Module 1: Introduction to Transportation Planning and - (It is the Pasig river carry system dr water

Engineering transport)
• Air transportation is unsuited for urban travel.
Definition of Terms - (Because it is not economical to use
“Transport” is a science that concerns with the efficient transportation within the city or NCR)
movement of people and goods that is undertaken to • Transport means available for urban travel are
accomplish objectives to complete tasks that require land based regardless of being private or public.
transfer from one location to another. • Mode of transport in urban, heavy rail; light rail,
bus.
“Transportation” is everything involved in moving either the
person or goods from the origin to the destination. Transportation Modes
- transport and transportation are somewhat
• Highways are the most dominant mode of
similar but transport is the science in moving the
transport in most countries of the world including
person or goods from a certain origin to a certain
Philippines.
destination.
• The highway system is used by private vehicles;
“Transportation Engineering” is the application of principles truck lines; bus lines.
of engineering, planning, analysis and design to the • Highway systems serves intercity passengers;
disciplines comprising transportation: its vehicles, its freight transportation; urban passenger transport
physical infrastructure, safety in travel, environmental & distribution of goods.
impacts and energy usage.
- For civil engineering we do not cover the aspect of Major Characteristics of Highway Systems
vehicles because this is more on mechanical • Very high accessibility to almost all potential
engineering. What we can cover is physical destination
infrastructure or transportation facilities which • Direct service with very low-to-door travel time
includes the highway, airports, port, etc. Safety • Moderate line haul speed & capacities
and travel can be slightly covered especially about • Capital costs of physical facilities are moderate
the accident analysis. Moreover, environmental - (meaning the construction of highway are
impacts and energy usage can alo be slightly moderate cost but it depends on the country)
covered.
• Vehicle used are small & cheap to be owned by
individual compared to all other mode.
Transportation System
- (This is relative to the country, but here in the
Philippines vehicle are not that cheap)
• Total investment of physical facilities & vehicle is
high
• Operating cost is high (especially here on the
Transportation Providers (Public or Private) Philippines where the cost of fuel is very high)
• Hire system are further classified into • Environmental impact of the system as a whole
➢Contract Carriers: provide service to public are high and of major concerns of societies
under individual contractual arrangement. - (the environmental concern here is the air
- Private transportation providers are contract pollution)
carriers or cars for hire.
➢Common Carriers offer scheduled service and Urban Transportation
are open to all member of public willing to pay the • It is a specialized mode. It includes traditional
posted fare. mass transit modes [Buses, street cars, light rail,
- Public transportation is usually buses, jeepneys, rapid rail transit & para-transit]
UV express, LRT and MRT. • Tram (Tranvia) “street car”: Vehicles received
• Mass transportation or Mass transit refer to the their power from overhead power. They are
common carriage of passengers; taxi; car rental operating on tracks sharing the roadway with cars
- In the Philippines, mass transportation referred to and buses
as a large occupancy vehicle like buses and MRT - In the Philippines, we are no longer operating the
or LRT tramcar.
• Light rail: A term embracing a wide range of
Urban Transportation Systems electrical powered vehicle running on steel rails
• The intra-city or urban distribution of freight is (metro). Passengers board from road surface or
predominantly accomplished by highway low plat form. It operated along street but maybe
subsystem using vans; trucks. provided with exclusive right of way
• The major movement within urban areas are
related to passenger transport.
• Water transport is found within urban areas, it is
related to passenger transport.
Urban Transportation - (Because the origin is form one station o one
• Rapid rail transit system called metro is the station)
underground tube operate on exclusive R.O.W • Physical facilities for railway represent heavy
and relatively high speeds & provide highest line investment.
capacity available. • Capital cost of locomotives & railcars are
- (We don't have rapid Rail transit in the relatively high & productivity is low
Philippines) - (but the productivity is relative but in the
• Para-transit: A term applies to small passenger Philippines the productivity of rail transport is very
vehicles operating informally on fare-paying basis high)
& serving in some places as an alternative to • Maintenance costs for track are relatively high
regular bus transit services. • Operating cost per ton-mile are low
Tramcar
• Environmental impact are comparatively low
• We operated this during the American - (because we are using electricity as a means of
occupation. fuel)

Air Transportation Characteristics

• High line haul speed
• Accessibility is limited (relatively little importance
because of great length of trips made by air)
Tramcar in Lisbon Philippine Tranvia in Intramuros • Capacities of individual aircraft are moderate but
productivity is high due to high speed.
Rapid Rail Transit System
• Capital & operating costs are both quite high but
• It is Shinkansen in Japan or the bullet train. because of high productivity, the cost per
passenger carried is moderate.
• Cost of general aviation airports and aircraft are
moderate.
• Environmental impact are significant especially
Shinkansen (Japan) Rapid Rail in Jakarta the noise impact of commercial aviation, but are
of much less concern than those of highway
Light Rail Transit system
• There are two light rails which are the MRT and - (the problem in the airports are the noise.)
LRT.
Water Transportation Characteristics
• Low speed; low accessibility
• High capacities
• Capital cost of vessel is high but operating costs
per ton-mile are low
LRT in Rio de Janeiro Philippine LRT 2 • Environmental impact are relatively low, but if oil
spills occur, serious problem rise
Paratransit Vehicle
• In the Philippines, the jeepney is very identical to Pipeline Transportation Characteristics
the paratransit vehicle in the US. • Low speed to high-speed continuous flow
transportation
• Costs are low
- (because you will only be installing pipes)
• Environment impact is normally quite low once
they are built. However, construction impact is
Paratransit Vehicle in USA Philippine Jeepney sometime of concern.

Booking Transport Service

• This is a contracting
service which is
private in nature.

Rail Transportation Characteristics

• Provides Moderate speed & level of accessibility.
• High & unreliable door-to-door travel times;
however continuous work is under-taken to
reduce the travel time.
Module 2: Traffic Flow Characteristics (Activate) Where: = average headway
Elements of Traffic Analysis h = headway
1. Traffic Flow n = number of measured
2. Speed variables
3. Density
For example, in the middle is a designated highway
Traffic Flow point. The first vehicle arrives at t = 0 seconds,
Traffic Flow (q) – is defined as the number of vehicles, technically there is no headway to be measured
n, passing some designated highway point in a time because it is the first vehicle. Then, the second vehicle
interval of duration, t, or arrives at t = 4seconds, the headway (h) = 4 seconds.
Then, the third vehicle arrived at t = 10 seconds, the
headway (h) = 6 seconds. Finally, the fourth vehicle
arrived at t = 12 seconds, the headway (h) = 2
seconds.

Where : n = number of vehicles

t = time interval of duration
The most common traffic flow is the veh/hr. To
measure the traffic flow, in actual measurement we
count the number of vehicles given a certain time
period. The time period depends on the level of
accuracy or the type of data that needs to be
obtained from the highway facility.
For example, in the middle is the designated highway Therefore, the average headway is the reciprocal of
and we need to count the number of vehicles or a traffic flow or conversely, the traffic flow is the
certain period of time. Shown below, t=15 mins, just reciprocal of the average headway. This is just an
simply count the number of vehicles passing the approximation, the most accurate is to count
designated highway point and manually (manual manually.
tallying) record the number of vehicles. And within 15
minutes, there are 40 vehicles. But there are Example Problem:
automatic counters that are usually installed in Let us suppose a 15-minute count of vehicles bound
strategic locations around Metro Manila to count the for Manila was conducted at a particular location on
vehicle continuously. The MMDA has designated a Quezon Avenue. A summary is shown in the table
counting station, by using loop detectors. below:

PROBLEM: In the middle of designated highway, there

Estimate the flow
are 40 vehicles passing within 15 minutes.
rate in vehicles per
hour.

Solution:

Time Headway - is the time between the passage of

the front bumpers of successive vehicles at some
designated highway point Sometimes the required unit is pcu = passenger car
It is used to estimate the traffic flow. It is also the time unit. To get the pcu, we need to get the pce =
interval between two successive vehicles. passenger car equivalent. PCE can be obtained at
DPWH or MMDA. In the discussion the pce in car = 1.0,
jeepney = 1.5, bus = 2.5, truck = 3.0. Not only the size
was considered but also the speed of the vehicle.

Solving for q with the given PCE:

Where: h = headway
Average Traffic Speed Example Problem:
1. Time-Mean Speed The following times were recorded for 5 vehicles to
traverse a distance of 50 m.
Determine the time-
mean speed and the
space-mean speed.

Where: Solution:
• 𝑢 - is the spot speed (i.e., the speed of the
𝑖

vehicle at the designated point on

thehighway. (It is an instantaneous speed. It
can be measured by using radar speed or it
can be estimated using a trap length method
(30m - 50m).)
• 𝑢 = time is the arithmetic mean speed or
t.

time mean speed

2. Space-Mean Speed or sometimes called

harmonic mean speed =

Traffic Density
Traffic Density (k) – refers to the
number of vehicles occupying some
length of highway at some specified
Example Problem:
time. This results to veh/km.
The speeds of 25 cars were observed. 10 cars were
noted to travel at 35 kph, 8 cars at 40 kph, 2 cars at
50 kph, and 5 cars at 45 kph. Assuming that each car Spacing
was traveling at constant speed, determin e the time Spacing (s) – is the distance
mean speed and the space mean speed of these between two vehicles measured
vehicles. from the front bumper of a vehicle
to that of another.
Solution:
Example Problem:
During heavy traffic congestion, it was observed that
the average spacing of vehicles in queue in the
innermost lane of EDSA is 6.5 m. Determine the jam
density of stopped vehicles in veh/km.

Solution:
Therefore, the space mean speed is always less than
the time mean speed. The space mean speed always
gives off a smaller value. In traffic engineering, space
mean speed is preferred in analysis, this is because the
time mean speed tends to give a higher value.
MODULE 2: MODELS OF TRAFFIC FLOW EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
• The traffic flow is the reciprocal of time headway An engineer counts 360 veh/h at a specific highway
and vice versa. location. Assuming that the arrival of vehicles at this
highway location is Poisson distributed, estimate the
Different Assumption to Time Arrival probabilities of having 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 or more
1. . Deterministic, Uniform Arrival vehicles arriving over a 20-second interval.
- simplistic approach but not realistic. Solution:
It is not realistic like for example there is a traffic flow
of q = 360 veh/hr, time of observation is 5 minutes and
within that time the number of vehicles expected and
by using Deterministic Arrival, the number of vehicles
that will arrive is 30.

We can know exactly how many vehicles will arrive by

using the deterministic
arrival. This is unrealistic
because in actual scenario we
can’t really tell when a vehicle
warrive.

2. Poisson Arrival
- the pattern of vehicle arrivals corresponds to EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
some random process. Consider the traffic situation in the previous problem
This is more realistic in a sense we can’t really tell (i.e., 360 veh/h). Again assume that the vehicle
when a vehicle will arrive. arrivals are Poisson distributed. What is the
Here we are getting the probability. For example, probability that the gap between successive vehicles
what is the probability when 3 vehicles arrive in t = will be less than 8 seconds, and what is the probability
20s? P(3) = ? that the gap between successive vehicles will be
between 8 and 10 seconds?
There are two types of gap: (1) time —> headway (2)
distance —> spacing

Where:
• t = duration of the time interval over which
vehicles are counted.
• P(n) = the probability of having n vehicles
arrive in time t.
• 𝜆 = average vehicle flow or arrival rate (in
vehicles per unit time). Solution:
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3: Module 2: BASIC TRAFFIC STREAM MODELS
An observer has determined that the time headways
between successive vehicles on a section of highway Basic Relationship [traffic flow = q, speed (space-mean
are exponentially distributed and that 60% of the speed) = u, and traffic density = k]
headways between vehicles are 13 seconds or
greater. If the observer decides to count traffic in 30-
seconds intervals, estimate the probability of the
observer counting exactly four vehicles in an interval.
Solution:
• Speed-Density Model

Where:

- uf = free-flow speed
- kj = jam density
- k = density

(u is the dependent variable and k is the independent

ACTIVITY
variable. uf and kj are constant)
At a specified point on a highway, vehicles are known
to arrive according to a Poisson process. Vehicles are • Flow-Density Model (Quadratic)
counted in 20-second intervals and vehicle counts are
taken in 120 of these time intervals. It is noted that no
cars arrive in 18 of these 120 intervals. Approximate
the number of these 120 intervals in which exactly
three cars arrive. Where:

- qm =maximum capacity

To obtain qm, get the derivative. You will get the

following formula: Final formula and only applicable at
linear relationship. If it is not linear derive the equation
depending on the given.

• Speed-Flow Model

Figure: Speed and Density Model (Linear Relationship)

As the number of vehicle increases (k)

the speed decreases (u). The number
of vehicle approaches kj, or the speed
approaches zero and when it
approaches to zero the density
approaches the kj. And conversely, as
the number of vehicle decreases (k) the speed increases (u)
until it reaches uf. Or as the number of vehicle approaches
zero, then u approaches uf.

This relationship was intiduced by Greenshield, who is a

traffic trabsportation engineer.
 Figure: Flow-Density Model (Quadratic Relationship) EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2 (Non-Linear because of the exponent
3.5)
capacity As the number of vehicle increases
up to the midpoint, the traffic flow On a specific westbound section of highway, studies show
increases until it reaches it that the speed-density relationship is
maximum point, which we called
km the capacity. And if we further
increase the number of vehicle
the traffic flow will decrease until
The highway’s capacity is 3800 veh/h and the jam density is
it reaches the kj (jam density).
140 veh/km. What is the space-mean speed of the traffic at
The traffic flow is zero even when there is no vehicles but capacity and what is the free-flow speed?
the highway is full. The capacity is represented by qm
Given: Solution:
Figure: Speed-Flow Model (Parabolic Relationship)

um capacity

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1

A section of highway is known to have a free-flow speed of

90 km/h. In a given hour, 2100 vehicles were counted at a
specified point along this highway section. The flow at
capacity is 3000 veh/hr. If the linear speed- density
relationship applies, what would you estimate the space-
mean speed of these 2100 vehicles to be?

Given: Solution: (Speed Flow Model)

Figure: Speed-Flow Model (Parabolic Relationship)

u2
The reason why is there 2 u
because it touches two points.
um capacity

u1
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3:

A section of highway has the following flow-density

relationship:
q = 80k – 0.4k2
What is the capacity of the highway section, the
speed at capacity, and the density when the highway
is at one-quarter of its capacity?

Solution:

Using the equation q = 80k – 0.4k2, substitute the given:

Module 3: Queuing Theory 1. D/D/1 Queuing
(Deterministic Arrival, Deterministic Departure, and
and Traffic Flow Analysis One Departure Channel)

Can also be applied in parking demand. The

reason why queuing of vehicles is important
because the formation of traffic que especially
during congested period is a source of delay
(people, goods, and services) in which it has a
big effect in the economy. And around 85% -
90% of travel time was affected. 160 𝝀=𝝁
Dimensions of Queuing Model
 Arrival Pattern
- D = deterministic (not realistic, easy to 80 160-80 = 80 veh

predict) 52
- M = exponential (realistic, hard to predict) 14-7 = 7 mins
t0
 Departure Characteristics – going out in
the system 7 14 22
- D = deterministic
- M = exponential Where:
 Queue Disciplines N = number of vehicle arriving/departing (y-axis)
- FIFO – first in-first-out (vehicle that got in the t = time (min, sec) (x-axis)
system (intersection, toll plaza), it first will be 𝝀 = symbol for arrival
the one will go out first) 𝝁 = symbol for departure
- LIFO = last-in-first-out (less common to
happen)
Arrival rate changes depending on the slope
Queuing Models a. Queueing (vertical line) = to summarize, the
1. First Value = arrival rate assumption (D or M) vertical line between the arrival and the
2. Second Value = departure rate assumption departure at any given time represents the
(D or M) queuing, which is the number of vehicle on
3. Third Value = the number of departure queue.
channels. - departure channel can either be one b. Delay (horizontal line) – it is the time of delay.
or N (N means >1) it can be analyzed in toll plaza Example, the n=52 and it arrives at t1 = 7 minutes
and it departed at t2 = 14, and therefore the delay
Different Queuing Models is 7 minutes.
1. D/D/1 Queuing c. Time of queue dissipation, t0 - It is the time where
- First Value, D = it is the arrival rate the queuing stops and it is where the arrival and
- Second Value D = departure departure intersects. Wherein, 𝝀 = 𝝁
- Third Value, 1 = one departure channel
2. M/D/1 Queuing
- First Value, M= exponential arrival
- Second Value D = deterministic departure
- Third Value, 1 = one departure channel
3. M/M/1 Queuing
- First Value, M= exponential arrival
- Second Value M = exponential departure
- Third Value, 1 = one departure channel
4. M/M/N Queuing
- First Value, M= exponential arrival
- Second Value M = exponential departure
- Third Value, N = more than one departure
channel (it is used in toll plaza and parking
areas)
 Example Problem 1: BASED ON THE GRAPH:
Vehicles arrive at an entrance to a recreational park. The total number of vehicle arrivals at time t is
There is a single gate (at which all vehicles must stop), equal to: N
where a park attendant distributes free brochure. N = 8𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 20 min
The park opens at 8:00 A.M., at which time vehicles
 N = 8(10) = 80
begin to arrive at a rate of 480 [Link]. After 20
minutes, the arrival flow rate declines to 120 veh/h
 N = 8(20) = 160
and continues at that level for the remainder of the
day. If the time required to distribute the brochure is N = 160 + 2(𝑡 − 20) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛
15 seconds, and assuming D/D/1 queuing, describe  N = 160 + 2(30 − 20) = 180
the operational characteristics of the queue (i.e.) that  N = 160 + 2(40 − 20) = 200
is the time of queue dissipation, longest vehicle  𝐍 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟔𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎) = 𝟐𝟒𝟎
queue, longest vehicle delay, total delay and average
vehicle delay). Similarly, the number of vehicle departures is:
μ = 4𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑡
Given:  μ = 4(10) = 40
veh  μ = 4(20) = 80
λ = 480 −→ 8: 00 − 8: 20 𝐴. 𝑀
hr  μ = 4(60) = 240
veh
λ = 120 −→ 8: 21 − 𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
hr 1. Time of queue dissipation, t0 :
𝑠𝑒𝑐
μ = 15 −→ 8: 00 − 𝑜𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑡0 : λ = 𝜇
veh
160 + 2(t − 20) = 4t
Begin by putting arrival and departure rates into 160 + 2t − 40 = 4t
common units of vehicles per minute: 120 = 2t
A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 𝐭 = 𝒕𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔
480veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ
λ= =8 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2. Longest vehicle queue, Qm : (Vertical Line-
60min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛
120veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ Yellow Line)
λ= =2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 By inspection, Qm = 80 vehicles
60min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛
3. Longest vehicle delay, dm : (Horizontal Line –
B. Departure Rate, 𝛍
60𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒ℎ Blue Line)
μ= =4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡  Arrival time = 20 mins
15s/veh 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Departure time = 40 mins
Graph: dm = 40 – 20 = 20 minutes
or By inspection, dm = 20 minutes

240
The total number of vehicle arrivals at time t is 4. Total vehicle delay, Dt : (Area – Shaded Part)
𝜆=160+2(t-20)
equal to: N 𝐷𝑡 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
1 1
𝑁 = 8𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑡 = 2 (𝑏)(ℎ) + 2 (𝑏)(ℎ)
𝑁 = 160 + 2(𝑡 − 20) 𝑓𝑜𝑟A2
180 𝑡 > 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 1
𝐷𝑡 = 2 (20)(160) + 2 (20)(240 − 160)
160
Similarly, the number of vehicle departures is: 𝐷𝑡 = 1600 + 800
A1 𝑫𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒆𝒉 − 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝜆=8t
5. Average delay, 𝐝 :
80 2400 𝑣𝑒ℎ − 𝑚𝑖𝑛
μ = 4t 𝐝= = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
𝛌
C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 = 240 veh
𝛍
40 20 veh/min
ρ= = 3.333 > 1
6veh/min
t0
Example Problem 2: Total vehicle delay is the area, get the differential strip
After observing arrivals and departures at a highway (use are of integration)
toll booth over a 60-min period, an observer notes
that the arrival and departure rates (or service rates) 2. Total Vehicle Delay (Differential Strip/Area)
𝒕𝟎
are deterministic but, instead of being uniform,
𝑨 = 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ (𝛌 − 𝛍) 𝐝𝐭
change over time according to a known function. The 𝟎
arrival rate is given by the function 𝜆 (𝑡) = 2.2 + 0.17𝑡
𝟔.𝟏.𝟗𝟖
− 0.0032𝑡2 and the departure rate is given by 𝜇 (𝑡) = 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ (𝛌 − 𝛍) 𝐝𝐭
1.2 + 0.07𝑡, where t is in minutes after the beginning 𝟎
of the observation period and (𝑡) and (𝑡) are in 𝟔.𝟏.𝟗𝟖
vehicles per minute. Determine the total vehicle 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ (𝟐. 𝟐𝐭 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓t 2 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟕t 3 − 1.2t − 0.035t 2 ) 𝐝𝐭
𝟎
delay at the toll booth and the longest queue
𝟔.𝟏.𝟗𝟖
assuming D/D/1 queuing. 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ (𝐭 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓t 2 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟕t 3 ) 𝐝𝐭
𝟎

Given: 𝟔.𝟏.𝟗𝟖
[𝟎. 𝟎𝟓t 2 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕t 3 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟕t 4 ] 𝟔𝟏.𝟗𝟖
Changes over time is equivalent to calculus = rate of 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ 𝟎
𝟎
dy dy
change (slope --> = )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑫𝒕 = 𝟏, 𝟗𝟓𝟔. 𝟖 𝒗𝒆𝒉 − 𝒎𝒊𝒏
Arrival Rate: 𝜆 (𝑡) = 2.2 + 0.17𝑡 − 0.0032𝑡2
Departure Rate: 𝜇 (𝑡) = 1.2 + 0.07𝑡 3. Longest/Maximum Queue Length
Solution: Note: Since it is impossible to locate the longest
Arrival Rate: vertical line, establish an equation because it is just a
λ (t) = 2.2 + 0.17t − 0.0032t 2 hypothetical graph
dλ
= 2.2 + 0.17t − 0.0032t 2
𝑑𝑡 Q(t) = λ − μ
∫ dλ = ∫( 2.2 + 0.17t − 0.0032t 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 Q(t) = t + 0.05t 2 − 0.001067t 3
dQ(t)
𝛌 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝐭 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝐭 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟔𝟕𝐭 𝟑 + 𝒄 = 1 + 0.1t + 0.00320t 2
𝑑𝑡

Departure Rate: By using quadratic equation:

μ (t) = 1.2 + 0.07t 1 + 0.1t + 0.00320t 2 = 0
dμ
= 1.2 + 0.07t 𝐭 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟐𝟐 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
𝑑𝑡 **time where the maximum queue length occur
∫ dμ = ∫( 1.2 + 0.07t) 𝑑𝑡
Substituting from Q(t):
𝛍 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝐭 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟓𝐭 𝟐
Q(t) = t + 0.05t 2 − 0.001067t 3
Q 𝑚 = 39.22 + 0.05(39.22)2 − 0.001067(39.22)3
Hypothetical Graph: Differential Strip/Area
𝜆 𝐐𝒎 = 𝟓𝟏. 𝟖 𝐯𝐞𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬 ≈ 𝟓𝟐 𝐯𝐞𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐬

𝜆-μ
Area
Differential df =differential time

Strip ∫ dA = ∫( λ − μ)dt
𝒕𝟎
𝑨 = 𝑫𝒕 = ∫ (𝛌 − 𝛍) 𝐝𝐭
𝟎
1. Time of queue dissipation, 𝑡0
𝑡0 : λ = 𝜇
1
[2.2t + 0.085t 2 − 0.001067t 3 = 1.2t + 0.035t 2 ]
𝑡
[2.2 + 0.085t − 0.001067t 2 = 1.2 + 0.035t]

-> By using quadratic equation, choose the positive

𝐭 = 𝒕𝟎 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟗𝟖 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐮𝐭𝐞𝐬
2. M/D/1 Queuing 3. M/M/1 Queuing
(Exponential Arrival, Deterministic Departure, and One (Exponential Arrival, Exponential Departure, and One
Departure Channel) Departure Channel)
 Traffic intensity,  Traffic intensity,
𝝆 = 𝝀/𝝁 <1.0 𝝆 = 𝝀/𝝁 <1.0
 Average length of queue (in vehicles),  Average length of queue (in vehicles),
𝟐 𝟐
𝛒 𝛒
𝑸= 𝑸=
𝟐(𝟏 − 𝛒) (𝟏 − 𝛒)
 Average time waiting in the queue (for each  Average time waiting in the queue (for each
vehicle), vehicle),
ρ 𝛌 𝛒
𝒘= 𝒘= =
𝟐μ(𝟏 − 𝛒) μ(μ − 𝛌) (μ − 𝛌)
 Average time spent in the system,  Average time spent in the system,
𝟐−𝛒 1
𝒕= = 𝒘 + 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐢𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝒕= = 𝒘 + 𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐢𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝟐𝛍(𝟏 − 𝛒) μ−𝛌
Example Problem: Example Problem:
Consider the entrance to the recreational park Consider again the entrance to the recreational park
described in the previous problem. However, let the described in the previous problem. Assume that the
average arrival rate be 180 veh/h and Poisson park attendant takes an average of 15 seconds to
distributed (exponential times between arrivals) over distribute brochures, but that the distribution time
the entire period from park opening time (8:00 A.M.) varies depending on whether or not park patrons
until closing at dusk. Compute the average length of have questions relating to park operating policies.
queue (in vehicles), average waiting time in queue Given an average arrival rate of 180 veh/h, compute
and average time spent in the system assuming the average length of queue (in vehicles), average
M/D/1 queuing. (assume departure is same with the waiting time in queue, and average time spent in the
last problem) system assuming M/M/1 queuing.
Given: Given:
𝛌
 A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 =  A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 =
𝛌
𝛍 𝛍
180 veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ 3 veh/min 180 veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ 3 veh/min
λ= =3 ρ= = 0.75 < 1.0 λ= =3 ρ= = 0.75 <1.0
60 min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛 4 veh/min 60 min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛 4 veh/min

B. Departure Rate, 𝛍 B. Departure Rate, 𝛍

60 s/min 𝑣𝑒ℎ 60 s/min 𝑣𝑒ℎ
μ= =4 μ= =4
15 s/veh 𝑚𝑖𝑛 15 s/veh 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Solution: Solution:
1. Average queue length, 𝑄 1. Average queue length, 𝑄
ρ2 (0.75)2 ρ2 (0.75)2
𝑄= = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒗𝒆𝒉 𝑄= = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒗𝒆𝒉
2(1 − ρ) 2(1 − 0.75) (1 − ρ) (1 − 0.75)

2. Average waiting time in the queue, 𝑤 2. Average waiting time in the queue, 𝑤
ρ 0.75 𝒎𝒊𝒏 λ 3 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑤= = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝑤= = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓
2μ(1 − ρ) 2(4)(1 − 0.75) 𝒗𝒆𝒉 μ(μ − λ) 4(4 − 3) 𝒗𝒆𝒉
3. Average waiting time in the queue, 𝑡 3. Average waiting time in the queue, 𝑡
2−ρ 2 − 0.75 𝒎𝒊𝒏 1 1 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒕= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒕= = = 𝟏. 𝟎
2μ(1 − ρ) 2(4)(1 − 0.75) 𝒗𝒆𝒉 μ−𝛌 4−3 𝒗𝒆𝒉
15secs 𝒎𝒊𝒏 15secs 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒕 = 𝒘 + s. t = 0.375 + = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒕 = 𝒘 + s. t = 0.75 + = 𝟏. 𝟎
60 𝒗𝒆𝒉 60 𝒗𝒆𝒉
4. M/M/N Queuing Example Problem:
(Exponential Arrival, Exponential Departure, and More At an entrance to a toll bridge, four toll booths are
than One Departure Channel) open. Vehicles arrive at the bridge at an average rate
of 1200 veh/h and at the booths; drivers take an
 Traffic intensity, average of 10 seconds to pay their tolls. Both the
arrival and departure rate can be assumed to be
𝝆 = 𝝀/𝝁 > 𝟏,
exponentially distributed (M/M/4). How would the
𝝆/𝑵 <𝟏 average queue length, time in the system and the
probability of waiting in a queue change if a fifth toll
 The probability of having no vehicles in the system,
booth was opened?
𝟏 Given:
𝑷𝟎 =
𝛒 𝒏𝒄 𝛒𝑵 Using the equations for M/M/N queuing, we
∑𝑵−𝟏
𝒏𝒄 =𝟎 + 𝛒 first compute the four- booth case.
𝒏𝒄 𝑵! (𝟏 − 𝑵)
𝛌
A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 =
𝛍
Where: 𝑛𝑐 = the departure channel number 1200veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ 20 veh/min
λ= = 20 ρ= = 3.333 > 1
60min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛 6veh/min
 The probability of having n vehicles in the system, ρ 3.333
B. Departure Rate, 𝛍 N
= 4
= 0.833 < 1
60𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒ℎ
𝛒 𝒏 𝑷𝟎 μ= =6
𝑷𝒏 = for n ≤ N 10s/veh 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝒏!
Solution: N=4
𝛒 𝒏 𝑷𝟎 1. The probability of having no vehicles in the
𝑷𝒏 = for n ≥ N system with four booths open: Where, N=4
𝑵𝒏−𝑵 𝑵!
1
 The average length of queue (in vehicles), 𝑃0 = 𝑛𝑐
ρ ρ𝑁
∑𝑁−1
𝑛𝑐 =0 + ρ
𝑛𝑐 𝑁! (1 − )
𝑷𝟎 𝛒𝑵+𝟏 𝟏 𝑁
𝑸= [ ] 1
𝑵! 𝑵 (𝟏 − 𝛒 )𝟐 𝑃0 =
∑4−1=3
ρ 0 ρ 1 ρ 2 ρ3 ρ4
𝑵 𝑛𝑐 =0 0! + 1! + 2! + 3! 4! (1 − 0.833)

 The average time spent in the system, 1

𝑃0 =
(3.333)1 (3.333)2 (3.333)3 (3.333)4
𝛒+𝑸 1+
1!
+
2!
+
3!
+
4! (1 − 0.833)
𝒕= 𝑷𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟑
𝛌
 The average waiting time in the queue, 2. Average queue length:
𝛒+𝑸 𝟏 𝑃0 ρ𝑁+1 1
𝒘= − 𝑄=
𝑁! 𝑁
[
ρ 2
]
𝛌 𝛍 (1 − )
𝑁
0.0213(3.333)4+1 1
 The probability of waiting in a queue (the 𝑄= [ ]
probability of being in a queue, which is the 4! 4 (1 − 0.833)2
probability that the number of vehicles in the 𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒗𝒆𝒉
system, n, is greater than the number of departure
channels, N),
3. Average time spent in the system:
ρ + 𝑄 3.333 + 3.287 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑷𝟎 𝛒𝑵+𝟏 𝑡=
λ
=
20
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟏
𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝑷𝒏>𝑵 = 𝛒
𝑵! 𝑵(𝟏 − 𝑵)
4. Probability of waiting in a queue:

𝑃0 ρ𝑁+1
0.0213(3.333)4+1
𝑃𝑛>𝑁 = ρ = 4! 4(1 − 0.833) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟖
𝑁! 𝑁 (1 − )
𝑁
𝛌
A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 =
𝛍
1200veh/h 𝑣𝑒ℎ 20 veh/min
λ= = 20 ρ= = 3.333 > 1
60min/h 𝑚𝑖𝑛 6veh/min
ρ 3.333
B. Departure Rate, 𝛍 N
= 5
= 0.667 < 1.0
60𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒ℎ
μ= =6
10s/veh 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Solution: N=5
1. The probability of having no vehicles in the
system with four booths open: Where, N=5
1
𝑃0 = 𝑛𝑐
ρ ρ𝑁
∑𝑁−1
𝑛𝑐 =0 + ρ
𝑛𝑐 𝑁! (1 − )
𝑁
1
𝑃0 =
ρ0 ρ1 ρ2 ρ3 ρ4 ρ5
∑5−1=4
𝑛𝑐 =0 0! + + + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! (1 − .667)

1
𝑃0 =
(3.333)1 (3.333)2 (3.333)3 (3.333) 4 (3.333)5
1+ + + + +
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! (1 − 0.667)
𝑷𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏𝟖

2. Average queue length:

𝑃0 ρ𝑁+1 1
𝑄= [ ]
𝑁! 𝑁 ρ 2
(1 − )
𝑁
0.0318(3.333)5+1 1
𝑄= [ ]
5! 5 (1 − 0.667)2
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓𝟓 𝒗𝒆𝒉

3. Average time spent in the system:

ρ + 𝑄 3.333 + 0.655 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑡= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟗
λ 20 𝒗𝒆𝒉

4. Probability of waiting in a queue:

𝑃0 ρ𝑁+1 0.0318(3.333)5+1
𝑃𝑛>𝑁 = ρ = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟖
𝑁! 𝑁 (1 − ) 5! 5(1 − 0.667)
𝑁
Module 4: Analysis of Signalized  Cycle – one complete sequence (for all
approaches) of signal indications (greens,
Intersection yellows, reds).
- There is a presence of traffic signal or traffic
light  Cycle length – The total time for the signal to
Types of Intersection7 complete one cycle (identified by the symbol
 A1: T-Intersection – three legged c and usually expressed in seconds).
intersection - Corresponding time of the cycle
 A2: Cross Intersection (four legs)
 A3: Five or more legs and not circular –  Traffic Signal Phase – The part of the cycle
multi-legged intersection. The lesser the length allocated to a traffic movement that
number of legs the better intersection has the right of way, or any combination of
 A4: Y-Intersection traffic movements that receive the right of
 A5: Roundabout –rotonda or rotary, way simultaneously. The sum of the phase
considered to be the most efficient that lengths (in seconds) is the cycle length.
has the lesser delay in vehicles - Combination of traffic movement that
 A6: Other type of intersection – any has the right of way
Possible phase diagram/combination
combination of any of the intersection

Phase Diagram
Green – go
Red – stop
Signalized Vs. Unsignalized Intersection7

 Indication – The illumination of one or more

signal lenses (greens, yellows, reds)
indicating a permitted or prohibited traffic
Left: Has traffic signal device, it is expensive to movement.
operate. - It is the color, but we cannot say it is
Right: Stop sign is installed in minor street. And color
Yield sign is installed in major street, vehicle are
only required to slow down when approaching an  Interval – a period of time during which all
intersection. signal indications (reds) remain the same for
all approaches.
Definition of Terms
 Approach – A lane or group  Green Time – The time within a cycle in which
of lanes through which an approach has the green indication
traffic enters an (expressed in seconds and given the symbol
intersection. GT).
 Red Time – the time within a cycle in which  Saturation Flow – The maximum flow that
an approach has the red indication could pass through an intersection from a
(expressed in seconds and given the symbol given approach, if that approach was
RT). allocated all of the cycle time as effective
green with no lost time (given the symbol s).
 Yellow Time – the time within a cycle in which
an approach has the yellow indication  Approach Capacity - The maximum flow that
(expressed in seconds and given the symbol can pass through an intersection under
YT). prevailing highway and traffic conditions,
given the effective green time allocated to
 Change Interval – The yellow time plus all-red the approach. It is equal to the saturation
time (the short period of time in which all flow multiplied by the ratio of effective green
approaches have a red signal) that provides to cycle length
for clearance of the intersection before - It means that the capacity I s a portion
conflicting traffic movements are given a of the saturation flow with respect to the
signal intersection that allows them to enter effective green
the intersection (expressed in seconds). Formula:
Formula:
C= (s) (g/c)
CI = YT + AR
 Major Street – The Street at an intersection
 Lost Time – time during which the that has the higher traffic-volume
intersection is not effectively used by any approaches.
approach. These times occur during the - If the volume is the same then it can be
change interval (when the intersection is both considered as major strip
cleared) and at the beginning of each green
indication as the first few vehicles in a  Minor Street – the Street at an intersection
standing queue experience start-up delays. that has the lower traffic-volume
The lost time is given the symbol LT approaches.

 Effective Green – the time that is effectively  Protected Turn – A turning movement made
used by the approach for traffic movement. without the conflict of opposing traffic or
This is generally taken to be the green time pedestrians. This turn is made during an
plus the change interval minus the lost time for exclusive turning phase (e.g., left-turn
the approach. Effective green is stated in arrow).
seconds and given the symbol g. - It is a movement that has no conflict ; it
Formula: is exclusive
g = GT + CI - LT  Permitted Turn – A turning movement that is
made through opposing traffic flow or
 Effective Red – The time that is effectively not through conflicting pedestrian movement.
used by the approach for traffic movement. This turn is made during gaps (time
Stated in seconds, it is the cycle length minus headways) in opposing traffic and conflicting
the effective green time and is given the pedestrian movements.
symbol r. - Technically it has conflict but sometimes
Formula: it is allowed for some special cases like
r = c –g ; for example:
Phase 1: Southbound and Northbound
c=g+r direction
 - The southbound and the left turn in the  Semi-Actuated Signal – A signal whose timing
northbound will have conflict. As well as (i.e., cycle length, green time, etc.) is affected
the northbound and the right turn of the when vehicles are detected (e.g., by
southbound. Lastly, the left turn of magnetic-loop detectors in the pavement) on
southbound and the right turn of some, but not all, approaches. These types of
northbound wherein it has converging signals are usually found when a low-volume
conflict. road intersects with a high-volume road. In
- In this situation, vehicles are allowed to such cases green time is allocated to the high-
left turn if there is only a minimal volume approaches until vehicles are
numbers of vehicle passing. And also, detected on the low-volume approaches and
provided that the straight thru should then returned to the high-volume
finish first, it means if the straight thru approaches.
dissipate, then it is the time where the - Opposite of pretimed signal, where the
vehicle from the left turn can enter. green time is adjusting if it detects that
- Therefore it is permitted, even though it there is a huge volume of vehicle.
has conflict. - It is semi-actuated because the detector
can only be seen on major street.

 Fully Actuated Signal – A signal whose timing

(i.e., cycle length, green time, etc.) is
completely influenced by the traffic volumes,
when detected, on all of the approaches.
Fully actuated signals are most commonly
 Signal Timing – The operating characteristics used at intersections where substantial
of the signal with the parameters being the variations exist in approach traffic volumes
signal cycle length, green time, red time, over the course of a day.
yellow time and all-red time (the settings - It is fully actuated because all the
produce, for all approaches, effective green approaches has a magnetic loop
and red times). detector.
- It is the allocation of time for each
indication like on how we allocate green, Traffic Signal Actuation
yellow (2.5 – 3.5 seconds), and red time
(1-2 seconds).
- The greater the number of traffic or
volume of vehicle, the greater should be
the green time.
- In red time, if the other lane is on green
approach, then the other lane should be
on the red time.

 Pretimed Signal - A signal whose timing (cycle

length, green time, etc.) is fixed over
specified time periods and does not change
in response to changes in traffic flow at the
intersection. No vehicle detection is
necessary with this mode of operation.
- It is very common traffic signal
control/device. If the timing (green,
yellow, red) has been set once, it will not
change throughout the day.
ACTUAL ANALYSIS WHICH COMPOSED OF  The maximum number of vehicles in the
TWO METHODS: queue, 𝑄𝑚, is
1. Analysis of Signalized Intersections with D/D/1 𝑸𝒎 = 𝛌𝒓
Queuing
 The total vehicle delay per cycle, 𝐷𝑡 , is
Where:
 𝜆 = arrival rate (typically in vehicles per 𝛌𝒓𝟐
second) 𝑫𝒕 =
𝟐(𝟏 − 𝛒)
 𝜇 = departure rate (in vehicles per
second)
 g = effective green (in seconds)  The average delay per vehicle, d, is
 r = effective red (in seconds) 𝛌𝒓𝟐 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
 t = total transpired time (in seconds) 𝒅= 𝒙 =
𝟐(𝟏 − 𝛒) 𝛌𝒄 𝟐𝐜(𝟏 − 𝛒)
 𝜆𝑡 = total number of vehicle arrivals at
time t
 𝜇𝑡 = number of vehicles that depart  The maximum delay of any vehicle
during effective greens (assuming a FIFO queuing discipline), 𝑑𝑚,
 𝑡0 = time from the start of the effective is
green until queue dissipation (in
seconds)
𝒅𝒎 = 𝒓
 c = cycle length (in seconds)

FORMULAS:
 For the time to queue dissipation after
the start of the effective green, 𝑡0, with
traffic intensity,𝝆 = 𝝀/𝝁
𝒑𝒓
𝒕𝟎 =
(𝟏 − 𝛒)

 The proportion of the cycle with a queue,

𝑃𝑞,
𝒓 + 𝒕𝟎
𝑷𝒒 =
𝒄
 The proportion of vehicles stopped, 𝑃𝑠 , is
𝛌(𝒓 + 𝒕𝟎) 𝒓 + 𝒕𝟎
𝑷𝒔 = = = 𝑷𝒒
𝛌(𝒓 + 𝒈) 𝒄
Also,
𝛌(𝒓 + 𝒕𝟎) 𝛍𝒕𝟎 𝒕𝟎
𝑷𝒔 = = =
𝛌(𝒓 + 𝒈) 𝛌𝒄 𝛒𝒄
Example Problem: 3. The proportion of vehicles stopped, 𝑃𝑠 , is
An approach at a pre-timed signalized 𝑡0
𝑃𝑠 =
intersection has a saturation flow of 2400 ρ𝑐
14.73 𝑠
veh/h and is located 24 seconds of effective 𝑃𝑠 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟒
(0.2083)(80 s)
green in an 80-second signal cycle. If the
flow at the approach is 500 veh/h, provide 4. The maximum number of vehicles in the
an analysis of the intersection assuming queue, 𝑄𝑚, is
D/D/1 queuing.
𝑄𝑚 = λ𝑟
Given: veh
𝑄𝑚 = (0.139 ) (56 𝑠) = 𝟕. 𝟕𝟖𝟒 𝒗𝒆𝒉
 A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 𝑠
veh 1ℎ 𝐯𝐞𝐡
λ = 500 × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗 5. The total vehicle delay per cycle, 𝐷𝑡 , is
h 3600 𝑠 𝒔
λ𝑟 2
𝐷𝑡 =
B. Departure Rate, 𝛍 2(1 − ρ)
veh 1ℎ 𝐯𝐞𝐡 veh
(0.139 ) (56 𝑠)2
μ = 2400 × = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝐷𝑡 = 𝑠 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓. 𝟑 𝒗𝒆𝒉 − 𝒔
h 3600 𝑠 𝐬 2(1 − 0.2083)
𝛌
 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 = 𝛍 6. The average delay per vehicle, d, is
0.139 veh/s 𝑟2
ρ= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟑 𝑑=
0.667 veh/s 2c(1 − ρ)
(56 𝑠)2
 D. Effective Green, g 𝑑= = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝒔
2(80 s)(1 − 0.2083)
g = 24 s
7. The maximum delay of any vehicle (assuming
 E. Cycle length, c a FIFO queuing discipline), 𝑑𝑚, is
c = 80 s 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑚 = 𝟓𝟔 𝒔
Solution:
 Getting effective red, r
r = c−g
r = 80 s − 24s
𝐫 = 𝟓𝟒𝐬

1. For the time to queue dissipation after the

start of the effective green, 𝑡0
𝑝𝑟
𝑡0 =
(1 − ρ)
(0.2083)(56 𝑠)
𝑡0 = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟕𝟑 𝒔
(1 − 0.2083)

2. The proportion of the cycle with a queue, 𝑃𝑞,

is
𝑟 + 𝑡0
𝑃𝑞 =
𝑐
56 𝑠 + 14.73 𝑠
𝑃𝑞 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟒
80 𝑠
2. Analysis of Signalized Intersections with  D. Effective Green, g
Probabilistic Arrivals g = 24 s

Webster formula for approach delay at a pre-  E. Cycle length, c

timed signalized intersection is: c = 80 s
𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝒄 𝟑 𝒈
𝒅′ = 𝒅 + − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 ( 𝟐 ) 𝒙𝟐+𝟓( 𝒄 ) Solution:
𝟐𝛌(𝟏 − 𝐱) 𝛌  Getting effective red, r
r =c−g
Where: r = 80 s − 24s
 𝑑 ′= average vehicle delay. 𝐫 = 𝟓𝟒𝐬
 𝑑 = average vehicle delay computed by
assuming D/D/1 queuing. 1. The average delay per vehicle, d, is
 𝑥 = ratio of approach arrivals to 𝑟2
𝑑=
approach capacity (also referred to as 2c(1 − ρ)
the volume-to-capacity ratio and equal (56 𝑠)2
𝑑= = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟕𝟔 𝒔
to 𝜆𝑐/𝜇𝑔). 2(80 s)(1 − 0.2083)
 𝑐 = cycle length
 g = effective green 2. Ratio of approach arrivals to approach
 𝜆 = average vehicle arrival rate. capacity / Volume-to-capacity ratio, x
𝛌𝐜
𝒙=
𝝁𝒈
Volume-to-capacity ratio (0.139 veh/s)(80 s)
𝛌𝐜 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒙=
(0.667 veh/s)(24s s)
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟓
𝒙= =
𝝁𝒈 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
3. Webster formula for approach delay at a pre-
Allsop’s delay formula: timed signalized intersection is,
𝟐 1
𝟗 𝒙 𝑥2 𝑐 3 𝑔
𝒅′ = [𝒅 + ] 𝑑′ = 𝑑 + − 0.65 ( 2 ) 𝑥 2+5( 𝑐 )
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝛌(𝟏 − 𝐱) 2λ(1 − x) λ
(0.695) 2
𝑑 ′ = 24.76 +
Example Problem: veh
2 (0.139 ) (1 − 0.695)
s
An approach at a pre-timed signalized 1
3
intersection has a saturation flow of 2400 veh/h 80 𝑠 24 𝑠
and is located 24 seconds of effective green in −0.65 ( ) (0.695)2+5(80 𝑠)
veh 2
(0.139 )
an 80-seconds signal cycle. If the flow at the s
′
approach is 500 veh/h, compute the average 𝒅 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟓𝟒 𝒔
approach per cycle using Webster’s and Allsop’s
4. Allsop’s delay formula:
formulas 9 𝑥2
𝑑′ = [𝑑 + ]
10 2λ(1 − x)
Given:
 A. Arrival Rate, 𝛌 9 (0.695)2
veh 1ℎ 𝐯𝐞𝐡 𝑑′ = [24.76 + ]
10 veh
λ = 500 × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟗 2(0.139 )(1 − 0.695)
h 3600 𝑠 𝒔 s
𝒅′ = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟏 𝒔
B. Departure Rate, 𝛍
veh 1ℎ 𝐯𝐞𝐡
μ = 2400 × = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕
h 3600 𝑠 𝐬
𝛌
 C. Traffic intensity, 𝛒 =
𝛍
0.139 veh/s
ρ= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟖𝟑
0.667 veh/s
 Level of service B
Module 5: Load of Service LOS B also allows speeds at or near
free-flow speeds, but the presence of
HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL-OF-SERVICE ANALYSIS other users in the traffic stream begins
Highway capacity is the maximum number of vehicle to be noticeable. Freedom to select
that can be accommodated by a certain highway speeds is relatively unaffected, but
section and still the highway is operating at a certain there is a slight decline in the freedom
to maneuver within the traffic stream relative to LOS A.
acceptable level of service. Level of service is the “antas
Vehicle can travel at free flow speed but it will be affected
ng serbisyo” that the highway gives.
by the presence of other vehicle.

LEVEL-OF-SERVICE CONCEPT Level of service C

The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), produced by LOS C has speeds at or near free-flow
the Transportation Research Board [2010], is a speeds, but the freedom to maneuver
synthesis of the state of the art in methodologies for is noticeably restricted (lane changes
quantifying traffic operational performance and require careful attention on the part of
capacity utilization (congestion level) for a variety of drivers). The general level of comfort
and convenience declines significantly at this level.
transportation facilities.
Disruptions in the traffic stream, such as an incident (for
example, vehicular accident or disablement), can result in
The level of service represents a qualitative ranking of significant queue formation and vehicular delay. In
the traffic operational conditions experienced by contrast, the effects of incidents at LOS A or LOS B are
users of a facility under specified roadway, traffic, and minimal, with only minor delay in the immediate vicinity of
traffic control (if present) conditions. the event.

Qualitative ranking means it is descriptive in which it Level of service D

describes the operational character of the highway LOS D represents the conditions where
speeds begin to decline slightly with
especially during congested condition.
increasing flow. The freedom to
For it not to be subjective, we provide quantitative
maneuver becomes more restricted,
equivalent of ranking. We need to compute for the and drivers experience reductions in
service measure (quantifying traffic operational physical and psychological comfort. Incidents can generate
performance) to get the qualitative ranking. lengthy queues because the higher density associated with
this LOS provides little space to absorb disruptions in the
The HCM [Transportation Research Board 2010] traffic flow.
defines the LOS categories for freeways and multilane
highways as follows: Level of service E
LOS E represents operating conditions
at or near the roadway’s capacity. Even
If the level is getting higher, the level of service get
minor disruptions to the traffic stream,
worst. Level service analysis is conducted at peak hour such as vehicles entering from a ramp
period and it is directional wherein you cannot or vehicles changing lanes, can cause
analyze both direction. In the morning peak it can be delays as other vehicles give way to allow such maneuvers.
between 6 – 8 AM. In the afternoon peak around to 5- In general, maneuverability is extremely limited, and
7 PM drivers experience considerable physical and psychological
discomfort.
Level of service A
LOS A represents free-flow conditions Level of service F
(traffic operating at free-flow speeds). LOS F describes a breakdown in
Individual users are virtually unaffected vehicular flow. Queues form quickly
by the presence of others in the traffic behind points in the roadway where
stream. Freedom to select speeds and to the arrival flow rate temporarily
maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely high. The exceeds the departure rate, as
general level of comfort and convenience provided to determined by the roadway’s capacity. Such points occur at
drivers is excellent. incidents and on- and off-ramps, where incoming traffic
It is the best level of service. The vehicle travel at a free flow results in capacity being exceeded. Vehicles typically
speed (speed when the number of vehicle approaches zero.). operate at low speeds under these conditions and are often
The freedom of maneuver (change lanes) is very high. required to come to a complete stop, usually in a cyclic
fashion. The cyclic formation and dissipation of queues is a
key characterization of LOS F
LEVEL-OF-SERVICE DETERMINATION SPEED-FLOW CURVE
1. Base Conditions and Capacity (Ideal
Conditions)
2. Determining Free-Flow Speed
3. Determining Analysis Flow Rate
4. Calculating Service Measure(s)
(quantitative) and Determining LOS
(qualitative ranking)

BASIC FREEWAY SEGMENTS is defined as a section of

a divided roadway having two or more lanes in each
direction, full access control, and traffic that is
unaffected by merging or diverging movements near
ramps.

Freeway here in the Table 6.1: LOS CRITERIA FOR BASIC FREEWAY
Philippines is the SEGEMENTS
expressway. Two lanes
in every highway. There
is no intersection.
Ramps may be exit or
entry lane or fly over.

BASE CONDITIONS AND CAPACITY

The base conditions for a basic freeway segment are
defined as [Transportation Research Board 2010].

• 12-ft minimum lane widths

(3.6 meters) or can be 10-11 ft
• 6-ft minimum right-shoulder
clearance between the edge
of the travel lane and objects
(utility poles, retaining walls,
etc.) that influence driver
behavior
• 2-ft minimum median lateral
clearance
 Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
• Five or more lanes in each travel direction (urban
areas only-10 lanes)
• 2-mi or greater interchange spacing
• Level terrain (no grades greater than 2%) Table 6.2: Relationship Between Free-Flow Speed and
• A driver population of mostly familiar roadway Capacity on Basic Freeway Segments
users (regular users)

SERVICE MEASURE
The service measure for basic freeway segments is
density. Density is typically measured in terms of
passenger cars per mile per lane (pc/mi/ln) and
therefore provides a good measure of the relative
mobility of individual vehicles in the traffic stream.
q = uk
where:
𝒒 𝒗𝒑
𝒌= = =𝑫
𝒖 𝑺
FREE-FLOW SPEED DETERMINATION PEAK HOUR FACTOR
𝐅𝐅𝐒 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟒 − 𝒇𝑳𝑾 − 𝒇𝑳𝑪 − 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝑻𝑹𝑫 𝟎.𝟖𝟒 𝑽 𝑽
Where: 𝑷𝑯𝑭 = =
𝑽𝟏𝟓 × 𝟒 𝑽𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐
 FFS = estimates free-flow speed in mi/h. Where:
 fLW = adjustment for lane width in mi/h.  PHF = peak-hour factor
 fLc = adjustment for lateral clearance in mi/h.  V = hourly volume for hour of analysis
 TRD = adjustment for total ramp density in  V15 = maximum 15-min volume within hour
mi/h/ of analysis
 4 = number of 15-min periods per hour
Table 6.3: Adjustment for Lane Width (fLW)
Table 6.5: Passenger Car Equivalents (PCEs) for
Extended Freeway Segment
HEAVY VEHICLE ADJUSTMENT

Table 6.3: Adjustment for Right-Shoulder Lateral

Clearance (fLC)
Table 6.6: Passenger Car Equivalents (ET) for Trucks
and Buses on Specific Upgrades
ADJUSTMENT FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON UPGRADES

TOTAL RAMP DENSITY ADJUSTMENT (TRD)

Ramp density provides a measure of the impact of
merging and diverging traffic on free-flow speed.
Total ramp density is the number of on- and off-
ramps (in one direction) within a distance of three
miles upstream and three miles downstream of the
midpoint of the analysis segment, divided by six
miles.
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔
𝑻𝑹𝑫 =
𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔
FLOW RATE DETERMINATION
𝑽
𝒗𝒑 =
𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝑵 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
Where:
 vp = 15-min passenger car equivalent flow
rate (pc/h/ln)
 V = hourly volume (veh/h) - peak
 PHF = peak-hour factor
 N = number of lanes / direction
 fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
 fp = driver population factor
Table 6.7: Passenger Car Equivalents (ER) for RV on DRIVER POPULATION ADJUSTMENT
Specific Upgrades To account for the composition of the driver
ADJUSTMENT FOR RV’S ON UPGRADES population, the adjustment factor fp is used, and its
recommended range is 0.85– 1.00.
If regular user, fp = 1.0

Density Calculation and LOS Determination

𝒗𝑷
𝑫=
𝑺
Where:
 D = density in pc/mi/ln
 vp = flow rate in pc/h/ln
 S = average passenger car speed in mi/h
Table 6.8: Passenger Car Equivalents (ET) for Trucks
and Buses on Specific Downgrades
ADJUSTMENT FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON DOWNGRADES

𝟏
𝒇𝑯𝑽 =
𝟏 + 𝑷𝑻 (𝑬𝑻 − 𝟏) + 𝑷𝑹 (𝑬𝑹 − 𝟏)

Where:
 fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
 PT = proportion of trucks and buses in the
traffic stream
 PR = proportion of recreational vehicles in
the traffic stream
 ET = passenger car equivalent for trucks and
buses from Table 6.5, 6.6, or 6.8
 ER = passenger car equivalent for
recreational vehicles from Table 6.5 or 6.7
EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 1 3. Density and LOS Determination
BASIC FREEWAY SEGMENT LOS WITH GENERAL ***Note: Average Speed, S can be determined on
TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION Table 6.1 by:
Criterion Los
A six-lane urban freeway (three lanes in each FFS = 65 mi/h
direction) is on rolling terrain with 11-ft lanes, A X B
obstructions 2 ft from the right edge of the traveled Average Speed (mi/h) 65.0 X 65
pavement, and nine ramps within three miles
Maximum flow rate (pc/h/ln) 710 1145 1170
upstream and three miles downstream of the
midpoint of the analysis segment. The traffic stream By interpolation: 𝑺 = 𝟔𝟓 𝒎𝒊/𝒉
consists primarily of commuters (regular users). A
directional weekday peak-hour volume of 2300  Density, D
𝑣𝑃
vehicles is observed, with 700 vehicles arriving in the 𝐷=
𝑆
most congested 15- min period. If the traffic stream 1145
𝐷= = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 𝒑𝒄/𝒎𝒊/𝒍𝒏
has 15% large trucks and buses and no recreational 65
vehicles, determine the level of service. LOS = ?
Therefore, LOS B
Given: Based on Table 6.1:
N=3 Criterion Los
V = 2300 veh FFS = 65 mi/h
A X B
V15 = 700 veh
Maximum density (pc/mi/ln) 11 17.6 18
PT = 15 % large trucks = 0.15
PR = 0 % recreational vehicles
***Note: If the density is between A and B choose the
LW = 11 ft ; fLW = 1.9 mi/h (= Table 6.3)
worst or next lower level of service. Since the
LC = 2 ft w/ 3 lanes/direction; fLC = 1.6 mi/h (Table 6.4)
problem is investigative, it is safe to choose the lower
No. of Ramps = 9 ramps
current level
fp = 1.0 (If regular commuter)
***Note: If we are designing, you need to aim for the
ET = 2.5 (rolling terrain)
higher level of service
Solution to Problem No. 1
1. Free-Flow Speed Determination, vp
 Total Ramp Density, TRD
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 9 𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒔
𝑇𝑅𝐷 = = = 𝟏. 𝟓
6 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 6 𝑚𝑖 𝒎𝒐

FFS = 75.4 − 𝑓𝐿𝑊 − 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 3.22𝑇𝑅𝐷0.84

FFS = 75.4 − 1.9 − 1.6 − 3.22(1.5)0.84
𝐦𝐢 𝐦𝐢
FFS = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟒 = 𝟔𝟓 (round off to near, 5mph)
𝐡 𝐡

2. Service Flow Rate Determination, vp

 Peak Hour Factor, PHF
𝑉 2300
𝑃𝐻𝐹 = = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟏
𝑉15 × 4 700 × 4
 Heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, fHV
1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 (𝐸𝑇 − 1) + 𝑃𝑅 (𝐸𝑅 − 1)
1
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟔
1 + 0.15(2.5 − 1) + 0(0 − 1)

𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝
2300
𝑣𝑝 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒑𝒄/𝒉/𝒍𝒏
0.821 × 3.0 × 0.816 × 1.0
***Note: round off to near 5 pc/h/ln
EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 2 (Continuation Problem)  Density, D
BASIC FREEWAY SEGMENT LOS WITH A SPECIFIC 𝑣𝑃
𝐷=
GRADE 𝑆
1285
Consider the freeway and traffic conditions in 𝐷= = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖 𝒑𝒄/𝒎𝒊/𝒍𝒏
65
Example Problem No.1. At some point further along
the roadway there is a 6% upgrade that is 1.5 mi long. Therefore, LOS C
All other characteristics are the same as in Example Based on Table 6.1:
6.1. What is the level of service of this portion of the Criterion Los
roadway, and how many vehicles can be added before FFS = 65 mi/h
the roadway reaches capacity (assuming that the B X C
proportion of vehicle types and the peak-hour factor Maximum density (pc/mi/ln) 18 19.8 26
remain constant)?
 At Capacity (roadway reaches capacity), LOS E
Based on Table 6.1:
Criterion Los
FFS = 65 mi/h
E
SOLUTION TO PROBLEM NO. 2 Maximum flow rate, vp 2350
ET = 3.5 (Based on Table 6.6) (pc/h/ln)
Upgrade (%) Length Percentage of Truck
(mi) and Buses 𝑽𝑬
𝒗𝒑 =
15 𝑷𝑯𝑭 × 𝑵 × 𝒇𝑯𝑽 × 𝒇𝒑
>5-6 >1.00 3.5 𝑉𝐸
2350 =
0.821 × 3.0 × 0.727 × 1.0
 Heavy-vehicle adjustment factor, fHV 𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝑽𝑬 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎𝟖
1 𝒉
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 𝑃𝑇 (𝐸𝑇 − 1) + 𝑃𝑅 (𝐸𝑅 − 1)
1 𝑉𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 4208 − 2300 = 𝟏𝟗𝟎𝟖 𝒗𝒆𝒉 /𝒉𝒓
𝑓𝐻𝑉 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟕
1 + 0.15(3.5 − 1) + 0(0 − 1)
 Service Flow Rate Determination, vp
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝
2300
𝑣𝑝 = = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒑𝒄/𝒉/𝒍𝒏
0.821 × 3.0 × 0.727 × 1.0

 Average Speed, S (Based on Table 6.1)

Criterion Los
FFS = 65 mi/h
B X C
Average Speed (mi/h) 65.0 X 64.0

Maximum flow rate (pc/h/ln) 1170 1285 1665

By interpolation: 𝑺 = 𝟔𝟓 𝒎𝒊/𝒉

Another way: Speed Flow Curve

DESIGN TRAFFIC VOLUMES EXAMPLE PROBLEM NO. 3 (Design)
𝑫𝑯𝑽 DETERMINATION OF REQUIRED NUMBER OF FREEWAY
𝑲= LANES
𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻
Where: A freeway is to be designed as a passenger-car–only facility
 K = factor used to convert annual average for an AADT of 35,000 vehicles per day. It is estimated that
daily traffic to a specified annual hourly the freeway will have a free-flow speed of 70 mi/h. The
volume design will be for commuters, and the peak-hour factor is
 DHV = design hour-volume (typically, the estimated to be 0.85 with 65% of the peak-hour traffic
traveling in the peak direction. Assuming That Fig. 6.8
30th highest annual hourly volume)
applies, determine the number of lanes required to provide
 AADT = roadway’s annual average daily at least LOS C using the highest annual hourly (K1 = 0.148)
traffic in veh/day volume and the 30th highest annual hourly (K30 = 0.12)
For AADT volume.
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 (𝟏𝒚𝒓)
𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻 = Given:
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
fHV = 1.0, because freeway is to be designed as a
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 (𝟐𝒅𝒂𝒚 < 𝒂 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓) passenger-car–only
𝑨𝑫𝑻 = AADT = 35,000 veh/day
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔
FFS = 70 mi/h; vp = 1735 pc/h/ln (Based on Table 6.1)
DIRECTIONAL DESIGN-HOUR VOLUME fp = 1.0 (regular commuter only)
𝑫𝑫𝑯𝑽 = 𝑲 × 𝑫 × 𝑨𝑨𝑫𝑻 PHF = 0.85
Where: D = 65% = 0.65
 DDHV = directional design-hour volume
 D = directional distribution factor to reflect SOLUTION TO PROBLEM NO. 2
the proportion of peak-hour traffic volume Using the highest annual hourly volume: K1 = 0.148
traveling in the peak direction  Directional design-hour volume, DDHV
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐾1 × 𝐷 × 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 0.148 × 0.65 × 35,000
To get the value of K, it is rank from K1 –> K100 𝒗𝒆𝒉
For example, K1 = 0.148 and K30 = 0.120 (it is used for 𝑫𝑫𝑯𝑽 = 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟕 =𝑽
𝒉
design as the highest)
For LOS C and FFS = 70 mi/h, vp = 1735 pc/h/ln
For fHV = 1.0 and fp = 1.0
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝
3367 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ
1735 𝑝𝑐/ℎ/𝑙𝑛 =
0.85 × 𝑁 × 1.00 × 1.00
𝑵 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖 ≈ 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 (𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒑)
Therefore, 3 lane in one direction with total of 6-lane
freeway

Using the 30th highest annual hourly volume:K30 = 0.12

 Directional design-hour volume, DDHV
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 𝐾30 × 𝐷 × 𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐻𝑉 = 0.12 × 0.65 × 35,000
𝒗𝒆𝒉
𝑫𝑫𝑯𝑽 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑𝟎 =𝑽
𝒉

For LOS C and FFS = 70 mi/h, vp = 1735 pc/h/ln

For fHV = 1.0 and fp = 1.0
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝
2730 𝑣𝑒ℎ/ℎ
1735 𝑝𝑐/ℎ/𝑙𝑛 =
0.85 × 𝑁 × 1.00 × 1.00
𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓 ≈ 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 (𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒑)
Therefore, 2 lane in one direction with total of 4-lane
freeway
Module 6: Introduction to Urban 3. Highway route choice
 model that will tells us where the traveler’s
Transport Planning will go
 For example, there are three possible
Travel Demand and Traffic Forecasting.
routes: from the origin going to a certain
Travel demand are expected in a certain highway destination. So where will the traveler pass
facility or possibly a proposed highway. It is important
by in those three routes? Our target is the
in redesigning highway facilities or for the design
traffic flow on a particular route.
purpose. It is either for improvement of existing
highway facility or for the design of future proposed
Figure 8.3 Overview of the sequential approach
highway facility.
to traffic estimation.
Travel demand and traffic forecasting is a formidable
problem because it requires accurate regional
economic forecasts as well as accurate forecasts of
highway users’ social and behavioral attitudes
regarding trip-oriented decisions, in order to predict
growth/decline trends and traffic diversion.

Travel demand is a difficult problem because we need

to predict the traveler’s behavior and attitude. Traffic
forecast is not always increasing, it can also be a
decline especially if there are future proposed
additional highway.
TRIP GENERATION
TRAVELER DECISIONS  Aggregation of decision-making units - we
 temporal decisions - particular time or week, want the group decision making units to
time decisions which mean we would know have the same characteristics (i.e. number of
when a certain person travels. It depends on household size, income, and number of
the type of person: (1) workers, usually in the workers)
morning also nightshift (2) shopping trip is  Temporal aggregation - it is the same time
peak happens during weekend decisions. Like workers who went in the
 destination decisions - possible morning or night. Or shoppers who went by
destinations. (1) If work trip it has only one during weekends. We will compile all this
destination (2) shopping trip, several decisions
destinations
 modal decisions - choice of mode of Typical Trip Generation Models
transport. There are different modes of 𝑻𝒊 = 𝒃𝟎 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒛𝟏𝒊 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒛𝟐𝒊 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝒌 𝒛𝒌𝒊
transportation: private, public, automobile, Where:
etc.  Ti = number of vehicle-based trips of a given
 spatial or route decisions - it is the route of type (shopping or social/recreational) in
travel going to the destination coming from some specified time period made by
the origin household i,
 bk = coefficient estimated from traveler
Sequence of models survey data and corresponding to
 This is an equation that we can develop to characteristic k, and
know the traveler’s decision. It can be  zki = characteristic k (income, employment in
captured through house to house survey. neighborhood, number of household
1. Trip generation model members) of household i.
 it is the number of trips, we are concerned
in a vehicular base trips
2. Mode/destination choice model
 it is the mode of transportation of the
respondents and possible destination
EXAMPLE 1: SHOPPING-TRIP GENERATION EXAMPLE 3: TOTAL TRIP GENERATION
A neighborhood has 205 retail employees and 700
A simple linear regression model is estimated for shopping- households that can be categorized into four types, with
trip generation during a shopping-trip peak hour. The each type having characteristics as follows: There are 100
model is Number of peak-hour vehicle-based shopping trips type 1, 200 type 2, 350 type 3, and 50 type 4 households.
per household = 0.12 + 0.09(household size) + 0.011(annual Assuming that shopping, social/recreational, and work
household income in thousands of dollars) − vehicle-based trips all peak at the same time (for exposition
0.15(employment in the household’s neighborhood, in purposes), determine the total number of peak-hour trips
hundreds) A particular household has six members and an (work, shopping, social/recreational) using the generation
annual income of $50,000. They currently live in a models described in Examples 8.1 and 8.2.
neighborhood with 450 retail employees, but are moving to Type Household Annual Number of Workers
a new home in a neighborhood with 150 retail employees. size income nonworkers departing
in the peak
Calculate the predicted number of vehicle-based peak-hour
hour
shopping trips the household makes before and after the
1 2 $40,000 1 1
move. 2 3 $50,000 2 1
3 3 $55,000 1 2
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 1: SHOPPING-TRIP 4 4 $40,000 3 1
GENERATION
Before the household moves : SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 3: TOTAL TRIP GENERATION
For vehicle-based shopping trips,
Number of vehicle trips  Type 1: 0.12 + 0.09(2) + 0.011(40) − 0.15(2.05) =
= 0.12 + 0.09(no of household members) 0.4325 trips/household × 100 households = 43.25
+ 0.011(income of $50,000) – 0.15(retail employee) trips
= 0.12 + 0.09(6) + 0.011(50) − 0.15(4.5)  Type 2: 0.12 + 0.09(3) + 0.011(50) − 0.15(2.05) =
= 0.535 0.6325 trips/household × 200 households = 126.5
The minimum trip is one in reality, so there is no trips
such thing as 0.535.  Type 3: 0.12 + 0.09(3) + 0.011(55) − 0.15(2.05) =
0.6875 trips/household × 350 households = 240.625
trips
After the household moves :  Type 4: 0.12 + 0.09(4) + 0.011(40) −0.15(2.05) =
Number of vehicle trips 0.6125 trips/household × 50 households = 30.625
= 0.12 + 0.09(no of household members) trips
+ 0.011(income of $50,000) – 0.15(retail employee)
Therefore, there will be a total of 441 vehicle-based
= 0.12 + 0.09(6) + 0.011(50) − 0.15(1.5)
shopping trips.
= 0.985
For vehicle-based social/recreational trips,
EXAMPLE 2: SOCIAL/RECREATIONAL TRIP
 Type 1: 0.04 + 0.018(2) + 0.009(40) + 0.16(1) = 0.596
GENERATION
trips/household × 100 households = 59.6 trips
A model for social/recreational trip generation is estimated,
 Type 2: 0.04 + 0.018(3) + 0.009(50) + 0.16(2) = 0.864
with data collected during a major holiday, as Number of
trips/household × 200 households = 172.8 trips
peak-hour vehicle-based social/recreational trips per
 Type 3: 0.04 + 0.018(3) + 0.009(55) + 0.16(1) = 0.749
household = 0.04 + 0.018(household size) + 0.009(annual
trips/household × 350 households = 262.15 trips
household income in thousands of dollars) + 0.16(number
of nonworking household members) If the household  Type 4: 0.04 + 0.018(4) + 0.009(40) + 0.16(3) = 0.952
described in Example 1 has one working member, how trips/household × 50 households = 47.6 trips
many peak-hour social/recreational trips are predicted Therefore, there will be a total of 542.15 vehicle-
based social/recreational trips.
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 2: SOCIAL/RECREATIONAL
TRIP GENERATION For vehicle - based work trips:
 Type 1: 1 trips/household x 100 households = 100 trips
 Type 2 :1 trips/household x 200 households = 200 trips
Number of nonworking = 6 – 1 = 5  Type 3: 2 trips/household x 350 households = 700 trips
 Type 4:1 trips/household x 50 households = 50 trips
Number of vehicle trips Therefore, there will be a total of 1050 vehicle-based
= 0.04 + 0.018(household size)
work trips.
+ 0.009(annual household income in thousands of dollars)
+ 0.16(number of nonworking household members)
= 0.04 + 0.018(6) + 0.009(50) − 0.16(5) Summing the totals for the three trip types gives:
= 1.398  441 + 542.15 + 1050 = 2033 peak-hour vehicle-
based trips.
MODE AND DESTINATION CHOICE EXAMPLE 4: LOGIT MODEL OF WORK-MODE-CHOICE
A simple work-mode–choice model is estimated from
data in a small urban area to determine the
probabilities of individual travelers selecting various
Red line is a specifiable utility function and they modes. The mode choices include automobile drive-
are easily quantified or directly quantified. alone (DL), automobile shared-ride (SR), and bus (B),
and the utility functions are estimated as
Characteristics used are cost and travel time
Blue line is an unspecifiable utility function,
 UDL = 2.2 − 0.2(costDL) − 0.03(travel timeDL)
cannot be directly quantified. Example is the level
 USR = 0.8 − 0.2(costSR) − 0.03(travel timeSR)
of comfort and security sa pagtravel. Sometimes
 UB = −0.2(costB) − 0.01(travel timeB)
we neglect the unspecifiable because it is where cost is in dollars and time is in minutes.
subjective. Between a residential area and an industrial complex,
4000 workers (generating vehicle-based trips) depart
Where: for work during the peak hour. For all workers, the
 Vim = total utility (specifiable and unspecifiable) cost of driving an automobile is $6.00 with a travel
provided by mode/destination alternative m to time of 20 minutes, and the bus fare is $1.00 with a
a traveler i, travel time of 25 minutes. If the shared-ride option
 bmk = coefficient estimated from traveler survey always consists of two travelers sharing costs equally,
data for mode/destination alternative m how many workers will take each mode?
corresponding to mode/destination or traveler
characteristic k,
 zimk = traveler or mode/destination SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 4: LOGIT MODEL OF WORK-
characteristic k (income, travel time of mode, MODE-CHOICE
commercial floor space at destination, etc.) for Utility functions:
mode/destination alternative m for traveler i,
and
 εim = unspecifiable portion of the utility of
mode/destination alternative m for traveler i,
which will be assumed to be random.
Probability (logit equation):
For notational convenience, define the specifiable
nonrandom portion of utility Vim as

Logit Equation = to know what the traveler’s To check, the sum of all P must be equal to 1
prefer, use this. Express in terms of probability.
Then multiply the probability to the workers to
After getting the probability, we can get the total get the distribution of mode choice
number of trips by multiplying the probability by  0.553 x 4000 = 2132
the number of trips, we can determine the  0.239 x 4000 = 956
aggregation of the traveler in terms of mode  0.228 x 4000 = 912
choice/transportation
EXAMPLE 5: FORECASTING MODE CHOICE WITH THE EXAMPLE 6: LOGIT MODEL OF SHOPPING
LOGIT MODEL MODE/DESTINATION CHOICE
A bus company is making costly efforts in an attempt to Consider a residential area and two shopping centers
increase work-trip bus usage for the travel conditions that are possible destinations. From 7:00 to 8:00 P.M.
described in Example 8.5. An exclusive bus lane is on Friday night, 900 vehicle-based shopping trips
constructed that reduces bus travel time to 10 minutes.
leave the residential area for the two shopping
a. Determine the modal distribution of trips after the
centers. A joint shopping-trip mode destination
lane is constructed.
b. If shared-ride vehicles are also permitted to use the choice logit model (choice of either auto or bus) is
facility, and travel time for bus and shared-ride estimated, giving the following coefficients:
modes is 10 min, determine the modal distribution.
c. Given the conditions described in part (b),
determine the modal distribution if the bus
company offers free bus service

SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 5: FORECASTING MODE

CHOICE WITH THE LOGIT MODEL
a. After the bus lane construction, the modal utilities of
drive-alone and shared-ride are unchanged from those in
Example 8.5. However, the bus modal utility becomes

If shopping center 2 has 400,000 ft2 of commercial

floor space and shopping center 1 has 250,000 ft2,
determine the distribution of Friday night shopping
b. With the bus lane opened to shared-ride vehicles, only the trips by destination and mode.
modal utility of shared rides will change from those in part
(a) to:
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 6: LOGIT MODEL OF
SHOPPING MODE/DESTINATION CHOICE

c. With free bus fare, the bus modal utility becomes [with
other utilities unchanged from part (b)],
Since free sinabi so magiging zero cost
HIGHWAY ROUTE CHOICE EXAMPLE 7: BASIC USER EQUILIBRIUM
Highway Performance Functions Two routes connect a city and a suburb. During the
Figure 8.5 Linear travel time–traffic flow relationship. peak-hour morning commute, a total of 4500 vehicles
travel from the suburb to the city. Route 1 has a 60-
mi/h speed limit and is six miles in length; route 2 is
three miles in length with a 45-mi/h speed limit.
Studies show that the total travel time on route 1
increases two minutes for every additional 500
vehicles added. Minutes of travel time on route 2
increase with the square of the number of vehicles,
expressed in thousands of vehicles per hour.
Determine user-equilibrium travel times.
 q = 4500
Figure 8.6 Nonlinear travel time– traffic flow
relationship.
SOLUTION TO EXAMPLE 7: BASIC USER EQUILIBRIUM
Determining free-flow travel times, in minutes, gives

 Route 1: 6 mi/(60 mi/h) × 60 min/h = 6 min

 Route 2: 3 mi/(45 mi/h) × 60 min/h = 4 min

With these data, the performance functions can be

written as: t = f(x)

User Equilibrium
The travel time between a specified origin and
destination on all used routes is the same and is less This equation are formulated:
than or equal to the travel time that would be t1 - stated “increases two minutes for every additional
experienced by a traveler on any unused route. 500 vehicles added” and since it is in thousands, we
add 1000 and it will increase at 4 min. Initial of 6 min
Say we have a certain origin going to certain and every time it will increase by 1000, travel time
destination with two possible routes. In route 1 there increases 4 min.
is a time of t1 and the number of traffic flow is x1 and Where:
for route 2, t2 and x2. If we denote q (total number of  t1, t2 = average travel times on routes 1 and
vehicle). 2 in minutes, and
 x1, x2 = traffic flow on routes 1 and 2 in
If both routes are used based on the theory of user thousands of vehicles per hour.
equilibrium. The travel time are equal t1 = t2 and the
total number of of vehicle coming from the origin is x 1 Also, the basic flow conservation identity is
+ x2.

Let say only route 1 is used, then the travel time at Where: q = total traffic flow between the origin and
route 1 is lower compared to route 2, therefore, route destination in thousands of vehicles per hour.
1 is the only choice.
And q = x1 while x2 = 0
From flow conservation, x1 + x2 = 4.5, so substituting,
Summary of theory: if the route were used it means
the travel time are the same. And if the one route
were not used, it means that the travel time is big,

which gives average route travel times of:

Module 7: Road Accident in the Philippines ACCIDENT PER REGISTERED VEHICLES, AV

ROAD SAFETY & ACCIDENT ANALYSIS

ACCIDENT DEFINITION
Categories or Classification of Accident Where:
 Traffic Death – death which occurs within 30  N = number of accident occurrences
days of the event.  V = number of registered vehicles
 Fatality – death at the scene.
 Serious and Slight Injury – defined based on Example Problem: The town in the previous example
the extent of injury sustained and the length has 154,700 registered vehicles in 2010. Determine
of time required by the injured to recover. the accident rate per 10,000 registered vehicles.
 Property Damage – involve vehicles colliding
with publicly or privately owned structures, Solution:
equipment and facilities located by the road
(this happens when the driver has no
injuries)

ASSESSMENT OF ROAD SAFETY

Things to identify (data) when there is an accident Av is more reliable because it does not consider any
occurred vehicle while Ap, only considers the person
1. Category of accident
2. Type of Collision ACCIDENT RATES AT INTERSECTIONS, AI
• Head on
• Side swipe
3. Location
4. Where:
5. Person involved in the accident
 N = number of accident occurrences
 T = time frame of analysis in years
METHODS IN ASSESSING THE ROAD SAFETY
 AADT = annual average daily traffic = no. of
ACCIDENT PER POPULATION, AP
vehicles in one year (continuous counting)
then divide by 365 days

Example Problem: An intersection has a record of

Where: following number of accidents for 5 years:
 N = number of accident occurrences  Fatal = 8
 P = population  Injury = 63
 Property Damage = 136
Example Problem: A town has a population of 475,000 If the AADT for this particular intersection is 3,010,
in 2010. In the same year, the number of accidents determine the accident rate per million entering
recorded was 712. Determine the accident rate per vehicles.
100,000 population
Solution:
Solution:
ACCIDENT RATE AT HIGHWAY SECTION, AS • S = 26 accident/100mvk
• K = 95 percent = 1.645 (LOOK IN STATISTICAL
BOOK), it should have the same units
Where: Solution:
 N = number of accident occurrences
 T = time frame of analysis in years
 AADT = annual average daily traffic
 L = length of highway section in km Hence, the section under study has to be flagged as
hazardous at 95 percent level of confidence.
Example Problem: A 5-km highway section has a - Meaning, the particular highway section is
recorded number of accidents of 550 in 5 years. If the accident prone area
average daily traffic of this highway section is 12,480,
determine the accident rate per 100 million vehicle- RATE QUALITY CONTROL METHOD
kilometer.

ADT is given in the problem, and it can also be used

for AADT. The difference is that the in ADT, the period Where:
of counting is less than a year  𝑌𝑖 = accident rate at location 𝑖
Solution:  𝑌̅ = mean accident rate for all locations with
characteristics similar to that of location 𝑖
 𝐾 = constant corresponding to a certain
level of confidence
 𝑉𝑖 = volume of traffic at location 𝑖
IDENTIFYING BLACKSPOTS (HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS)
Example Problem: A section of road has 55 accidents
Other term is accident prone areas or location.
recorded in three years. For the same period, the
Accident mostly happens in a highway curves. This
estimated vehicle travel on the section was 23 mvk.
happens due to the limited site distance of the driver
Considering only those sections having the same
and those people who break the rules like no
characteristics as the section under study, the mean
overtaking and not limiting the speed.
rate is 80 accidents per 100 mvk. Is the section
hazardous with 95 percent level of confidence?
METHODS IN IDENTIFYING THE BLACKSPOTS
Given:
CLASSIC STATISTICAL METHOD
- Vi = 23 mvk
- K = 95 percent = 1.645
Where: Solution:
 𝑋𝑖 = accident frequency or rate at location i
 𝑋̅= mean frequency or rate for all locations
under consideration
 𝐾 = constant corresponding to a certain
level of confidence
 𝑆 = sample standard deviation for all

Therefore, with 95 percent level of confidence, the

locations = section is flagged as hazardous.

Example Problem: A highway section has an accident

rate of 150 accidents per 100 mvk. If the mean GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
accident rate for all sections is 55 per 100 mvk, and • A computer software - There is a map
the standard deviation is 26 per 100 mvk, should the wherein we just pinned the accident data
section under study be flagged as hazardous with 95 and it will analyze if whether the location is
percent confidence? hazardous or not
Given:
• Xi = 150 accident/100mvk
• 𝑋̅ = 55 accident/100mvk
 the speed limit on a road), and passing
restrictions.
• Evaluate and or determine the adequacy of

MODULE 8: •
•
highway geometric characteristics, such as
radii of horizontal curves and lengths of
vertical curves.
Determine speed trends.
Assessing roadway safety questions such as
evaluating and verifying speeding problems,
and assessing speed as a contributor to
vehicle crashes
• Measure effectiveness of traffic control
devices or traffic programs, including signs
and markings, traffic operational changes,
and speed enforcement programs

• Locations that represent different traffic

conditions on a highway or highways are used
for basic data collection.
• Spot speed studies
• Volume studies • Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight,
level sections of rural highways are sites for
• Travel time and delay studies
speed trend analyses.
• Any location may be used for the solution of
a specific traffic engineering problem.
• Spot speed studies are conducted to • When spot speed studies are being
estimate the distribution of speeds of conducted, it is important that unbiased data
vehicles in a stream of traffic at a particular be obtained. This requires that drivers be
location on a highway. unaware that such a study is being
• The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate conducted.
of movement of the vehicle; it is usually • Equipment used therefore, should be
expressed in miles per hour (mi/h) or concealed from the driver, and observers
kilometers per hour (km/h). conducting the study should be inconspicuous.
• A spot speed study is carried out by • Since the speeds recorded eventually will be
recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles subjected to statistical analysis, it is important
at a specified location. that a statistically adequate number of
• Speed characteristics identified by such a vehicle speeds be recorded.
study will be valid only for the traffic and • For a spot speed study at a selected location,
environmental conditions that exist at the a sample size of at least 50 and preferably
time of the study. 100 vehicles is usually obtained.

• Establish parameters for traffic operation

and control, such as speed zones, speed limits • Traffic counts during a Monday morning or a
(85th-percentile speed is commonly used as Friday peak period may show exceptionally
 high volumes and are not normally used in the
analysis; therefore, counts are usually
conducted on a Tuesday, Wednesday, and
Thursday.
• When the purpose of the study is to establish
posted speed limits, to observe speed trends,
or to collect basic data, it is recommended
that the study be conducted when traffic is • Also known as the “trap length” method,
free-flowing, usually during off-peak hours. wherein two (2) lines, 30-50 meters apart,
• Typically, the duration is at least one (1) hour are drawn transversely on the pavement.
and the sample size is at least 50 vehicles. • As the front wheels of a vehicle (or only the
lead vehicle in a group) cross the first mark
at the beginning of the “trap” length, the
observer starts the stopwatch.
• Average Speed - the arithmetic mean of all
• The watch is stopped when the vehicle’s
observed vehicle speeds (which is the sum of
front wheels pass a reference line in front
all spot speeds divided by the number of
of the observer.
recorded speeds)
• The length of the trap is divided by the travel
• Median Speed - the speed at the middle value
time to estimate the speed
in a series of spot speeds that are arranged
in ascending order. 50 percent of the speed
values will be greater than the median; 50
percent will be less than the median. • The use of such instrument is a very
• Modal Speed - the speed value that occurs convenient way of conducting spot speed
most frequently in a sample of spot speeds studies.
• i-th Percentile Speed - the spot speed value • The radar is positioned at the edge of the
below which i percent of the vehicles travel; roadway at an angle of about 15° with the
for example, 85th-percentile spot speed is centreline and is directed toward the
the speed below which 85 percent of the incoming vehicle.
vehicles travel and above which 15 percent • This method may be difficult to use when
of the vehicles travel. volume of traffic is high.
• Pace - the range of speed—usually taken at • This is often used by police authorities for
10-km/hr intervals—that has the greatest apprehending overspeeding drivers
number of observations.
• Standard Deviation - a measure of the
spread of the individual speeds • The pneumatic road tube method is normally
used for longer data collection time periods
than those of either the stopwatch or radar
• Stopwatch Method meter method.
• Radar Meter Method • Using this method, pneumatic tubes are
• Pneumatic Road Tube Method placed in the travel lanes and are connected
to recorders located at the side of the road.
The posted speed along Sumulong Highway is 60 km/hr.
The Table below shows the summary of 64 samples of
spot speeds along Sumulong Highway.

o The 50th percentile of speed represents the

average speed of the traffic stream.
o The 85th percentile is the speed at which
Determine the following: 85% of the observed vehicles are traveling
at or below. This percentile is used in
o Mean speed evaluating/recommending posted speed limits
o Median speed based on the assumption that 85% of the
o Spot speed frequency histogram drivers are traveling at a speed they
o 85th Percentile speed perceive to be safe.
o In other words, the 85th percentile of speed
Solution:
is normally assumed to be the highest safe
speed for a roadway section
o In our sample problem, the computed 85th
percentile is 48.33 km/hr, which is lower
than the posted speed of 60 km/hr.
o Therefore, based on the results of the spot
speed study conducted, it is recommended
that the posted speed on that section of
Sumulong Highway be changed to 50 km/hr.

Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on

the number of vehicles and/or pedestrians that pass a
point on a highway facility during a specified time period.
- We call this the traffic flow in traffic
engineering
This time period varies from as little as 15 minutes to as
much as a year depending on the anticipated use of the
data.

The data collected also may be put into subclasses which

may include directional movement, occupancy rates,
vehicle classification, and pedestrian age.
Directional movement is only applicable for volume count Similar to AADT but only used if AADT is not available
in intersection
o Planning of highway activities
Vehicle classification is used to count specific type of o Measurement of current demand
vehicle (let’s say trucks/busses/motorcycles) o Evaluation of existing traffic flow
• Peak Hourly Volume

Number of vehicles per unit of time, usually per hour,

• Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) during peak hour period (morning or afternoon peak
Can also be called as annual average daily traffic period)

AADT is the number of vehicles counted in a specific o Functional classification of highways

section of highway for 365 days or 1 year continuously, Expressways, national highway, provincial roads, city
and then, divided by the number of days in 1 year roads and barangay roads
o Estimation of highway user revenues o Design of the geometric characteristics of a
o Computation of crash rates in terms of highway, for example, number of lanes,
number of crashes per 100 million vehicle intersection signalization, or channelization
miles o Capacity analysis
o Establishment of traffic volume trends
In determining the level of service for a certain highway
If we want to know if the number of vehicles is
increasing or how much it is increasing per year o Development of programs related to traffic
operations, for example, one-way street
o Evaluation of the economic feasibility of systems or traffic routing
highway projects o Development of parking regulations
Economic feasibility – means will it be within the budget If on street parking will be allowed or not
of the agency or will this earn certain revenue or what
would be the return of investment for a certain • Vehicle Classification
highway project o Design of geometric characteristics, with
particular reference to turning-radii
o Development of freeway and major arterial requirements (especially for trucks),
street systems maximum grades (critical for trucks also), lane
Could be an extension of an existing highway or a widths (critical for large vehicles like busses
widening of existing highway and trucks), and so forth
o Capacity analyses, with respect to
o Development of improvement and passenger-car equivalents of trucks
maintenance programs o Adjustment of traffic counts obtained by
machines
The type of maintenance program will be implemented
based on the number of vehicles that are using the Since automatic type counting machine does not classify
highway any type of vehicles so we need to adjust traffic counts
by determining how many types of vehicles are using
• Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
the highway
The difference of this to AADT is that, ADT can be
o Structural design of highway pavements,
obtained by counting vehicles for a minimum of 2 days
bridges, and so forth
to a period of less than a year, divided by number of
days during the duration of the count.
We need to compute the equivalent single axial load for
each type of vehicle.

• Manual Method
o Manual counting involves one or more
persons recording observed vehicles using a
Automatic counter – uses image processing in
counter.
determining/classifying the vehicle
Either with tally sheet or manual counter
o With this type of counter, both the turning
movements at the intersection and the types
of vehicles can be recorded.
o The main disadvantages of the manual count
method are that

(1) it is labor-intensive and therefore can be

expensive,
• Cordon Count – used in city wide volume
(2) it is subject to the limitations of human count
factors, and • Screen Line Count – used in 1 section of
highway
(3) it cannot be used for long periods of
counting • Intersection Count – employed in
intersections
• Automatic Method • Pedestrian Count – employed in any
o Automatic counters can be classified into two pedestrian crossing or near the intersections
general categories: those that require the • Periodic Count – simply means you are going
laying of detectors (surface or subsurface), to count vehicles at certain period of time
and those that do not require the laying of (either weekly, monthly or daily)
detectors.
o Automatic counters that require the laying of
surface detectors (such as pneumatic road
• Intersection counts are taken to determine
tubes) or subsurface detectors (non-invasive,
vehicle classifications, through movements,
such as magnetic or electric contact devices)
and turning movements at intersections.
on the road, detect the passing vehicle and
• These data are used mainly in determining
transmit the information to a recorder,
phase lengths and cycle times for signalized
which is connected to the detector at the
intersections, in the design of channelization
side of the road.
at intersections, and in the general design of
o Automatic counters that do not require the
improvements to intersections.
laying of detectors use one of many
• Standard duration of intersection count is at
technologies including electronics: Doppler
principles, laser scanning, and infrared. least 12 hours.

Pneumatic road detector – in surface of road 12 hours – sometimes, not straight since we only count
vehicles for 1 hour period
 The one in bracket is heavy vehicle (trucks or busses)
The one without bracket is passenger car
• 14-Hour Traffic Variation of Sumulong
Highway-Olalia Road intersection

we need to count depending on the direction

• Volume counts of pedestrians are made at • 14-Hour Traffic Composition of Sumulong

locations such as subway stations, mid-blocks, Highway-Olalia Road intersection
and crosswalks. The counts are usually taken
at these locations when the evaluation of
existing or proposed pedestrian facilities is to
be undertaken. Such facilities may include
pedestrian overpasses or underpasses.
• The locations at which pedestrian counts are
taken also include intersections, along
sidewalks, and mid-block crossings. These
counts can be used for crash analysis (or
accident analysis), capacity analysis, and
determining minimum signal timings at
• Peak Hour Traffic Composition of Sumulong
signalized intersections
Highway-Olalia Road intersection
Critical since pedestrians need to have appropriate or
sufficient green time to cross intersection

• Turning Movement Count at Sumulong

Highway-Olalia Road intersection

• A travel time study determines the amount

of time required to travel from one point to
another on a given route.
• In conducting such a study, information may
also be collected on the locations, durations,
and causes of delays. When this is done, the
 study is known as a travel time and delay When you apply a certain intervention or traffic
study. management skim, we would like to evaluate its
• Data obtained from travel time and delay effectiveness
studies give a good indication of the level of
service on the study section. These data also
aid the traffic engineer in identifying problem Travel time - the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a
locations (which is called bottlenecks), which given section of a highway (from origin to destination)
may require special attention in order to
improve the overall flow of traffic on the Running time - the time a vehicle is actually in motion
route. while traversing a given section of a highway
(running/moving in average speed)
Moving in a very low speed due to congestion is not
• Determination of the efficiency of a route considered
with respect to its ability to carry traffic
Delay -the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond
Pertains also to level of service (the lower the the control of the driver
delay, the higher the level of service)
Fixed delay - that part of the delay caused by control
• Identification of locations with relatively high devices such as traffic signals
delays and the causes for those delays
Operational delay - that part of the delay caused by the
Identification of problematic locations or bottleneck impedance of other traffic.
where time delay is very high
Due to the presence of other vehicles
• Performance of before-and-after studies to
- This impedance can occur either as side
evaluate the effectiveness of traffic
friction (vehicle in the side of the road),
operation improvements
where the stream flow is interfered with by
When traffic agency employ certain traffic other traffic (for example, parking or
management skim, we want to know if travel time unparking vehicles or on street parking), or
improved as internal friction, where the interference
is within the traffic stream (for example,
• Determination of relative efficiency of a reduction in capacity of the highway or bottle
route by developing sufficiency ratings or neck)
congestion indices
If the highway is reduced, it is called as bottleneck
Parameters to quantify efficiency of certain route
Stopped-time delay - that part of the delay during which
• Determination of travel times on specific links the vehicle is at rest
for use in trip assignment models
Travel-time delay - the difference between the actual
Actually, a step in traffic forecasting travel time and the travel time that will be obtained by
• Compilation of travel time data that may be assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at
used in trend studies to evaluate the changes an average speed equal to that for an uncongested
in efficiency and level of service with time traffic flow on the section being studied.
• Performance of economic studies in the Difference between when you travel in an off peak
evaluation of traffic operation alternatives period (uncongested) and in an peak period (congested)
that reduce travel time
 Y -axis – travel time
• Time-distance diagram for EDSA Southbound
Average speed technique travel time study

o Also known as the test car technique

o This technique involves driving the test car
along the length of the test section at a
speed that, in the opinion of the driver, is the
average speed of the traffic stream.
o The time required to traverse the test
section is noted. The test run is repeated for
a minimum three (3) times per time period
(during peak hours and off-peak hours), and
the average time is recorded as the travel
time.
o It is first necessary to clearly identify the
test section.
o The way the travel time is usually obtained is
that the observer starts a stopwatch at the
beginning point of the test section and stops
at the end. Congestion is a situation in which demand for road space
o Additional data also may be obtained by exceeds supply. (1)
recording the times at which the test vehicle
arrives at specific locations which have been Meaning there is not enough space or too much vehicles
identified before the start of the test runs. are using the highway
o A second stopwatch also may be used to - This definition has underpinned many efforts
determine the time that passes each time by transportation engineers to “solve” the
the vehicle is stopped. The recorder then
problem of congestion by increasing supply-
records the reason for stoppage. that is, by doing away with bottlenecks or
o The sum of these times for any test run will expanding the capacity of the roadway
give the stopped-time delay for that run network.

By removing obstacles that lessen the capacity of the

• Time-distance diagram for EDSA Northbound highway or widening the capacity of road network
travel time study - However, can it be said that roadway
expansion – as a stand-alone policy—has
“solved” much of anything vis-à-vis overall
levels of congestions?
Congestion is the impedance that vehicles impose on
each other, due to the speed-flow relationship, in
conditions where the use of a transport system
approached its capacity. (2)

X -axis – number of stops

This definition is highly technical since it explains the • The answer is nuanced.
traffic parameters like speed, and traffic flow
conditions There is a distinction whether it is really bad or not.

- This definition highlights the fact that, • Congestion is a rationing of the existing
because of inherent instability in the speed- transport network in order to allow users to
flow relationship as demand nears roadway achieve desired goals that may only be fulfilled
capacity, congestion can be said to exist in “crowded” urban areas.
before the physical capacity of the network • Congestion, while often regarded as a sign of
is attained. transport policy shortcomings, is the outcome
of successful economic development,
Congestion is essentially a relative phenomenon that is employment, housing and cultural policies that
linked to the difference between the roadway system make people want to live and work relatively
performance that users expect and how the system close to each other and attract firms to
actually performs. (3) benefit from the gains in productivity thus
derived.
More on perception of road users. If they do not expect
the kind or level of service that the highway intends to Congestion can be perceived as a sign of development
provide them, the road users see it as congested because this only means there are lots of people who
system are employed, who are going to work and also, there
are lots of goods/services to be transported. But, if
- The same levels of traffic might be perceived
the congestion persists, then the delivery of goods and
as either intolerably congested or acceptably
the people might have some losses which can result for
slow according to where and by whom it is
the losses in economy also.
experienced
- Road users in rapidly expanding cities might Congestion can neither be bad nor good at the same
share the former view while those travelling time.
on the roads of large mature conurbations
might share the latter :
:
• Roadway Users and Congestion
?
It is important to bear in mind that congestion is not
• Congestion is excessive when people say it is
solely a physical phenomenon.
so … but this does not account for what it
would cost to bring congestion back down to At a micro level, billions of decisions are made by millions
levels that are tolerable. of individuals and/or firms resulting in hundreds of
• Congestion could be defined as being thousands of trips every day in urban areas.
excessive when the marginal costs to society
It is difficult to predict when a certain traveler or road
of congestion exceed the marginal costs of
user will travel and what mode of transportation he will
efforts to reduce congestion (such as adding
going to use and what route he will going to use
to road or other transport infrastructure)
• Networks and Flows
We can solve the problem of congestion but the cost
of solving this congestion could be more than the Many countries have adopted some form of functional
expected benefit of solving this congestion. classifications of their roadway network more or less.

? This functionals classification often comes into play in

congestion management policies when some classes of
road receive a high level of scrutiny (essentially those work day is completed in the early evening. However,
that carry the highest volumes of traffic – such as the “timing” of urban areas is not what it used to be.
urban motorways), while others receive relatively less For one, congestion has had an impact on temporal
attention even though they may carry as much, if not travel patterns.
more, traffic in congested conditions.
Usually in morning (6-8am) or in early evening (5pm to
Congestion “triggers” can vary according to the 7pm), congestions happen
geometric design and resulting functional classification
of the road. Most large urban areas experience some form of
“peak” spreading of the rush hour. Indeed, the “rush
Urban motorway congestion is an immediate function of hour” has now become “rush hours” as congestion
lane flow to capacity and on/off-ramp flow to capacity, delays and trip departure re-scheduling have lead to a
whereas congestion on arterial/collector networks is prolongation of congested road conditions.
often a function of intersection clearing times and
The timing or urban space has become more complex
congestion on the local network is often linked to the
and while the rigid timing described above still is a major
directional imbalances.
factor, its influence has somewhat become eroded.
It should be stressed that road systems are not
Shops are open longer, public services operate more
managed with uniform performance objective in mind.
flexibly and some work pattern have shifted away from
What may seem to be a desirable goal for traffic the conventional “8 to 5” schedule.
speeds and flow on motorways and arterials would
Therefore, it is important to note that congestion
certainly be antithetical to the management objectives
mitigation policies can themselves influence the “timing”
for collectors and local roadway networks.
of urban spaced.
Accordingly, congestion management responses should
be aligned to the type of roadway network in question.

• Time

Time is an important factor to consider when acting on Facts about Metro Manila Traffic
congestion since road networks do not operate at
1. In 2013, the Land Transportation Office
capacity all of the time. (LTO) listed a total of 2,101,148 motor
Congestion can only happen during peak hours period vehicles registered in NCR or 27% of the
(has specific time in a day or specific season) country’s 7,690,038 total registered motor
vehicles. In 2015, the total motor vehicles in
It follows that congestion is a temporal phenomenon, Metro Manila have already peaked at 2.5
affecting some periods more than others and some not million.
at all. 2. Metro Manila has only 1,032 kilometers of
Temporal – it has something to do with time roads or 3.5% of the total 39,370
kilometers of roads nationwide. The National
Which periods are effected is linked to the temporal Capital Region has only one kilometer or road
scale (daily, weekly, monthly and/or yearly) and the per 424 vehicles.
timing of urban activities which is linked to decisions 3. The traffic demand in Metro Manila is at 12.8
made by individuals and firms relating to the purpose of million trips. 69% of these total trips are
their trips. done using public transport yet only 22% of
the road space is occupied by public vehicles.
Traffic has flowed to areas where jobs are
The other 78% of road space is taken by
concentrated in the morning and flowed back after the
private vehicles.
 If we can equal the percentage, perhaps 9. According to COA report, a P 1.324 billion
congestion could be minimized allocation from the Disbursement
Acceleration Program, for the rehabilitation
4. Metro Manila only, UP National Center for
of Light Rail Transit 1 and 2 was released in
Transportation Studies (UP-NCTS), 2011
full by the Aquino’s administration in January
2015. However, the rehabilitation projects
have not yet been implemented due to
several project revisions. In the same month,
the MMDA has launched a new traffic
signaling system worth P290 million.

1) Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)

- Also known as exclusive bus lane
2) Mass Transit System
Environmental externality cost – effect of congestion
- Most efficient but quite expensive for the
to the environment (pollution)
side of government agencies
5. The total population of Metro Manila as of 3) Double Decker Buses
2010 is already at 11,855,975 which is almost 4) Tram
12% of the total population of the Philippines. - Similar to bus but they have their own
The total land area of Metro Manila (638 specific trail or lane
square kilometers) is only 0.21% of the total 5) Congestion Pricing
land area of the Philippines (300,000 square - Charging of vehicle during congested period
kilometers) 6) Signalization -can sometimes contribute also
- Manila, Pateros and Caloocan are the top 3 to congestion
most densely populated cities in the world. 7) Infrastructure – interchanges, ply over,
Manila has a population density of 42,857 underpass
people living per square kilometer.
Public transport is the best solution to congestion when
6. As of 2010, the number of informal settler
it comes to people traveling instead of using private cars
families in Metro Manila is already more than
half of a million. This number is already 20%
of the total number of households in Metro
Manila. 41% of these informal settlers are
located in government owned lands while
MODULE 9:
34% are in privately owned lands.
7. 20% of the total income of the poor in
Metro Manila is spent on transportation. This
percentage is more than what they spend
for rice (15%), utilities (6.97%), health
(2.99%), clothing (2.96%) and education
(3.37%).
8. 85% of air pollution in Metro Manila comes
from vehicles Establishments are required to submit a TIA in order to
assess the possible volume of traffic that will be
attracted in their establishment
 ( ) 3. MITIGATION – identification of transportation and
traffic schemes and measures to alleviate the traffic
• All development will generate traffic into current or impacts of the proposed development
future transport facilities.
4. IMPLEMENTATION – development of the institutional
• All big development will generate internal traffic. mechanisms for implementing mitigating measures

TIA will answer the following questions: 5. DOCUMENTATION – preparation of the TIA Report
• What will be the effect of a development/project to
TIA Contents
the surrounding transport facilities?
1) Executive Summary
• What is the magnitude of additional traffic due to the
2) Project Description
development/project to the existing traffic?
3) Impact Study Area
• How will the additional traffic affect the current 4) Time Periods for Analysis
traffic? 5) Existing Conditions
6) Background Traffic Demand
• What is the proposal to alleviate or minimize the 7) Site-Generated Traffic Demand (if applicable)
impact? 8) Total Traffic Demand
9) Analysis and Discussion
Main Objectives of a TIA Study 10)Conclusion and Recommendations
11)Appendices/Annexes
• Identify the nature of traffic impacts of a particular 12) References
proposed development project

• Assess and analyze these impacts; and eventually 1. Executive Summary

• Identify the mitigating measures that would address • An Executive Summary is a section of the report that
these traffic impacts. summarizes the comprehensive discussion of the TIA in
TIA Activities such a way that readers/evaluators can rapidly become
acquainted with a large body of material without having
1. Proponent plans to implement infrastructure to read it all.
project
2. Concerned implementing office executes TIA • It usually contains a brief statement of the problem
3. Collate existing data and relevant information; or proposal covered in the major document, background
and conduct of traffic surveys information, concise analysis and main conclusions.
4. Analyses and evaluation • It must be short, concise, and straightforward.
5. Review of original layout plan and propose any
improvement Similar to an abstract of a research or thesis
6. Final Report to be submitted to approving
2. Project Description
authority
• A detailed description of the proposed project will
5 Steps of a TIA Study
enable the evaluators to identify the site location, its
1. WARRANT – determining if a particular proposed anticipated operation, and its area of potential influence.
development warrants the conduct of a TIA
• An area figure/map shall be provided to show the
2. EVALUATION – the conduct of the traffic impact location of the project in relation to the surrounding
analysis and evaluation of severity of impact region.

3. Impact Study Area

• The impact study area is the boundary of the study • Intersection configuration
area for a traffic study, and shall be regional in nature. • Vertical grades of local/intersecting road
• Intersection sight distance
• It is the extent for which the assessment will be • Stopping sight distance
conducted, and should be minimally include all adjacent • Signal timings
roads and major intersections that will noticeably be • Major developments currently using intersection
affected by the proposed project.

• Potential future transportation improvements, and 5b. Existing Traffic Conditions

commercial developments that are currently being
• Turning movement counts
considered, proposed, and may accommodate a
• Pedestrian count
proportion of the future traffic demand should be
• Existing AADT on highway
identified. • Historical traffic growth rate on
4. Time Period of Analysis highway/intersection
• Vehicle composition on highway/intersection
• Generally, the horizon year will be taken as five (5)
years minimum from the anticipated build-out of the 6. Background Traffic Demand
project. • The background growth projects future traffic
without the proposed project.
• If the project is multi-phased in which several stages
of activity are planned, a number of horizon years may • The background growth in traffic should be
be needed to coincide with each major stage of established through one of the following methods:
development or increment of area transportation ➢ Estimation of roadway growth factors from
system improvements. a calibrated traffic forecasting model;
➢ Regression analysis of historical traffic
• In general, the traditional AM and PM peak hours of growth; or
the road system should be evaluated in each impact ➢ Traffic growth rates established by the
study. DPWH and LTO.
7. Site-Generated Traffic Demand
5a. Existing Highway Conditions • This section is only applicable if the proposed
infrastructure will generate travel demand such as
Inventory of an existing highway in the vicinity for the
large school buildings, hospitals, recreational facilities,
proposed development
and the like.
• Pavement width
• Pavement markings • This is also applicable for new road openings.
• Right-of-way width
• Vertical grades on highway • All trip generation, trip distribution, modal split, and trip
• Horizontal alignment of highway assignment assumptions should be in accordance with
• Design and/or posted speed limit standard/accepted techniques and based on local
• Locations of speed limit changes parameters.
• Existing/proposed accesses to vicinity
• Existing illumination in vicinity • Trip assignment assumptions should reflect the most
• Traffic control type (two-way, all-way stop control, "probable" travel patterns expected.
etc.)
• Traffic operation signage (no left turns, no parking, 8. Total Traffic Demand
etc.) • A summary of the existing and future traffic demands
should be provided in the form of exhibits/illustrations
that summarize the following:
5b. Existing Intersection Conditions
 ➢ Existing traffic; • Mitigation strategies must be developed if the TIA
➢ Future background; determines that the proposed project will potentially
➢ Site generated traffic; result in a deficiency in the level of service of existing
➢ Pass-by or other diversionary traffic; and transportation facilities.
➢ Future total traffic (Future background + site
generated traffic). • These measures may include, but are not necessarily
limited to:
9. Analysis and Discussion
• The analysis shall be based on currently accepted ➢ Revised pavement markings
traffic engineering principles such as capacity analysis, ➢ Addition of turn lanes
queuing analysis, and determination of other network ➢ Addition of travel lanes
performance measures. ➢ Addition of storage lanes
➢ Lengthening of storage lanes
• Analysis of pre-construction and during construction ➢ Installation of traffic signals
stages shall be included in the report, which may require ➢ Installation of traffic control signs
a detailed TMP. ➢ Restriction of turning movements
➢ Adjustment of traffic signal timing (i.e. cycle
• For each intersection, the analyses must include level
length, phase intervals, offsets)
of service calculations with average vehicle delays and
➢ Introduction/modification of traffic signal
volume to capacity (V/C) ratios for overall intersection
operations and individual critical movements for each phases
combination of time period and time horizon. ➢ Provision of public transport facilities

• The analyses must incorporate adequate crossing 11. Appendices/Annexes

times for pedestrians and appropriate assumptions for
• The appendix/annex shall consist of all assumptions
modelling heavy vehicle operations.
and raw data used in the TIA report such as traffic
• A roadway segment analysis shall also be performed data, capacity analysis summary sheets, accident data,
on each of the study segments. and other data used in the report.

12. References
• This section shall have at least the following analyses,
• All references used in the TIA report shall be properly
whichever is applicable:
cited using appropriate formats for citations.
➢ Highway capacity analysis
➢ Analysis of signalized intersection
➢ Analysis of unsignalized intersection
➢ Turn lane analysis
➢ Queuing analysis
➢ Access analysis
➢ Safety and operational analysis
➢ Network performance analysis

10. Conclusions and Recommendations (1)

• A brief discussion shall be provided to highlight the

project description, methodology followed, and general
results.
 SAGOT BA PUNTA
KA SA BABA

"Life can be heavy if you carry it all

at once. Know what to keep and
what to release. Decide what is
yours to hold, and let all the other
things go."
PRELIM: Quiz 1 9. The SLEX was designed to carry a free-flow
1. Assume you are observing traffic in a single speed of 50 kph and a capacity of 4000 veh/hr.
lane of McArthur Highway at a specific location. At a certain point near the intersection of a road
You measure the average headway and average leading to Laguna, there were 3600 vehicles
spacing of the vehicles as 3.2sec. and 50 m counted in one hour. Assume a linear
respectively. Determine the traffic speed in relationship.
kilometer/hour. 56  Determine the space-mean speed (in
kph)(roundoff to whole number) 33
2. The rate flow at a point in the highway is 1200  Determine the jam density (in
vehicles/hour. Find the space mean speed in veh/km)(round off to whole number) 320
mph if the density of traffic is 25 vehicles per
mile. 48 PRELIM: Quiz 2
1. A theme park has a single entrance gate where
3. If the density of traffic in Aurora Blvd. is 25 visitors must stop and pay for parking. The
veh/km and the average headway is 4 sec., average arrival rate during the peak hour is 150
compute the space mean speed in kph. 36 veh/h and is Poisson distributed. It takes, on
average, 20 seconds per vehicle (exponentially
4. Three cars travel over a 60 m. section of distributed) to pay for parking. What is the
highway at constant speeds of 19, 20 and 25 average waiting time for this queuing system in
m/s. Compute the time mean speed for this minute/vehicle? Answer in two-decimal places.
condition in m/s (two decimal places). 21.33 1.67

5. There are 3 vehicles observed in a 100 m 2. A theme park has a single entrance gate where
section of McArthur highway. If the average time visitors must stop and pay for parking. The
headway is 4 sec., compute the space mean average arrival rate during the peak hour is 150
speed of the vehicles in kph. 30 veh/h and is Poison distributed. It takes, on
average, 18 seconds per vehicle (exponentially
6. In a given instant, there were 2400 vehicles distributed) to pay for parking. What is the
counted at a specific point along the portion of average time in the system for this queuing
the TPLEX. The highway was designed to have a system in minutes/veh? Answer in one-decimal
capacity of 3000 veh/hr with a free-flow speed place. 1.2
of 60 kph. Compute the maximum value of the
jam density in veh/km that could possibly occur 3. A stop sign is installed in one of the road
during heavy traffic assuming linear speed- intersection. Rate of arrival at a stop sign is 300
density relationship applies. 200 veh/hr and the average waiting time at the stop
sign is 10 sec. per vehicle. If both arrivals and
7. The spacing of the cars moving along the same departures are exponentially distributed,
lane of an expressway is 40 m center to center. determine the average queue length (in
If the average velocity of the car is 60 kph, vehicles). Answer in whole number. 4
determine the volume of traffic in veh/hr. 1500
4. At an impaired driver checkpoint, the time
8. Compute the rate of flow in vehicles per hour required to conduct the impairment test varies
(two-decimal places) if the space mean speed is (according to an exponential distribution)
30 mph and the density is 14 vehicles per km. depending on the compliance of the driver, but
675.92 takes 60 seconds on average. If an average of 30
vehicles per hour arrive (according to a Poisson
distribution) at the checkpoint, determine the
average queue length in vehicles. Answer in one.
decimal place. 0.5
 10. Passenger car arrive at the stop sign at an
5. At an impaired driver checkpoint, the time average rate of 280 per hour. Average waiting
required to conduct the impairment test varies time at the stop sign is 12 sec. If both arrivals and
(according to an exponential distribution) departure are exponentially distributed, what
depending on the compliance of the driver, but would be the average queue length in vehicles.
takes 60 seconds on average. If an average of 30 Answer in whole number. 13
vehicles per hour arrive (according to a Poisson
distribution) at the checkpoint, determine the
average time spent in the system in PRELIM EXAM
minutes/vehicle. Answer in whole number. 2
1. Refer to the common carriage of passengers
6. Vehicles arrive at an intersection at a rate of Mass Transportation
400 veh/h according to a Poison distribution,
What is the probability that more than five 2. If the density of traffic in Aurora Blvd. is 30
vehicles will arrive in a one-minute interval? veh/km and the average headway is 4 sec.,
Answer in three- decimal places. 0.655 compute the space mean speed in kph. 30

7. Passenger cars arrive at the stop sign at an 3. The difference between the time the front of
average rate of 280 per hour. Average departure a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and
time at the stop sign is 12 sec. If both arrivals and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at
departure are exponentially distributed, what the same point. Time headway
would be the average waiting time per vehicle in
minutes? Answer in one-decimal place. 2.8 4. The application of principles of engineering,
planning, analysis and design to the disciplines
8. At a specified point on a highway, vehicles are comprising transportation: its vehicles, its
known to arrive according to a Poison process. physical infrastructure, safety in travel,
Vehicles are counted in 20-second intervals, and environmental impacts and energy usage.
vehicle counts are taken in 120 of these time Transportation Engineering
intervals. It is noted that no cars arrive in 18 of
these 120 intervals. Estimate the percentage of 5. The harmonic mean of the speed of vehicles
time headways that will be less than 6 seconds. passing a point on a highway during an interval
Answer in two-decimal places. 0.43 of time. It is obtained by dividing the total
distance travelled by two or more vehicles on a
9. In studying of traffic flow at a highway toll section of a highway by the total time required
booth over a course of 60 minutes, it is by these vehicles to travel that distance.
determined that the arrival and departure rates space-mean speed
are deterministic, but not uniform. The arrival
rate is found to vary according to the function 6. Estimate the capacity of a given highway in
Arrival(t) = 1,8 + 0.25t • 0.0030t2, The departure veh/hr with density equal to 110 veh/km during
rate function is Departure(t) = 1.4 + 0.11t. In jam condition and with a speed of 80 kph during
both of these functions, t is in minutes after the free flow condition. Assume a linear relation
beginning of the observation and Arrival(t) and between density and speed. 2200
Departure(t) are in vehicles per minute. At what
time does the maximum queue length occur in 7. Everything involved in moving either the
minutes? Answer in one-decimal place. 49.4 person or goods from the origin to the
destination. Transportation
8. The spacing of the cars moving along the same 17. The jam density on the approach of the
lane of an expressway is 40 m center to center. traffic flow on a single lane of Juan Luna St. is 120
If the average velocity of the car is 80 kph, veh/km, with a density on the approach of 40
determine the volume of traffic in veh/hr. 2000 veh/km. If the space-mean speed is 40 kph,
determine the free-flow speed in kph. 60

9. Three cars travel over a 60 m. section of 18. In a given instant, there were 2400 vehicles
highway at constant speeds of 19, 20 and 25 counted at a specific point along the portion of
m/s. Compute the time mean speed for this the TPLEX. The highway was designed to have a
condition. 21.33 m/s capacity of 3000 veh/hr with a free-flow speed
of 60 kph. Compute the maximum value of the
10. The maximum number of vehicles that pass jam density in veh/km that could possibly occur
a point on a highway during a period of 60 during heavy traffic assuming linear speed-
consecutive minutes. peak-hour volume density relationship applies. 200

11. Using a surveillance camera, 15 vehicles 19. The number of vehicle occupying a unit
were observed within 350 m section of the length of lane roadway at a given instant, usually
innermost lane of the North Luzon Expressway. expressed in vehicle per kilometer.
Estimate the average spacing of these vehicles in Traffic density
meters. 23
20. The SLEX was designed to carry a free-flow
12. A science that concerns with the efficient speed of 50 kph and a capacity of 4000 veh/hr.
movement of people and goods that is At a certain point near the intersection of a road
undertaken to accomplish objectives to leading to Laguna, there were 3600 vehicles
complete tasks that require transfer from one counted in one hour. Assume a linear
location to another. Transport relationship. Determine the jam density in
veh/km. 320
13. A term embracing a wide range of electrical
powered vehicle running on steel rails (metro). 21. The rate of flow att a point in the highway is
Passengers board from road surface or low plat 1200 vehicles/hour. Find the space mean speed
form. It operated along street but maybe if the density of traffic is 25 vehicles per mile.
provided with exclusive right of way. Light rail 48 mph

14. Compute the rate of flow in vehicles per hour 22. Assume you are observing traffic in a single
if the space mean speed is 30 mph and the lane of McArthur Highway at a specific location.
density is 14 vehicles per km. 675.92 You measure the average headway and average
spacing of the vehicles as 3.2sec. and 50 m
15. The instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a respectively. Determine the traffic flow in
specified section or location. Spot speed vehicle/hour. 1125

16. The maximum number of passenger cars that 23. Using a surveillance camera, 15 vehicles
can pass a given point on a lane or roadway were observed within 350 m section of the
during one hour under the most nearly ideal innermost lane of the North Luzon Expressway.
roadway and traffic conditions which can Estimate the average spacing of these vehicles in
possibly be attained. Road capacity meters. 23
24. There are 3 vehicles observed in a 100 m MIDTERM EXAM (95 ONLY !!!!)
section of McArthur highway. If the average time
headway is 4 sec., compute the space mean 1. An observer notes that an approach to a
speed of the vehicles in kph. 30 pretimed signal has a maximum of eight vehicles
in a queue in a given cycle. If the saturation flow
rate is 1440 veh/h and the effective red time is
MIDTERM: Quiz 1 40 seconds, how much time will it take this
queue to clear after the start of the effective
1. An approach to a pretimed signal nes 25 green (assuming that approach capacity exceeds
seconos of eirective green. The approach arrivals and D/D/1 queuing applies) (in seconds)?
volume Is 2l ver/ n and the saturation flow rate Round off the final answer to whole number.
is 1400 veh/h. If the average vehicle delay is 20 40
seconds assuming D/D/1 queuing, determine
2. The maximum flow that can pass through an
the cycle length (in seconds). Round off the final
intersection under prevailing highway and traffic
answer to whole number (no units). 60
conditions, given the effective green time
2. An observer notes that an approach to a allocated to the approach. Approach capacity
pretimed signal, the time it will take the queue
3. The average of 24-hour traffic counts
to clear after the start of the effective green
collected every day in the year.
(assuming that approach capacity exceeds
arrivals and D/D/1 queuing applies) is 60s. If the Annual average daily traffic
saturation flow rate is 1440 veh/h and the
effective red time is 40 seconds, what is the 4. The maximum flow that could pass through an
maximum number of vehicles in a queue in a intersection from a given approach, if that
given cycle? Round off the final answer to whole approach was allocated all of the cycle time as
number (no units). 10 effective green with no lost time.

3. An observer notes that an approach to a Saturation flow

premed signal nes a maximum or elent venices 5. A signalized intersection has a cycle length of
in a queue in a erven cycle. Ir the saturation flow 70 seconds. For one traffic movement, the
rate is 1440 veh/n and the effective red time is displayed all-red time is set to two seconds while
40 seconds, how much time will it take this the displayed yellow time is five seconds. The
queue to clear after the start of the effective effective red time is 37 seconds and the total lost
green (assuming that approach capacity exceeds time per cycle for the movement is four seconds.
arrivals and D/D/1 queuing applies) (in seconds)? What is the displayed green time for the traffic
Round off the final answer to whole number (no movement in seconds (whole number).
units). 40
30
4. An approach to a pretimed signal has 25
seconds of effective green in a 60-second yele. 6. Compute the peak hour factor if the hourly
The approach volume is 500 veh/n and the volume of traffic is 1800 vehicles/hour and the
saturation flow rate is 1400 ver/n. Calculate the highest 15-min. volume is 750. 0.6
average vehicle delay (in seconds) assuming
D/D/1 queuing, Round off the final answer to 7. The actual rate of flow for the peak 15-min
whole number (no units). 16 period expanded to an hourly volume.

Peak-hour flow
8. A six-lane freeway (three lanes in each 10. You are designing a freeway as a passenger-
direction) in rolling terrain has 10-ft lanes and car only facility, and with ideal roadway
obstructions 4 ft from the right edge of the characteristics. It is estimated that the freeway
traveled pavement. There are five ramps within will have a traffic demand of 75,000 vehicles per
three miles upstream of the segment midpoint day, a free-flow speed of 70 mi/h, a traffic
and four ramps within three miles downstream stream of primarily commuters, a peak-hour
of the segment midpoint. A directional peak- factor of 0.88, and a directional distribution of
hour volume of 2000 vehicles (primarily 0.65. Determine the number of lanes (both
commuters) is observed, with 600 vehicles directions) required to provide at least LOS C
arriving in the highest 15-min flow rate period. using the 40th highest annual hourly volume (K
The traffic stream contains 12% large trucks and = 0.116). 8
buses and 6% recreational vehicles. What is the
11. The illumination of one or more signal lenses
density of the traffic stream (in pc/mi/ln)? 15.3
indicating a permitted or prohibited traffic
9. A six-lane freeway (three lanes in each movement. Indication
direction) in rolling terrain has 10-ft lanes and
12. A six-lane freeway (three lanes in each
obstructions (fLW = 6.0 mph) 4 ft from the right
direction) in rolling terrain has 11-ft lanes and
edge of the traveled pavement (fLC = 0.8 mph).
obstructions 4 ft from the right edge of the
There are five ramps within three miles
traveled pavement. There are five ramps within
upstream of the segment midpoint and four
three miles upstream of the segment midpoint
ramps within three miles downstream of the
and four ramps within three miles downstream
segment midpoint. A directional peak-hour
of the segment midpoint. A directional peak-
volume of 2000 vehicles (primarily commuters)
hour volume of 2000 vehicles (primarily
is observed, with 600 vehicles arriving in the
commuters) is observed, with 600 vehicles
highest 15-min flow rate period. The traffic
arriving in the highest 15-min flow rate period.
stream contains 12% large trucks (ET = 2.5) and
The traffic stream contains 12% large trucks and
buses and 6% recreational vehicles (ER = 2.0).
buses and 6% recreational vehicles. What is the
What is the estimated free-flow speed of the density of the traffic stream (in pc/mi/ln)? 14.2
traffic stream in mph (whole number, nearest
13. Approximated as the green time plus the
5)? 65
change interval minus the lost time for the
What is the peak-hour factor (3 decimal places)? approach. Effective green
0.833

What is the heavy-vehicle adjustment factor (2

decimal places)? 0.81

What is the service flow rate (whole number,

nearest 5)? 990

What is the service measure value if the average

speed of the traffic stream is 65 mph (one
decimal place)? 15.2
FINALS Quiz 1: classic statistical method? Answer either Yes or
No. No
1. Data on a traffic accident recorded on a 4. Can we flagged intersection 5 as hazardous,
certain intersection for the past 5 years has an using 95 percent level of confidence and using
accident rate of 416 per million entering classic statistical method? Answer either Yes or
vehicles. If the average daily traffic entering the No. No
intersection is 504 find the total number
accidents during the 5 year period. Answer in 4. The number of accidents for 6 years recorded
whole number. in a certain section of a highway is 589. If the
383 average daily traffic is 1,476, determine the
accident rate per million entering vehicles.
2. The following spot speed data (in kph) were Answer in whole number. 182
obtained from a city road.
5. The T-intersection has 1,746 collision
31.6, 46.2, 42.8, 47.8, 41.1, 34.1, 35.0, 38.1, incidents over the last three years. Determine
44.5, 47.9, 40.8, 38.4, 34.6, 39.3, 41.9, 47.5, the accident rate of the intersection. 28.44
50.7, 44.7, 41.1, 43.9, 40.0
a. Determine the mean speed in kph.
Answer in one-decimal place. 41.5
b. Determine the modal speed in kph.
Answer in one-decimal place. 41.1
c. Determine the median speed in kph.
Answer in one-decimal place. 41.1
d. Determine the standard deviation speed
in kph. Answer in one-decimal place. 5.1

3. According to accident statistics over the last

three years, the five intersections having the
highest number of accidents are shown in the
corresponding table. The total entering traffic
for each intersection is also shown.

Intersection No. No. of Accidents Daily Entering

Vehicles
1 343 15,900
2 250 18,300
3 410 24,000
4 280 13,600
5 239 14,200
1. Determine the mean accident rate of these
intersections per million entering vehicles.
Answer in two decimal places. 16.39
2. Can we flagged intersection 1 as hazardous,
using 95 percent level of confidence and using
classic statistical method? Answer either Yes or
No. No
3. Can we flagged intersection 3 as hazardous,
using 95 percent level of confidence and using
 ACTIVITY COMPILATION A convenience store has four available parking
spaces. The owner predicts that the duration of
At a parking lot, vehicles arrive according to a
customer shopping (the time that a customer’s
Poisson process and are processed (parking fee
vehicle will occupy a parking space) is
collected) at an exponentially distributed rate at
exponentially distributed with a mean of 6
a single station. The mean arrival rate is 4
minutes. The owner knows that in the busiest
[Link] and the processing rate is 5 veh/min.
hour customer arrivals are exponentially
Determine the average length of queue (in
distributed with a mean arrival rate of 20
vehicles), time spent in the system and waiting
customers per hour. What is the probability that
time spent in the queue.
a customer will not have an open parking space
Answers: available when arriving at the store?
1. Average Queue Length = 3.2 veh
1. Probability of not having an open parking space
2. Time spent in the system = 1.0 min/veh
upon arrival = 0.086 = 0.09
3. Waiting time spent in the queue = 0.8 min/veh

An intersection approach has a saturation flow

Vehicles arrive at a toll booth with a mean arrival
rate of 1500 veh/h, and vehicles arrive at the
rate of 2 veh/min (the time between arrivals is
approach at the rate of 800 veh/h. The approach
exponentially distributed). The toll booth is controlled by a pretimed signal with a cycle
operator processes vehicles (collect tolls) at a length of 60 seconds and D/D/1 queuing holds.
uniform deterministic rate of one every 20 Local standards dictate that signals should be set
seconds. What is the average length of queue (in such that all approach queues dissipate 10
vehicles), time spent in the system and waiting seconds before the end of the effective green
time spent in the queue? portion of the cycle. Assuming that approach
capacity exceeds arrivals, determine the
1. Average Queue Length = 0.668 veh maximum length of effective red that will satisfy
2. Time spent in the system = 0.667 min/veh the local standards.
3. Waiting time spent in the queue = 0.334 min/veh Maximum length of effective red, r = 23.38

Vehicles arrive at a recreational park booth at a An approach to a pretimed signal has 30 seconds
uniform deterministic rate of 4 veh/min. If of effective red, and D/D/1 queuing holds. The
uniform deterministic processing of vehicles total delay at the approach is 83.33 veh-s/cycle
(collecting fees) begins 30 minutes after the first and the saturation flow rate is 1000 veh/h. If the
arrival and the total delay is 3600 veh-min, how capacity of the approach equals the number of
long after the arrival of the first vehicle will it arrivals per cycle, determine the approach flow
take the queue to dissipate? rate and cycle length.
 Approach flow rate = 0.111 veh/s = 399.6
1. Time of queue of dissipation = 60 mins veh/h or 400 veh/h
 Cycle length = 49.94 s = 50 s

An approach to a pretimed signal has 25 seconds

of effective green in a 60-second cycle. The
approach volume is 500 veh/h and the
saturation flow rate is 1400 veh/h. Calculate the
average vehicle delay assuming D/D/1 queuing.
Average vehicle delay = 15.884 s = 16 s
An observer notes that an approach to a A four-lane freeway (two lanes in each direction)
pretimed signal has a maximum of eight vehicles operates at capacity during the peak hour. It has
in a queue in a given cycle. If the saturation flow 11-ft lanes, 4-ft shoulders, and there are three
rate is 1440 veh/h and the effective red time is ramps within three miles upstream of the
40 seconds, how much time will it take this segment midpoint and four ramps within three
queue to clear after the start of the effective miles downstream of the segment midpoint. The
green (assuming that approach capacity exceeds freeway has only regular users, there are 8%
arrivals and D/D/1 queuing applies)? large trucks and buses (no recreational vehicles),
Time of queue to clear after the start of the and it is on rolling terrain with a peak-hour factor
effective green = 40 s of 0.85. It is known that 12% of the AADT occurs
in the peak hour and that the directional factor
is 0.6. What is the freeway’s AADT?
A six-lane freeway (three lanes in each direction) AADT = 50,625 veh/day = 50,000 veh/day
has regular weekday users and currently
operates at maximum LOS C conditions. The
lanes are 11 ft wide, the right-side shoulder is 4 A large retirement village has a total retail
ft wide, and there are two ramps within three employment of 120. All 1600 of the households
miles upstream of the segment midpoint and in this village consist of two nonworking family
one ramp within three miles downstream of the members with household income of $20,000.
segment midpoint. The highway is on rolling Assuming that shopping and social/recreational
terrain with 10% large trucks and buses (no trip rates both peak during the same hour (for
recreational vehicles), and the peak-hour factor exposition purposes), predict the total number
is 0.90. Determine the hourly volume for these of peak-hour trips generated by this village using
conditions. the trip generation models of Example Problems
V = 4075.5 pc/h/ln = 4075 pc/h/ln 1 and 2.
a. Total number of peak-hour trips for shopping
trip generation = 544 trips
A six-lane freeway (three lanes in each direction) b. Total number of peak-hour trips for
in a scenic area has a measured free-flow speed recreational trip generation = 921.6 trips
of 55 mi/h. The peak-hour factor is 0.80, and
there are 8% large trucks and buses and 6%
recreational vehicles in the traffic stream. One
upgrade is 5% and 0.5 mi long. An analyst has
determined that the freeway is operating at
capacity on this upgrade during the peak hour. If
the peak-hour traffic volume is 3900 vehicles,
what value for the driver population factor was
used?
fp = 0.867
It is known that 4000 automobile trips are An origin-destination pair is connected by a
generated in a large residential area from noon route with a performance function tl = 8 + x1, and
to 1:00 P.M. on Saturdays for shopping another with a function t2 = 1 + 2x2 (with x’s in
purposes. Four major shopping centers have the thousands of vehicles per hour and t’s in
following characteristics: minutes). If the total origin destination
flow is 4000 veh/h, determine user equilibrium
and system-optimal route travel times, total
travel time (in vehicle-minutes), and route flows.
1. For User Equilibrium
Route Travel Times
- t1 = 8.333 mins
- t2 = 8.334 mins

If a logit model is estimated with coefficients of Total Travel Times

−0.543 for distance and 0.0165 for commercial - Ttotal = 33 336 veh-min
space (in thousands of ft2), how many shopping
trips will be made to each of the four shopping Route Flows
centers? - x1 = 333 veh/hr
a. Psc1 = 152 trips - x2 = 3667 veh/hr
b. Psc2 = 20 trips
c. Psc3 = 192 trips 2. For System Optimal Value
d. Psc2 = 3636 trips Route Travel Times
- t1 = 9.5 mins
- t2 = 6 mins

Total Travel Times

- Ttotal = 29 250 veh-min

Route Flows
- x1 = 1500 veh/hr
- x2 = 2500 veh/hr