrate,
sodium chloride and in non-slurry type permitted explosives, absorbing materials.

Permitted explosives are categorized in the following groups and the group to which a cartridge
of explosive belongs is printed on the wrapper of the cartridge.

Group:

P1 - Unsheathed explosives, such as Ajax G, Viking G and slurry explosives

like Godyne.

P2 - Sheathed explosives.

P3 - Equivalent sheathed explosives (Eq. S) e.g. Unisax G permadyne.

P4 - Explosives approved for special purposes, such as for delay firing, firing in
ripping, etc.; hitherto known as ultra-safe explosives. These are not produced in
India. British examples are; carribel, Nobel's explosive 1235.

P5 - Off-the-solid explosives (for solid blasting) e.g. Soligex, slurry explosive

Pentadyne.

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 DETONATORS AND ACCESSORIES
High explosives are initiated by detonators or detonating fuses. A detonator is a small copper or
aluminum tube containing essentially a small auxiliary charge of special explosive. A chemical
reaction initiated by a flame or electric current in the special explosive can build up very rapidly
into an explosion of sufficient intensity to project a detonation wave throughout a high explosion
enclosing the detonator.

Detonators are of the following types:

1. Plain detonators: These are fired by safety fuses, the spark or "spit" from the fuse causing
the detonator to explode; these are sometimes called "ordinary" detonators.

2. Ordinary electric detonators: These are fired by passage of electric current through the
detonator. They are further subdivided as:

(a) Low tension detonators, and

(b) High tension detonators (not generally used in mining).

Ordinary electric detonators are of instantaneous type, i.e. without any delay elemen They are
of copper or aluminium tubes.

[Link] detonators: These are essentially low tension electric detonators with a delay element,
the object in their use being to phase the firing of shots, so that time and effort are saved in
charging and firing several successive rounds of shots.

These are subdivided as:

(a) Half second or long delay detonators, and

(b) Milli-second delay detonators (also known as short delay detonators).

Plain detonator: i.e. non-electric consists simply of an aluminium tube 6 mm dia., 37 to 50 mm

long, filled 1/3 with A.S.A. composition and penta-erythritol tetra-nitrate (P.E.T.N.). The A.S.A.
composition consists of a mixture of lead sized. (A), lead styphnate, (S) and a little aluminium
powder (A). The A.S.A. priming composition initiates the base charge of PE.T.N. which is a
much more powerful explosive.

No. 6 detonator is suitable for normal requirements of mining work. No. 8 detonator is more
powerful than No. 6 but is not generally used.

Ordinary electric detonator: i.e. non-delay type or instantaneous type, the priming charge and
base charge are the same as for plain detonator, but they are fired, not by ignition of a safety
fuse, but by passing electric current through a fuse head. The current ignites a flashing
composition in the fuse head, which in turn, initiates the priming charge.

11
The resistance of low tension detonators with a 45 m long shotfiring cable is about 7ohms.
Current required for ignition of the fusehead is 0.5 amps so that a single detonator can be
blasted with minimum voltage of 3.5 V. The circuit continuity of a L.T. detonator can be tested
by a galvanometer and simultaneous shotfiring of a number of detonators with series connection
is possible.

Delay Detonators

In appearance and composition, this is like the L.T. detonator. The L.T. detonator described
above is of instantaneous type; the moment voltage is applied to it, the detonator explodes and
along with it, the enclosing explosive. A delay detonator has a delay element introduced
between the fusehead and the priming charge. (Fig. 8.2). The delay element consists of a
copper or brass sleeve filled with a special composition which burns at a specified rate and the
delay is obtained by varying the length of the sleeve containing the special composition.

Delay detonators of some manufactures have antistatic sleeve over the fusehead as a
protection against static electricity hazard.

The delay detonators and non-delay detonators are distinguished by the colours of lead wires.
The delay period is marked on a tag attached to the wires. Moreover the delay number is
stamped on the bottom of tube.

In underground coal mines aluminium detonators are not permitted but only copper detonators
should be used.

Permission from the D.G.M.S. is required before using delay detonators in underground coal
mines. Delay detonators and non-delay detonators should not be kept in the same box.

Advantages of Delay Detonators

1. Reduced consumption of explosive as blasting is more efficient due to availability of a

free face for each row or round of shots e.g. blasting due to No. 1 delay detonator gives
a free face for the blasting effect of shots fired by No. 2 detonator.
2. Increased fragmentation and ease of loading the rock or coal. Broken rocks from
Successive shots collide in air, thereby increasing the fragmentation.
3. Considerable time is saved in that the whole round of shots is fired in a fraction of a
second. This is the chief advantage. If individual shots, or even groups of 5 or 6 shots
simultaneously by L.T. detonators are fired, the time required for inspection and
clearance of fumes and gases betweer successive firings is considerable. In steep
seams, the exertion involved in frequent trips for such examinations and connections is
saved.
4. The millisecond delay (short delay) detonators have been observed to produce less
ground vibrations than the half second delay detonators and are therefore used
inmechanized quarries where blasting of large diameter holes containing heavy
chargesis likely to produce excessive ground vibrations and damage to nearby surface
buildingsand other important engine foundations, etc.

12
Accessories

Safety Fuse:

A safety fuse which looks lil e a cord consists of a core of fine grained gunpowder wrapped with
layers of a tape or textile yarn and waterproof coatings. The burning speed is ally 100 to 120
sec metre. ICI. manufacturers a range of safety fuses to suit various conditions, 2. Double Bull
brand for dry conditions. Blue Sump for damp conditions, OCPS (orange coloured plastic
sheathed) and Blue Plastic for wet and very rugged conditions. IDL also manufactures safety
fuse (yellow). When ore end of the fuse is ignited, it carries the flame at a form rate to ignite gun
powder or to detonate an ordinary detonator which is turn can detonate a high explosive.

Detonating Fuse:

For shallow depths, say less than 3 m, and for small number of holes, a detonator is inserted in
the cartridge itself and detonated by ignition of safety fuse or in the case of elec detonator, by
an exploder. For a large no. of holes blasted at a time in mechanised quarries and in U/G coal
mines electric detonators are used. A deep hole in a quarry needs a long length of detonator
leads and to avoid this it is common to use a detonating fuse like cordtex (trade name of ICI.
The fuse consists of a core of PETN enclosed in a tape which is wrapped with cloth. The fuse is
then completely enclosed in a tubular cover of plastic material which is white for Cordtex and
orange for Geocord detonating fuse (ICI). The detonating fuse looks like a plastic cord; its
external dia. is about 5 mm and weight about 20 g per metre length. It has a velocity of
detonation of 6500 m/sec. and it is practically instantaneous in its action.

A large number of shots connected with detonating fuse can be blasted by a single detonator. A
detonating the fuse through the plastic cover. Water may however penetrate into the core
through the cut ends which can be guarded against by sealing them with tape or water-proofing
compound.

A detonating fuse is often used for demolition operations.

Nonel:

The Nonel system of detonation is developed by Nobel AB of Sweeden. Primers of explosives

with Nonel detonators inserted in them are charged in the blast-holes and the Nonel tubes are
bunched for convenience of connection to the mains blasting system. Upon initiation, the shock
wave passes down the plastic tubes, the insides of which are coated with reactive substance
that maintains the shock wave at a rate of approx. 2000 m. per second which has sufficient
energy to initiate the primary explosive or delay element in a detonator. Since the reaction is
contained in the tube, this has no blasting effect and acts as a signal conductor.

Nonel means non-electric detonator. The flexible plastic tube has 3 mm external and1.5 mm
internal diam. The tubes are available in pre-cut lengths. One end of the tube is fittedwith a non-

13
electric delay detonator which is crimped to it in the factory while the other end issealed. The
end having detonator is lowered down into the blast hole while the sealed end projects outside
the hole. The sealed end is initited by a detonator or detonating cord.

The advantage of the Nonel system lies in its extreme resistance to accidental initiation by static
electricity, stray current, radio transmission, flame, friction and impact. It is also immune to
misfires caused by current leakage in conductive ore bodies and eliminates the needfor
complicated electrical circuit testing and shot-firing equipment.

Raydet manufactured by IDL Chemicals, is just like Nonel.

Raydet:

Raydet is a non-electric initiating device combing the versatility and advantages of electric
detonator and detonating cord. It consists of a plastic tube carrying a very small quantity of
explosive material on its inner surface. A high strength no. 8 instantaneous or delay detonator is
crimped to one end of the raytube. When initiated, a low order shock wave travels throughthe
tube and initiates the detonators. Raydet can be initiated by a detonator or a detonating cord. A
tag indicates the delay number of reydet and a tape fastening the tube in a coil indicates the
tube length. Length of tube varies from 3 m to 45 m. The delays are from no. O delay to no. 15
delay; No. O delay is instantaneous No. 1 delay is 50 ms and No. 15 delay is 625 ms.

When using the raydet, do not cut factory sealed end of raytube and do not connecttwo
raytubes. One raytube will not initiate another.

Detonating Relay:

In opencast workings, detonating relays using detonating fuse for initiation provide a non-
electric delay firing system. This method avoids the electrical connections which are required
when using delay detonators. A detonating relay is essentially an assembly of two open-ended
delay detonators coupled together with flexible neoprene tubing in an aluminium sleeve suitable
for crimping into a detonating fuse.

Inside the detonating relay, the construction is symmetrical with the delay elementeither end so
that the detonation wave may pass in either direction. The delay interval for each detonating
relay varies from 15-45 millisecond. In sue, the main or branch line of detonatingfuse is cut at
the point where a delay is required, and the detonating relay is then crimped between the two
cut ends of the line. By judicious selection of the points at which the detonatingrelays are
inserted, any delay firing sequence can be arranged. Being nonelectricnature, detonating relays
are insensitive to stray current and static electric.

Cord relays

Delays detonating relays manufactured by IDI. Chemicals are known by the tradename Cord
Relays.

A cord relay has a dia. of 11.5 and length of 152 mm. They are available with two d periods, 15
ms and 25 ms.

14
Under the Explosives Rules, the various explosives and accessories are classified und the
following headings:

Class 1 - Gun powder.

Class 2 - Nitrate mixture (e.g. GN/1, Powerflo, Godyne, Pentadyne, etc.)

Class 3 - Nitro compounds, e.g. Blasting Gelatine, SpecialGelatine, O.C.G. permitted

. explosives, Permex, Gelonite, Powex 80, TNT, gun cotton, PET etc.

Class 4 - Chlorate mixtures.

Class 5 - Fulminate.

Class 6 - Ammunition safety fuse, detonating fuse, detonators, delay detonator relays, etc.

Class 7 - Fireworks.

Class 8 - Liquid Oxygen Explosives

Circuit Tester :

In electric shot firing before any attempt is made to fire the shots, the circuit is sometime tested
to make sure that there is not open or short circuit. Such testing should be done b approved
apparatus and it is important that the current passed during testing should be limit so that there
is no possibility of accidental explosion of the detonators. In addition, all test must be done from
a safe a place and safe distance from the blast site.

An instrument to test continuity of an electric circuit for blasting is the blastometer manufactured
by IDI. Chemicals Ltd. It is an electronic solid state circuit tester and is available in two ranges:

(a) 0 to 100 ohms for underground coal mines.

(b) 0 to 100 ohms for other applications.

Crimper

A crimper is a paid of pliers to crimp or press the end of a plain detonator tube on safety fuse
inserted into it so that the fuse cannot come out of the detonator. It is dangerou crimp the tube
end with teeth.

Shot firing cables:

During electric shot firing the leads for the detonator are connected to long shot firing cables
(not less than 30 m in length) to fire the shots from a safe distance. The cables are twin core
and insulated to withstand at least 250 V.

Other accessories for shot firing include.

 Wooden stemming rod to stem the holes.

15
  A wooden dolly weighted with lead or brass for deep holes in mechanised quarries.
 A scraper made of brass to clean the holes and detect cracks.
 A pricker made of brass, aluminium or wood to prick the cartridge prior to inserting the
detonator or detonating fuse.

Exploder:

Electric shotfiring is safer, quicker, and more convenient than ordinary fuse firing by flame or
ignition as it provides safety to the shotfirer and his helpers. Tapping of electric power from
lighting or signalling lines is not permitted by the Regulations.

The portable apparatus which provides the current necessary for firing electric detonatorsis
called an exploder.

The types of exploders than are currently used in India.

Magneto (or Dynamo) Exploder:

The magneto exploder consists essentially of a permanent steel magnet between the poles of
which revolves an armature rotated through gearing by rotary handle or by a rack and pinion.
The value of the voltage depends upon the speed at which the armature revolves and the flux
created by the magnets. A low tension exploder gives a voltage of about 15 volts. A.H.T.
exploder gives about 125 volts. The mangneto exploder fires only 1 or 2 shots at a time with
single shot exploder and upto 6 shots in series with a 6-shot exploder.

The exploder for U/G coal mines should be intrinsically safe. The armature is actuated by a
special twist action detachable key which should always be with the shotfirer.

Battery Condenser Exploder:

The current is provided from a battery of 4 or more dry primary cells connected in series, each
giving an e.m.f. of 1.5 V per cell. It is operated by a detachable key. Rotation of the handle
through half a revolution first winds up a time up a time switch against the tension of a spring
and then trips the mechanism which is controlled by a centrifugal governor so that the battery is
connected to the condenser during a predetermined interval of time (a small fraction of a
second). The Rhino exploder is the market is an example of battery condenser exploder. It in
battery operated condenser discharge type exploder capable of firing upto 3 shots at a time in
Rhino 3 model (and upto 25 with Rhino-25). When using the exploder, the two wires of shot
firing cable are connected to the terminals on the exploder. Insert key and rotate one step
clockwise. The action charges a 150 microfarad eletrolytic condenser and a small neon lamp
glows very brightly. To fire, turn key anticlockwise to "Off" position. This action explodes the
detonator and also discharges the residual charge instantly. In Rhino-25 the firing current is 1.5
amps, input D.C. volts 6, output D.C. volts 600 and firing current duration 3-4 millisecond.

The exploder uses only one P-276 Eveready battery.. Rhino exploders are permitted only in
degree 1 and degree 2 gassy mines of coal,

Condenser Dynamo Exploder:

16
These are manufactured by Narendra & Co. The machine is suitable for operationsin places
where inflammable gas does not constitute a hazard. Three types are in the market.

CNT 50 to fire 50 detonators connected in series.

CNT 100 to fire 100 detonators in series.
CNT 200 to fire 200 detonators in series.

All the three are suitable where the circuit resistance is 160 ohms. The CNT-100 exploder has
an output voltage of 750 V.D.C. The duration of current impulse to the line varies from 5 to 6
millisecond. It has got one visual neon indicating lamp to indicate that the exploder is ready to
fire. To operate - connect the shot firing cable to the exploder terminals. Place handle on to the
unlocking shaft; rewind until the moon light comes on and then fire; switch off and disconnect.

Storage of Explosives:

A building where explosives and detonators are stored is called a Magazine. A magazine
construction has to be approved by the Inspector of Explosives and it has to be on a site which
also needs his approval. Certain safe distances are specified for the magazine site and they
specify the minimum distance of residential quarters, public roads, etc. from the magazine.
These distances depend upon the capacity of the magazine; larger capacity requires longer
safe distance. Small magazines in the mine premises are according to license in Form J. Such a
license permits the magazine owner to store upto 45 kg of gun powder, 5 kg of other
NGexplosives, 200 detonators, 50 kg slurry explosives (nitrate mixture) and any quantity of
safety fuse. The large magazines in the mine premises are according to license in Form L for
storing high explosives upto 25,000 kg and 2,00,000 detonators.

Under the Explosives Rules the following can be stored together in the same magazines:

Gunpowder (class 1), nitrate mixture (class 2), nitro compounds (class 3), chlorate mixture
(class 4), safety fuse, plastic igniter chord and detonating fuse (all of class 6).

Procedure for Establishing a Magazine:

An application in form 'C' and 'D' should be made to the Regional Controller Explosives together
with six copies of site plan and magazine constructional details. He will forward all the
documents to chief Controller of Explosives (CCE). CCE will then issue a form E plus a draft
copy of the license 'L and will also pass one copy of site plan to District Magistrate who will
issue a 'No Objection Certificate'. Based on this, CCE will allow the applicant to proceed ahead
with the construction of the magazine and also issue a license in form”L” . On completion of the
building the Regional Controller will inspect the magazine and endorse the license which must
be renewed annually.

17
A portable magazine requires a license from the Chief Controller of Explosives. It should be
located on a ground about 5 m x 2 m keeping the following safe distances:

 From all buildings, huts, places of worship, officers, houses, schools, factories, etc......95
m.
 From all roads, river walls, market, playground, etc....48 m.
 From overhead high tension electric line... 91 m.

PRECAUTIONS WHILE TRANSPORTING OF EXPLOSIVES:

Where explosives are transported in bulk, the following precautions shall be taken:

1. Transport of explosives from the magazine to the priming station or the site of blasting shall
not be done except in original wooden or cardboard packing cases. The quantity or explosive
transported at one time to the site of blasting shall not exceed the actual quantity required for
use in one round of shots. Explosives shall be transported to the site of blasting not more than
90 minutes before the commencement of charging of the holes.

[Link] mechanically propelled vehicle shall be used for the transport of explosives unless it is of a
type approved in writing by the Chief Inspector.

[Link] vehicle used for transportation of explosive shall be marked or placarded on both sides
and ends with the word "Explosives' in white letters not less than 15 cm high on a red
background.

[Link] mechanically propelled vehicle transporting explosives shall be provided with not less
than two fire extinguishers (one of carbon tetrachloride type for petroleum fire and the other of
carbon dioxide under pressure type for electrical fire) suitably placed for convenient use.

[Link] vehicle used for transport of explosives shall not be overloaded and in no case shall the
explosive cases be piled higher than the sides of its body.

[Link] and detonators shall not be transported in the same vehicle, at the same time.

7. No persons other than the driver and his helper shall ride on a mechanically propelled vehicle
used for transport of explosives.

8. A vehicle loaded with explosive shall not be left unattended.

9. Engine of a vehicle transporting explosives shall be stopped and the brakes set securely
before it unloaded or left standing.

10 .A vehicle transporting explosives shall not be driven at a speed exceeding 25 kilometers per
hour.

11. A vehicle loaded with explosives shall not be taken into garage or repair shop and shall not
be parked in a congested place.

18
12. A vehicle transporting explosives shall not be re-fuelled except in emergencies and only
when its engine is stopped and other precautions taken to prevent accidents.

13. No trailer shall be attached to a vehicle transporting explosives

14. Every vehicle used for the transport of explosives shall be carefully inspected once in every
24 hours by competent person to ensure that

a. fire extinguishers are filled and in place,

b. the electric wiring is well-insulated and firmly secured

c. the chassis, engine and body are clean and free from surplus nit and grease,

d the fuel tank and feed lines are not leaking, and

e. lights, brakes and steering mechanism are in good working order.

[Link] of every inspection made under clause (7.3) shall be signed and dated by competent
person making the inspection.

[Link] operations connected with transport of explosives shall be conducted under the personal
supervision of a Mining mate/Mine Foreman solely placed in charge of blasting operations at the
mine.

The blaster shall personally search every person engaged in the transport and use of explosives
and shall satisfy himself that no person so engaged has in his possession any cigarette, "hiri' or
other smoking apparatus, or any match or any other apparatus of any kind capable of producing
a light, flame or spark.

Deterioration in quality during storage:

The chemical composition of explosives may change slightly after storage under humid and hot
conditions. The explosive may become insensitive to detonation or unsafe to use if the change
in chemical composition is excessive. At the mines no laboratory tests are carried out to decide
the extent of deterioration, but visual examination is the only guide. When the wrapper of a
gelatinous nitroglycerine explosive is removed carefully an explosive in a good state would
permit the wrapper to come off cleanly from the cartridge and there would be no evidence of
discoloration, incrustation, softening or exudation of liquid in the explosive itself. A gelatinous
explosive slightly darkens during storage, particularly at the ends due to absorption of moisture
from the air. Such discoloration is usually accompanied by softening and dampening of the
explosives. The moisture absorbed by the explosive may cause a white incrustation of
ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate on a gelatinous explosive. A higher degree of deterioration
is indicated by exudation of nitroglycerine or aqueous solutions of sodium or ammonium nitrate
and the cartridges becoming too plastic. Such explosive should not be used but destroyed.

19
Powdery nitroglycerine explosives: detenorate much faster than the gelatinous quality as the
former absorb moisture more readily. The deterioration is indicated by discoloration at the ends,
softening and dampness. If there is any exudation of liquid the cartridges should be destroyed.

Ammonium nitrate explosives: mixed with TNT cake and become solid due to absorption of
moisture during storage. If the cartridges become so solid that they cannot break easily between
the finger and the thumb, they should not be used but destroyed.

Slurry watergel emulsion explosives: Deterioration of slurry explosives is usually indicated by

a breakdown of the gel into separate liquid and solid components. It may also appeal as
hardening of the explosive cartridge. Cartridges may also be swollen or distored and salts in the
composition may crystallise on the outside.

Detonators: Detonators showing signs of corrosion of the tubes are dangerous and must not be
used; this applies particularly to plain detonators.

Detonating cords: Almost the only cause of deterioration or desensitization of detonating cord
is moisture penetration into the explosive core. Prolonged exposure to sunlight may cause the
plastic outer coating to become brittle.

Destruction of Unserviceable Explosives

Explosives which have become unserviceable for blasting should be destroyed and
never dumped into a garbage heap. It is a sound policy to seek expert advice from the
manufacturers for methods of destroying explosives. Always assume that burning an explosive
for destruction may change to detonation. The method adopted for destroyed are as follows.
Gunpowder: It should be thrown into water, preferably hot water, which dissolves out the
saltpeter and renders the explosive harmless.

Ammonium nitrate explosives: These are hygroscopic and may be buried in a damp ditch
where they become harmless with the absorption of moisture. Or they may be destroyed by
drawing in a large volume of water.

Explosives with nitroglycerine: Not more than 25 kg of explosives should be destroyed at a

time. A clear space of ground free from dry grass, about 100 m all around, should be selected
and a lie of shavings of dry straw or grass laid down. On this the cartridges should be placed in
a continuous line not more than two abreast with the cartridge wrappers below them and with an
interval of about 25 mm between two cartridges. The line of shavings of straw or grass should
extend some distance; say 6 m, beyond the explosives. Kerosene should then be sprinkled over
the shavings of straw or grass. The straw should be lit with a short length of safety fuse and the
operator should withdraw immediately to a safe distance. The direction of wind should be given
due consideration when burning the straw.

The degree of continement caused by the cartridge wrappers in high explosives is sometimes
sufficient to cause explosion. It is, therefore, essential to open the wrappers and unroll them.

20
Safety fuse: It should be destroyed by burning in length in the open under suitable precautions.

Detonators: They should be thrown into a deep river or alternatively, they may be soaked in
mineral oil for 48 hours and then destroyed, one at a time under suitable precautions.

When destroying explosives do not select a stony site where burning ar detonation could create
situation of flying stones during destruction.

DRILLING &BLASTING
The operation of breaking or fracturing rocky overburden. The process involves boring a hole
into a rock, inserting an explosive charge, and detonating the charge. Once loosened, the
material may be removed, Blasting in a mine generally occurs in two phases, primary blasting
and secondary blasting. Primary blasting involves breaking down of in-situ rock in development
and stopping as well as by drilling holes in rocks. Secondary blasting is performed to get rid of
overburden& large boulders obtained from primary blasting.

Control blasting is done to control ground vibrations, fly rock movement, air blast or noise,
contact of back break and also to blast in the fire zone.

Blast h ole design:

For cost effective blasthole design several considerations are to be looked into for optimum
blasthole utilization and measures need to be taken in the following phases of the drilling
&blasting operations.

(i)Prior to drilling
(ii) During drilling
(iii) During charging of the holes

DRILL MACHINES:

1. Only proper type of (crawler mounted) blast hole drill machines, designed for mining
purposes, shall be used.

[Link] control switches for all drilling operations including tramming and set up shall be
centralized in a properly designed operator's cabin located at the drilling end. Drill shall be
provided with hydraulically operated carousel/ rod changer. Suitable hydraulic jacks with
controls from operator's cabin shall be provided for levelling of the machine.

[Link] drill shall have in built dust collection/ suppression system.

[Link] drill shall have an inbuilt system directing a jet of water on the cutting edge to wet the
cuttings or other equally efficient device kept in operation to prevent the atmosphere being
charged with dust.

21
PRECAUTIONS WHILE DRILLING:

[Link] position of every deep hole to be drilled shall be distinctly marked by the
Foreman/competent person so as to be readily seen by the Drillers.

[Link] pattern of holes shall be designed by the manager in such a way that length of the face
shall be more than three times the width of the face having three rows of holes, with spacing
and burden as recommended for specific diameter of hole.

3 .(i) No drilling shall be commenced in an area where shots have been fired, until the Blaster
has made a thorough examination at all places, including remaining butts of old deep holes, for
unexploded charges that the drill may strike.

(ii) The position of every deep hole to be drilled shall be distinctly marked by the surveyor so
as to be readily seen by the drillers.

(iii) No drill rod or pick shall be inserted in butts of old deep holes even if an examination has
failed s reveal presence of explosives.

4.(i) Drilling and charging of deep holes shall not be carried out in the same area at the same
time.

(ii) Drilling operations shall not be carried on simultaneously on two benches, at places directly
one above the other.

DUTIES OF DRILL OPERATORS:

1 At the beginning of his shift, the Drill Operator shall examine the drilling equipment and satisfy
himself that

a) crown blocks are mounted securely, condition.

b) where compressed air drills are used, all hoses connections are in order, and
c) the drilling equipment is in safe working
d) wet drilling system is in order.

2 The Drill Operator shall ensure that;

a) work persons are kept clear of sugar and drill stem while the drill is in motion,
b) work persons do not work under suspended tools, when tools are removed from the holes, these
shall be lowered on the platform; and
c) all finished drill holes are properly plugged so as avoid possible leg injuries to any one accidentally
stepping into the hole.

CHARGING OF DEEP HOLES:

1. Where there is any doubt and particularly where there are cracks and crevices reported in the
hole at the time of drilling the bottom 2.0 meters length of the bole shall be filled with sand/water
ampoule. In crushed broken ground charging of the hole shall not be done.

22
[Link] shall be delivered first to the hole furthest from the Priming Station so as to avoid
persons walking among piles of explosives.

[Link] more than one hole shall be in the process of being charged at any one face at any one
time.

[Link] charging, stemming and connecting up shall be done while standing on the solid, that is to
say, on the side of holes remote from the quarry face.

[Link] cartridge of explosives shall be lowered carefully to avoid sticking of cartridge in the hole
so not to cause air space, after each cartridge. The length of the stemming hole shall be
measured to ascertain that the cartridge is in close contact and there is no air space.

[Link] case of length of remaining hole is not as per calculation indicating the presence of air
space, attempt shall not be made to push down the charge in case of slurry cartridges. The
remaining hole shall then be stemmed with moist sand.

PRECAUTIONS DURING FIRING:

1. A safe code of blasting practice shall be framed by the manager and shall be circulated
to all concerned for compliance.
2. 2 (a) The manager shall fix the blasting time, and shall circulate it to all concerned and
display it on the notice Board Shots shall not be fired except during the hours of day
light. All holes charged on any shall be fired on the same day.
(b)As far as practicable, the shot firing shall be carried out either between shifts, or
during the one day rest interval, or at the end of work for the day.

3. The danger zone shall be distinctly demarcated (by means of red flags properly arranged and
supported) at least 30 minutes before firing of holes is done.

4. Ten minutes before firing, a siren installed for the purpose shall be blown three times for one
minute each at intervals of one minute; and no shots shall be fired unless the blasting
Foreman/Mining mate, with assistance of sufficient number of persons, appointed in writing by
the Manager for the purpose, has ensured that all persons have left the danger zone or have
taken adequate shelter.

5. No shot shall be fired when there is traffic on any road or railway track within the danger
zone.

6. Shots if fired should be muffled so that, flying fragments from blasting cannot project beyond
a distance of 10.0 meters from the place of firing.

7. A proper record of every blast showing the pattern of shot-holes and particulars of charge and
observation regarding fly rock and ground vibrations shall be maintained by the blasting in-
charge (an Assistant manager/Mining Foreman) and shall be countersigned by the Manager on
every entry.

23
8. Mobile phones in possession of blasting personnel, if any, shall remain switched off during
handling and charging of explosives.

Blasting Practice in Opencast Mines

Efficient blasting should give such rock fragmentation as to eliminate the need for
secondary blasting. The fragmented rock should be easily handled by the bucket of the shovel.
For mineral which has to go to crushers, the size should not be more than the input size for
primary crusher.

Quantity of Explosive Consumption

The volume of rock broken by explosive is given by the following formula Rock blasted per hole
(solid m³) = depth of hole x burden x spacing.

Rock blasted by a round of holes = depth x burden x spacing x number of holes in the round

The following table gives an idea of explosive consumption in quarries (O.C.G. or 80% special
gelatine) for various rocks under Indian conditions (Solid m³).

Rock Explosive

Consumption kg/m³

1. Bituminous coal 0.1

2. Medium hard shales, 0.2

Sandstones, gypsum

3. Sandy shales, sandstone 0.3

4. Massive sandstone, limestone, laterite 0.4

5. Very hard shales, marbles, dolomites, 0.5

limestones, magnesites, hematite

6. Extremely hard limestone, conglomerate 0.7

7. Gneiss, granite, amphibolite, schist 0.9-1

Depth and pattern of blast holes

The depth of vertical blast holes in coal is generally equal to the height of the bench. In hard
rock like sandstone, laterite, hematite, etc. the depth should be 0.5 to 1 m deeper below the
level of bench floor. This loosens the toe. In any case, the hole should terminate in hard rock
and not in the soft one; otherwise the force of explosive is wasted.

24
Burden is the minimum distance from the face to the blasthole (the term usually refers burden at
the top of the face).

Toe is the projection of the bottom of a face beyond the crest. Sometimes the bottom to edge of
the bench is referred to as toe.

In hard rock’s like laterite and hematite the spacing and burden vary from 0.3 to 0.4 times the
height of bench. In less hard rock’s like coal and sandstone, the spacing and burden vary from
0.5 to 0.5 times the height of bench. The exact dimensions depend upon the hole diameter, type
of explosive used, type of the rock, nature of rock consolidation and the angle of cleats or
laminations with the blast hole.

Preparation of primer cartridge and charging blast holes

For blasting with detonating fuse the primer cartridge of a booster, O.C.G. and similar gelatinous
or semi gelatinous explosive is prepared by pricking a through hole in it, 10-15 cm below the top
with a brass or aluminium pricker and threading detonating fuse through it. A knot is made at the
end of the fuse in contact with the cartridge to prevent the former from coming out. In the case
of [Link], to prepare a primer cartridge no hole is pierced in the cartridge but the detonating fuse
is coiled at the neck of the cartridge in the form of a loose knot so that some length of fuse is in
intimate contact with the explosive along its length. Aquadyne and Superdyne slurry explosives
which are in the form of cartridges closed at both ends by strong rubber bands can be made as
primer cartridges by tying a detonating fuse round the cartridge. The short length of fuse at the
knot end can be inserted into a small hole prieced in the cartridge by a [Link] slurry is
viscous enough not to flow out of the small hole.

The primer cartridge is always placed at the bottom of the hole in case of blasting with OC.G.
and similar explosives and also in case of LOX, ANFO, and slurry explosives. It is generally
lowered by the detonating fuse tied to it. LOX cartridge have a loop of copper wire round the
neck. A self detaching hook is attached to the copper wire and the cartridge lowered in the
[Link] the cartridge rests in its place in the hole the self detaching hook comes out of the
copperwire loop when the self detaching hook comes out of the copper wire loop when the rope
is slack Cartridges of other explosives including ANFO or slurry explosive are dropped or
lowered into the hole. ANFO mixture or slurry which is not in the form of cartridges is poured
into the hole. In the case of ANFO or slurry explosive a few cartridges of booster or O.C.G. in
the middle of the total explosive column or at the top is essential for good blasting performance.
The quantity of O.C.G. or other explosive as booster in the total explosive column if ANFO or
slurry explosive is used is nearly 15-20%.

Deck loading i.e. separating the explosives charges into sections by placing a column of
stemming between groups of cartridges is a useful technique for obtaining better rock
fragmentation especially where soft and hard rock are encountered in alternate layers. A primer
cartridge is placed at the deck charge also and the detonating fuse of bottom-most primer
cartridge is threaded through the primer cartridge of the deck charge.

25
The drill cuttings in overburden are used for stemming after moistening them with water. The
stemming is packed by tampers or a wooden tamping dolly.

LOX cartridges, if they have to be used in watery holes, should be enclosed in polythene bags
before lowering. After LOX cartridges are lowered in the hole, sand bags are slipped on top of
them to anchor them at the bottom of the hole and to prevent them from floating to the surface
as liquid oxygen evaporates. The hole is then completely stemmed by overburden cuttings. Gas
bubling through the water should not distract attention as the blasting efficiency is not affected if
blasting is performed within a reasonable time.

The detonating fuse is cut after leaving nearly 1 m length outside the hole for attachement to
truck line of fuse. The connections of detonating fuse of the blast hole with trunk line are shown
in. Where two or more rows of blast holes are to be fired in one round, delay detonators are
used. Short delay detonators or millisecond detonators are used. Short delay detonators or
millisecond detonators give good fragmentation and reduce ground vibrations, the latter
advantage being important where quarries are situated near areas having buildings and costly
engine foundations.

The blasted rock pieces in mechanised quarries fly upto 300 m. All the workers within 300 m of
the blasting site should withdraw to safe places. Warning is given by the shortfirer half an hour
before the blasting and again 5 minutes before the blasting by an electric siren, or alternatively
by a bugle. All the machinery like shovels, drills etc. should be withdrawn to a place where it is
not likely to be damaged by blasted rock or should be suitably protected. The heavy blasting in
mechanised quarried should take place during rest interval of workers.

The electrical circuit of detonators is tested for continuity by a circuit tester which is essentially a
galvanometer. When everything is in order, the cable from detonator leads is connected to an
exploder and the explosives are blasted from a protected place.

Pump-truck arrangement of Maharashtra Explosives Ltd., for SMS System

In opencast mining where blasting is on a large scale, the SMS system is adopted as a standard
practice, involving use of specially designed pump-trucks for transport to the blasting site
ingredients required for SMS System. The Site-Mixed Slurry System (SMS), basically comprises
a mother support plant where an intermediate non-explosive slurry is, initially, prepared for SMS
application. This intermediate slurry subsequently, is transferred to a 10-te capacity stainless
steel tank mounted on a 18-te capacity, three-axled 'Ashok Leyland' chassis, suitable for off-
highway applications.

On rear side of the pump-truck, two small stainless steel tanks of 150-litres capacity each, are
mounted which store cross-linker and sensitiser solutions. Each of these tanks is connected to a
stainless steel screw pump powered by a hydraulic motor. The intermediate slurry, cross-linter
and sensitiser are simultaneously fed onto a mixing hopper at a pre-calibrated rate, wherefrom it
is pumped into blast-holes with the help of progressive cavity stainless steel pump. The pump
delivery is connected to a 15 m ling, static-charge resistant chemical hose of 50 mm diameter.

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All the control, check, relief and regulating valves for the hydraulic fluid are mounted at the rear
end of the chassis in a control console

For safety, consideration, all storage vessels are made of stainless steel, the discharge hose is
antistatic. The exhaust pipe is fitted with a flame-arrestor and a fire screen is provided
separating the main body of the pump truck and the cabin.

Computer blasting model:

The latest technique in blast design is to use computer simulations which take into account rock
properties, blast geometry and explosive characteristics. One such computer model is SABREX,
marketed by ICI (India) Ltd. SABREX stands for Scientific Approach to Breaking Rock with
Explosives. The essential requirement for running Sabrex simulations is:

 Five rock properties; Density, Young's Modulus, Poisson's ratio, compressive strength
and tensile strength.
 Explosive characteristics like shock energy, gas energy VOD, detonation pressure,
density, etc. A companion programe called CPEX Commercial Performance of
Explosives - calculates these properties for a given composition and density.
 Blast geometry in terms of hole diameter, bench height, burden, spacing, charge,
stemming, delay pattern, etc.

Given these inputs, SABREX predicts fragment size analysis, throw, muckpile profile, damage
envelope, flyrock and cost of drilling blasting. The results are displayed in colour graphics and
tabulations. The blasting engineer can experiment with adjustments to manyfactors in a
computer safety and achieve results of practical benefit.

 SABREX accommodates variations of input to all elements of the blast design.

 SABREX crack pattern is a view of the crack extending from each borehole
yieldinginformation on fragmentation, delay periods and backbreak.
 SABREX gives a picture of backbreak damage..
 SABREX calculates fragmentation in terms of the percentage of passing size.
 SABREX calculates 'heave' and builds muckpile profile to assist in subsequent digging
operations.

Secondary Blasting

Secondary blasting is carried out in two ways:

1. Pop shooting

2. Plaster shooting

Pop Shooting:

A hole is drilled by jackhammer for charging with explosive and blasting the boulder. Normally a
depth of 0.3 to 0.6 m is sufficient for most of the boulder sizes. The explosive, widely used, is
special gelatine in conjunction with safety fuse or detonators.

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Plaster Shooting:

A charge of explosive consisting of either a single primed cartridge or a few cartridges is laid on
the surface of the boulder. It is then covered with a shovelful of plastic clay which is pressed into
position by hand. It is advantageous to wet the surface of the stone before plastering and the
clay should be well pressed down for good contact with stone round the explosive. Special
gelatine, or Ajax G, can be used for the blasting. I.E.L. has developed an explosive known as
"Plaster Gelatine" for this purpose. It is a high velocity, high strength,gelatine type explosive
suitable for such work. Plaster gelatine is not in the regular products of LEL. but can be
available on request 1.0.1. also markets a LOX cartridge which is used for contact blasting

In plaster shooting the explosive charge used is about four times that required for pop shooting.

The object of secondary blasting is to break oversize boulders produced during the first or
primary blasting to a size suitable for loading.

FLY ROCK:

Fly rock is the excessive movement of blasted rock debris at random from the blast-zone which
propels through air just after the firing shots. The fly rock is produced due to their tearing off by
gases which is ejected out through the cracks at high velocity due to venting of explosive energy
violently into the atmosphere in the form of gas expansion energy. More than 50% of blasting
accidents in the surface mining operation are caused by flyrock and other projectiles. The
Directorate General of Mines Safety has recommended 500 m radius as danger zone for safety
in opencast mine blasting.

Causes and Remedial measures:

[Link] of faults, weak planes fissile cracks, bedding planes, open fractures and joints, mud
seams, etc. in the blast zone assist venting of gases through them (because of least resistance)
and causes more flyrocks.

Solution: Inspect thoroughly the blast site for overhang, fractures, open-joints, weakplanes,
mud seams, etc. and if they are found adjust the blast pattern accordingly. Avoid drillingnear to
these weak planes, fractures, joints, etc

[Link] intersecting solution cavities, voids, etc. produce more flyrock due to heavy
concentration of explosive provided that non-cartridge type explosives are used.

Solution: Backfill in the open fractures, collapsed blastholes, voids, cavities, etc. and avoid
drilling near to these places.

[Link] of water in a blasthole may cause floating of explosive charge over the former,
increase of specific charge, reduction of stemming column, etc. These factors combinely
responsible for yielding of more flyrock.

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Solution: Pump out water from the blasthole before charging. Frequently measure the charge
height, stemming height, etc. Use high density slurry explosives and also sand as stemming
material.

[Link] there are the presence of loose stone over the surface of bench, then just after firing shots
they eject out very easily when high pressure gases vent through the collar of the blasthole.

Solution: Remove loose stone before charging.

[Link] of fracture over the solid face due to back break/over break, causes reduction of
burden and increase of specific charge in front row of the subsequent blast. It causes rapid
venting of explosive gases through highly fracture spots created at the crest level and produce
flyrock profoundly.

Solution: Administrate suitable specific charge and select proper stemming length. Select
optimum burden. Use deck charging and shock tube detonating system.

[Link] diameter blastholes produce higher amount of gas and hence causes more fly-rocks.

Solution: Select optimum diameter blastholes..

[Link] improper drilling (deviation of holes) of blast holes leads to small burden and it
generates heavy amount of flyrock.

Solution: Drill blast-holes accurately at the correct angle as per the blast design, and also make
the sub-grade drilling.

[Link] a blast hole is drilled near to an abandoned blasthole thelatter will act as a free face, gases
will vent through the weakest point and it will generate flyrocks.

Solution: Stem the abandoned blasthole totally.

[Link] spacing of blastholes causes crushing and cratering effects and produces flyrocks.

Solution: Maintain optimum blast design.

[Link] case of low height bench and using larger diameter blasthole in it will cause production of
flyrocks.

Solution: Select optimum diameter blasthole under such a situation.

[Link] burden will lead gases to vent through the collar of the blasthole and ejection of
stemming gives rise to flyrock.

Solution: Maintain optimum blast design and stemmingheight.

[Link] of high specific charge in the blasthole responsible forproduction of flyrock. Solution:
Use optimum specific charge.

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[Link] of free flowing slurries concentrates charge in the bottom of blasthole may cause
production of flyrock.

Solution: Use low density explosives. Administrate theoptimum amount of explosive charge.

[Link] stemming will cause explosion gases come out the top of the blasthole at a vary
high velocity causing formation of crater and flyrock.

Solution: Maintain sufficient stemming column. Stemming height must be more than 0.6 times
the burden width

[Link] of improper stemming materials does not have inter locking characteristics which lead to
generation of flyrock.

Solution: Use drill cuttings as a stemming material. Crushedrock of 4 mm to 9 mm size may

also be used.

[Link] firing and use of ms delay detonator of less than 17 ms delay produces more
flyrock.

Solution: Use delay blasting with short delay detonator amultiple shot the delay between the
row must be long enoughto allow rock from an earlier row to move adequately to give a relief for
movement of burden of the next row of blastholes. Adopt 'V'pattern initiation with adequate inter
row delay intervals.

[Link] blasting causes flyrock.

Solution: Avoid secondary blasting. Use hydraulic hammer for breaking boulders.

[Link] front row fails to blast properly the back row holes will creates and generate flyrock.

Solution: Maintain optimum blast design.

[Link] initiation system - causes more flyrock compare to thebottom initiation system.

Remedial measure: Use bottom initiation system.

[Link] dealing misfire holes, flyrock produces due to lessburden and spacing.

Remedial measure: Leave mass of blasted rock in front of the face from the original blast.

[Link] of charge near to the top of blasthole and also careless drilling, blasting and blast
management leads to generation of flyrocks.

Remedial measure: Avoid overloading of explosive charges into the blasthole, drill blastholes
accurately at the correctdesired angle, do muffle blasting, etc.

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Formation of Large Boulders in the Opencast Mines and Their Remedial Measures:

The following are the main reasons of formmation of boulders and their remedial measures:

 Back break: Boulders those form behind the last row of blastholes are mainly due to
back break. In case of back break theblasts on the bench pushes upward causing the
top of the shotto lift up and break back sometimes as much length as aburden distance
behind the last rows of blastholes. The upliftment results the formation of big boulders
which commonly slide into the muckpile.

Solution:

(i) Use smaller diameter blastholes with reduced spacing and burden.
(ii) Reduce burden or do the optimum blast design based on the site specific condition,
adopt control blasting with pre splitting system, administrate optimum charge into the
blasthole, etc.
(iii) Enhance the height of the bench.

 Large stemming zone: Large stemming zone containing no explosives, particularly in

case of larger diameter blasthole, is responsible for the production of heavy amount of
boulders.

Solution:

(i) Use smaller diameter blasthole with smaller burden, spacing and stemming length. It will
facilitate use of higher explosive energy to break the rock causing less boulder
formation but at the cost of higher drilling and blasting cost per tonne of production of
mineral.
(ii) Use satellite charges in the stemming zone of the blast-hole and detonate it at the same
time with the main charge with the help of common detonating cord. The satellite
charge will be fired before moving any rock and the collar rock will be broken in
proper place on top of the spot rather than they are blasted on top of the muckpile
later on.
(iii) Use smaller diameter charge near the collar of the blast-holeand higher charge in the
main explosive column. D stemming surrounding the smaller diameter charge.
(iv) Drill additional blastholes at a lower depth in between the uptoproduction blastholes, put
charge inside of them, stem, and col thereafter fire along with the production holes
containing the main charge and/or satellite charge.
 Adverse geological condition: Because of presence of weathered zone, geological
disturbances, presence of inherent cracks, presence of slip planes, etc. in the rock mass
the latter fails in a predetermined manner after balsting causing a heavy amount of
boulder formation.

Solution :

Do the Secondary blasting of big boulders over the muckpile

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  During blasting: It is due to poor blast design. The spacing and burden must be
optimum. If spacings are very large boulder will definitely form. But if the spacings are
very close then instead of getting in uniform energy distribution working outward from the
blasthole a pre-shearing (similar to pre splitting) will occur, energy will be lost and
boulders will formed profoundly in the burden in front of the [Link], burden
w.r.t. diameter of the blastholes must be the optimum for utilizing the explosive energy in
most effective manner which will cause less boulder formation, better fragmentation and
will also reduce the blasting cost.
 Wrong delay sequencing between the rows of blastholes: If delay between the rows are
very short then the front row after firing cannot move horizontally outwards in time and
as a result the back rows cause vartical cratering and uplift of rockmass in the form of
boulders.

Solution: Increase the delay timings between the rows of blastholes in the following
manner:

In case of short height benches: 17 ms to 28 ms per metre of

(bench height is less than burden width

2 times the burden width)

In case of high benches: 12ms to 15 ms per metre of

( bench height is more than the burden width

2times the burden width)

To reduce the size of the boulders the base charge may be loaded upto 40% of the total depth
of the hole. But in this case loading of column charge is not needed.

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