G. Kamenshchikov, S.

Koltun,
V. Naumov, B. Chernobrovkin

FORGING
PRACTICE

PEACE PUBLISHERS MOSCOW

FORGING
PRACTICE

PEACE P U B^L I S H E R S
P in t Edition* I960
 C O N T E N T S
I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................................................................................... 7
The Im portance of Forging in M achine B u ild in g . . . . 7

Chapter I . Bench O p e r a tio n s ............................................................... 8

C hiselling M e t a l s ......................................................................... 8
F i l i n g .................................................................................................... 11
D rillin g H o l e s ........................................................................................ 12
C utting T h r e a d s ................................................................................... 14
M easuring I n s t r u m e n t s ................................................................15

Chapter I I . In tro d u ctio n to F orgin g P r a c tic e ............................. 18

Forging O p e r a t io n s ........................................................................18
Brief Inform ation about Steel and Its P rop erties. . . . 18
C lassification of S t e e l s .................................................................... 22
Grades of S t e e l s ................................................................................... 24
The Structure of S t e e l ..................................................................... 25
Raw M aterials Used in F o r g i n g ................................................. 30

Chapter I I I . Fuel and Its C o m b u s tio n ...........................................36

General I n f o r m a t io n ...........................................................................36
T ypes of Fuel and Their Characteristics . . . . . . . . 36
The Selection of F uel for Forging F u r n a c e s .......................... 39
The Com bustion P r o c e s s ................................................................. 41
The Com bustion of S olid F u e l s ...............................................43
The Com bustion of L iquid F u e l s .......................................... 49
The Com bustion of Gaseous F u e l s .......................................53
Preparing and Burning P ulverised F u e l s ............................ 56

Chapter IV. H ea tin g D e v i c e s ......................................................................60

B la ck sm ith ’s H e a r t h s ...................................................................60
Fundam ental R ules for W orking w ith B lack sm ith ’s H earths 65
H eatin g F u r n a c e s ......................................................... 67
Furnace P r o d u c t iv i t y ..........................................................................67
Furnace E f f i c i e n c y ............................................................................... 68
U tilisa tio n of th e H eat of the W aste Products of C om bustion 70
D ischarging Products of C om bustion from the Furnace . . 74
4 Contents

Types of Forgo F u r n a c e s ............................................................... 76

Box-Typo F u r n a c e s.............................................................................. 77
Mechanised F u r n a c e s ......................................................................... 82
Muffle-Type Furnaces . 85
Furnace Building M a te r ia ls ........................................................... 86
B uilding Forge F u r n a c e s ................................................................88
Control and Measuring I n s tr u m e n ts ......................................... 89
Furnace Operation and M a in te n a n c e .........................................95
Forge Furnace Operation Safety E n g in e e r in g ........................... 98

Chapter V. H eating Steel for F o r g in g ................................................... 101

The Importance of H eating Steel in Forging Practice . . 101
Changes in the Properties of Metals on H e a tin g ....................101
O xidation and Decarburisation of S t e e l ..............................103
Overheating and Burning of S t e e l ........................................... 106
Forging Temperaturo I n t e r v a l s ................................................ 107
The Process of H eating Steel in F u r n a c e s..............................109
How to Determine the Duration of H eating Steel . . . . 1 1 1
H eating by Electric C u r r e n t........................................................113

Chapter VI. Chief Iland-F orging Optical i o n s ...................................... 115

General Information on Blacksm ith’s T o o l s ......................... 115
General Information on Hand F o r g in g .................................. 120
Drawing-out and F u lle r in g ............................................................121
C h is e llin g ............................................................................................... 130
U p s e t t in g ................................................................................................134
B e n d i n g .................................................................................................. 137
Punching and Piercing H o l e s ....................................................... 143
Forge W e ld in g ....................................................................................147
Exam ples of Making Parts by Hand F o r g in g .........................154

Chapter VI / . The Influence of Deform ation on Forgings and

the C alculation of F o r g in g s ............................................................ 161
P lastic Deformation 161
The Effect of Hammering on the Structure and Mechanical
Properties of a M e t a l ................................................................. 164
Allowances for Machining Forgings, Forging Tolerances
and A llo w a n c e s................................................................................166
Drawings of F o r g in g s........................................................................ 168
Engineering Specifications for Forgings and the Selection
of Stock for F o r g in g .................................................................... 175

Chapter VI I I . Hammers for Hammer F o r g in g ....................................190

General Information on H a m m e r s ........................................... 190
Spring H a m m e r s ............................................................................... 191
Pneum atic H a m m e r s ........................................................... .... . 192
Spring and Pneum atic Hammer Maintenance and Operation
H u l e s ...................................................................................................195
Steam-and-Air H a m m e r s ...............................................................196
Hammer Foundations and A nvil B l o c k s ..............................204
Steam D istribution and Control of Steam Hammers . . . 206
 Contents 5

The Falling Parts of H am m ers................................................213

Protective D e v i c e s ....................................................................... 218
Steam Hammer L u b rica tio n ..................................................... 219
Selecting and Calculating the Capacity of a Hammer . . 221
Maintenance of Stoam-and-Air H a m m e r s............................ 224
Drop H a m m ers.............................................................................. 225
Hammer Operation Safety R u le s ...............................................228

Chapter IX. Forging Operations and Hammer ForgingTools . . 232

The Principal Forging T o o ls .................................................... 232
Fixtures and Auxiliary T o o l s ................................................. 239
The Principal Forging Operations on Forge Hammers . . 250

Chapter X. The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer

F o r g in g ..............................................................................................259
The Technological P r o c e s s.........................................................259
Examples of Hammer F o r g in g ................................................ 260

Chapter X I. Forging Presses and Their O p e r a t io n ................... 278

Hydraulic and Steam-Hydraulic Forging Presses . . . . 278
Selecting the Required Pressure of a P r e s s ........................... 285
Safety Rules to Bo Observed When Working on Forging
P r e sse s............................................................................................386
Forging Operations Executed in P r e sse s............................... 287
Handling Mechanisms and Fixtures Employed in Press
F o r g in g ..........................................................................................294
Examples of Press F o r g in g .....................................................296

Chapter XI I . Automatic Forging and Stamping Machines . . 313

General Information on Automatic Forging and Stamping
M ach in es....................................................................................... 313
Scheme of Arrangement and the Operation of Automatic
Forging and Stamping M ach in es........................................ 314

Chapter XI I I . Drop-Forging (Hot S ta m p in g )................................ 322

The Main Types of Drop-Forging E q u ip m en t....................... 322
Tools and Fixtures for D rop-F orging....................................328
Drop-Forging M eth o d s................................................................. 337
Organisation of the Working Place, and Labour Safely
R u l e s .............................................................................................. 338
The Drop-Forging T e ch n o lo g y ................................................. 341
Horizontal Forging Machines and Their Operation . . . 354

Chapter XIV. Special Features of Forging Non-Ferrous M etals,

Tool and Alloy S t e e l s ............................................................. 362
Special Features of Forging Carbon Tool S te e ls.......................362
Special Features of Forging Alloy S t e e l s ............................ 364
Forging Non-Ferrous Metals and Their A llo y s .......................360
6 Contents I

Chapter XV. Heat Treatment, Defects and Inspection of Forgings 368

Cooling F o rg in g s.............................................................................368
Annealing and Normalising F o r g in g s.................................... 370
Defects in Hammer F o r g in g ..................................................... 370
Defects in Forgings During Hot S tam p in g............................... 372
Inspection and Acceptance of F orgings...................................... 374

Chapter XVI. Organisation of Work and of the Working Place 376

Rational U tilisation of Forging E q u ip m e n t........................376
The Blacksmith’s Working P l a c e ............................................ 378
Rate S e t t i n g ....................................................................................380

Chapter XVI I. Safety E n gin eerin g........................................................ 398

Safety Engineering on the Territory of an Enterprise . . 298
First Aid in Case of Accidents. Medical and Sanitary Service 399
A p p en d ices.........................................................................................402
 INTRODUCTION

THE IMPORTANCE OF FORGING IN MACHINE BUILDING

All machines are built up of parts made of different materials

and by various manufacturing processes. Some parts are cast from
metals; some are forged, while others are produced by machining on
different kinds of machine tools. Castings and forgings have to be
machined before they acquire their proper shape, exact dimensions
and surface finish. Forged parts, whether they are to be machined
or not, are called forgings.
Forging processes are extremely important in the machine-build­
ing industry. No machine, whether simple or complicated, can bo
built without the use of forgings. It has been calculated that, in the
Soviet Union, from 15 to 20 per cent of all the metals produced are
subjected to forging; and that about one-third of all the steel smelted
in the U.S.S.R. is subjected to forging and stamping. Hammer
forging and stamping is particularly widespread in the tractor, auto­
mobile, agricultural machinery, ship-building, 'locomotive building
and other industries. For instance, in the railway-car building in ­
dustry up to 70 per cent of all the parts which goto make a car are
forgings. Not only parts of machines, but also many tools are manu­
factured by forging.
The widespread use of forgings is explained by the fact that
forging imp roves the quality of steel, which becomes stronger after
forging. For this reason, machine parts which are subjected to heavy
duty are generally made of forgings. Moreover, the time required
for the manufacture of a part or a tool is very often reduced by forg­
ing, much less steel is consumed in its production and, conse­
quently, the cost of any given part is reduced. For instance, during
the production of a crankshaft weighing 17 kilograms from a bar of
rolled steel up to 31.5 kilograms are irretrievably lost as chips in
machining. When a crankshaft of the same weight is manufactured
by the forging process, only 13.7 kg of steel are lost in chips—i. e.,
the loss is 56.6 per cent less. Many such examples could be cited.
The enormous importance of forging operations is shown by the
fact that nearly every machine shop has a forge division, and every
machine-building plant—a forge and stamping shop. This book
contains information about the advantages of forging practice and
the necessity of employing forging or hot stamping operations in
different cases.
 CHAPTER I

BENCH OPERATIONS

CHISELLING METALS

Blacksmiths often have to do bench-work and use bench tools.

The main bench-work operations are: marking-oul, chiselling, cut­
ting, filing, scraping, grinding-in, drilling holes and cutting threads.

Fig. 1. Flat cold chisel

Most of all blacksmiths’ practice entails chiselling metals, filing

parts and drilling holes. Let us examine these operations.
The chief tools employed in
Table 1 chiselling metals are: cold chis­
els, hammers and vises.
Lip angle Cold chisels are made of car­
Metal of chisel bon tool steel, containing from
in degrees
0.0 to 0.8 per cent of carbon
(Fig. 1). In length, they vary
Cast iron and bronze . . 75 from 100 to 200 mm; their cut­
Steel and i r o n ................ ()0 ting edges are ground to an
B r a s s ................................ 45
Zinc and aluminium . . 35 angle depending on the hard­
ness of the metal to be cut:
the harder the metal, the more
acute should be the angle. Table 1 gives various lip angles of cold
chisels for cutting metals of different hardness. The cutting edge
of the chisel is hardened.
 Chiselling Metals v

Cape chisels (Fig. 2) are used for cutting narrow grooves such as,
for instance, key ways. The hammer used for striking the chisel is
made of carbon steel containing from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent of carbon.
Lip angle

li l iliui,
Fig. 2. Cape chisel

The weight of a hand hammer is selected according to the strength

of the worker and the size of the chisel. Usually, for cutting opera­
tions of average difficulty, hand ham­
mers weighing from 0.4 to 0.6 kg are
recommended.
Hammer handles are generally made
of hardwood, such as birch or ash; they
are from 250 to 300 mm long, and of oval
cross-section. The end of the handle is
secured in the hammer by means of a
steel wedge.
The work is usually clamped in the
jaws of a vise, the most common form of
which is the bench vise (Fig. 3). This
type however has the disadvantage that
its jaws A and B are not always paral­
lel, as a result of which the work is gripped
only by the upper or lowrcr edge of
the jaws, instead of by their entire sur­
face. Parallel vises (Fig. 4) do not have
this disadvantage as their jaws T and P
are always parallel. In such vises, the
work is always gripped by the entire sur­
face of the jaws and, consequently, more Fig. 3. Bench vise
firmly than in bench vises.
Vises should always be kept in exemplary order, and always firmly
secured to the bench. The vise screw should always be kept oiled,
and the knurled jaws—clean.
10 Bench Operations

The piece of work to be chiselled should he firmly clamped in the

vise jaws, so that it will not move under the heavy blows of the ham­
mer on the chisel. Hold the chisel at an angle of 30° to 35° to the
axis of the vise; your left leg should be in front of your right and the
angle between heels—from 40° to 70°.
Always observe the following fundamental rules during chiselling
operations:
1. All movements of the hand holding the hammer should be made
in the same vertical plane; in this way the blows will always be de­
livered properly and with greater force, and you will feel less fatigue.
T- P

Fig. 4. Parallel vise

2. See th a t the centre of the hammer head always strike the exact
centre of the chisel head. Always keep your eyes on the cutting edge
of your chisel, and not on its head.
3. Always hold the hammer by the end of the handle; this increases
the force of the blow.
4. When cutting a wide surface, first of all cut a narrow groove
with your cape chisel, and then chip away the metal remaining be­
tween the grooves.
5. When chipping brittle metals (cast iron and bronze), take the
edges off the sides of your work (chamfers) before proceeding to chisel
the work, so as to prevent them from crumbling.
6. To speed up the chiselling of soft metals (iron, copper), lubri­
cate your chisels with machine oil or soapy water. Gray cast iron
must be chiselled with a dry chisel.
7. To prevent accidents from flying chips, place wire-net guards
between the vises, and wear goggles.
8. When grinding chisels, consider the work in hand; the lip angles
for chiselling different metals are given ill Table 1. Both sides of the
cutting edge should be ground flat, straight, and with equal angles.
9. Do not cut chips more than 1.5-2.5 mm thick.
 Filing 11

FILING

Comparatively small layers of excess metal are removed by filing;

the external surfaces of a piece of work are also finished by filing.
Filing is carried out with files, which are made of hardened carbon
steel containing from 1.1 to 1.2 per cent of carbon; their surfaces are
cut (Fig. 5). Files are classified into the following three groups, de­
pending on the spacing of their teeth.
Class 1 includes bastard files, for removing layers of metal from
0.5 to 1.0 mm thick, i. e., for rough filing. These files are cut with
various tooth spacings, the coarsest (rough) files having from 16 to

---------Length of file ----------------J

Fig. 5. File:
I — handle; 2 — tang; 3 — heel; 4 — edge; s — race; 6 — end, or nose

20 teeth per inch; medium rough (coarse) files—from 20 to 24 teeth

per inch; bastard files—from 24 to 30 teeth per inch; semi-smooth
files have from 30 to 40 teeth per inch.
Class 2 includes smooth files, which are employed for removing
layers of metal up to 0.1 mm in thickness. These files are cut finer,
usually with 40 to 60 teeth per inch, and they give a smoother surface
to the work.
Class 3 includes files employed for finish-filing surfaces.
Files are further designated according to their cross-section: flat
files—for filing the various surfaces of work pieces; square files—for
filing surfaces, square and rectangular holes in work pieces; three-
square, or triangular files—for filing internal angles; round files—
for filing rounded recesses and holes; half-round files—for filing con­
cave surfaces.
Files should be selected about 150 to 200 mm longer than the
length of the work to be filed; this will ensure the best surf ace finish
after filing.
File handles are generally made of birch or beech, and should be
at least 1.5 times as long as the tang of the file.
To file a piece of work, clamp it in a vise, and move the file hori­
zontally backwards and forwards over its surface. In doing so, see
that your body is about 200 mm from the vise; stand almost upright,
slightly inclined forward and at an angle of approximately 45° to
the axis of the vise. Hold the file in both hands, the handle in your
12 Bench Operations

right hand, and the end in your left. During the forward stroke,
gradually increase the pressure of your right hand on the file, and
lessen that of your left. If the pressure on the file is unchanged, the
edges of the work will be filed more than the rest and its surface will
be improperly filed, its edges being rounded off.
Files are cut so that the cutting, or filing action takes place only
during the forward stroke. Pressure should therefore be exerted on
the file only during the forward stroke; when working with the file,
the pressure applied should be co oi'dinated with the speed of the
filing strokes. You will file quicker and better if you move the file
slowly with a heavy pressure.
Bastard files arc used for rough filing; to avoid deep filing strokes
on the surface of the work and to ensure greater accuracy, the di­
rection of the strokes should be alternated. When filing, check the
surface being filed from time to time with a straight edge or a set-
square, by applying their edges in different directions to the surface
of the work.
Leave an allowance from 0.1 to 0.2 mm for finish filing with a
smooth file. When polishing, wrap a piece of emery cloth around a piece
of wood, and, after oiling the work with a thin layer of oil, move
the piece of wood backwards and forwards over the surface of the
work, with a light pressure. To prevent the teeth of files from being
clogged up with chips when filing tough metals, such as copper, the
file should be rubbed with chalk before commencing work.
Thin, flat work should he filed on a flat bar of wood 25-50 mm
thick, to which it should be fastened with thin nails to prevent
it shifting during filing. This done, the wooden bar together with
the work is clamped in the vise and filed in the usual manner.
When filing the edges of several similar pieces of work, they can
be stacked together (three to five pieces) and cl amped in the vise
for filing.
The quality of a file can be checked by striking it against a piece
of iron or steel; if it is not cracked, the file will give a clear note,
while a cracked file will give a specific dead sound. A good file should
be light-gray in colour. If it is dark, the file is either oxidised or not
sufficiently hardened.
The teeth should be uniformly cut to an equal depth.

DRILLING HOLES

Holes are drilled with the aid of drills. These are classified as flat
and twist drills. Flat drills are made single-lipped (Fig. G) or double­
lipped (Fig. 7). Single-lip flat drills are better than double-lip
drills; the latter do not drill, but only scrape the metal.
 Drilling Holes 13

Twist drills (Fig. 8) are more frequently used, as they allow higher
drilling speeds, and holes drilled with them are more accurate and
have a higher surface finish. When grinding twisl drills, care should
be taken to see that the length of the cutting edges and tlieir angles
are equal, otherwise the diameter of the hole will be greater than
that of the drill, or, as is said, the hole will “run out”.

f ]Holes can be drilled on special drilling machines, with electric

or pneumatic drills or with hand ratchets. Hand-ratchet drills are
employed whenever pneumatic or electric drills cannot be used.
The best modern device for drilling operations is the drilling ma­
chine, which ensures both high productivity and accurate holes.

Fig. 8. Twist drills

To drill holes on drilling machines, it is necessary:

1) To secure the drill in the spindle accurately and firmly;
2) To install the work accurately on the machine, i. e., so that the
axis of the drill coincides exactly with that of the hole to be drilled;
3) To fasten the work securely on the machine table or in the vise;
4) To reduce the feed of the drill towards the end of the operation,
to avoid breaking it;
5) To bear in mind that, at high speeds, the cutting edges of the
drill get hot and that they grow blunt quickly at temperatures above
14 Bench Operations

250-300° C; for this reason drills should he cooled with some kind
of liquid in order to increase their life.
The most commonly used coolant (emulsion) is a solution of soda
in water, or an emulsion prepared by adding a small quantity of
soap dissolved in oil to water. Emulsions possess lubricating proper­
ties, and thus reduce the consumption of power during drilling
operations. Moreover, the surface finish of the holes is better, and the
life of the cutting edges is increased by the use of emulsions.

CUTTING THREADS

There are several types of threads, known as metric, inch, pipe,

square, trapezoidal, buttress and round threads. Metric, inch, and
pipe threads can be cut either by hand or on machines, while square,
trapezoidal, buttress and round threads can be cut only on lathes.
The hand cutting of threads is done with ordinary machinists’
taps and dies. Taps are used for cutting internal threads as, for
example, threads in nuts; dies are employed for cutting external

Fig. 9. Tap

threads, as on bolts. Taps are made of grades V 10 and Y12 carbon steel,
in sets of three; and threads are cut consecutively with the first, sec­
ond and third, or finish taps (Fig. 9). A tap consists of its working
part and its shank; the working part is made in the form of a screw
with grooves; the grooves form the cutting edges and serve as an exit
for the chips. The end of the shank is square to fit the tap wrench.
Dies are generally circular in shape (Fig. 10); they have cutting
edges 1 and openings 2. When cutting threads, they are secured in
die-stocks.
When ocutting threads the tap or die must be placed absolutely
vertically in, or over, the work. To ensure easier cutting and to speed
up the crushing of the chips, the tool is given a complete turn in one
direction, and a half turn in the opposite direction; this process
must be repeated until the thread is completely cut. Lubricants are
used to reduce the friction between the tap or die and the metal being
threaded, and to ensure a smoother and better finished thread surface.
 Measuring Instruments 15

Among the lubricants used are: natural linseed oil, emulsions, min­
eral machine oils and, for threading aluminium—kerosene, while
turpentine is used when threading copper. Care must always be taken

Section AA

Fig. 10. Threading die

not to choke the tap grooves with chips. When threading with the
second -and third taps, the tap wrench should be fitted over the shank
of the tap only after the tap has been inserted in the thread by hand.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

An ordinary wooden or steel folding ruler or a scale can be employed

for taking straight measurements to an accuracy of 1 mm. Scales are
generally graduated in millimetres or inches. To convert inches into
millimetres multiply the number of inches by 25.4 (1 inch =25.4 mm).
When measuring with a scale or ruler, place it directly on the work
so that the end of the ruler coincides exactly with the end of the work
from which you are reading the measurements. Fig. 11 shows a scale
graduated in inches and millimetres, half its natural size.
Vernier calipers (Fig. 12) are employed for measuring work to an
accuracy of 0.1 mm. A vernier caliper consists of a steel ruler A ,
with jaws B and D attached to one of its ends, and of a freely moving
Millimeters

10 11 11 13 IH is
1 2 3 h S 6
— 1—
T
_L
Inches
Fig. 11. Scale, or ruler

Jnsfde Work being

measurement meosurtd work being
measured
|...nyi»ii(iiii^i
1111111111•111iTT i l i l i l i l l I * 111 * 1 1 l l I I I i l » l » l i I

Workbeingmeasured
Fig. 12. Vernier caliper and scheme of its operation

Fig. 13. Outside caliper Fig. 14. Inside caliper Fig. 15. Trysquare
 Measuring Instruments 17

slide C with similar jaws. The slide can be fixed in any position on
the rule with the aid of setscrew E. Rod F attached to the opposite
end of the rule is for taking depth measurements.
When transferring measurements from the scale to the work, or
from the work to the scale, the outside caliper (Fig. 13) is used for
measuring outside dimensions, and the inside caliper (Fig. 14) for
measuring the inside diameters of holes. Try squares (Fig. 15) are
employed for checking angles between surfaces.
 C H A P T E R ! II

INTRODUCTION TO FORGING PRACTICE

FORGING OPERATIONS

Forging is the hot working of metals performed by means of ham­

mer blows or under the pressure of a press. Various kinds of machine
parts, of different shapes and sizes, are made by forging or stamping
operations. - j
Forging enhances the mechanical properties of metal and improves
its structure. For this reason, as has already been said, the more
important parts of machines, such as shafts, cranks, drums, etc.,
are manufactured either by hammer forging or by hot stamping
(die-forging).
Forging operations can he hand and machine (or mechanical)
operations. Hand forging is carried out on anvils with the aid of
hand forging tools. Machine forging is done under forge hammers or
presses. As a rule, in machine forging, heavy forgings are produced
in presses, and lighter ones by hammers.
Depending on the methods of the production of forgings, forging
processes are classified as hammer and die-forging (stampings, or
sem i-st amp in gs).
In hammer forging, the shape of the metal is changed by pressing
it between the dies of a hammer or a press. In doing this, the flow of
the metal (i. e., the changing of its dimensions and shape) is con­
trolled with the aid of various blacksmith's tools.
In drop forging or stamping, the flow of metal is limited by the
surfaces of the recesses in the dies, in which the metal takes its pre­
determined shape and dimensions. Every part manufactured by the
drop-forging process requires a separate die or set of dies.
Forgings which have to undergo subsequent machining are called
blanks. Those which do not require any further machining are known
as finished forgings.

BRIEF INFORMATION ABOUT STEEL AND ITS PROPERTIES

The chief material with which blacksmiths deal in the process

of their work is steel, which is very malleable. Steel is an alloy of
iron and carbon, together with certain other elements. The carbon
content in steel does not exceed 1.7 per cent.
 Brief Information About Steel and Its Proprrt’es 19

The properties of steel and its forging conditions vary depending

on content of various alloying elements. For instance, the grade of
steel used for making forgings always determines: 1) the time and tem­
perature required for pre-heaiing the steel; 2) the heating conditions;
3) the number of heats (number of charges in and out of the furnace)
during the forging operations; 4) the capacity of the forging equip­
ment; 5) the methods of making the forgings; 6) the conditions for
cooling the forgings; 7) the heat-treatment conditions.
Steel possesses definite properties, which can be classified as phys­
ical, mechanical and technological (engineering). Table 2 gives
the conventional symbols employed in the U.S.S.R. for denoting
the various elements of which steel is composed.
Table 2

chemical symbol
chemical symbol

Symbol used In

Symbol used In
standards steel

standards steel
grade Indexes
grade Indexes
.International

International

U. S. S. R.
U. S. S. R.

Element Element

C a r b o n ....................... C Molybdenum . . . . Mo M
M a n g a n e se ................ Mn r T u n g s te n .................... W B
S i l i c o n ....................... Si c Vanadium ................ V <D
Phosphorus ................ P — A lu m in iu m ................ A1 K)
Sulphur .................... S — T ita n iu m ................... Ti T
Chromium ................ Cr X C o p p e r ....................... Cu —
N i c k e l ....................... Ni H

The main physical properties of steel are: specific gravity, thermal

capacity, melting temperature and thermal conductivity.
Of the physical properties of steel, the most important for forging
operations are its thermal capacity and thermal conductivity.
Thermal capacity is that quantity of heat (in large calories) re­
quired to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of matter one degree
Centigrade. The thermal capacity of steel varies with the content of
alloying elements.
Specific gravity is the weight of a unit volume of a substance (i. e.,
in this case, the weight of 1 cubic metre or 1 cubic centimetre of
steel). The specific gravity of steel also varies with its composition,
but only slightly. In forging practice the practical average specific
gravity of steel can, for calculation purposes, he taken as being
7.85 (the weight of 1 cubic metre of steel equals 7.85 tons). ,
Thermal conductivity is the ability of a substance to transfer heat
from one, hotter part to another .of Jth.e substance j^t a \qvfer
20 Introduction to Forging Practice

temperature. For instance, if a metal rod is heated at one end, the

heat will be transferred to the other, colder end of the rod, as a result
of its thermal conductivity. Another example of thermal conductiv­
ity can be seen in the transfer of heat from the surface to the central
portion of an ingot or billot being heated in a furnace.
Of the mechanical properties of steel, the most important are:
1) Tensile strength—i. e., its ability to withstand rupture under
the influence of external forces; the stronger the steel the greater the
load it can withstand;
2) Hardness—the property of steel to withstand the impression of
foreign bodies; the hardness of steel is determined by special machines
(the Brinnell, Rockwell and other hardness testing machines) by
pressing a hardened steel ball or a diamond cone into a test speci­
men; the greater the indenture of the ball or cone into the specimen,
and the greater the impression remaining on its surface, the softer
the steel is;
3) Plasticity—the ability of steel to change its shape without
destruction under the influence of external forces, and to retain its
shape on the cessation of the action of these forces;
4) Ductility—the ability of steel to change its shape without
destruction under considerable impact loads;
5) Malleability—the ability of steel to be worked under pressure
(forging, rolling, drawing, etc.);
6) Elasticity—the ability of steel to change its shape without de­
struction under the influence of external forces and to return to its
original shape on the cessation of the action of these forces.
The chief technological, or engineering, properties of steel in­
clude:
1) Weldability. When heated, steel gradually softens and at a tem­
perature of 1300-1400°C becomes pasty. If two pieces of steel, heat­
ed to a pasty condition, are placed together and pressed (under a
press or hammer), they will unite to form a single piece or, as it is
termed, they will be welded together;
2) Hardenability. Steel heated to a temperature of 750-900°C
(depending upon its composition) and rapidly cooled in water or in
oil will become harder and more brittle. This process, which is accom­
panied by a change in its structure, is called hardening.
The greater the carbon content of a steel, the better it can be hard­
ened. Steel containing up to 0.15 per cent of carbon will not harden
while, on the other hand, steel containing over 0.5 per cent of carbon,
hardens extremely well.
The various elements entering into the composition of steel influ­
ence its properties in the following manner:
Carbon (G). The hardness, tensile strength and hardenability of
steel increase with its carbon content, while its malleability and
 Brief Information About Steel and I ts Properties 21

thermal conductivity decrease. The greater the carbon content in the

steel, the slower must it he heated. Steel containing up to 1.4 per
cent of carbon possesses good forging and rolling properties.
Silicon (Si) increases the tensile strength and elasticity of steel,
hut lowers its ductility and weldability. Structural steels usually
contain 0.2-0.4 per cent of silicon. Silicon has no appreciable in­
fluence on the malleability of steel.
Manganese (Mn). Ordinary carbon steels contain from 0.2 to 1 per
cent, and special steels—up to 14 per cent of manganese. Manganese
increases the impact and tensile strengths of steel, lowers its wear
and decreases the harmful effect of sulphur. The thermal conductivity
and weldability of steel fall with an increase in the manganese con­
tent. Manganese tends to increase the susceptibility of steel to over­
heating and the occurrence of cracks; the greater the manganese con­
tent, the slower the steel must be heated; to avoid overheating man­
ganese steels, it is necessary to control *he temperature of heating
and soaking at high temperatures carefully. Properly heated man­
ganese steel stock and billets lend themselves well to forging.
Nickel (Ni) increases the plasticity, tensile strength and ductility
of steel. It does not influence its malleability; however, on heating
nickel steels, scale firmly adheres to the surface and there is a danger
that this scale may be forged into the steel, thereby lowering its
mechanical properties.
Chromium (Cr) increases the hardness, tensile strength and elasti­
city of steel; at the same time, it lowers its ductility andf thermal
conductivity. The structure of a cast ingot of chromium steel is
difficult to break down during forging, and chromium steel forgings
must be subjected to considerable working at high temperature in
order to obtain a fine-grain structure. Chromium steels can be satis­
factorily forged at high temperatures (1500-850°C), but at tempera­
tures below 850°C, their surface hardness sharply increases, with the
accompanying danger of the formation of cracks.
Molybdenum (Mo) is usually added to steel together with nickel
and chromium. Usually the molybdenum content in various grades of
steel does not exceed 0.45 and rarely reaches 1 per cent. When pres­
ent together with chromium and nickel, molybdenum increases the
tensile strength and ductility of steel, but lowers its thermal conduc­
tivity. The greater the molybdenum content, the slower must the
steel be heated, as the presence of molybdenum greatly increases its
susceptibility to overheating. Molybdenum steels require intensive
forging on more powerful presses or hammers than those employed for
forging carbon steels. Molybdenum steel forgings must be cooled
slowly, strictly according to the specifications of the technological
process, as they are liable to air hardening, and have a tendency
to crack.
22 Introduction to Forging Practice

Vanadium (V). In engineering steels the vanadium content does

not usually exceed 0.3 per cent, and rarely exceeds 1 per cent. Va­
nadium increases the tensile strength and elasticity of steel, and
facilitates the formation of a fine-grain structure in ingots. It also
improves its forgeability and prevents overheating.
Tungsten (W) increases the hardness and tensile strength of steel,
slightly lowers its ductility and reduces its thermal conductivity.
When forged at low temperatures, tungsten steels tend to crack.
These steals require a lower rate of heating, and a higher forging
temperature, than carbon steels.
Sulphur (S). The presence of sulphur, though a harmful ingredient
of steel, is unavoidable, as it is retained in the steel during its smelt­
ing. The sulphur content should be kept as low as possible. Its con­
tent in steels intended for the manufacture of specially important
parts should never exceed 0.02-0.03 per cent, and in ordinary steels—
from 0.045 to 0.055 per cent. A higher sulphur content will lead
to hot-shortness. Such a steel, on being heated to a red heat, will
become brittle and will crack and break up during forging. At
ordinary temperatures sulphur lowers the tensile strength of
steel.
Phosphorus (P), as distinguished from sulphur, imparts cold-short­
ness to steel, that is, causes it to become brittle at normal tempera­
ture. The maximum phosphorus content in steel for important parts
should never exceed 0.03-0.04 per cent. The greater the carbon
content in the steel, the greater the permissible phosphorus content.
Cold-shortness of steel frequently occurs when straightening and
bending work during cold weather in unheated premises.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS

Steels are classified according to their manufacturing process,

chemical analysis, and application.
Depending on their manufacturing process, steels aro classified
as Bessemer, Thomas, basic open-hearth, acid open-hearth, electric
and crucible steels. Bessemer steel is smelted by blowing compressed
air through molten pig-iron in a special converter-retort. In this
converter the molten metal is further heated by the heat evolved
during the burning-out (oxidation) of the silicon and other elements
contained in the pig-iron.
Pig-iron used for manufacturing Bessomer steel must have a low
phosphorus and sulphur content. If, however, ordinary grades of pig-
iron are used for manufacturing Bessemer steel, the latter will have
sulphur and phosphorus content of up to 0.06 and 0,08 per cent re­
spectively, which limits its application in the manufacture of im­
portant parts.
 Classification of Steels 23

Thomas steel, like Bessemer steel, is manufactured in converters,

with the difference that in the Thomas process, the converters are
lined with dolomite brick. The employment of such a lining en­
ables high-phosphorous pig-irons to be processed in converters, the
resulting steel having a lower phosphorus content than Bessemer
steel.
Basic open-hearth steel is manufactured in open-hearth furnaces,
the hearths of which are lined with magnesite (basic) brick. In this
process, the furnace is charged with pig-iron and steel scrap. Basic
open-hearth steel is employed for tho manufacture of important
parts.
Acid open-hearth steel is smelted in similar open-hearth furnaces
as used for basic open-hearth steel; in this case, however, the furnace
hearths are lined with dinas (acid) brick fused on to quartz sand.
The charge in this process consists of pig-iron, iron scrap and steel
scrap. The phosphorus content of the charge should not exceed 0.03
per cent, as in this process all the phosphorus is retained in the steel.
When high-quality charging materials are used^high-grade steel
can be obtained in acid open-hearth furnaces.
Electric steel is smelted in electric arc or induction furnaces;
in this process the furnace ^hearths may be either basic or acid. Elec­
tric steel is of high quality and is employed for the manufacture of
more important parts.
Crucible steel is manufactured in refractory crucibles; the charge
for steel made by this process must be of particularly high quality.
Crucible steel is rarely used owing to its high cost; electric steel is
usually employed in its stead.
As regards chemical composition, steels are divided into carbon
and alloy steels. Carbon steels contain iron and carbon, with small
amount of constant admixtures: up to 1 per cent of manganese, up
to 0.5 per cent of silicon, and a maximum of 0.05 per cent each of
sulphur and phosphorus. The fundamental element which determines
the mechanical properties of steel is carbon. The carbon content
depends on the use to which the steel is to be put, and can vary over
a wide range, from the very low figure of 0.02 to 0.03 per cent in iron
to 1.2-2.4 per cent’in heal resistant and tool steels.
Alloy steels are steel alloys containing special alloying elements
such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium, cobalt,
manganese and others; the alloying element determines the name
of the steel. Thus, for instance, if it is chromium, nickel, or both,
the steel will be known’ as chromium, nickel, or chromium-nickel
steel.
As regards application, steels are classified as: structuralf tool,
and special steels. Structural steels in turn are subdivided into car­
bon structural steels and alloy structural steels.
 24 Introduction to Forging Practice

Structural carbon steels are employed for the manufacture of less

important parts, and alloy structural steels for more important
parts.
Tool steels are employed for the manufacture of various tools-
cutting, measuring, dies and other tools and instruments. They
are divided into two groups—carbon and alloy tool steels.
Special steels include heat resistant, refractory, stainless, acid-
resistant and other steels.

GRADES OF STEELS

There are many grades of steel in use. In the Soviet Union the chem­
ical compositions of the main grades of steel has been determined
by special state standards, called GOST (TOCT) for short,
from the initial letters of the Russian words: Gosudarstvenny Ob-
shchesoyuzny Standart (All-Union State Standard).
Structural carbon steels are classified as ordinary quality or high-
grade structural carbon steels, the latter having a lower phosphorus
and sulphur content than the former. U.S.S.R. Standards specify
eight grades of ordinary quality carbon structural steels; each
grade has its own symbol, i. e,: Ct. 0; Ct. 1; Ct. 2; Ct. 3; Ct. 4;
C t. 5; C t. 6 and C t 7. The figures in these symbols are conventional
and have no direct relation to the carbon content; however, the
higher the number, the greater the carbon content in the steel and
therefore the harder it is.
The different grades of high-grade structural steels with a normal
manganese content are denoted by two figures only: grades 20; 25;
30; 35; 40; 45; 50; 55; 60; 65; 70; 75; 80 and 85. The figures in the
grade symbols of these steels denote the carbon content in hundredths
of ono per cent. Thus the carbon content of grade 40 steel will be
0.40 per cent (or, if we indicate the tolerances, from 0.35 to 0.40 per
cent). The grade symbols of structural steels with an increased man­
ganese content have the letter T, sometimes accompanied by a figure.
The figure following the letter indicates the manganese content of
the steel in per cent. Thus grado 60T2 steel has 0.6 per cent of carbon
and approximately 2 per cent of manganese.
U.S.S.R. Standards provide for eight grades of high-grade carbon
steel: Y7; Y8; Y8P, Y9; Y10; Y10T; Y12 and Y13, and eight grades
of high-grade carbon tool steel: Y7A; Y8A; ySTA; Y9A; Y10A;
yiOTA; yi2A and Y13A. The letter y denotes carbon steel; the
figures in these symbols denote the tenths of one per cent of carbon
in the steel. Thus, grade Y8 steel has a carbon content of 0.8 per cent
(or, if we wish to indicate the tolerance, from 0.75 to 0.85 per cent).
Grade Y10 steel has a carbon content of approximately 1.0 per cent,
etc.
 The Structure of Steel 25

The letter A denotes high-grade steel which differs from ordinary

grade steel in its lower sulphur and phosphors content. The letter
T in the symbol of certain grades of steel indicates an increased man­
ganese content.
Depending on their chemical composition and mechanical proper­
ties, structural and alloy steels arc further classified as high-grade
and extra high-grade steels. Extra high-grade steels, which are dis­
tinguished from high-grade steels by their low sulphur and phospho­
rus content, are indicated by the letter A. The symbol for any grade
of structural alloy steel consists of two figures, denoting the hun­
dredths of one per cent of carbon contained in the steel, followed by
letters indicating the alloying element or elements. Thus, 15X is the
symbol for a grade of chromium-alloy steel having a carbon content of
0.15 per cent; 40XH indicates a grade of chromium-nickel steel
having a carbon content of 0.40 per cent. If the content of the alloying
element in a given grade of steel is above 1 per cent, its approximate
percentage is indicated in the symbol by a figure after the correspond­
ing letters. Thus, 20XII3A denotes an extra high-grade chromium-
nickel steel containing 0.20 per cent of carbon, about 1 per cent
of chromium and about 3 per cent of nickel.
The grades of alloy tool steel are indicated by figures denoting
the tenths of one per cent of carbon, followed by letters indicating
the alloying elements contained in the steel. The significance of these
letters is the same as those described above. If the carbon content
is equal to, or more than 1 per cent, no figures are placed in front of
the symbol. Figures placed after the letters denote the approximate
content of the alloying element in per cent. The absence of figures
in the symbols for these grades of steel is no indication that the
content of the corresponding alloying element equals 1 per cent.
Thus, X12 is the symbol for a grade of a chromium tool steel contain­
ing 12 per cent of chromium and more than 1 per cent (actually,
from 1.45 to 2.3 per cent) of carbon; 3XB8 is the symbol for a chro­
mium-tungsten tool steel containing 0.3 per cent of carbon, up to
1 per cent of chromium, and 8 per cent of tungsten.

THE STRUCTURE OF STEEL

All metals, including steel, consist of exceedingly minute particles

called grains. The grains of a metal can be observed on the surface of
its fracture. It can be much better observed on a microsection pre­
pared by cutting out, polishing and etching a small specimen of the
metal. The microscope enables us to see clearly that metals really
do consist of grains. The way the grains are located in the metal in
question is called its grain structure. Grains can differ from each
other in size and shape. In one piece of metal the grains may be large,.
26 Introduction to Forging Practice

in another smaller, in a third—of various sizes (mixed), while in a

fourth specimen they can be orientated in a definite direction, etc.,
{Fig- 16).
The size and shape of the grains of any metal are not constant,
but vary, depending on the heat and mechanical treatment to which
the metal has been subjected. In cast metals, the grains are nearly
always large (coarse), while in forged metals they are much finer.

(c) (ft)
Fig. 16. Types of grain in the structure Fig. 17. Scheme of the
of a metal: structure of a pearl ite
a) coarse grains; b) fine grains; c) non-homoge- grain
neous grains; d) grains orientated In one direc­
tion

In the process of rolling or forging, the grains are drawn out in a di­
rection parallel to the rolling or forging, and at the same time are
compressed in a direction transverse the roiling or forging.
At temperatures not exceeding 720°C, carbon steel consists of
grains called ferrite, and grains of cementite, i.e., iron carbide, which
is a chemical compound of iron and carbon, having the chemical
formula Fe,C. But, in addition to these simple grains of ferrite and
of cementite, the structure of steel also contains combined (complex)
grains consisting of ferrite grains enveloping minute particles of ce­
mentite in the form of long, narrow plates. These combined grains
are called pearlite. In Fig. 17 a grain of pearlite is shown schemati­
cally.
From this description of pearlite it is seen that its grains arc by no
means homogeneous, but consist of a mechanical mixture of ferrite
and cementite. A distinguishing feature of this mechanical mixture
 The Structure of Steel 27

is that the proportion of ferrite and cementite in pearlite is absolutely

constant. Pearlite contains 86.5 per cent of ferrite and 13.5 per cent
of cementite. If this proportion is calculated in terms of carbon con­
tent, knowing the carbon content of cementite (6.7 per cent) it can
be established that pearlite contains 0.9 per cent of carbon (0.83 per
cent according to the latest determinations).
Thus at temperatures not exceeding 720°G there can be only three
types of grain in annealed carbon steels: ferrite, cementite and
pearlite.

Fig. 18. Microstructure of three different grades of carbon steel:

a) graue Ct . 5 steel; b) grade y 9 steel; c) grade y i 2 steel

Any one steel can contain simultaneously the following combina­

tions of grains: 1) grains of ferrite and pearlite; 2) pearlite grains
only; 3) grains of pearlite and cementite. The presence of any given
combination of grains in a steel depends on its carbon content. The
structure of all carbon steels containing less than 0.9 per cent of car­
bon, i. e., steels of grades C t. 0, C t. 1, C t. 2, C t. 3, C t. 4, C t. 5, C t. 6,
C t. 7; 0.8, 10, 15, 20, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65; Y7, Y7A, Y8,
Y8A, Y 8r and y8TA, in the annealed condition and at normal tem­
perature, consists of ferrite and of pearlite (see Fig. 18, a). Moreover,
the greater the carbon content of the steel, the more pearlite and the
fewer ferrite grains will it have. Steels of this group are known as
hypo-outectoid steels.
At normal temperatures, and in the annealed condition, grade
y9 steel, which has a carbon content of 0.9 per cent, has a structure
consisting of pearlite grains only (see Fig. 18, b). This steel is called
eutectoid steel.
The structure of steels containing more than 0.9 per cent of car­
bon, i. e., of grades yiO, yiOA, y i0 I \ y i2 , yi2A , y i3 and yi3A ,
consists of pearlite and cementite grains (see Fig. 18, c). In these steels
28 Introduction to Forging Practice

ferrite grains are absent; such steels are known as [Link]

steels.
On heating any grade of carbon steel, no structural changes occur
below a temperature of 720°G; at a temperature of 720°C, however,
the first profound change in the structure of steel occurs: the pearlite
grains are transformed into grains of austenite. This transformation
consists in that the laminated grains of cementite, which formed, as
it were, a frame within the pearlite grain are dissolved in the sur­
rounding iron and become uniformly distributed in it. The austenite
grains, which have crystallised out of the grains of cementite, are
now no longer complicated grains of pure iron surrounding laminated
grains of cementite, but homo­
geneous grains of a solid solu­
tion of carbon in iron.
The transformation of pearlite
into austenite occurs in carbon
steel of all grades when the tem­
perature of the metal reaches
720°C. This temperature, a very
Austenite important one for the theory and
Ferrite practice of the heat treatment of
Peartite
(0) (b) steel, is called the lower criti­
cal temperature of steel, and is
Fig. 19. Microstructure of grade denoted by the symbol ACl.
CT. 5 steel What structure will carbon
steels have at a temperature
slightly above the lower critical point, say at 730°C? It is clear from
what has just been said, that at 730° C the structure of steels of the
first group, i. e., of steels of grades Ct. 0, Ct 1, etc., up to and inclu­
ding grades Y8 and Y8A, will consist of grains of ferrite and grains
of austenite. The structure of steels uf Lhe second group, i. e., steels of
grades Y9 and y9A, at 730°C will consist exclusively of austenite
grains. Finally, at 730°C, steels of the third group, i. e., those of
grade yiO up to and including grades y i3 and yi3A , will have
a structure of austenite and cementite.
When carbon steels are heated to temperatures over 720°C, the
austenite grains grow larger and the ferrite grains sm aller because
the austenite grains gradually absorb and dissolve the ferrite grains.
Finally, at a certain temperature, the ferrite grains will completely
disappear, and the metal will have a structure consisting exclusively
of austenite (Fig. 19). The temperature at which the process of the
solution of the ferrite by the austenite ends is called the upper crit­
ical temperature and is indicated by the symbol ACj
In contrast to the lower critical temperature, which is the same
for all carbon steels, the upper critical temperature differs for various
 The Structure of Steel 29

grades of steeJ These changes in structure which take place in carbon

steels when heated can be represented on a diagram known as the
Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram.
In 1868 the Fussian scientist D. Chernov first drew attention to
the transformations in steel on heating and cooling, and to the relation
between these changes and the structure and mechanical properties

U2 an 0.6 as io 12 ia ib 17
Carbon contentt percent]
Fig. 20. Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

of the metal. The Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Diagram was constructed

on the basis of his investigations (Fig. 20).
This diagram consists of several lines. Let us consider each one
separately. Line P SK is the line of the lower critical temperatures of
steel, i. e., of those temperatures at which the grains of pearlite be­
gin to transform into austenite. It can be seen on this diagram that
P SK is horizontal and is drawn at the height of a temperature cor­
responding to 720°C. This lower critical temperature is the same for
all carbon steels.
Lines GS and SE are the lines of the upper critical temperatures of
steel, i. e., of those temperatures above which the structure of any
carbon steel will consist exclusively of austenite grains. Various
30 Introduction to Forging Practice

points on GS and SE correspond to different temperatures, because

the upper critical temperature for each grade of carbon steel will be
different.
Line AE is the line denoting the temperatures at which steels be­
gin to melt, and AC is that of the temperatures at which the melting
process is completed. As points on both lines are located at different
temperatures, it follows that steels of different grades, i. e., with
different carbon contents, melt at different temperatures; moreover,
it is clear from this diagram that, the greater the carbon content
of the steel, the lower its melting temperature.
From this diagram it is easy to follow the changes which occur in
the structure of any grade of steel on being heated. Let us take grade
C t. 5 as an example. This steel contains 0.3 per cent of carbon. The
structural changes in this steel are represented in the diagram by the
dotted vertical line {abode). While grade C t. 5 is heated from 20°
to 720°C (i. e., to point b on the diagram, Fig. 20),its structure con­
sists of pearlitc and of ferrite.
At a temperature of 720°C (point b on the diagram), the pearlite
grains are transformed into grains of austenite. On being heated from
840 °C (point c) to 1470°C (point d), the structure of the steel will
consist of austenite only, because at 840°C, i. e., at the upper critical
temperature, the last traces of ferrite in the structure of this steel
will have disappeared.
At a temperature of 1470°C, the steel commences to melt, and at
1515°C (point e) melts completely and becomes a liquid.

RAW MATERIALS USED IN FORGING

Carbon and alloy structural and tool steels are the usual raw ma­
terials in forging. In addition, special steels are also used. In forge
shops steel is received as ingots or as rolled sections. Ingots are used
for manufacturing heavy forgings, mainly for processing in forging
presses, while rolled billets are used for lighter forgings.
The quality of the forgings is predetermined by the quality of the
raw material. In order to judge the quality of the raw material,
blacksmiths must have a good knowledge of the structure of metals,
their defects and the causes for the latter.
The Structure of Ingots. After being smelted in the furnace steel is
first of all poured into ladles and thence into metal moulds. Here
the steel generally solidifies at temperatures of about 1500°C, depend­
ing on its grade. After the ingot has solidified completely it is with­
drawn from the mould and sent to the rolling mill or the forge
shop.
If we cut an ingot longitudinally, plane, polish and etch the sur­
face of its section with suitable reactives, we obtain what is called a
 Raw M aterials Used in Forging 31

macrosection of tho ingot (Fig. 21). On this macrosection it is quite

easy to see with the naked eye that the structure of the ingot is by no
means uniform along its length and cross-section.
The theory of the structure of ingots was first elaborated in 1878 by
D. Chernov, the great Russian metallurgist and scientist.
To obtain an idea of the structure and defects of an ingot, let us
follow the process of the solidification of steel in moulds. Let us take
a mould into which a steel containing 0.4
per cent of carbon has been poured. Accord­
ing to the Iron-Carbon Equilibrium Dia­
gram (Fig. 20) the temperature of steel just
poured into a mould will correspond to
point a; and the steel will cool in the inter­
val between points a0 and a. At ax the steel
will commence to solidify, and will con­
tinue to solidify during the temperature in­
terval corresponding to that between points
ax and a 2. At a 2 the solidification of the steel
will be completed, and below this point the
steel will continue to cool in a solid state.
As a result of tho great difference in tem­
perature between the liquid steel (1500°)
and the walls of the mould, a thin, fine­
grained crystal skin 4 will form on the sur­
face of the steel ingot immediately after the
steel has been poured into the mould (Fig.
21). As the walls of the mould become hotter,
the cooling, and, consequently, solidifica­
tion of the steel will slow down. The steel {
solidifies in the form of elongated crystals 5,
called dendrites, which develop perpendi­ Fig. 21. Longitudinal
section of an ingot
cularly to the walls of the ingot mould. Near
the centre of tho ingot the crystals lose
their definite direction (orientation). The nearer to the centre of the
ingot 5, the larger the crystals become. At the top of the ingot is lo­
cated the shrinkage cavity 7 as it is called while shrinkage pipe 8
is located immediately beneath the shrinkage cavity.
Shrinkage cavities are due to the rapid cooling of the upper layers
of the metal and the consequent formation on its surface of a hard
skin. The lower layers remain liquid longer and, as they cool, con­
tract; the upper, solid skin, however, cannot follow the metal as it
shrinks and a shrinkage cavity is therefore formed in the head of the
ingot.
The shrinkage pipe is, as it were, a continuation of the shrinkage
cavity; and in the vicinity of this pipe the metal is very porous.
32 Introduction to Forging Practice

If a steel ingot is analysed in various places along its cross-section,

it will be found that the content of carbon, phosphorus, sulphur and
other elements varies in different places: there will be a greater quan­
tity of ingredients concentrated near the centre of the ingot than in
its outer layers, and far more in the head of the ingot than in its lower
portions. This phenomenon is known as liquation or segregation,
and is explained by the fact that the entire ingot does not cool simul­
taneously: the purer and consequently more refractory particles of
metal will be the first to solidify; the particles of steel containing a
greater proportion of impurities and the remains of slag inclusions
which solidify at lower temperatures, will be forced towards the cen­
tral and upper portion of the ingot and, solidifying last, will conse­
quently accumulate under the shrinkage cavity. Therefore in an in­
got the metal nearer the surface is always purer than that at its
core.
As the steel solidifies, it evolves gases which, if they fail to escape
in time, will remain imprisoned in the mass of solidified metal to
form what are known as gas bubbles. During rolling or forging the gas
bubbles in the ingot are frequently eliminated, but not entirely.
When ingots are rolled or forged, the remaining bubbles form cracks
or hair seams, which reduce the strength of the steel and sometimes
cause spoilage.
Slag inclusions which aro retained in the steel when it solidifies
are drawn out as threads during the forging or rolling process in the
rolling direction or broken up into smaller particles. Slag inclusions
cause minute cracks and hair seams, and frequently lead to spoilage
of work.
Blebs are formed on the surface of the ingot when the steel is poured
into the mould. The liquid metal splashes up when it hits the bottom
of the mould. These splashes, in the form of large and small drops of
liquid metal, stick to the walls of the mould, where they solidify
and their surfaces become oxidised. As the pouring is continued fur­
ther, portions of the liquid steel fail to fuse completely with these
solid drops, which remain on the surface of the ingot to form what
are known as blebs.
Cracks are formed during the process of solidification of the metal
and the development of internal stresses within it. Shallow surface
cracks are chiselled out. Ingots in which deep cracks are found are
scrapped.
An ingot can be divided into three parts: the top, or head discard 1
(see Fig. 21); the central part, or body 2 and the lower, nr bottom
discard 3. The head discard and bottom discard are cut off before
forging, since the metal contained in the head and tail sections of an
ingot is of poor quality. The head generally weighs from 20 to 25 per
cent, and the tail 5 to 10 per cent of the total weight of the ingot.
 Raw M aterials Used in Forging 33

Only the central section of an ingot is used for forging, because only
this part is considered to be of good quality: the central portion weighs
about 60-80 per cent of the total weight of the ingot. However, even
this central part may also possess surface defects which must be re­
moved before forging. These defects include: blebs, cracks, swellings
and interposed foreign matter, such as sand, slag, etc. Unless they
arc removed, they will be forged into the work during the forging
process, thereby lowering its quality and, in some cases, causing the
forging to be scrapped.
Shapes and Dimensions of Ingots. Cast ingots may be round, square,
rectangular or polyhedral in cross-section. The shape and cross-sec­
tion of an ingot depend on its designation, dimensions, the grade of
steel employed and its further processing, i. e., on whether the ingot
is to be rolled or forged.
As a rule large ingots for forge shops are cast with polyhedral and,
more frequently, octagonal cross-sections. Smaller ingots, particu­
larly of high and extra high-grade steels, are cast with square or round
cross-sections. The dimensions and weight of ingots intended for forg­
ing depend on the weight of the forgings to be produced and on the
capacity of the forging equipment available. As regards weight, in­
gots range from several score kilograms to 350 tons.
Appendix 1 gives the approximate weights and dimensions of in­
gots cast in one of the engineering plants of the Soviet Union.
To ensure high quality, forgings should be made from ingots
weighing as liltle as possible for the following reasons:
1) The degree of liquation, i. e., the amount of slag inclusions and
gas bubbles, decreases with the weight of the ingot;
2) The thickness of the more homogeneous and better quality outer
metal layer will be comparatively greater in lighter ingots than in
heavier ingots;
3) The lighter the ingot, the fewer internal stresses will arise in the
steel when it solidifies in the mould.
Houghed, Rolled and Pressed Stock. Roughed, rolled and pressed
stock is used in forging operations. Roughed slock (blooms) is ob­
tained by rolling the ingots in roughing, or cogging mills (blooming
mills); rolled stock—by rolling the ingots in section rolling mills,
while pressed stock is obtained by processing the ingots in horizon­
tal presses. Pressed stock is manufactured from non-ferrous metals
only (brass, duraluminium), usually of round cross-section. The
cross-sectional structure of heavy roughed and rolled stock is not
uniform: it is coarse-grained in the centre and fine-grained nearer the
surface. This structure is retained from the original ingot. In the in­
gots as cast, the crystals are orientated in all directions, while in the
blooms and rolled stock they are drawn out in the direction of roll­
ing, i. e.. longitudinally.
34 Introduction to Forging Practice

Nowadays the following profiles are employed for roughed and

rolled stock (Fig. 22): 1) blooms cogged in blooming mills; 2) round
and square bar stock; 3) rolled flat sections; 4) plates; 5) rolled
shapes. Heavy blooms are square in shape (Fig. 22, a), with convex
sides and rounded edges. The length of side a in blooms ranges from
140 to 450 mm. Round stock is manufactured with diameters d from
5 to 200 mm (Fig. 22, b).
rocr 4682-SI rocr 2590-51 rocr 259157

Fig. 22. Rolled sections

Rolled square bars are manufactured with rounded and with square
corners. The former are manufactured with sides a ranging from 50
to 250 mm (Fig. 22, c) and the latter—with sides a from 5 to 100 mm.
The commercial lengths of round and square bar stock range from
4 to 6 metres. Shaped sections (Fig. 22, d , e, /. g, h, i, /, A:, Z, m
and w), which are employed mainly for stamping, simplify this proc­
ess and considerably reduce the cost of production.
As a rule, stock delivered to forge shops in tho shape of ingots or
rolled stock must be accompanied by a certificate indicating the
grade of steel, melt number, chemical analysis, dimensions of bars,
the weight of the lot, the GOST number and the results of the tests
specified by the standard for the given grade. The manufacturing
plant must stamp the end of each bar of steel more than 30 mm
 Raw M aterials Used in Forging 35

thick with the following marks: grade of steel, melt number, and the
plant's inspection department stamp. These brands are usually
stamped on the side or the end of the bar. In addition to stamping the
bars, the manufacturing plant must paint the ends of heavy bars, or
the sides of lighter bars, in the colours specified in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3
Conventional Painting of Steels

Grade Grade
ot steel Colour of Btcel Colour

10 W h ite B la ck is r B row n + B lu e
15 W h ile + B lu e 45r2 B row n 4- P in k
20 W h ite -j- Green sor B row n 4- R ed
25 W h ite + Green 55r2 B row n 4- R ed
30 W h ite -}-Y e llo w oor B r o w n -}-V io le t
35 W h ite -| • Y ello w esr B row n -j-V io le t
40 W h ite -|- P in k
45 W h ite 4- P in k
50 W h ite 4- Red

Table 4
Conventional P ain tin g of A lloy Steels

Grade of
steel Colour of stripe Colour of circle

15X Green Blue

20X Green Green
30X Green Yellow
35X Green Yellow
40X Green Pink
45X Green Pink
15 X 0 Violet -}- Green Blue
20XH Blue-(-Green Blue
40XH Blue -}- Green Pink
12XH2 Blue -(- Green Blue
12HX3 Blue 4 - Green Blue
15XA Green W h ite-f Blue
38XA Green W hite-}-Yellow
30XMA Pink + Green White 4 - Yellow
12XH2A Blue -}- Green White 4 - Blue
42XH3A Blue 4- Green White 4- Blue
18XH3A Blue 4- Yellow + Green White-}-Green
20XH3A Blue 4- Green White -}- Green
 CHAPTER III

FUEL AND ITS COMBUSTION

GENERAL INFORMATION

In engineering, those materials which, on combustion, are capable

of generating heat energy which can be utilised for industrial pur­
poses, are called fuels. The greater the heat generated by the fuel,
the better it is. Obviously, in order to evaluate a fuel, we must know
the amount of heat which it generates on combustion; for this it is
necessary to know the units in which heat is measured.
A special unit has been accepted for measuring the amount of
heat generated by any fuel during combustion. It is called the cal­
orie. We distinguish the large calorie and the small calorie.
The large calorie (abbreviation: Cal) is that quantity of heat neces­
sary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree
Centigrade. ^
The small calorie (cal) is th at quantity of heat necessary to raise
the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Centigrade.
It follows that the large calorie is 1,000 times greater than the small
calorie.
In technical calculations the largo calorie is employed and there­
fore, when mentioning calories, we will always have in view the
large calorie (Cal).

TYPES OF FUEL AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

All existing types of fuel are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous
fuels. The thermal action of electricity, and pulverised fuels are also
utilised for heating purposes. Certain fuels in turn are subdivided into
two groups, one of which includes fuels in their natural condition
(as mined), these are known as the natural fuels; the second group
includes those obtained after processing natural fuels; they are known
as artificial fuels.
Solid Fuels include: a) natural fuels: wood, coal, anthracite, peat;
b) artificial fuels: charcoal, coke and pulverised fuel, obtained by
crushing coal.
Liquid Fuels include: a) natural fuels—crude oil; b) artificial
fuels: petroleum, kerosene, petroleum residuum, tar.
 Types oj Fuel and Their Characteristics 37

Gaseous Fuels include: a) natural fuels—natural gas; b) artificial

fuels: producer-gas, obtained by the gasification of various types of
solid fuels (peat, wood, coal, etc.); coke-oven, blast-furnace, lighting
and other gases.
All fuels consist of the same elements. The difference between the
various types of fuels consists in the fact that they contain these ele­
ments in different proportions. The elements which go t-o make up
fuels can be divided into two groups. The first group includes elements
which either burn themselves, or support combustion.^ Carbon, hy­
drogen and oxygen are included in the first group. The second group,
which consists of elements which neither burn nor support combus­
tion, include nitrogen and water (as a liquid or non-decomposed
steam). Sulphur stands in a class by itself. Sulphur is a combustible
element which generates heat on burning; its presence, however, is
undesirable in fuels, as, when it burns, it forms sulphur dioxide which
is absorbed by the metal being heated and is detrimental to its me­
chanical properties.
It has already been stated that the quantity of heat generated by
a fuel during its combustion is measured in calories. Each fuel on
combustion generates a different quantity of heat. The quantity of
heat (in calories) generated during the complete combustion of 1 kilo­
gram of solid or liquid fuel, or of 1 cubic metre of gaseous fuel is
called its calorific value. For instance, the calorific value of masout
is about 10,000 largo calories (Cal), of good-quality coal—7,000 Cal,
and so on. The higher the calorific value, the more valuable the fuel,
since less is required for the generation of the same quantity of heat.
A general unit of measurement has been adopted for the purpose of
comparing the heat value of fuels: this unit is a fuel possessing a calo­
rific value of 7,000 large calories, and is called conventional fuel.
The following natural fuels are most commonly used for burning
in forging furnaces and blacksmith’s hearths: lignites, coal and gas­
eous fuel. Wood and peat, which have a very low calorific value, are
in practice not used for heating metals.
Lignites. Lignites are geologically the most recent forms of coal.
They contain from 9 to 45 per cent of ash. The calorific value of
lignites varies from 2,500 to 5,000 Cal. Freshly mined lignites con­
tain a great proportion of moisture (up to 60 per cent). When exposed
to air lignites lose some of their moisture, the content of which falls
to 30 per cent. They also rapidly decay and crumble. When stored
for considerable periods, they are liable to spontaneous combus­
tion.
Coal. Coal is one of the chief fuels used in forging furnaces. Coal
is the product of the gradual conversion of vegetable matter over
considerable periods of time, in the course of which the coal deposits
thus formed are covered with a thick layer of earth. The decomposi-
38 Fuel and I ts Combustion

tion of vegetable matter and its conversion into coal takes place
under considerable pressure and in the complete absence of air.
The process of the formation of coal proceeds exceedingly slowly,
over many thousands of years. The type of coal and its calorific
value depends on the duration of its formation. The best coals for
forging furnaces are those with a high content of volatiles, i. e.,
long-flame and gas coals. The use of long-flame coal ensures a more
uniform heating of the metals in the furnace.
Gaseous Fuels. The only existing natural gas is “burning gas”,
which is evolved from the soil through natural holes or wells. The
calorific value of oil (natural) gas is about 8,000-8,500 large calo­
ries and in some cases may be as much as 15,000 per cubic metre.
Nowadays natural gas is being utilised on a large scale in industry
and for domestic purposes, particularly in the localities where it is
found.
Of the artificial fuels, coke, charcoal, liquid, gaseous and pulver­
ised fuels are of special importance for forging production.
Coke. Coke is obtained by distilling coal in special coke ovens in
the absence of air. During this process the volatile matters are ex­
pelled from the coal to form a gas possessing a very high calorific
value, known as coke-oven gas, which is also a very good fuel.
Coke contains about 87 per cent of carbon, 4 per cent of volatiles,
6 per cent of ash and from 1 to 2 per cent of sulphur. In forging prac­
tice, Coke is mainly used in blacksmith’s hearths.
Charcoal. Charcoal is obtained from wood by burning it in special
charcoal burning kilns; it is the best fuel for blacksmith’s hearths.
Charcoal contains very little ash and is practically free from sulphur.
Owing to its high cost, however, it is rarely used in forging practice.
Charcoal contains 84 per cent of carbon, 14 per cent of volatiles
and 2 per cent of ash. Its calorific value is from 7,000 to 8,000 large
calories.
Liquid Fuels. The only natural liquid fuel of any industrial im­
portance is crude oil. Though crude oil is not used as a fuel for forg­
ing furnaces, petroleum residuum, which is as a by-product obtained
during oil refining, is widely used as a fuel. The composition of
petroleum residuum, which is the residue left after the distillation
of kerosene and petrol from crude oil, is not constant, but most fre­
quently contains 84-86 per cent carbon, 12.4 per cent hydro­
gen, 1.3 per cent combined oxygen -|-nitrogen -f-sulphur, 0.3 per cent
ash and 1-2 per cent of moisture.
Petroleum residuum has a calorific value of 9,500-10,000 large
calories.
Gaseous Fuels. Artificial gas fuels are obtained either by gasifying
solid fuels in gas producers or as a by-product of other processes,
such as, for instance, coke-oven gas, obtained during the coking of
 The Selection of Fuel for Forging Furnaces 39

coal; blast-furnace gas, during the blast-furnace process. Coke which

is used as fuel for blast furnaces, is produced in special coke ovens
at iron and steel plants; and coke-oven gas, which has a calorific
value ranging from 4,000 to 5,000 large calories,is obtained as a by­
product.
Solid fuels, in order to be more efficiently and conveniently burnt
are converted to gas in special equipment called gas producers.
For instance, peat producer-gas is obtained from peat, and coke-
oven gas—from coal, etc.
The calorific value of a producer-gas depends on the typo of fuel
from which it is produced, and on the methods of gasification em­
ployed. For instance, the calorific value of peat producer-gas is from
1,500 to 1,600 large calories, while that of coal producer-gas is from
1,200 to 1,400 large calories.
Pulverised Fuel. Coal used as pulverised fuel in heating furnaces
is crushed in special mills to a fineness of 0.07 to 0.05 mm. Pulver­
ised coal used as fuel enables heating steel to high temperatures.

THE SELECTION OF FUEL FOR FORGING FURNACES

Fuels for forging furnaces must meet the following main require­
ments:
1) Ensure a required working temperature ranging from 1200
to 1350°C inside the furnace;
2) Comply with the conditions necessary for the compact design
of heating furnaces, high efficiency and the most complete combus­
tion possible;
3) Guarantee high efficiency of the furnace;
4) Facilitate the regulation of the thermal conditions with the aid
of automatic regulating instruments;
5) Ensure clean and hygienic furnace operating conditions.
The decisive factor in selecting a fuel for heating furnaces is the
cost of the heating and the availability of local fuel reserves.
Not all types of fuel can meet the requirements necessary for use
in forging furnaces. Heat obtained from electricity (electric energy)
is the best fuel for forging shops, but its application is extremely
limited because it is up to now the most expensive fuel. Moreover,
industrial plants frequently do not dispose of sufficient electric ener­
gy for heating steel. For this reason electric energy is still employed
to a very limited extent in forging practice, although there are forge
shops in the U.S.S.R. where steel is heated exclusively by elec­
tricity.
Petroleum residuum, or masout as it is also called, is an excellent
fuel for forging furnaces, but since it is a very valuable raw mate­
rial used in the manufacture of many products, its employment has
40 Fuel and Its Combustion

been curtailed as far as possible. For instance, on distillation masout

yields solar, spindle, machine, cylinder and paraffin oils, autol and
other valuable industrial products. Moreover, the transport of liquid
fuels over long distances from the site of their deposits increases their
cost and overloads transport facilities. For this reason the employ­
ment of liquid fuels for forging purposes is advisable only in excep­
tional cases and in regions near their deposits. In districts located far
away from oil and other liquid fuel deposits, furnaces operating on
liquid fuel should be reconstructed for operation on gas fuels or for
utilising local solid fuels.
Gas fuels meet all the requirements for forging furnace fuels. Pro*
ducer-gas obtained from coal or peat is recommended for forging fur­
naces. Natural gas is an excellent fuel for forging furnaces. To ensure
the necessary steel heating temperature and the conditions for sim­
plifying furnace design, gas fuels should have a calorific value of at
least 1,400-1,500 large calories.
Coal and anthracite are the chief solid fuels used in forging fur­
naces. The main disadvantages of solid fuels arc:
1. It is difficult to ensure a constant and uniform temperature
in the working chamber of a furnace when burning solid fuels.
2. A considerable excess of air has to be introduced into the fur­
nace to ensure the complete ouinbnstion of solid fuels. This creates
an oxidising atmosphere in the furnace, increases the loss of metal
as scale, and of heat which escapes from the furnace together with
the products of combustion discharged as flue gases.
3. Special fire-boxes are required for burning solid fuels; this com­
plicates the design of the furnace and entails extra labour for main­
taining the furnace (stokers, ash removers, etc.).
4. The delivery of solid fuel and the accumulation of considerable
quantities of ashes in the shops necessitate an increase in the labour
force and make the shops dirty and untidy.
5. Heat conditions in the furnace cannot be automatically con­
trolled in solid-fuel fired furnaces.
Nevertheless, in spite of all the above disadvantages, considerable
amounts of solid fuel are consumed in heating forge furnaces. The
chief solid fuels used for blacksmith’s hearths are charcoal, coke
and coal; only in rare cases is gas or masout used for these purposes.
Fuels for blacksmith’s hearths should contain as little sulphur
as possible, since the steel when it is heated on contacting the fuel,
absorbs some of the sulphur; and as has already been pointed out,
sulphur is detrimental to steel. The best fuel for blacksmith’s hearths
is charcoal. The charcoal for this purpose must be dense, and show
a bright fracture on being broken; a piece of good-quality charcoal,
on being struck, usually rings as clear as a bell. Charcoal contains
no sulphur and practically no ash; for this reason it is widely utilised
 The Combustion Process 41

for heating high-quality steels and is particularly recommended

for welding operations. Its only disadvantage is its high cost.
Sintering coal, or so-called “nuts”, are considered the best type of
coal for blacksmith’s hearths. They range in size from 15 to 25 mm
in diameter. Good-quality coal should be black in colour, with a
tarry shine; on combustion it sinters, forming a hard outer crust,
which facilitates the development of a high temperature in the
hearth. The main disadvantage of coal as a fuel for blacksmith’s
hearths is its great ash and suJphur content. Coke is far better than
coal for heating blacksmith’s hearths; its disadvantage, however,
is its high cost.

THE COMBUSTION PROCESS

Combustion is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the

combustible elements of fuel (carbon, hydrogen and sulphur) accom­
panied by the evolution of heat and light. Oxygen is delivered to the
fire-box together with the air. Dry air consists of two elements—21
per cent oxygen and 79 per cent nitrogen (by volume). Only the oxy­
gen participates in the process of combustion.
Before any fuel can begin to burn, it must bo heated to its ignition
temperature, at which combustion takes place independently with­
out any further heating. The ignition temperature depends on the
type of fuel used and on the conditions under which the combustion
process takes place. The ignition temperature of masout ranges from
500° to 700°C, that of coal—500°C, of anthracite—700°C, and
wood—300°C. Carbon which is the main element of any fuel, forms
either carbon dioxide (C02) or carbon monoxide (CO) when burnt.
When sufficient amount of air (and therefore of oxygon) is supplied
to the fire-box, the combustion of the carbon will take place com­
pletely, according to the following equation:
C -f 0 , = CO, + 97,650 Cal.
An insufficient supply of air will result in the incomplete com­
bustion of the carbon, accompanied by the evolution of a much
smaller quantity of heat. As a result of the insufficient combustion
of the carbon, carbon monoxide will be formed instead of carbon
dioxide, according to the following equation:
C + lo ^ C O - ^ 2 9 ,4 3 0 Cal.
The second combustible element in fuels is hydrogen (H2). The
combustion of hydrogen is also accompanied by the evolution of
heat:
H i + { o , = HtO (steam )-f 57,810 Cal.
42 Fuel and I ts Combustion

From the above equations of the combustion of carbon as the chief

combustible element of any fuel we can see that, during its incomplete
combustion, i. e., when combustion takes place in the presence of
insufficient air, only one-third of the amount of heat will be generat­
ed; in this case carbon monoxide (GO) will be produced instead of
carbon dioxide (C02). Hence it follows that we must always seek to
create conditions which will ensure the complete combustion of
the fuel, i. e., ensure a quantity of air sufficient for the carbon to
burn to form carbon dioxide (C02).
Knowing the chemical composition of any fuel, we can always
calculate the amount of air needed for its complete combustion. If
we divide the amount of air actually delivered to the fire-box for
the combustion of 1 kg or 1 cubic metre of fuel, by the calculated, or
theoretical amount of air required for this purpose, we obtain a
figure known as the coefficient of surplus air. It follows that the
coefficient of surplus air is the ratio between the amount of air actu­
ally needed for the combustion of one unit of fuel (1 kg or 1 cubic
metre) and the calculated (theoretical) amount of air necessary for
this purpose.
Example. It is calculated that 10.4 cu. m of air are required for the
combustion of 1 kg of masout. Determine the amount of air required
in practice for the combustion of one kg of masout, if the coefficient
of surplus air is 1.15, i. e., 15 per cent.
Solution. The amount of surplus air needed for the combustion
of 1 kg of masout, in addition to the theoretical amount of air, will
be 10.4x0.15=1.56 cu. m. The practical amount of air will be:
10.4-|-1.56=11.96 cu. m per kilogram of masout.
The following coefficients of surplus air have been determined for
the combustion of various fuels in heating furnaces: for coal—1.3-1.5
(30-50 per cent); for gas fuels burnt in flame burners—1.15-1.2
(15-20 per cent); for gas fuels burnt in non-flame burners—1.1-1.15
(10-15 per cent); for masout—1.2-1.25 (20-25 per cent); and for
pulverised fuels—1.2-1.25 (20-25 per cent).
We must always strive to ensure the complete combustion of our
fuel with a minimum coefficient of surplus air. The surplus air deliv­
ered into the furnace is not utilised for burning the fuel; it is heat­
ed to the ignition temperature of the fuel and, together with the
flue gases, carries away an extra amount of heat, thus increasing
the consumption of fuel and the degree of oxidation of the steel in
the furnace.
The question arises: how can a worker know whether he is heating
the furnace properly, whether he is delivering sufficient air to the
furnace, and whether he should increase the air supply?
Usually workers have to judge the completeness of combustion by
the colour of the flames. A great excess of air results in a short, sharp
 The Combustion of Solid Fuels 43

flame consisting of small bright tongues. Steel should never be heat­

ed with such a flame, because in this case the heating is never uni­
form; moreover, when such a flame contacts the surface of the steel,
local burning and even fusing of the metal can occur. To avoid this,
the amount of air must be reduced until the resulting flame is longer
and the entire working chamber of the furnace is filled with a milk-
white flame without any bright tongues.
Insufficient air results in a long red flame streaked with black.
A considerable insufficiency of air will result in the discharge of dense
clouds of black smoke from the furnace. In addition to those external
signs indicating the process of the combustion of the fuel, special
instruments are employed for analysing the composition of the flue
gases; from their composition it is possible to judge whether the com­
bustion is proceeding properly or not.

THE COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

The following types of fire-boxes are employed for burning solid

fuels in forging furnaces:
1) Horizontal grate fire-boxes;
2) Inclined step-grate fire-boxes;
3) Mechanical stokers.
Fig. 23 shows a fire-box with a horizontal grate. The fuel is deliv­
ered to the fire-box through charging door 4 onto a special metal
grate 3. This grate consists of separate cast-iron grate bars (or plates).
Ashpit i , into which the ash falls, is located under the grate; the air
necessary for supporting the combustion of the fuel also enters through
the ashpit, being delivered by a fan through pipe 5. From the
ashpit, the,air flows through the openings in the grate and the layers
of fuel, contacts the latter and combustion takes place, i. c., the
combination of the combustible elements of the fuel with the oxygen
of the air.
The space 2 in the fire-box above the grate 3 is called the firing
space; here the volatile substances of the fire undergo combustion.
Fig. 24 illustrates the scheme of the combustion of coal in fire-boxes.
Upper layer 4 consists of fuel, freshly delivered to the fire-box,
which is prepared for combustion and from which the gaseous prod­
ucts evolve. The most intensive combustion takes place in central
layer 3 while the final combustion of what is known as “tails”, and
the heating of the air supplied for combustion takes place in lower
layer 2, which consists of tails and ashes. The layer of ashes also
protects the grate bars 1 against the action of high temperatures.
A thin layer of fuel (in the absence of a lower layer of ashes) will
result in an uneven distribution of the air through the grates, i. e.,
air will not penetrate the layers of fuel equally everywhere. This
44 Fuel and Its Combustion

circumstance, when burning sintering coal or coal in large lumps,

will result in uneven burning, and however much the operator may
stoke and level the layers of fuel, he will never be able to fire the
furnace properly. With small lumps of non-sintering coals this does
not occur. The air will be distributed more uniformly through the
grate, but, on the other hand, due to the small size, and conse­
quently light weight of some of the coal particles, it will carry away
part of the coal dust from the fire-box, thereby increasing the
consumption of fuel.

Fig. 23. A horizontal grate tire-box

The combustion process is altogether different over an ash (slag)

bedding, when fresh fuel is laid over a layer of coke and slag. In
this case, the air penetrating through the considerable number of
crooked channels formed by the slag and tails, will be uniformly
distributed over the grate and also uniformly heated. And since in
this case the pressure of tho air will be considerably reduced no coal
dust will be carried away and the combustion process will thus he
quieter and more uniform.
It follows from this that, when burning coal on horizontal grates,
we must:
a) Burn the coal on a bed of slag;
 The Combustion of Solid Fuels 45

b) Maintain the thickness of the fuel layer from 80 to 200 mm,

depending on the size of the coal. The greater the size of the lumps,
the greater must be the thickness of the coal layer on the grate;
best results are obtained with lumps of coal from 30 to 50 mm in
size;
c) Stoke the fire-box to loosen and level the top layers of coal. It
is completely incorrect to clear out all the ash into the ashpit stok­
ing the fire-box. If, however, the grate is choked up with ashes, it
should be carefully cleared with
a poker, so as to permit the en­
trance of air;
d) Charge fresh fuel in small
portions at the shortest possible
intervals (every 5-8 minutes).
Coal should be thrown into the
fire-box so that each addition of
coal completely covers the thin­ I
t i m i i n i m i y
ner parts of the previous layer.
These thin parts can be recognised Fig. 24. Scheme of combustion of coal
by the bright colour of their on a grate
surface.
The quantity of fuel burnt in the fire-box depends chiefly on the
area of the grate and its load. The area F of the grate (Fig. 23) can
be found from the formula:
F = a8m*
where a—the length of the grate in metres,
and 6—the width of the grate in metres.
The area, is calculated from the load rate on the grate. By the
load rate on the grate we understand th at weight of fuel B which is
consumed in one hour per square metre of the grate area (kg/m2/hr).
As it can be recommended to burn 100 kg of conventional fuel per
hour per sq. metre of grate area, then:
_Bgonv __ B ’Q
“ 100 “ & om,xl00
where Q is the calorific value of the fuel in large calories. The calorific
value of conventional fuel, as stated in Section 18, is 7,000 Cal.
Example. Determine the area of a grate, if the consumption
of Coal is 200 kg per hour; the calorific value of the coal being
5,600 Cal.
Solution. Substituting the given values in the formula, we obtain:
200 X 5,600 1,120,000 , R orrm
= 7,000X100 ° 700.000 = 1 -6 Sq> “
46 Fuel and I ts Combustion

Grates consist of separate fire-bars of the beam or of the plate type

(Figs. 25 and 26). Usually fire-bars of the following dimensions are
employed: length from 500 to 1,000 mm; width a of beam-type fire­
bars—from 50 to 70 mm, and of plate-type fire-bars from 150 to
250 mm. Beam-type fire-bars are employed for burning coal; plate

Fig. 25. Beam-type fire-bars

Section H

Fig. 26. Plate-type fire-bars

(flat) type fire-bars are employed for burning fine coals and anth­
racite.
The spaces b through which the air from the ashpit penetrates into
the fire-box are called the live section of the grate; the dimensions of
this live section depend on the ratio of its area (in per cent) to that
of the grate. The live area of a grate with beam-type fire-bars is formed
 The Combustion of Solid Fuels 47

by bosses, which form spaces between the fire-bars (in Fig. 25, the
spaces b equal 1.5 mm).
The live section of plate fire-bars is formed by slots 5-8 mm
wide (see Fig. 26). The size of the live section is determined by the
type of fuel employed and varies from 10 to 20 per cent of the grate
area. The length and width of the grate depend on the working con­
ditions, and do not exceed 2,000 mm and 1,200 mm respectivelyjper
charging door.

Fig. 27. Fire-box with shaking fire-bars:

1 —grate-bar supports. 21— shaking p!atc-type fire-bars; 3 — bearings; 4 — shaft; 5 — charging
j doer; 6 — ash-removing door; 7 — tie-rod; 8 — levers 2

In order 4to facilitate removal of the ashes and to stoke thei lower
layers of fuel, shaking grates are sometimes employed. In such cases,
the fire-box is cleared through the shaking grate and the lower
layer of fuel is raked with a poker when the fire-bars are periodically
swivelled on their trunnions with the aid of tie-rods and a lever
(Fig. 27).
Burning coal in fire-boxes equipped with horizontal grates has
several disadvantages, the main are:
1) The difficulty of ensuring uniform combustion, especially when
burning coals rich in volatiles. These volatiles are discharged in
considerable quantities after each stoking operation; this leads to
a reduction of the temperature inside the furnace and a loss of heat
which escapes together with the flue gases;
48 Fuel and I ts Combustion

2) The difficulty of maintaining the fire-boxes and of ensuring

high temperatures when burning coals with a considerable dust,
ash and moisture content.
Fig. 28 illustrates a fire-box equipped with a mechanical fuel
feeding device called a mechanical stoker. To ensure normal combus­
tion, mechanical stokers should only be used for burning coal with
a high fusion temperature ash content (i. e., with an ash fusing at
temperatures not lower than 1200-1250°G). The lumps of coal should

Fig. 28. Mechanical Stoker:

/ —fan; z —redactor; 3 —coal hopper; 4 — coal mixer; 5*—.worm conveyor; 6—tube; 7 — ash-rc-
movlng door; 8 —side plates; 9 —retort

be not less than 30-40 mm in size, and for this reason the coal
should be crushed and sorted before burning in mechanical stokers.
The coal is loaded into hopper 3, whence it is delivered by worm
conveyor 5 along pipe 6 to retort 9 (see Fig. 28). Air is delivered
into the retort through a slot from fan 1, which is driven by the mo­
tor which also rotates worm conveyor 5. The coal combustion process
takes place in retort 9. The process of the combustion of coal in
mechanical stokers differs from that in horizontal grates. Fresh
portions of coal are delivered by the worm conveyor, gradually
raised into the retort and gradually heated by the top layers of burn­
ing coal. The volatiles evolved by the coal burn completely without
forming any smoke or soot. The zone of combustion is located over
tbe surface of the retort.
Slag and ashes are also burnt on the surface of the retort and,
owing to the continuous supply of fresh coal from the bottom of the
 The Combustion of Liquid Fuels 49

retort, are gradually pushed onto the side plates 8. The slag and ashes
are raked off from these side plates through ash removing doors 7.
The air in mechanical stokers must be delivered under considerable
pressure, ranging from 200 to 250 mm water column. The capacity
of mechanical stokers is approximately from 100 to 125 kg of conven­
tional fuel per hour.
Mechanical stokers have the following advantages compared with
hand-stoked fire-boxes: they ease the work of the operators, reduce
the labour force required (one operator can serve 6-8 stokers) and
ensure a more uniform temperature in the fire-box.

THE COMBUSTION OF LIQUID FUELS

Masout has the following main advantages compared with solid

fuels:
1) High calorific value;
2) Absence of ash, which eliminates the loss of time entailed in
cleaning the fire-box and increases the efficiency of the furnace;
3) Convenience in handling and storage. This obviates the accu­
mulation of fuel in the shops, which is inevitable when using solid
fuels;
4) Its use facilitates the simplification of furnace design, thereby
obviating the necessity of building special fire-boxes; it also facil­
itates the maintenance of the furnace.
Moreover, automatic devices for regulating the thermal conditions
of furnaces can be employed on masout-fired furnaces, and the use
of masout leads to more sanitary conditions of furnace operation.
Liquid fuels are burnt with the aid of atomisers.
Theory and practice have proved that the better the particles of
masout and air are mixed, the better and more rapid is its combus­
tion; moreover less air is consumed. Atomisers should therefore
atomise the masout as completely as possible in order to ensure its
better mixing with the air, thereby ensuring conditions for the more
efficient and possibly complete combustion of the fuel. Compressed
air or steam is employed for atomising the masout. There are many
atomisers of a great variety of design, but, as regards the principle
of their operation, they can be divided into two groups: low-pressure
and high-pressure atomisers.
Let us first of all understand what is meant by pressure, and how
it is measured.
The pressure of a blast (of air or of steam) is measured in milli­
metres of a water column, or in atmospheres. By the pressure of one
atmosphere is understood the pressure of one kilogram over an area
of one square centimetre. By the pressure of 1 mm of water column
is understood the pressure exerted by a load of 1 kilogram uniformly
50 Fuel and^Its Combustion

distributed over an area of 1 square metre. One atmosphere is the

pressure exerted by 10,000 mm of a water column, or by 760 mm of
a column of mercury.
High-pressure atomisers include those which atomise masout with
the aid of air or steam under a pressure of two or more atmospheres;
low-pressure atomisers include those which atomise masout under
pressures ranging from 400 to 600 mm of a water column. Fans are
employed for delivering air to low-pressure atomisers; high-pressure
Air

Fig. 29. Low-pressure atomiser

atomisers arc supplied with air from compressors. Atomisers are fur­
ther classified as air and stetm depending on the method of atemis
ing the masout.
The more complete the atomisation of the masout is, the less
surplus air will be required for its combustion. If masout is prop­
erly atomised, the surplus air will vary within a range up to 15 per
cent; if the masout is not properly atomised, the surplus air required
may amount to 20 or 25 per cent.
In order not to choke the atomiser, the masout should be previously
cleaned of all dirt, etc. Special filters are employed for cleaning ma­
sout, which is atomised far better if it is preheated to 90-100°G.
It is preheated by steam coils located in the tank from which the
fuel is pumped to the atomisers. To prevent it from cooling on its
way from the pump to the furnaces, the masout is heated by a steam
pipe runningTclose to the masout line.
Before considering the design of atomisers, let us consider the re­
quirements which they must meet:
1) The atomiser should be able to effect a proper atomisatiou of
the masout;
 The Combustion of Liquid Fuels 51

2) The atomised masout must be thoroughly mixed with the air

necessary for combustion;
3) The atomiser must be of a simple and reliable design;
4) All parts of the atomiser liable to come in contact with high tem­
peratures must he interchangeable.
The atomiser shown in Fig. 29 is designed for low air pressures,
ranging from 400 to 500 mm water column. It operates as follows:
masout is fed into inner pipe 7, and air—into outer pipe 2. On leav­
ing nozzle 3 the stream of air draws along the masout and atomises

Fig. 30. Low-pressure atomiser

it. The air supply is regulated by valve 4, and that of the masout by
a valve installed on the masout line.
This atomiser has one great disadvantage: if the flow of the masout
is reduced, the speed of the air is liable to fall, which is detrimental
to atomisation. In fact the volume of air delivered to the atomiser
will fall with a reduction of the flow of the masout; but the size of
its outlet from the atomiser remains constant; the air will therefore
leave the atomiser at a slower speed and the atomisation will be im­
paired.
There are, however, atomisers of other designs which do not pos­
sess this disadvantage. One of these atomisers is illustrated in Fig. 30.
Here the speed of the atomisation of the masout can be kept con­
stant under all conditions of combustion. It operates as follows:
masout is fed along pipe 6 into masout line 7, equipped with a coni­
cal tip. Air flows along pipe 5 and is directed through air nozzle 3
onto the outgoing stream of masout at a largo angle to its flow.
52 Fuel and I ts Combustion

atomising and ejecting it into the fire chamber. A constant rate of at­
omisation is ensured by shifting the masout pipe with its conical tip
along housing 2 of the atomiser. By shifting this tube towards the
outlet 4 (to the left), the cross-section of the latter is reduced, while
it will be increased on shifting the tube in the opposite direction.
Consequently, depending on the volume of air being fed to the
atomiser, we can change the cross-section of the air nozzle and there­
by maintain a constant rate of atomisation.
In spite of its efficient operation, the atomiser shown in Fig. 30
has one disadvantage: when adjusting the atomiser, the masout tube

Fig. 31. Shukhov high-pressure atomiser

does not change its position in relation to the end of the air nozzle;
this, to a certain extent, impairs the atomisation of the masout and
facilitates its leakage.
Low-pressure atomisers are widely employed in forge furnaces,
particularly for small furnaces. They give a comparatively short
flame, are fairly simple to operate and require no expensive compres­
sor units for delivering air, which can be supplied by ordinary high-
pressure (700-800 mm water column) fans.
Of the high-pressure atomisers installed on forge furnaces the Shu­
khov high-pressure atomiser (Fig. 31) is that most widely employed
in the Soviet Union. This atomiser comprises two tubes 1 and 2.
Air (or steam) is delivered through outer tube i , while masout
flows along inner tube 2. The air (or steam) flows at a considerable
speed through the narrow end (the nozzle) of the atomiser forcibly
drawing along the masout flowing from the inner tube, and dispers­
ing it in a mist, thereby ensuring better combustion. The operation
of the Shukhov atomiser is regulated by: a) adjusting the masout
supply with the aid of the valve od the masout line; b) changing the
 The Combustion of Gaseous Fuels 53

volume and pressure of the steam or air; and c) by adjusting the po­
sition of the masout tube with the aid of handwheel 3.
High-pressure atomisers give long sharp flames, up to 4 metres
in length; they are installed generally in long, high-productivity
forge furnaces.

THE COMBUSTION OF GASEOUS FUELS

Gaseous fuels are the most convenient fuels for forge furnaces and
possess many advantages. Their main advantages as compared with
solid and liquid fuels are the following:
1) Gases can be easily mixed with air and therefore require a small
amount of excess air for their complete combustion. This ensures
a high temperature of combustion and reduces the losses of physical
heat carried away by the flue gases in the form of smoke:
2) The temperature inside the furnace can be easily controlled
when firing with gases;
3) The combustion takes place very rapidly with gases, and for
this reason special fire-boxes are not required in gas-fired furnaces.
The gas burns directly inside the working chamber of the furnace,
thereby ensuring a high heat transfer to the metal by the burning
gases;
4) Gas-fired furnaces are distinguished by their simple design
and low cost, as they require no special fire-boxes for the ignition
and combustion of the gas;
5) Gas can be easily delivered from the gas-producing plants to
the consuming plants; the gas is supplied to the furnaces through
gas lines, specially laid for this purpose;
6) A high temperature can be ensured when firing furnaces with
gas, since both the gas and the air can be preheated simultaneously;
7) Gas-firing equipment can be easily installed and ensures
automatic regulation of the heat conditions in the furnace;
8) The use of gas leads to better sanitary conditions for the opera­
tion of furnaces.
The disadvantage of gas fuels and, in particular, of producer-gas,
i. e., of gases specially prepared from solid fuels, is their high
expense. But this disadvantage disappears when employing natural
gases. The ease with which this gas is produced and its high calorific
value make it the cheapest and best gas fuel.
There are several methods of burning gases. The chief methods
adopted for firing forge furnaces are:
1) Delivering the gas and air simultaneously to low-pressure burn­
ers;
2) Delivering the gas to the burners under high pressure with
simultaneous suction of air from the atmosphere;
54 Fuel and I ts Combustion

3) Delivering previously mixed gas and air to the burners under

high pressure.
Each of these methods possesses its advantages and disadvan­
tages. Nowadays the first method, which is the simplest, is most wide­
ly employed; moreover, this method requires burners ol simpler
design and the air is delivered by fans.
Many different designs of burners are available; we will consider
only those which are most widely used for forge furnaces.
Gas burners, like liquid fuel atomisers, are classified as high- and
low-pressure burners. High-pressure burners are employed for firing

gas]at pressures ranging from 700 to 2,500 mm water column, and even
higher. Special gas-blowing installations are built for compressing
the gas to such pressures.
Fig. 32 illustrates an injector-type burner with an individual mix­
er; it operates on gas delivered under a pressure ranging from
1,500 to 1,600 mm water column. This burner operates by the second
method of burning gas, i. e., the gas is fed to the burner under high
pressure, and the air is drawn in from the atmosphere. These burners
are also called surface or flameless injection burners. The gas enters
the burner through nozzle 3, injects (draws) the necessary amount
of air through slot 2 between air washer 4 and mixer 5. Air washer 4
is mounted on connecting tube 1. The amount of air required for com­
bustion is controlled by shifting the air washer along the connecting
tube. By shifting it nearer to, or farther from the gas inlet, we can
increase or decrease the size of the slot for the suction of air and
thereby increase or reduce the volume of air consumed.
Mixer 5 comprises a tube in which the gas and air are mixed. This
mixture is delivered to burner 6, whose end is formed by nozzle 7.
 The Combustion of Gaseous Fuels 55

The combustible mixture is discharged from the burner nozzle into

tunnel 8, where the combustion of the gas takes place. The tunnel is
lined with shaped brick or formed out of a refractory mortar 9 in
the furnace wall.
Since a previously prepared mixture of gas and air is delivered to
the burner, combustion takes place very rapidly, without any vis­
ible flame. For this reason
injection burners are called
flamcless burners.
In low-pressure burners (fla­
me burners) the mixing of the
gas and air commences in the
burners; it is completed in the
working chamber of the fur­
nace. The air and gas are de­
livered to these burners under
low pressure. The pressure of
the gas before the burner should
range from 100 to 300 mm
water column, and that of the
air — from 150 to 400 mm
water column.
Fig. 33 shows a slot-type burner. Gas flows along tube i , and air—
along tube 2. The nozzles of tubes 1 and 2 and tip 3 are of rectangular

Fig. 34. Turbulentjmixing burner:

/ — gas chest: 2 — air chest; 3 — air admission port; 4 — gas pipe; 6 —plug

cross-section. A special cone 4 is inserted inside tip 3 , to ensure bet­

ter mixing of the gas and air. This burner produces a rectangular
flame from 500 to 600 mm long.
56 Fuel and I ts Combustion

Fig. 34 shows a turbulent-mixing-type burner, widely employed

in the Soviet Union. This burner ensures a thorough mixing of the
air and gas, a short flame and the possibility of regulating the output
of the furnace within a considerable range.

PREPARING AND BURNING PULVERISED FUELS

At the present time pulverised fuels are used on an ever-increasing

scale for firing heating furnaces and, in particular, for firing forge
furnaces. There are many forge shops in the Soviet Union where all
furnaces are fired exclusively with pulverised fuel. Pulverised fuel
is particularly advantageous in plants where gas is not available,
and which are supplied with local solid fuels (coal) which cannot be
gasified. These fuels, when burnt in ordinary fire-boxes on grates,
cannot ensure the necessary temperature for heating steel before
forging.
The operation of furnaces fired with pulverised fuel can be com­
pared with that of masout-fired furnaces. The chief advantages of burn­
ing pulverised coal as compared with the usual method of burning
lump coal on grates, accompanied by manual servicing, are:
1. Pulverised coal, like masout or gas, is burnt in the working
chamber of the furnace and therefore the high temperature above the
metal being heated ensures its more rapid heating. When burning lump
coal the highest temperature will be in the fire-box, i. e., at a great
distance from the metal being heated.
2. When burning lump coal the metal in the working chamber of
the furnace will be heated by the hot gases produced by the combus­
tion of the coal in the fire-box. In furnaces fired with pulverised fuel,
the metal is heated directly by the flame from the pulverised coal.
In this case the metal will be heated better and more rapidly than by
the hot gases.
3. In manually operated fire-boxes equipped with grates, a con­
siderable amount—up to 10 per cent—of the fuel is lost together
with the slag; on the other hand only a slight amount of fuel is lost
with the slag when employing pulverised fuel. This permits a reduc­
tion in the consumption of fuel required for heating steel.
4. The use of pulverised fuel for firing furnaces cuts out the arduous
work of stokers and ash-cleaners. There is no need to deliver coal to
the shop and to carry away ashes. This, in turn, lightens the work
of the factory transport system and frees large coal storage areas in
shops. The pulverised coal is supplied to the furnaces along special
pulverised fuel pipelines.
5. The temperature and thermal conditions of the furnaces can be
easily controlled, as in masout-fired furnaces, inasmuch as pul­
verised fuel is burnt in burners with a wide range of efficiency.
 Preparing and Burning Pulverised Fuels 57

6. The use of pulverised coal permits the employment of low-

calorie coals which, when burnt in the usual way (as lump coal),
do not ensure the requisite temperature for heating steel for forging.
Moreover, screenings, i. e., coal fines which in practice cannot be
burnt in ordinary manually operated fire-boxes can he utilised for
making pulverised coal.
The maximum ash content of coals utilised as pulverised fuel
for firing forge furnaces must be 15-20 per cent, and that of vola­
tiles—not less than 20 per cent. The lower the ash content, the
better will the pulverised coal burn. An important factor which must
be considered when utilising pulverised fuel is the fusion temperature
of its ashes. The most suitable coals are those with high-fusion ash con­
tent (i. e., whose ashes fuse at temperatures above 1,300°C). In prac­
tice, however, low-fusion ash pulverised coals are used for heating
furnaces, but the method of burning such pulverised coals is differ­
ent from that employed with high-fusion ash pulverised coals.
When burning pulverised coal above the surface of the heated steel,
i. e., in the working chamber of the furnace, a portion of the dry
ashes is precipitated on to the surface of the steel and some are car­
ried away through the smoke flue. The ashes must be removed from
the stock when it is taken out of the furnace, prior to forging or stamp­
ing, in order to exclude any possibility of their being pressed into
the metal. It is easy to remove these ashes from the surface of light
work, as low-fusion ashes and slag fall off its surface when the work
is struck lightly against a piece of steel. It is more difficult, however,
to remove ashes and particularly slag from heated heavy work.
For this reason, when heating heavy pieces of stock, different meth­
ods are employed for burning pulverised coal, depending on the
fusion temperature of the ash; these are:
1) Pulverised coal with a high-fusion ash content, i. e., the ashes
of which fuse at temperatures above 1,S00°C, is burnt above the
surface of the stock being heated, i. e., inside the working chamber
of the furnace, in the same way as masout or gas; the dry ashes are
precipitated on the surface of the work and can be easily removed
before forging;
2) Pulverised coal with a low-fusion ash content, i. c., the ashes
of which fuse at temperatures below 1,300°C, is burnt in specially
built fire-boxes. At temperatures above that of the fusion of the ashes,
the latter, transformed into drops of liquid slag, become heavy,
lose their volatile properties and are precipitated inside the fire-box.
They are removed from here in the liquid state.
The second important factor which determines the choice of coals
to be used for pulverised fuel is thoir content of volatile substances.
The greater the content of volatiles, the better will the pulverised
coal burn and the shorter its flame will be. The content of volatiles
58 Fuel and Its Combustion

in pulverised coal should be not less than 17-20 per cent; and
pulverised coal with a content of volatiles up to 35 per cent may be
regarded as an excellent fuel. Pulverised coal containing less than
17 per cent of volatiles will burn with an erratic flame, which tends
to go out very frequently, causing the furnace to operate irregu­
larly.
Coals from the Kuznetsk Basin are considered excellent for pre­
paring pulverised fuel. Pulverised coke and anthracite are not

suitable for firing heating furnaces, as they have a low content of

volatiles.
Before coal can be burnt in the pulverised state, it must be ground
in special installations to a fineness of 0.07 to 0.05 mm. Pulverised
coal is prepared in individual units supplying one or more furnaces
or in a centralised installation supplying one or several shops.
Fig. 35 illustrates the simplest individual coal pulverising unit.
From a special hopper the coal is fed through feeder i , which en­
sures a uniform delivery of the coal, to magnet separator 2 in which
it is freed from any pieces of iron or steel which it may contain. From
the separator the coal is delivered to mill 3 where it is ground and
dried by hot air supplied to the mill through pipe 4. The ground
coal, in the form of dust, is carried by the hot air from the mill into
cyclone separator 5, where it is finally dried. In the cyclone separator
the large lumps of coal are separated from the coal dust and are re­
turned to mill 3 along pipe 6. The coal, ground to the requisite fine­
ness, is delivered through ground-coal duct 7 to centrifugal coal-
dust fan 8. Here, after being mixed with air (the so-called prelimi­
nary air) it is blown into the furnace.
 Preparing and Burning Pulverised Fuels 59

P u lv e r ise d c o a l is burnt w ith th e aid of special burners in th e sam e

w a y a s m a so u t or g a s.
S e v e r a l t y p e s of burners are e m p lo y e d for b u rn in g p u lv e rised
c o a l. F ig . 36 sh o w s a burner em p lo y ed for h e a tin g fu rn a ces. It con -

Secondaru
air

Fig. 36. Special burner for burning pulverised coal

s is ts of tu b e 7 , d iv id e d b y p a r titio n 2. T h e m ix tu r e of air and p u l­

v er ise d c o a l flow s a lo n g tu b e 3 , and seco n d a ry a ir — from th e fa n ,
a lo n g tu b e 4. T h e p u lv e r ise d c o a l is m ix e d w ith th e seco n d a ry air
a t it s d isch a rge from n o z z le 5 and ig n ite s at a c e rta in d ista n c e from
th e n o z z le in sid e th e w o rk in g ch am b er of th e fu rn ace.
 CHAPTER IV

HEATING DEVICES

BLACKSMITH'S HEARTHS

Blacksmith’s hearths, or forges, as they are also called, are em­

ployed for heating metals for hand forging. These forges are classified
either as open or closed hearths. Blacksmith’s forges have one or two
hearths, and are correspondingly called single- or double-hearth
blacksmith’s forges (Fig. 37).

The air necessary for burning the fuel is fed downwards from a fan
along a pipe. The air pressure (blast) at the hearth should be from
150 to 200 mm water column. The lower end of the air pipe ends in
what is called a tuyere (Fig. 38). The tuyere is equipped with a hole
for raking out the ashes and slag. A hood is installed abovo the
hearth for collecting the products of combustion, which are discharged
into the atmosphere through a chimney from the hood.
 Blacksmith's Hearths 61

The method of gathering the smoke in the hood and discharging it

subsequently through the chimney by means of natural draught is
not efficient. When firing the hearth the smoke, instead of entering
the hood, spreads throughout the shop. Such a blacksmith’s hearth
is shown in Fig. 37. Fig 39 shows an open blacksmith's hearth with
a different method of discharging the smoke from that shown in Fig.
37. In this hearth the smoke is discharged through two pipes 1 and 2%

pipe 1 being inserted inside pipe 2. Part of the smoke escapes through
inner pipe 1 and the remainder, entering hood 3, escapes through
outer pipe 2. In such an arrangement, the inner smoke pipe, or chim­
ney, is heated by the outer, and the draught is increased. Such chim­
neys have proved their efficiency in practice.
Fig. 40 shows a closed blacksmiths forge. It consists of a steel
framework lined with refractory brick.
The air (blast) is delivered through pipe 1 into chest 2 whence it
enters the fire-box through grate 3. The coal is charged through firing
opening 4, and the steel to be heated through charging door 5. The
products of combustion are discharged from the hearth through
outlet 6 under hood 7. Secondary air is fed into the upper part of the
hearth through pipes 8 to ensure the complete combustion of the vol­
atiles.
62 Heating Devices

Closed blacksmith’s hearths are employed in mass production for

heating small parts.
Masout is utilised in liquid fuel-fired blacksmith’s hearths. An
important feature of such hearths is the combustion chamber (see
Fig. 41). Masout is fed through funnel 7 and pipe 8 into chamber 9\
air—through inlet 7, chamber 2, outlets 5 and 6. From chamber 9
masout flows in thin streams along inclined plane 77. Caught up

by streams of air leaving outlet 5, it is atomised and burnt. The ma­

sout which fails to be atomised, drops down, is caught up by the
stream of air leaving outlet 6 and is also atomised and burnt.
The masout is thus mixed with air and burns in combustion cham­
ber 5, which is built with fire-clay lined walls 4 and 10. The tem­
perature in the combustion chamber is very high and reaches white
heat. Gas enters the hearth through outlet 12, shown in Fig. 42. The
combustion chamber is shown to the right of the circular hearth.
Forgings placed in the hearth are heated by the gases discharged from
the combustion chamber.
 Blacksmith's Hearths 63

Gas-fired hearths are employed for heating the ends of stock.

The rotating gas-fired blacksmith’s hearth, shown in Fig. 43, is
cylindrical in shape and is mounted on ball supports 4. In this hearth
the stock to be heated is charged into holes 2 , arranged in its wall.
Masout

Fig. 41. Combustion chamber of masout-fired

blacksmith’s health

I— I— !

Fig. 42. Masout-fired blacksmith’s hearth:

1 — air line; 2 — masout line; 3 — funnel; 4 — pipe; S — combustion chamber;
6 — hearth (hea ting chamber)

The mixture of gas and air is fed to the burner 2, and ignited. To
ensure a more rapid heating of the work, the hearth is lined with a
fire-proof cone 3. Flue gases are discharged directly into the shop
through holes 1. In gas-fired hearths, stock can be heated up to
1,250-1,280 °C.
 64 Heating Devices

The main disadvantages of blacksmith’s hearths fired by ordinary

coal are:
1. The steel comes into direct contact with the fuel, which always
contains sulphur. At high temperatures, sulphur is absorbed by the
steel and thus lowers its mechanical properties. Because of this,

Fig. 43. Rotating gas-fired blacksmith’s hearth:

l — stock charging opening; 2 —burner; 3 — refractory cone;
4 — ball support for Installing hearth

blacksmith’s hearths should be fired with special coal having a min­

imum sulphur content. The steel must be placed in these hearths
only after the coal has begun to burn properly and the sulphur has
been burnt out.
2. There is a danger of the steel being heated coming into direct
contact with the blast of air, thereby entailing a considerable loss
of metal as scale.
3. In these hearths the heating of the steel is not uniform; the
coal does not completely burn up, and part of it is thrown out togeth-
 Fundamental Rules for Working with Blacksmith's Hearths 65

er with tho ashes. In addition, the products of combustion, heated

to a high temperature, escape into the atmosphere and take with them
a considerable quantity of heat.
These disadvantages result in a far greater consumption of fuel
when healing steel in hearths, as compared to that consumed in fur­
naces: fuel consumption being from 40 to 150 per cent of the weight
of the steel, with an accompanying loss of 8 per cent of the weight
of steel as scale.
The advantages of the blacksmith’s hearth consist in its simplicity
and cheapness in manufacture. Moreover, any section of a long
piece of work can he heated in an ordinary blacksmith’s hearth, for
instance, for bending purposes; this is not always possible in forge
furnaces.

FUNDAMENTAL RULES
FOR WORKING WITH BLACKSMITH’S nEARTHS

When heating a piece of steel in a hearth, the blacksmith must

always watch the flame of the fuel. Metal is heated best of all in a
bright, slightly smoking, flame: such a flame excludes all possibility
of overheating the metal.
If the flame is blindingly bright, which occurs with an excess of
air, a thick layer of scale will form on the surface of the steel, which
will be in danger of being burnt. On the other hand, if clouds of dense
black smoke continue to emerge from the hearth, the steel will be
heated slowly, considerable coal will be consumed and the resulting
temperature will be insufficient. A poorly heated piece of stock will
be difficult to forge, and will be liable to crack. It follows that when
heating a piece of steel in a blacksmith’s hearth, it is necessary to
maintain a bright, slightly smoking flame. In addition, tho black­
smith must know how to place the stock in the hearth so that it is
heated rapidly and uniformly all round.
The stock to be heated must be protected from being cooled by the
air (the blast), and for this reason the bed of fuel under tho work
should be at least 100 mm thick. The work must also be covered with
a layer of coal. To obtain a flame at a single spot, the coal should be
slightly damped with water and pressed down with a shovel. In the
spot where the flame is desired, the coal should be loosened with a
poker. To ensure uniform heating of the work on all sides, it must be
turned round from time to time.
To maintain a constant flame in the hearth during the entire shift,
fresh coal should be added, not directly into the zone of combus­
tion, but at the edge of the hearth and shovelled to the centre as
it burns out.
 66 Heating Devices

The temperature of steel for hand forging is generally determined

by the temper colour. The following table gives the temper colours,
depending on the temperature, for steel:

Temper Temperature, Temper Temperature,

colour of steel degrees colour of steel degrees
Centigrade Centigrade ;

B r o w n ........................... 500 Dark o r a n g e ................ 900

Dark purple ................ 550 Orange-yellow . . . . 1000
Dark r e d ........................ 650 Straw-yellow . . . . 1100
C h erry -red .................... 700 Very light yellow . . 1200
Light cherry-red . . . 800 White ....................... 1200
Bright w h it e ................ 1400

Rules to he observed for maintaining a hearth. Before commenc­

ing work, always:
1) Remove all slag, remains of coal and pieces of brick from the
hearth;
2) Remove all slag from the tuyere, and blow air through it;
3) See that the air line and the dampers are iii good order. The
damper must completely cut off all access of air;
4) Make a small fire in the hearth with wood shavings or burning
coal taken from a hearth or furnace already in use, slightly open the
damper on the air line; after the shavings have caught fire, gradually
add coal and increase the blast.
During operation:
1) See that the flame in the hearth is uniform; avoid too strong a
blast, otherwise pieces of coal will be thrown out of the fire;
2) Seo that the tuyere is always covered with a layer of coal,
and that the blast air never comes in contact with the steel being
heated;
3) See that the top layer of coal cakes properly to form a crust;
periodically wet the top layer of coal with water to facilitate its cak­
ing;
4) See that the tuyere is not choked up with slag; it should be
cleaned from time to time through the lower hole with the blast
only slightly open.
After work, it is necessary to:
1) Close the air damper;
2) If the work is not handed over to the next shift, scrape the
burnt coals off the hearth and extinguish the fire;
3) Put all tools, devices and forgings in their proper places;
4) Put your working place in order.
 Heating Furnaces 67

HEATING FURNA( ES

For hammer forging and sometimes for hand forging, stock is

heated in flame furnaces. These furnaces are called flame furnaces,
because the steel is heated by the flame produced from the combus­
tion of the fuel.
Forge furnaces are built so as to ensure a temperature up to 1,350°C
in their working chambers. Each heating furnace consists of the fol­
lowing parts: fire-box, working chamber, chimney, flues, recuperator
or regenerator, and various auxiliary arrangements (Fig. 44).

Fig. 44. Tho elements of a heating furnace:

i — chimney, 2 — Hue; 3 — recuperator or regenerator; 4 — fire-tox; s — working char-be

The fire-box of a furnace is that part in which the combustion of fuel

takes place. Tiie working chamber is that part in which the steel to
be heated is placed. The lower section, or base of the working chamber,
on which the steel is placed, is called the hearth; the upper part of
the furnace is called its roof. The opening through which the metal
is charged into the furnace is called the charging door, while the
opening through which the metal is discharged from the furnace is
called the discharging door.
The flues serve for discharging the flue gases from the furnace into
the chimneys; the recuperators and regenerators are designed for
preheating the air with the aid of the heat of the flue gases. The
chimney serves to discharge the flue gases into the atmosphere.

FURNACE PRODUCTIVITY

By the productivity of a furnace is understood the weight of metal

that can be heated in the furnace to the required forging temperature
in any unit of time. As a rule, furnace productivity is expressed in
 68 Heating Devices

kilograms per hour, and depends on the dimensions of the stock

being heated, the quality (grade) of the steel and the charging tem­
perature, i. c., whether the steel is charged hot or cold into the
furnace. The greater the capacity of the furnace and the less the
time required for heating the stock, the greater its productivity
will be.
By the capacity of a furnace is understood the weight of metal
that can be loaded into the furnace at one time. The capacity of a
furnace should never be increased by loading it with stock stacked
in several layers, one on top of each other, as this will only lower and
not increase its productivity. Moreover, stacking the stock on the
hearth in several layers can result in uneven heating and an increase
in the loss of steel as scale. To increase the productivity of a furnace,
it is necessary to:
1. Place the stock on the furnace hearth in such a way as to ensure
the complete utilisation of the hearth area and, at the same time, to
ensure that the stock is “licked” on all sides by the hot gases.
2. Charge the stock into and discharge it from the furnace contin­
uously and at a uniform speed, taking care that it is never held too
long in the high temperature zone. The best charging and discharg­
ing method is tho single-piece method, whereby one or two pieces
of stock are unloaded from the furnace, their place being taken by
cold pieces of stock.
3. Maintain the working chamber of tho furnace at a temperature
from 100° to 150°C above the steel heating temperature. For instance,
should the technological process call for heating the steel to 1,200°C,
the temperature of the working chamber of the furnace should be
1,200+(100 to 150)=1,300 to 1,350°C.
The operation of furnaces, in which approximately similar pieces
of work are heated, is compared by what is known as the specific
productivity, or load rato on the hearth, of a furnace. By the spe­
cific productivity of a furnace or the load rate on the hearth is under­
stood the weight of metal heated to a preset temperature per square
metre of hearth area per unit of time—usually, per hour, and is ex­
pressed as kg/m*/hr. In other words, the specific productivity of a
furnace is determined by dividing its hourly productivity by the area
of its hearth.

FURNACE EFFICIENCY

The index of the utilisation of heat in a furnace is callod its

efficiency, which indicates that proportion of heat generated by the
combustion of fuel which is actually utilised for heating the
metal.
 Furnace Efficiency 69

The utilisation of the heat generated by the combustion of fuel can

be considered as follows (see Fig. 45). If we take the total amount
of heat generated as 100 per cent, then: a) the amount of heat uti­
lised for heating a piece of metal A x will be from 10 to 15 per cent
of the total amount of heat generated; b) the heat loss A 2 through
charging openings and slots will fluctuate between 10 and 15 per
cent depending on the design of the furnace, the dimensions and
numbers of the slots and charging openings; c) the heat losses A t
due to incomplete combustion will vary from 0.5 to 1 per cent; d) the
heat losses A t through the fur­
nace brickwork will reach 25
per cent; e) the loss of heat
A 5, escaping with the flue
gases, will amount to 45-50
per cent.
Thus, only from 10 to 15 per
cent of the total heat will be
usefully expended, i. e., will
be utilised for heating the
metal; the remainder—from
85 to 90 per cent—is lost.
It is this relation between Fig. 45. Scheme of utilisation of heat
the amount of utilised heat in furnace
and the total amount of heat
delivered to the furnace which is called the efficiency of the
furnace. Furnace efficiency is always expressed as a percentage.
If wo express the total amount of heat delivered to the furnace as
{A Gal/hr), and the utilised heat as (a Cal/hr), the efficiency of the
furnace will he equal to:

4A ioo%.

The higher the furnace efficiency, the less heat will be consumed
for healing a unit weight of metal.
The economy of the operation of similar type furnaces employed
for heating approximately similar pieces of work is measured by
comparing the so-called specific consumption of conventional fuel.
Tho specific consumption of conventional fuel is that amount of
conventional fuel, expressed in per cent or in kilograms per weight
of heated metal, which is consumed by the furnace for heating the
metal in a unit of time.
Example. The productivity of a furnace A =2,000 kg per hour.
It consumes 250 kg per hour of coal having a calorific value of 5,600
large calories per hour. Determine its specific consumption of con­
ventional fuel.
 70 Heating Devicei

Solution. The calorific value of conventional fuel is 7,000 Gal.

Therefore, the consumption of conventional fuel will be:
jj 250x5,600 n/in , i
B = ' 7 000— = 200 kg per hour*
The specific consumption of conventional fuel, in percentage of
heated metal, will be:
L B x 1 0 0 _ 200x100 iAft/
2,000 2,000 “ 1U7°*
The specific consumption of conventional fuels in forge furnaces
usually ranges from 8 to 12 per cent of the weight of steel being heated.

UTILISATION OF THE HEAT

OF THE WASTE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
In all industrial furnaces, including forge furnaces, the main heat
losses consist of the heat escaping from the furnaces together with the
products of combustion (smoke). It is for this reason necessary to uti-

Fig. 46. Schematic representation of a regenerator:

a) vertical regenerator; b) horizontal regenerator; c) zig-zag-
type regenerator

lise this heat as much as possible. One of the most common methods
of making use of the heat of the products of combustion is to employ
it for preheating the air to a temperature of 200-500°G and over.
After being preheated, the air enters the furnace for burning the
fuel, i. e., it is delivered beneath the grate or directed to the burners.
The heat extracted from the escaping products of combustion is
returned to the furnace together with the heated air, thereby increas-
 Utilisation of the Heat of the Waste Products of Combustion 71

ing the furnace's efficiency (reducing the fuel consumption) and

increasing the temperature of the combustion of the fuel and, conse­
quently, the productivity of the furnace.
There are two methods of using the escaping products of combus­
tion to heat air. By the first method the air is heated in regenerators;
by the second, in recuperators.
The schematic arrangement of a regenerator is shown in Fig. 46.
Regenerators are made in the form of brick chambers loosely packed
with a checker-work of refractory
bricks so as to form a multitude
of channels. Fig. 47 shows the check­
er-work of a regenerator arranged
to form a mass of channels.
Regenerators operate as follows:
hot waste products of combustion
are first directed through the chan­
nels of the chocker-work, thus
heating its refractory brickwork.
After this checker-work has become
sufficiently hot, the delivery of the
products of combustion is cut off
and the gases are directed to the sec­
ond regenerator, which is located
next to the first. Meanwhile, cold [Link] 47 Regenerator checker-work
air is passed through the checker- .
work of the first; the cold air, coming into contact with the hot
checker-work, becomes heated and is then delivered to the furnace
for burning the fuel. . ,
Regenerators thus operate by alternately heating the air, and
being heated. Therefore at least two regenerators are required lor
each furnace in order to ensure a continuous supply of hot air to the
furnace. In one regenerator the air will be heated, while the hot
products of combustion will be flowing from the furnace to the sec­
ond regenerator, where they will be heating the checker-work.
Regenerators permit the heating of air or gases to higher tempera­
tures than do recuperators, but are bulky and expensive installations.
Nowadays they are employed only for large furnaces fired with poor
gases; in this case, in order to ensure the temperature required lor
heating the metal, the air is heated to a high temperature. ^
Recuperators operating on the principle of the transmission o
heat through their walls are in wide use at the present time. I here
are two types of recuperators—ceramic and metallic. Ceramic re­
cuperators are built of shaped refractory brick. Their chief advantages
compared with metallic recuperators are that they are very u
rable, can be employed for heating air to high temperatures and have
 Fig 48. Needle-type recuperator pipe with internal needles
View along arrow K Section H

f\i

1
bO/./

Plan

Fig. 49. Needle-type recu­

perator:
1— cold air inlet; 2—hot alroutlct;
3—inlet of productsof combustion
from furnace; 4 — outlet of prod­
ucts of combustion from recu­
perator; s—needle pipes; 6 —recu­
perator bousing
 Utilisation of the Heat of the Waste Products of Combustion 73

a long life. But they have one great disadvantage—their high perme­
ability. Air, penetrating the brickwork joints of these recuperators,
dilutes the flue gases.
The most common type of metallic recuperators are tubular ones,
made of cast and seamless drawn needle pipes. Fig. 48 shows the tube
u>
c5/»

ul

hi / > 7 'i
• H'!l
i i, i i 1 ' ! 1
1 I1. 1 1 1 ' 1 1
i i ' i i 1 ’i 1
"
1
i. fHI! |1 ! "
11,1
,| l _ L i M

Air from
fan

:w .v .v .v .v .v .v .v .v .v * y .y * y ;

Fig. 50. Small recuperator installed on furnace:

1 — recuperator; 2 — air line for diluting flue gases with air; 3 — Ins­
pection hole

of a needle-type recuperator with internal needles. Needle-type

recuperators are also built with tubes having needles located on both
their internal and external surfaces. The needles increase the heating
area of the tubes, thus ensuring a better transfer of the heat of the
hot gases to the air being heated. Needle-type recuperators are as­
sembled from separate tubes.
In forge shops, recuperators are installed above the furnace, when
the products of combustion are discharged upwards from the fur-
74 Heating Devices

nace, or, if they are discharged from the furnace into the flues, in­
side the latter. Fig. 49 shows a typical small needle-type recuperator,
while Fig. 50 shows a similar recuperator installed over a portable
gas-fired forge furnace. Fig. 51 shows a needle-type recuperator in­
stalled inside a flue.

Fig. 51. Needle-type recuperator installed in flue:

i — needle pipes; 2 — air header; 3 — air Inlets

DISCHARGING PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

FROM THE FURNACE

As is now known, the hot gases generated during the combustion

of the fuel enter the working chamber of the furnace. Here they give
up their heat to the metal, thereby raising it to the required tem­
perature. After giving up their heat to the metal, these gases must
be removed from the furnace and replaced by new gases at high
temperature from the combustion chamber or the burners.
Smoke flue gases are discharged from furnaces: 1) through flues
into the chimney; 2 ) through special channels laid in the walls of the
furnace, and through the charging doors under the hood, whence
they are discharged beyond the shop area along pipes. The most
common and most sanitary method of removing the products of
 Discharging Products of Combustion from the Furnace 75

combustion from a forge furnace is by discharging them downwards,

i. e., through flues into the chimneys. How are the products of com­
bustion forced into the flue and thence into the chimney, i. e., how
are they made first to descend and then ascend?
, It is well known that light substances always tend to rise, i. e.,
to displace heavier substances. For instance, a piece of wood, im­
mersed in water, will float to the surface because it is lighter than water.
The same thing takes place inside a furnace. Gases, like all matter,
expand on heating. Let us, for instance, take a cubic metre of gas at
a temperature of 0°C. It will weigh 1.2 kg. If we heat it to 820°C, its
volume will expand fourfold, i. e., the weight of 1 cubic metre of
hot gas will not be 1.2 kg, but 1-^-kg=0.3
2
kg, i. e., one quarter of
the weight of 1 cubic metre of cold gas. The operation of the chimney
is based on the difference in the weight of the hot gas and of the cold
air surrounding the furnace.
Fig. 44 gives a schematic section of a furnace with flues and a chim­
ney. The combustion chamber is subject to the pressure, from above,
of a column of air equal to the height of the chimney and, from below,
of a column of hot gas, likewise equal in height to that of the chimney.
Since the weight of the column of hot gas is less than that of a similar
column of cold air, the upper column of cold air tends to displace the
hot gases inside the furnace. The greater the temperature at the top of
the chimney, the greater will be the difference between the weight of
the columns of cold air and gas, and the greater will be the draught.
Moreover, the greater the height of the chimney, the greater will
be the difference between the pressure of the columns of air and gas
and the greater the draught.
When smarting up newly built furnaces, or furnaces which have been
standing idle for long periods, it often happens that the gases, instead
of escaping through the chimney, escape from the furnace through
the slots into the shop. To ensure the discharge of the gases straight
through the chimney, a fire must be lit at the chimney base; this,
heating the chimney and the air inside it, creates a draught, and the
gases flow up the chimney.
Careful use should always be made of the chimney draught. As a
rule, the flue of each furnace is fitted with a damper (valve) for
regulating the draught. The furnace should always be so regulated
with the valves or damper, that the pressure on the furnace hearth
[Link] equal to that of the surrounding air; cold air will then nev­
er be drawn into the furnace, and hot gases will never leak from it.
This, however, is very difficult to accomplish in practice. To ensure
the proper operation of a furnace, the pressure inside it should be
maintained slightly above that of the atmosphere, i. e., above the
pressure of the air surrounding the furnace. Then the flue gases will
76 Heating Devices

escape only in slight quantities from the dampers, slots, etc., while
cold air will not be drawn into the furnace, and the heat losses entailed
in heating extra cold air will be reduced to a minimum. The most
important result, however, will be that losses due to oxidation and
scale of the steel being heated in the furnace will also he reduced to
a minimum.

TYPES OF FORGE FURNACES

Forging shops process a great variety of work, both as regards

weight and shape; for this reason, there are very many different de­
signs of forge furnaces.
1) A s regards heating, furnaces are classified into box-type, semi-
continuous and continuous furnaces. In box-type furnaces the tem­
perature is the same in the entire working chamber, but in contin­
uous furnaces it varies, rising from the beginning of the working
chamber to a higher temperature at the exit. The steel, charged into
the furnace from one end, travels slowly along the hearth from the low-
temperature zone to the high-temperature zone, against the direc­
tion of the gas flow, and is discharged from the opposite end of the fur­
nace at the required high temperature. In these furnaces steel is heated
gradually and continuously, whence their name—continuous furnaces.
Semi-continuous furnaces arc, in effect, identical with ordinary
continuous furnaces, only they aro built with a shorter low-tempera­
ture preheating zone; steel can be heated more rapidly in these fur­
naces than in ordinary continuous furnaces.
2) A s regards charging and discharging methods, furnaces are fur­
ther classified into continuous and periodically operated furnaces,
so called batch-type furnaces. In furnaces of latter type, the steel is
charged through the charging door on to the furnace hearth, where it
remains without being moved during the entire heating period; and,
as a rule, it is discharged from the furnace through the charging
door. An example of a batch-type furnace is the box-type furnace.
In continuously operated furnaces, the steel travels along the
furnace hearth during the entire heating cycle. In these furnaces
the steel can he made to travel by various means. If rectangular
ingots or stock are being heated in a continuous-type furnace, they
are moved along the furnace hearth with the aid of a pusher. Round
stock, however, will be heated in a furnace built with an inclined
hearth, along which the stock can ho rolled. Such furnaces are called
roller-hearth furnaces.
In addition to the above-mentioned continuous-type furnaces,
the following types of furnaces are also employed: rotatory, plate,
conveyor furnaces, etc. All these belong to the group of mechanised
"furnaces.
 Box-Type Furnaces 77

3) Depending on the type of fuel burnt in the furnaces, they are

classified as: coal-fired, gas-fired, masout-fired and pulverised fuel-
fired furnaces.
4) A s regards heat sources, furnaces can be classified as flame and
electric furnaces. In flame furnaces, the heat is generated by the
combustion of fuel, whereas in electric furnaces, the heat is generated
by electric power.
5) .4 s regards the method of utilising the heat escaping together
with the products of combustion, forging heating furnaces are
classified as recuperator- or regenerator-type furnaces.

BOX-TYPE FURNACES

Box-type furnaces are widely employed in forging shops for heat­

ing small and medium size stock. There is a great variety of designs
of box-type furnaces, each differing in the location of their charging
doors, their firing devices and the methods employed for discharg­
ing the products of combustion.
A distinction is also drawn between stationary and portable
box-type furnaces. In stationary box-type furnaces the products of
combustion are usually directed downwards, i. e., into a flue, and
thence into the chimney. In portable box-type furnaces they are
discharged upwards, under a hood, from which they flow along
a pipe above the roof of the shop.
PorLable furnaces are usually small in size. They are very conven­
ient as, in case of repairs, they can be removed by means of an over­
head crane, and replaced by a reserve furnace; this reduces idle time
of equipment to a minimum. Moreover, inasmuch as they need no
special foundations or flues, they arc cheaper to build than stationary
furnaces.
Figs. 52 and 53 show a small portable box-type furnace designed
for operating on either gas or liquid fuel. The fuel is burnt in a burn­
er or an atomiser in chamber 1. The products of combustion are di­
rected into working chamber 2, where they are completely burnt;
from the working chamber they are discharged through channel 3
under the hood (not shown in the drawing). The metal is charged
and discharged through charging door 4.
Fig. 54 shows a small coal-fired box-type furnace. The fire-box,
which is of the semi-gas type, is equipped with a horizontal grate 9
with shaking fire-bars. The fuel is loaded into the furnace through
stoke hole 7, which can be closed by a door. The air required for the
combustion of the coal is delivered to the ashpit along pipe 10. The
process of combustion, however, is not limited to the fire-box. As
the gases rise and pass through the outlet into the working chamber
of the furnace, they meet a stream of auxiliary (secondary) air.
 Fig. 52. Portable box-type furnace:
l —masout or gas combustion chamber; 2—working chamber; 3—ducts for removing product*
of combustion; 3 —charging opening; 3—burner or atomiser; 0 — brickB for regulating draught;
7 —false door (can be broken out for heating central parts of long stock); t —thermocouple
Installation pocket
 Box-Type Furnaces 79

This secondary air is delivered at a high speed through a scries

of small ducts 5. As the completion of the combustion of the gas
takes place in the working
chamber of the furnace,
i. e., above the surface of
the metal being heated,
the temperature inside the
working chamber rises and,
with it, the productivity of
the furnace. From the
furnace, the gases flow
through ducts in the furnace
hearth into the flues and
thence—into the chimney.
Small furnaces have only
one charging opening 4;
furnaces of medium size—
two, one for charging and
one for removing the stock.
Fig. 55 shows a box-type
gas-fired, furnace with two
charging openings. The gas
is burnt through two burners

Fig. 54. Coal-fired box-type furnace

1 — flue; 2 — damper; 3 — duct for discharging gases Into flue; 4 — charging opening;
5—secondary air supply; 6—firing chamber; 7—stoke hole; a—arrangement for
shaking fire-bars; 9 — grate; Jfl — air delivery
 Section /■/

9
w
5 f— 8
// T

section INI
3110 ------

Fig. 55. Box-type furnace w ith two charging openings

 Box-Type Furnaces 81

1 in combustion chamber 2, after which it flows into working cham­

ber 5, and then along ducts 4 and 5, which are located symmetri­
cally along the furnace hearth; from these ducts the gaseous products
of combustion are discharged into flue 6 and then into the chimney.
Flue 6 is equipped with damper 7 for regulating the draught, i. e.,
the pressure of the gases in the working chamber. The cold stock is

Fig. 56. Regenerator-type furnace for heating heavy

ingots

loaded into the furnace, and, after being heated to the required
temperature, is withdrawn from the furnace through charging
openings 8. These charging openings are equipped with water-cooled
sliding frames 9 and water-cooled sliding doors 10, to improve working
conditions in the vicinity of the furnace.
Box-type furnaces are also employed for heating large heavy
ingots for forging in forging presses or high-power hammers. Such
furnaces are built with sliding hearths. Fig. 56 shows a gas-fired
box-type furnace designed for heating large-size ingots. A heavy
car i , of welded construction, lined with firebrick, serves as a hearth.
This car bottom hearth is rolled in and out of the furnace mechanically.
82 Heating Devices

Box-type furnaces are usually fired with gas or liquid fuel. Their
design depends on the character of production. When built for heat­
ing small ingots for forging, the hearth (car bottom) of the furnace
is designed for heating several ingots simultaneously; large ingots
are heated in furnaces designed to take only one ingot, the furnace
temperature being raised gradually to ensure the ingot being heated
uniformly throughout its entire section, and to avoid the occurrence
of cracks in the ingot.
Burners 2 are located in staggered order in the side walls of the
furnace; the gas is supplied to the burners through pipe 3: the burn­
ers operate alternately: first—those on one side, and then those on
the opposite side. Two regenerators 4 and 5 are located under the fur­
nace for heating the air. They operate as follows: while the row of
burners in the left-hand wall is operating (those in the right-hand
wall being shut off), the products of combustion flow into the right-
hand regenerator 4, where they give up their heat to its checker-work
and flow out through ducts 6 into the chimney. At the same time,
cold air flows into left-hand regenerator 5, where after being heated
by the hot checker-work, it flows into the burners through duct 7.
After the checker-work of the left-hand regenerator has cooled
down (i. e., after it has transferred its heat to the incoming air), the
burners are switched over: those in the left-hand wall are switched
off, and those in the right-hand wall switched on. The products of
combustion will then flow from the furnace into left-hand regenera­
tor 5, heating up its checker-work, while cold air will be delivered
into the right-hand regenerator where, after being heated by the
brickwork of the latter, it will flow along channels 7 to the burners.
The burners are switched over every 30-40 minutes.

MECHANISED FURNACES,

Mechanised furnaces arc employed for heating large quantities of

small and medium size stock. There are man> designs of mechanised
furnaces, such as: rotatory, plate, conveyor and other types.
Continuous, semi-continuous and rotary-type furnaces are widely
employed in forging practice. Continuous furnaces are employed
for heating stock which can be easily pushed along the furnace
hearth, i. e., for heating square or rectangular shaped sections.
Rotary-type furnaces are employed for heating stock whose shape
makes it difficult for them to be pushed along the hearth (such as
small lengths, flat circular stock) and also for heating stock of round
section.
Fig. 57 shows a continuous-type furnace, the working chamber of
which comprises a continuous heating and soaking section. The cold
stock is charged through opening 6 at one end of the furnace, and is
Fig. 57. Continuous-type'heating furnace
 1200

Fig. 58. Rotary-type heating furnace

 Muffle-Type Furnaces 85

delivered by a pushing device into the heating and thence into the
soaking section of the furnace. As it travels along the working cham­
ber, it is subjected to an increasing temperature. Tho gradual heat­
ing ensures a more uniform temperature through its entire section.
The heated stock is discharged through opening 1. Along the entire
length of the side walls of the f urn ace handling openings 4 are located,
through which the ingots can be turned over with the aid of a bar,
thus ensuring their more uniform heating. The atomisers 2 of masout-
fired furnaces, or the burners 3 of gas-fired furnaces are installed in
the ends of the furnace. In some designs of continuous furnace the
burners or atomisers are installed along the entire length of the side
walls. The products of combustion are discharged along ducts 5 into
flue 7 and thence into the chimney.
Continuous furnaces can also operate on solid fuel, in which case
they are equipped with a fire-box for burning the solid fuel From the
fire-box the hot gases flow into the working chamber of the furnace,
where they heat the metal to the required temperature.
Fig. 58 illustrates a rotary-type furnace with a circular hearth.
Cold stock is charged into the furnace through charging opening 1;
the hot stock is discharged from opening 2. The furnace is heated
with burners or atomisers 3, located near the discharging opening.
The products of combustion flow to meet the inetal being heated and
are discharged into smoko duct 4. The speed of the rotating hearth
is calculated for heating the stock to the required temperature
in one revolution. Hearth 5 of the furnace is rotated with the aid
of special mechanisms.

MUFFLE-TYPE FURNACES

In muffle-type furnaces the hot gases

do not come into contact with the stock
or forgings being heated. Fig. 59 shows
the schematic section of such a furnace.
The stock is placed inside a muffle, which
tonsists of a box, open from the side adja­
cent to the charging opening. The muffle
can be made of cast iron, heat-resistant
cteel or any refractory material. It is
placed inside the furnace, where it is
washed on all sides by hot gases. The Fig. 59. Scheme of a muffle
heated walls of the muffle radiate heat furnace:
and raise the temperature of tho work 1 —m u ffle; 2 — fire-b o x
inside the muffle. As the work does not
come into direct contact with the hot gases, it will be heated
without forming any scale, i. e., with a clean surface.
86 Heating Devices

Muffle-type furnaces are mainly employed for heating nonferrous

metals or steel forgings whose dimensions must be maintained
precisely and whose surface must be kept clean of scale.

FURNACE BUILDING MATERIALS

The following building materials are mainly used for building

forge heating furnaces: refractory brick, insulation material, red
brick, concrete and building mortar.
Building materials employed for heating devices are called re­
fractories. Refractories possess the property of resisting the action
of high temperatures, as well as those physical and chemico-phys-
ical processes (for instance, corrosion by slags) which take place in
furnaces at high temperatures. Fire-clay (grog), dinas, and talc
bricks are the main refractories employed, while fire-clay is used
for mortar in forge furnaces.
Fire-Clay (Grog) Brick. Fire-clay brick is the chief material
used in building furnaces.
Properly prepared and baked fire-clay brick is an excellent
refractory material. Its chief quality is its resistance to sud­
den fluctuations in temperature. Furnaces built of fire-clay
brick can withstand repeated short shut-downs, be com­
pletely cooled and then rapidly heated to a temperature of
1,150-1,300°C in a few hours, without any harmful effect on the
masonry.
Grog (fire-clay) is a neutral material and is but slowly attacked
by ferrous slags. The disadvantage of fire-clay brick is that, in
spite of its high refractoriness (its melting point is up to 1,750°G),
it commences to deform at 1,250-1,400°C. For this reason fire-clay
brick is usually used for lining furnaces designed for a maximum tem­
perature of 1,350°C.
Depending on its refractoriness, ordinary fire-clay brick is classed
as A, B and C fire-clay brick. Class A and B fire-clay bricks, depend­
ing on their surfaces and textures, and the accuracy of their dimen­
sions, are further sub-classified into throe grades (grades 1 , 2 and
3) and Class C fire-clay brick into two grades (grades 1 and 2).
Class A fire-clay brick is used for building or lining furnace parts
which are subject to temperatures up to 1,300°C; Class B fire­
clay bricks may be used for making furnace parts designed for a
maximum temperature of 1,250°C; while Class C fire-clay bricks
may be used for parts designed for a maximum temperature
of 1,200°C. In forge furnaces, Class A fire-clay bricks are used for
building fire-boxes and roofs; the walls are built of Class B fire­
clay brick.
 Furnace Building"'Materials 87

Dinas Brick. Dinas brick has greater refractoriness than fire-clay

brick. It is made practically entirely from ground quartz and for
this reason is often called quartz brick.
Dinas brick possesses a very high refractoriness (1,650-1,750°C).
Its chief disadvantage lies in its weak resistance to sudden temper­
ature changes — it is liable to crack on being rapidly heated or cooled.
For this reason, if a furnace or its parts are built of dinas bricks,
it must be heated or cooled slowly, particularly between 200 -
600°C.
Dinas brick is not recommended for building or lining forge fur­
naces, especially furnaces of periodical operation. In exceptional
cases dinas brick may be used for forge furnaces when fire-clay brick
cannot withstand the maximum temperatures in the furnace, i. e.,
in the fire-boxes.
Talc Brick. Talc brick is manufactured from talc shale—a soft
mineral of scaly texture, which is smooth to the touch. The bricks
are sawn out of natural talc stone and then baked in kilns. The
melting point of natural talc is about 1,500°C.
Talc has an excellent resistance to scale and ferrous slags formed
in heating furnaces at high temperatures. Talc brick softens at about
1,350-1,400°C; its heat resistance is rather low and for this reason
it is employed for furnaces which are not designed for sudden tem­
perature changes. Talc brick is employed for lining forge furnace
hearths.
Magnesia Brick. Magnesia brick is manufactured from magnesite,
a natural mineral. Magnesia brick possesses a high refractoriness,
melting at about 2,000°C; however, it shows signs of deformation
under load at 1,500°C. Magnesia brick, on deformation, begins to
split, and for this reason cannot be used for such forge furnace parts
as roofs and arches.
Magnesia brick is also expensive, and is seldom used for building
forge furnaces (only for hearth linings). The main disadvantage of
magnesia brick is its poor resistance to sudden changes of tempera-
ture, which cause it to crack.
Chrome-Magnesia Brick. Chrome-magnesia brick is manufactured
from baked chromite, a mineral ore.
Chromite brick is unable to resist high temperatures, and begins
to deform at about 1,300-1,450°C. Magnesite is added to chromite
in order to increase its refractory properties, and such bricks are
called chrome-magnesia bricks; they are sometimes used for build­
ing the walls and fire-boxes of forge furnaces.
To reduce heat losses through the furnace walls, the outside lay­
ers of masonry are lined with what are called heat-insulation mate­
rials. Heat-insulation materials are poor heat conductors. The chief
reason for the poor conduction of heat through insulation materials
90 Heating Devices

in Fig. 60. One end of the tube is connected to the spot in the flue
at which the draught is to be measured. The following then takes
place. Before the tube has been connected to the flue, the ambient
air exerts an equal pressure in each arm of the tube, and the water
in these arms will therefore be at the same level. On connecting one
arm of the tube to the flue, where the pressure is less than that of
the atmosphere, the pres­
sure in this arm will fall
?nd the external pressure
of the air will therefore
force the water in the tube
towards the arm at a lower
pressure. Consequently, the
water in one arm will
fall, and will rise in the
other, coming to rest at
different levels. The differ­
ence between the levels in
the arms of the tube will
indicate the difference be­
tween the pressure in the
flue and that of the at­
mosphere, i. e., the force
of the draught. In addition
to the draught-gauge just
described, there are other
Fig. 60. Scheme of installation of a draught- draught-gauges of many dif­
gauge ferent designs, such as ori­
fice draught-gauges, etc.
Analysis of the Composition of the Products of Combustion.
In order to be able to judge whether the fuel is burning properly,
the composition of the products of combustion must be known.
If the fuel burns completely, the products of its combustion (gases)
should not contain any unconsumed matter, i. e., should not contain
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc. Moreover, the products of com*
bustion should contain no oxygen, as the presence of oxygen is
an indication that the fuel is being burnt with a great surplus
of air.
Instruments,'known as gas analysers, are employed for analysing
the composition of the gaseous products of combustion. All gas
analysers may be divided into two groups: 1) hand instruments,
in which the analysis is made by a special person; and 2 ) automatic
gas analysers, which automatically take samples of the gases, ana­
lyse them and record the results of the analysis. Manual gas analy­
sers are employed only for. observations lasting a short time. Auto-
 Control and Measuring Instruments 91

matic gas analysers are installed on furnaces for the continuous

control of the composition of flue gases, and ensure the possibility
of determining exactly how the fuol is burning. All faults noted in
the operation of the combustion chamber should be immediately
eliminated.
For forge furnaces it is necessary to employ instruments capable
of indicating the content of carbon dioxide, and that of carbon mon­
oxide plus hydrogen (CO+H).
Measuring the Temperature of the Metal. The temperature of the
metal being heated for forging can be determined by two methods:
by its tempor colour, and by the thermo-electric method.
The temperature of steel can be determined by its temper colour
either with the aid of special instruments or by the naked eye. It
is obvious that it is impossible to determine exactly the tempera­
ture of a metal from its temper colour and, moreover, to do so needs
great practice. For this reason, the visual determination of the tem­
perature of a metal from its temper colour is practised only in the
process of hand forging, when metals are heated on blacksmith’s
hearths.
We have previously mentioned the various temper colours of steel
and their temperatures. The temperature of hot steel can be more
precisely measured from its temper colour with the aid of special
instruments, called pyrometers. Pyrometers, depending on the
principle of their operation, are classified as radiation, thermoelec­
tric (thermocouples) and optical pyrometers. The action of the
optical pyrometer is based on the comparison of the temper colour
of the heated body with that of the heated filament of an incandes­
cent bulb. Optical pyrometers are employed for measuring tempera­
tures ranging from 700 to 1,800°C.
Fig. 61 illustrates an optical pyrometer with a disappearing fila­
ment. It consists of tube 2, measuring instrument (milliameter) 2
and dry cell 3; the tube is fitted with eyeglass 5 and lens 4. Photo­
metric incandescent bulb 6 is located inside the tube. The incandes­
cent bulb is connected with rheostat 7, mounted in the handle
of the tube. The latter is connected by a wire to the current
source—dry cell 5, which heats the filament of the incandescent
bulb. The scale of the milliameter is graduated in degrees
Centigrade.
The temperature of the steel is measured as follows: holding the
instrument in his left hand and pointing the tube at the heated object,
the observer rotates the ring of the rheostat, thereby changing the
current in the incandescent bulb and the temperature of its fila-
ment. The rheostat ring is rotated until the colour of the incandes­
cent filament coincides with that of the heated piece of steel whose
temperature is being determined.
92 Heating Devices

When measuring temperatures with optical pyrometers, three

things may occur, i. e.:
1) The filament of the photometric (incandescent) bulb may ap­
pear darker (colder) than the heated body (Fig. 62,a). In this case,
5

the temperature of the filament is raised by turning the ring of the

rheostat;
2) The filament of the photometric bulb may appear to be bright­
er than the heated body (Fig. 62,6). In this case, it is necessary to
lower the temperature of the filament in the opposite direction;

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 62. Three possible cases when measuring tempera­
tures with an optical pyrometer

3) The brightness of the incandescent filament and of the heated

body may coincide (Fig. 62,c). This indicates that the temperature
of the heated body is equal to that of the filament of the incandes­
cent bulb. When this coincidence is attained, the observer reads
the temperature of the heated body from the scale.
 Control and Measuring Instruments 93

Optical pyrometers are portable instruments and are employed

only for brief temperature measurements. For the constant measur­
ing of furnace temperatures stationary instruments, known as ther­
moelectrical pyrometers (thermocouples), are employed. They are
used for measuring temperatures from 200° to 1,300°C. The operation
of a thermocouple is based on the following phenomenon: if we
solder two wires of dissimilar metals at one end and apply heat to
the junction, an electric current will be generated. The higher the
temperature of the healed (hot) junction, the stronger the current
will be. The free ends of the joined wires are connected by leads to a

Fig. 63. Thermoelectrical pyrometer (thermocouple)

galvanometer. The electric current generated at the hot junction flows

through the connecting wires to the galvanometer, which indicates
the measured temperature by the deflection of a needle on its scale.
The choice of the metals and alloys used for making thermocouples
will depend on the range of temperatures to be measured. The most
commonly used thermocouples for the continuous measurement of
high temperatures in forge furnaces consist of platinum and plati­
num-rhodium (an alloy of platinum and rhodium) wires.
Fig. G3 illustrates a platinum platinum-rhodium thermocouple.
It consists of a thin-walled porcelain protection tube 1 in which
is placed a platinum wire 4. The second (platinum-rhodium) wire 3
runs along the outside of this tube. The wires are thus prevented
from contacting each other along their entire length. The wires
are welded together at point 2 (the hot junction). Both wires, together
with their hot junction, are enclosed in a second porcelain tube
of greater diameter, closed at one end. This second tube is protected
by heat-resistant alloy tube 6. The ends of the wires are led through
the head of the tube to terminals 5 and connected to the wires lead­
ing to the galvanometer.
Two types of galvanometers are available: indicating and record­
ing. Recording galvanometers, in addition to indicating tempera­
tures at any given time, also record the temperature fluctuations
94 Heating Devices

for definite time periods, thus enabling the operation of the furnace
to be checked.
Fig. 64 gives the installation diagram of a thermocouple for meas­
uring the temperature of the working chamber of a furnace. The
hot junction of thermocouple 1 is installed in the furnace at the place
where it is required to measure the temperature.
Determination of Masout and Gas Consumption. The consump­
tion of masout can be measured by measuring tanks. This is the easi­
est method, but it is clumsy and inaccurate. More frequently oil
flow gauges are employed for measuring the consumption of4masout.

Fig. 64. Scheme of installation of thermocouple:

l — thermocouple; 2—tube; 3—coupling; 4 — wires; 6 —galvanomete

Oil flow gauges operate on the principle of causing the liquid'masout

to fill a drum of definite volume, from which it then flows. The
number of drums filled is recorded by a special counter, and this
indicates the amount of liquid which has flowed through the instru­
ment.
In addition to the above-mentioned instrument, so-called flow­
meters are employed for measuring the consumption of masout.
They operate as follows: the masout, flowing through this instru­
ment, rotates a small wheol with vanes; the axis of this wheel is,
through a system of gears, connected to a counter, the scale of which
indicates the consumption of masout. These instruments are installed
in the pipes through which the masout is delivered and measure
its flow. The consumption of gas is also measured by instruments
indicating the consumption in units of volume (cubic metres).
Automatic Control. Automatic temperature controllers are em­
ployed for maintaining constant preset temperatures in heating fur­
naces. They automatically control the proportion of air and fuel
to correspond with a preset temperature, thereby ensuring more
reliable conditions for the combustion process than manual regu­
lation.
 Furnace Operation and Maintenance 95

Fuel consumption thermoregulators operate as follows: thermo-

coupled, as we already know, generate electric current on being
heated. The current generated by the thermocouple of a fuel consump­
tion thermoregulator drives a servomotor, which adjusts the posi­
tion of a throttle valve installed in the fuel delivery pipeline. When
the temperature in the working chamber of the furnace rises above
the permissible, the servomotor slightly closes the valve, thus re­
ducing the amount of fuel being delivered; similarly, when the tem­
perature falls, the servomotor slightly opens the throttle valve,
thus increasing the fuel delivery.
The air delivery is regulated by a similar throttle valve installed
inside the air line and connected with that in the fuel line. Both
valves are adjusted so that, on turning the throttle, the cross-sec­
tion of the pipes is proportionally changed, the ratio of the fuel to
the air being delivered remaining constant.

FURNACE OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Newly built furnaces or furnaces which have been overhauled must

always be carefully and thoroughly dried before being healed up.
The drying process consists of air-drying, drying with a wood fire
and heating up to working temperature. For air-drying, all the doors
and dampers of the furnace must be opened; this enables the mois­
ture of the furnace brickwork to evaporate partially which is facili­
tated by the circulation of air. The duration of the air-drying process
depends on the furnace dimensions, condition of the masonry and
the weather.
After air-drying, the furnace must be dried with a wood fire.
Before proceeding to this operation, all dampers and valves of the
gas and air lines must be closed and, if the furnace is masout-fired
the masout line must be disconnected. In gas- or liquid-fired fur­
naces, a wood fire is lit in the working chamber; in coal-fired fur­
naces—in the fire-box. In this case the doors and dampers are left
open.
To obtain a better draught in the chimney, a fire must be lit at
the chimney base before lighting the wood fires in the working cham­
ber or fire-box. The fire is gradually made up and, towards the com­
pletion of this drying operation, the tem perature'in the working
chamber of the furnace should be about 600°C.
After the furnace has been dried with a wood fire it can be heated
up with the fuel on which it is to operate. The time required to
bring the furnace to its working temperature, i. e., 1,300°C will depend
on its dimensions. Half way through the heating-up period, when
the furnace has reached a sufficient temperature, it is charged with
the metal to be heated. During the heating-up process, the roof
 96 Heating Devices

must be constantly watched. The tie-bolts should be loosened to

prevent the roof from bulging. Particular care must be taken when
heating furnaces with roofs made of dinas brick, as dinas expands
considerably on being heated. Thermocouples should be installed
in several places of the furnace to control the drying temperature.
The difference between firing furnaces after short periods of clos­
ing down (rest days) and heating them up after repairs consists
in the fact that in the former case the furnace is generally loaded
with steel and, moreover, the furnace heats up quicker than after
long shut-downs (after repairs).
Furnaces must always be heated up with a wood fire, no matter
what fuel is employed for their operation; if the furnace is coal-
fired, the fire must be laid in the fire-box; if it is gas-or masout-fired
the fire must be laid in its working chamber, the masout or gas
being turned on only after the temperature in the furnace has
reached about 600°C. The speed of heating up the furnace should not
exceed the permissible rate of heating the steel in the furnace.
Feeding the Fire-Box with Fuel. Feed the fire-box with small
portions of coal (6-8 shovelfulls at a time); this will ensure uni­
form burning of the coal. Large lumps must be broken up into small
pieces from 30 to 50 mm in size. The coal should cover the grate in
an even layer; be careful to add each fresh portion of coal first of all
to those places where the coal has burnt through. The thickness of
the layers of coal will depend on the grade used and the design of
the grate. In a semi-gas fire-box, the layer of coal should be at least
400 mm thick. If the fire-box has more than one stoke hole, and the
furnace has several fire-boxes, the coal should be charged to each
fire-box in turn, and not simultaneously.
To prevent the flame from bursting through the stoke holes of the
fire-box, the primary air supply should be slightly closed down
and the supply of secondary air increased each time fresh fuel is
added. The coal should be spread over a bed of slag about 20-40 mm
thick
Stoking. Only the upper layer of the fuel should be stoked; in
this way the fresh fuel will not be mixed with fuel which has par­
tially burnt through. Parts of the grate choked up with slag must
be cleaned with the aid of a poker. The frequency of stoking opera­
tions will depend on the quality of the fuel but, as a rule, never start
stoking immediately after adding the fuel.
Gleaning the Fire-Box. Depending on the intensivity of the operix-
tion of the furnace and the quality of the fuel, the fire-box can be
cleaned once every shift or twice every 24 hours. If the furnace has
two fire-boxes, they must be cleaned in turn.
Fire-boxes should be cleaned in the following manner: 1) half an
hoot before commencing cleaning operations, allow the coal in the
 Furnace Operation and Maintenance 97

fire-box to burn out completely without adding any more coal;

2) before cleaning, close the air supply and open the ashpit; 3) do
not rake out all the embers from the fire-box but rake them into a '
heap in one half of the grate, clean out the slag and ashes, spread the
embers over the cleaned half of the grate and remove the ashes and
slag from the other half, after which spread the embers over the
entire grate; 4) thoroughly clean out the ashes from the ashpit; 5) cer­
tain coals, on burning, form layers of slag on the fire-box walls;
this slag should bo broken up with a bar and removed; (5) after clean­
ing and making sure that the fire-bars are in good condition, cover
them with fresh coal, turn on the blast and proceed with the opera­
tion of the furnace.
Regulating the Operation of the Fire-Box. One of the main duties
of the fireman is to keep a watch on the air supply. In all cases,
whether the furnace is working at an intensive or slow rate, the
volume of the air supply must conform strictly to the amount of
fuel being burnt, so as to avoid excessive surplus or insufficiency
of air.
When operating a semi-gas fuel Pre-box, the fireman has to look
after and regulate the ratio of the primary and secondary air sup­
plies. This must be done in accordance with the heating conditions
and the intensity of the furnace operation. In addition, he must:
1 ) see that the fire-box doors are tightly closed, to prevent the flames
from bursting out and cold air from being drawn in; 2 ) attend to
the grate, prevent fuel from turning through and slag from clog­
ging the grate; 3) see that the air dampers, valves and sliding doors
are in good condition.
The maintenance of masout- and gas-fired furnaces includes the
following operations: checking the atomisers or burners before start­
ing them up. It is most important that they be properly centred
in the furnace holes. The pressure of the gas in the pipe system must
always be positive. All cocks, valves or dampers of the atomisers
must be tightly closed. Before starting gas burners, all air must
be expelled from the gas pipes.
Before starting up a furnace, it is highly important to blow out
the gas line, as even the slightest trace of air in it may lead to the
formation of an explosive mixture of gas and air, which,when the
furnace is started, may cause pops and oven explosions, and thus
destroy the gas line. Gas lines must be blown out with steam and then
with gas. Before lighting the burners or atomisers, the gas damper
and the furnace charging doors must always be opened to allow any
accumulated gases to escape from the furnace and also to weaken
their action should they “pop”.
Shutting-down a Furnace. In forging shops, furnaces are shut
down either because of break-downs of hammers or presses, or on
98 Heating Devices

rest-days and holidays, when the shops are closed. All shut-downs
may be classified as:
- 1) Short shut-downs, lasting up to 2 hours; the chief task of the fur­
nace operators in these cases is to maintain the existing temperature
of the metal in the furnace and to prevent it from being over-heated
or cooled. For this purpose, the supply of fresh fuel is reduced, all
charging openings, sliding doors and valves are tightly shut, and the
damper is slightly opened so as to reduce the suction of air;
2) Long shut-downs (from 2 to 8 hours). During these shut-down
periods the supply of fuel to the furnace must be completely shut
off, the damper closed, all charging openings and sliding doors
tightly closed, and all slots, cracks, etc., closed with clay wherever
possible;
3) Very long shut-downs (more than 8 hours). In these cases the
metal is removed from the furnace and the working chamber and
the fire-box of the furnace thoroughly cleaned; all dampers are
closed and the supplyt of fuel is shut off.

FORGE FURNACE OPERATION SAFETY. ENGINEERING

Forge furnace operators must observe all safety engineering

rules. Before being allowed to operate a furnace, workers must be
thoroughly instructed in these rules. Moreover, furnace maintenance
instructions based on safety engineering rules must be hung in a
visible place near the furnace.
The furnace maintenance instructions and safety rules depend
to a considerable degree on the furnace design and the fuel on
which it operates. Gas-fired furnaces demand special attention,
as this fuel contains poisonous gases (carbon monoxide, hydrogen
sulphide, etc). Moreover, gas and air always form explosive mix­
tures.
However, there are certain general safety rules for operating forge
furnaces, which, depending on the furnace design and local condi­
tions of operation, need to be specified to a greater degree. They are:
1. All moving mechanisms (pushers, etc.) must be properly
guarded.
2. The furnace must be equipped with screens, water-cooled
frames and sliding doors, water screens, etc., to protect personnel from
flames and heat radiation from the charging openings and fire­
boxes.
3. Exhaust hoods must be installed over the furnace for collect­
ing and discharging any products of combustion escaping from
the charging openings.
4. To improve working conditions furnaces must be equipped with
air showers. -
 Forge Furnace Operation Safety Engineering 99

5. All gas pipes must be leak-proof, so as to prevent the possibil­

ity of gas-poisoning during the operation of gas-fired furnaces. All
joints must be welded. Flanged joints on gas lines may be permit­
ted only for connecting valves; tarred asbestos cord gaskets must
be inserted between the flanges of each flanged joint; and all gas
lines must be periodically checked for leaks, all places which arouse
suspicion being carefully checked with a soap solution which, in
the case of leaks, will form soap bubbles. The welding of working
gas lines must be executed according to special instructions, one
of the obligatory conditions of which must be a positive pressure in
the gas line.
6 . Before lighting burners or atomisers, all charging openings,
sliding doors and dampers must be opened and the furnace
thoroughly aired. Otherwise, after the furnace is shut down gas or
masout may leak through the burners into the furnace where, on
mixing with the air, it will form an explosive mixture and thus
create the danger of an explosion when the burners or atomisers are lit.
7. Burners or atomisers must always be lit with a torch attached
to a long rod. When doing so, the worker must always stand to one
side of the burner or atomiser, so as not to be injured should the
flame escape.
8 . No persons should be allowed to stand opposile the charging
openings when the burners are being lit, owing to the danger of
flames escaping.
9. Burners must be lit as follows: a) a burning torch is first
applied with the aid of a long rod to the nozzle of the burner; b) only a
small amount of gas is first supplied to the burner and, after it has
been ignited, the volume of gas is gradually increased until it burns
with a stable flame; c) air is added gradually, adjusting the propor­
tion of gas and air until complete combustion of the gas is attained.
10. If, for any reason, the burner dies out on being lit, first the
gas and then the air supply should be immediately cut off. Then,
after the furnace has been aired the burner may again be lit.
11. On shutting a furnace down, the gas supply should be cut off
before the air supply.
12. Should a break-down occur in the air supply during the oper­
ation of the furnace the gas or masout supply should be immedi­
ately cut off. Masout-fired furnaces are less liable to explosions than
gas-fired furnaces; however, if the masout is delivered into a hot
furnace before the air is turned on, it will evaporate, and masout
vapours, on mixing with the air in the hot furnace, will form an
explosive mixture.
13. The following rules must be observed when igniting atomisers:
a) The wood stacked in front of the atomiser should be ignited
with a torch and allowed to burn for 10-20 minutes; in the absence
100 Heating Devices

of a wood fire, a piece of hot metal should be placed in front of the

atomiser;
b) Open up the air supply, after which the masout supply to the
atomiser should be turned on, gradually increasing the air and then
the masout until the flame is normal. If the furnace is equipped
with several atomisers, they must be started up one after another;
c) In furnaces equipped with top and bottom burners or atom­
isers, the bottom rows must be ignited first, the top rows being
ignited only after the temperature in the furnace has reached
600-650°C.
14. Never cool hot furnace hearths at high temperatures (1,000-
1,200°C) with a stream of water, as this may result in severe burns
to the furnace operators.
15. It is strictly forbidden to walk on the roofs of furnaces in
operation. Should it be necessary to inspect a roof, or make repairs
to a hot roof, the roof of the hot furnace should first be covered with
planks, over which it is permitted to walk.
16. Never attempt to extinguish burning masout with water, as
this may lead to a fire. Burning masout must be extinguished only
with dry sand.
 CHAPTER V

HEATING STEEL FOR FORGING

THE IMPORTANCE OF HEATING STEEL IN FORGING PRACTICE

If a piece of steel is heated, it becomes softer and its tensile strength

is reduced, and, at the same time, its plasticity, and, consequently,
its malleability, are increased.
As a result of improper heating practices and insufficient furnace
productivity, a considerable loss of efficiency of forging units can
still be observed in a number of forging plants, because of the time
lost in waiting for the steel to reach the required temperature. More­
over, this so-called heating waiting time is sometimes included
in the time specified for producing the forging. But innovators in
industry have proved that, by improving the organisation of fur­
nace operations, the time lost by forging units—the so-called “hot-
metal waiting time”—can be completely eliminated.
As a rule, the productivity of a furnace should be from 15 to 20
per cent greater than that of the forging unit with which it operates,
so as to be able to “speed up” the latter.
Heating the metal is one of the main operations in forging prac­
tice and is considered as being of equal importance with the forg­
ing operation itself. Proper heating and forging result in the lighten­
ing of the work of blacksmiths and forge hammer operators and
ensure high efficiency of the forging installations. At the same time,
power (steam, compressed air and electricity) and fuel can be econom-
isedy ensuring high quality of the forgings and reducing their
cost.

CHANGES IN THE PROPERTIES OF METALS ON HEATING

Apart from the structural transformations which occur in metals

on heating, their mechanical and physical properties also change.
The chief object of heating a metal is to give it the required mechan­
ical properties.
The plasticity of steel does not increase uniformly on heating.
The plasticity of low-carbon, medium-carbon, low-alloy and medium-
alloy steels falls when they are heated from 200° to 400°C, and that
102 Heating Steel for Forging

of high-alloy steels on heating to 700-850°C. But, if heated above

600-750°C, the plasticity of steel, depending on its grade, greatly
increases. At temperatures above 600-850°C (depending on the
grade of steel) the plasticity of steel becomes so great that internal
stresses and cracks do not occur.
The most important physical property of steel as concerns the
heating process is its thermal conductivity. The thermal conductiv­
ity of a substance is its ability to conduct heat from a part at a
high temperature to a part at a lower temperature. The higher the
thermal conductivity of a substance, the greater will be the amount
of heat which will penetrate from its surface to its core in a unit of
time (hour) and, therefore, the less time will he required for heating
it. The value of thermal conductivity is expressed by means of coef­
ficient of thermal conductivity.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of any substance is that
amount of heat, in calories, which it can transmit per hour through
a unit thickness (1 metre) across a unit area (1 sq. metre) for a unit
difference of temperature (1°C). It is expressed as large calories
per metre per hour (Gal/m/hr°G) and is indicated by the Greek letter
X. Thus, if we say that the coefficient of thermal conductivity of
steel is 36 Gal/m/hr°C, we mean that 36 large calories of heat will
be transferred per hour through a plate of steel 1 metre thick and
1 sq. metre in area for every 1 degree of difference in temperature
between its sides.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity is determined by exper­
iment for each substance, and varies greatly for different materials
and grades of steel. Thus, the thermal conductivity \ of pure iron
is 60 Gal/m/hr°C, while that of grade 30 steel, is 38.2 Gal/m/hr°C.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of steel depends on its chem­
ical composition, temperature and the treatment which it has
undergone. The fewer alloying elements there are in the steel,
the greater will be its thermal conductivity; its thermal conductiv­
ity falls with an increase in its carbon content. Moreover, the
thermal conductivity of alloy steels is less than that of carbon
steels.
The thermal conductivity of steel also changes with its tempera­
ture. Experiments have shown that, with a rise in temperature up
to 800-850 °C, the coefficient of thermal conductivity of ordinary
carbon steels falls. Above 850°C, the coefficient of thermal conduc­
tivity of ordinary carbon steels increases slightly. The thermal
conductivity of alloy and special steels changes during their heating
depending on the alloying elements and their content in the steel.
Investigations have established that the thermal conductivity of
high-alloy chrome-nickel steels increases with an increase in temper­
ature.
 Oxidation and Decarburisation of Steel 103

The method of working the metal also influences the thermal con­
ductivity. Forging, rolling and, in general, all kinds of pressure
working of steel increase its thermal conductivity. The thermal
conductivity of cast steel is less than that of forged or rolled steel.

OXIDATION AND DECARBURISATION OF STEEL

On being heated in a furnace, the surface of steel, like that of any

other metal, becomes covered with a layer of oxides, called scale.
As the steel becomes hotter, the thickness of the layer of scale
increases, until it begins to fall away to combine with the material
of the hearth (if the latter is lined with fire-clay brick); this leads
to the formation of so-called slag deposit. Part of the scale sticks
to the surface of the steel. During the forging process, the oxidation
of the steel continues, as the red hot steel is subjected to the action
of the surrounding air.
Heating thus leads to a certain loss of metal, or the formation of
scale due to oxidation of the metal. This loss is called waste, and it
is necessary to distinguish between waste due to heating (furnace
waste) and waste during forging (forging waste). There exists the
widespread opinion that waste occurs mainly during the heating
process in the furnace, and that forging waste is insignificant. But
investigations have established that the loss of metal due to scale
forming outside the furnace is considerable and in some cases is
greater than furnace waste.
Waste results in considerable losses in production and leads to a
considerable loss of steel together with the scale. During the pro­
duction of forgings up to 3 per cent and more of steel is lost as scale
during one heat; but this is by no means all the losses caused by
waste. The scale remaining on the surface of the stock is pressed
into the metal when it is forged, thereby lowering the quality of
the surface of the work and reducing its tensile strength. During
stamping the scale, falling into the die impressions, alters the
dimensions of the forging and reduces the life of the die itself.
It is impossible to avoid waste when heating steel in flame forge
furnaces; however, those heating conditions should always be sought
which ensure the formation of a minimum amount of scale and, more­
over, of a scale which can easily be detached from the surface of
the stock without being forged into the steel. For this reason black­
smiths must understand the essence of the scale formation process,
and must know how to prevent the loss of metal.
Iron .commences to oxidise on its surface, and the process of oxi­
dation gradually penetrates from the surface to the interior. The
development of this process inside the stock can take place in the
following manner:
104 Heating Steel for Forging

1. The oxidising gas (0 2, H 20, C 0 2 and others) penetrates, or, as

it is called, diffuses into the metal from the surface layer of scale
into the iron; simultaneously, a similar diffusion of iron (Fe) takes
place in the opposite direction. This process is accompanied by the
following chemical reactions:
Fe + — 0 2 = FeO
Fc + H20 = FeO-|-H2, etc.
2. Due to the different coefficients of expansion of scale (FeO)
and iron (Fe), part of the scale falls awray from the surface of the
stock, and the new uncovered surface of iron is subjected to fur­
ther oxidation.
3. At high temperatures the scale fuses and exposes the unoxi­
dised iron of the stock, wrhich in this wTay continues to oxidise. Due
to its high temperature ■the iron becomes oxidised fairly rapidly.
The speed with which scale forms and its amount depend on the
following factors: a) the temperature of the steel; b) the duration of
the heating; c) the gas medium in which heating takes place; d) the
composition and properties of the steel being heated; e) the shape
and dimensions of the steel being heated.
The loss of steel increases with its temperature. Investigations
have established that, if the speed of oxidation at 900°G is taken as
unity, its speed at 950°C will be 1.25; at 1,000°G—2; at 1,100°C—3.5
and, at 1,300°C—7. The scale formation (oxidation) speed increases
particularly sharply at 1,350-1,375°G, as at this temperature the
scale begins to fuse.
The duration of heating the steel in Lhe furnace also influences
the amount of loss. The longer the steel remains in the furnace (at
high temperatures and under other equal conditions), the greater
the loss. Hence, it can be concluded that, in order to reduce losses
of steel, it should be held at high temperature as little as possible.
The furnace atmosphere is another important factor which deter­
mines the amount of loss of steel. According to their actiou on steel,
gases are classified as. oxydising, reducing and neutral gases. Oxi­
dising gases include: oxygen (0 2); carbon dioxide (C02), water
vapour, or steam (H 20) and sulphur dioxide (S 02); reducing gases
include: carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2), while nitrogen
(N2) is a neutral gas.
To a certain extent the influence of the furnace atmosphere on
the steel depends on the proportion of oxidising and reducing
gases. As we know, the products of combustion include: C 02, H 20 ,
N2, 0 2 and, sometimes, CO. The oxygen content of the products
of combustion depends on the coefficient of surplus air employed for
burning the fuel, while the GO content depends on the degree of
 Oxidation and Decarburisation of Steel 105

incomplete combustion. As a rule, furnace gases are nearly always

oxidising. In the working chamber of the furnace the products of
combustion cannot form a neutral atmosphere, still less a reducing
atmosphere. For the atmosphere in the working chamber to be neu­
tral or reducing, the products of combustion should have a high con­
tent of reducing gases—hydrogen and carbon monoxide, wThich, when
burning fuel in heating furnaces, is impermissible.
The formation of scale depends to a large degree on the composi­
tion of the steel. Aluminium, chromium, silicon, tungsten and cop­
per in steel retard the oxidation of its surface, as, on being heated,
the scale forms a dense layer which firmly adheres to the surface
of the steel and thus protects it from further oxidation. All grades
of alloy steel (all other conditions being equal) are less liable to
oxidation than carbon steels.
Consequently, the following conditions should be observed, in
order to reduce the loss of metal as waste entailed when heating steel
in forge furnaces:
1. Heating conditions should provide for the steel to remain as
little time as possible in the furnace at high temperatures (above
900-1,000 °C), at which maximum oxidation takes place. In this
case the furnace will operate at high heating rates, and the loss of
steel due to waste will be reduced. Thus, all the conditions neces­
sary for high furnace productivity will lead simultaneously to a
reduction in the loss of steel.
2. Ingots must be charged into and discharged from the furnace at
uniform rates and continuously, without being held unduly long in
the high-temperature zones. The best method is that of charging
one piece of stock into the furnace simultaneously with the discharge
of a previously heated piece.
3. The combustion process should be conducted so as to ensure
the minimum possible free oxygen content in the products of com­
bustion. Combustion must take place with a minimum surplus of
air; at the same time, complete combustion must be ensured.
4. The furnace must be well packed and, at the same time, in
order to avoid the suction of air, a slight positive pressure must
be maintained on the furnace hearth.
5. The hearth of the furnace must be lined with basic materials,
i. e., magnesia, chrome-magnesia and talc bricks.
This will exclude all possibility of the formation of low-tempera­
ture fusing compounds of scale with the hearth lining and the for­
mation of fusable slag; the furnace will operate with what is called
a “dry” hearth.
At high temperatures the oxidation of the steel is accompanied
by its decarburisation. The decarburisation process consists in the
reduction of the carbon content at the surface of the metal—the
 106 Heating Steel for Forging

carbon burns away. Decarburisation reduces the mechanical proper­

ties of steel. When decarburised, tool steel becomes soft, and tools
manufactured from such steels have a short life. Experiments have
shown that steel, on being heated, is first decarburised and then
begins to oxidise, i. e., the decarburised layer of the steel is always
to be found below the layer of scale. The degree of decarburisation
increases with the temperature of the steel.
Decarburisation also ,depends on the chemical composition of the
steel. The greater the carbon content, the higher the degree of decar­
burisation of the steel. Aluminium greatly promotes decarburisa­
tion, as does chromium, whereas manganese retards it. Silicon,
nickel and tungsten have no effect on decarburisation.

OVERHEATING AND BURNING OF STEEL

If steel is heated beyond the upper critical point Ac,, and its tem­
perature raised still further, a growth in the size of its grains can be
observed under a microscope. The higher the temperature, the more
energetic will be the growth of the grains, and, the longer the process
of heating the steel to a given temperature the coarser the grains
will be. Steel with excessively coarse grains is called overheated steel.
When forged, overheated steel will tear and crack, especially at
the corners of an ingot or piece of stock, and its fracture will have
an extremely coarse structure which can be seen with the naked eye.
Overheating depends on two factors: the temperature and duration
of the heating of the steel.
From the practical experience of forge furnace operation, it is
well known that if an ingot or piece of steel is held in a furnace at
high temperatures (for instance, in the soaking section of a contin­
uous furnace) longer than usual, such an ingot or piece of steel will,
on forging, display tears due to overheating. On the other hand,
ingots held for a shorter time at the same temperature will forge
quite normally.
Thus steel can be overheated at any temperature above the upper
critical point Ac,, the degree of overheating at any given tempera­
ture depending on how long the steel is held at this temperature.
Overheated steel can be improved by subsequent annealing,
i. e., by slow heating to a temperature 10-30 °C above the critical
point Ac, and subsequent slow cooling.
If a heated piece of steel is allowed to remain for a considerable
time in the furnace at a high temperature, it will be burnt. Burn-
ing of steel is due to the oxygen of the furnace gases penetrating
from the surface of the steel to its interior, oxidising the grain
boundaries with the consequent fusing of the substances formed
between the coarse grains. As a result, thin films are formed
 Forging Temperature Intervals 107

between the grains of the steel, contact between the grains is broken
and the steel becomes weak; large cracks appear on the surface of
the work, which breaks into pieces. Any further heating will lead
to the fusing or destruction of separate sections of the work.
Burning depends chiefly on the heating temperature, the com­
position of the furnace gases, and the duration of heating the steel at
high temperatures. Burnt steel cannot be rectified; such stock is
usually rejected as scrap and the remaining metal can only be uti­
lised as scrap for open-hearth furnaces.
To avoid burning, the following main conditions must be
observed when heating steel:
1. The fuel should be burnt with the least coefficient of surplus
air so as to ensure the absence of free oxygen in the furnace gases.
2. The stock should not be loaded on to the hearth in piles, but
in such a manner so as to ensure the circulation of the furnace gases
completely around it, without the flame of the burners or atomisers
impinging directly on the surface of the stock being heated.
3. The furnace should be loaded with just enough steel to ensure
the forging of one piece of stock while the next piece is being brought
up to forging temperature in the furnace. The furnace should be
charged by the “single piece” method, i. e., one or two pieces of
stock are charged into the furnace simultaneously with the unload­
ing of the same amount of stock. This will ensure the steel being
held at high temperatures for just that amount of time necessary
to bring it to a uniform required temperature. This, in turn, will
ensure that overheating and burning of the steel are avoided.

FORGING TEMPERATURE INTERVALS

The difference between the initial and final forging temperatures

is called the forging temperature interval.
For forging, metal must be heated to a temperature at which it
will possess high plastic properties both at the beginning and the
end of the forging process. Hence it follows that it is better to heat
metal to higher temperatures, inasmuch as its plasticity (forge­
ability, or malleability) increases with the temperature. On the
other hand, the danger of overheating limits the possibilities of
increasing the heating temperature. In order to avoid burning, the
temperature to which the metal is heated should be 180-200 °G
below that at which burning sets in.
Steel, heated to 1,100-1,280°C (depending on its grade), becomes
coarse-grained in structure. During forging, however, its grains are
broken up and become finer. If the final forging temperature is
high (above 900°), the grains will grow again during the process
of cooling in the air; the cold forging will then have a coarse-grained
108 Heating Steel for Forging

structure and low mechanical properties. If forging is finished at

low temperatures (below 900 °C), the grains will not grow when
the steel is cooled owing to the low temperature. The cooled forging
will then possess a fine-grained structure and high mechanical
properties.
Thus, if the forging of a piece of steel is finished within a temper­
ature interval of 900-700°G, depending on its grade, the forging
will possess a fine-grained structure and, on the other hand, the higher
the final forging temperature, the coarser the grain in the forging.
In order to ensure good-quality forgings, the forging process must
be completed at a definite temperature established for each differ­
ent grade of steel. Forging at temperatures below the established
temperature (900-700°C) is not recommended as in this case the
grain, instead of being broken up, will only be compressed (de­
formed), the steel will become cold hardened, as it is called, hard and
brittle and as a result liable to cracks. Cold hardening can be elim­
inated by annealing, but cracks cannot always be eliminated and
the forging may have to be rejected as spoilage.
From the foregoing, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Before forging, steel must be heated to the highest possible tem­
perature which, in all cases, must be lower than that at which burn­
ing sets in. The burning temperature must be determined for each
grade of steel by holding specimens for various time intervals at each
temperature being tested. After determining the burning temper­
ature for each grade of steel, the maximum heating temperature
for forging can be determined; this temperature must be 180-200°C
below the burning temperature.
2. Forging must be completed at a temperature at which further
growth of the grain will not take place. This temperature is deter-
T abl e 5
Forging Temperature Intervals for Various Grades of Steel

Maximum Final forging

heating temperature, °C
tempera-
ture, °C
Grade of steel (initial
forging For pre- For finish­
para lory
tempera­ operations ing
ture) operations

Ct . 2, Or. 3, 10, 15, 2 5 .................................... 1280 800 700

Ct . 5, Ct . 6, Ct . 7 , 40, 45, 50, 55, 15X, 20X,
35X, 40X, 30H, 40H, 40CX, 45X, 25XCMA,
3 0 X I I 3 M ........................................................... 1220 800 700
18XHBA, 18XHMA, 5XHM, 5XTM, 6XHM,
45XH ............................................................... 1200 800 700
y7, y8, yio, 7X3, 9X, 9 X 2 ........................... 1150 850 800
 The Process of Heating Steel in Furnaces 109

mined by experiment and is indicated in the technological (proc­

essing) sheet.
3. The temperature forging interval of certain widely used grades
of steel ranges from 700° to 1,280°C. Table 5 gives the approxi­
mate forging temperature intervals for various grades of steel.

THE PROCESS OF HEATING STEEL IN FURNACES

Properly heating steel for forging presupposes:

a) Heating it to the required temperature uniformly throughout
its entire cross-section;
b) Heating the steol at the maximum permissible rate without
impairing its quality;
c) Heating the steel with the least possible loss of metal and with
the minimum consumption of fuel.
In flame furnaces heat is transferred to the surface of the metal
in two ways—by convection and radiation. By convrclion is under­
stood the transfer of heat hy the direct contact of continuously mov­
ing particles of furnace gases with the surface of the object being
heated. As a result of this, the hotter particles of the furnace gases
give up their heat to the colder surface of stock being heated.
By radiation is understood the transfer of heat through space from
one body to another body at a lower temperature, the heat in this
case being transferred as radiant energy which, falling on the surface
of the second body, is completely or partially converted into heat.
In forge furnace steel is heated simultaneously both by convec­
tion and by radiation. Up to 600°G heating proceeds mainly by
convection, only an insignificant amount of heat being transferred
by radiation. At temperatures above t>00°C, however, heat is trans­
ferred to the si eel mainly by radiation, and not by convection.
The greater the difference between the temperature of the steel
being heated and that of the furnace gases, hearth, roof and walls
of the furnace, the more rapid will be the transfer of the heat to the
steel. The heat transferred to the metal by radiation and convec­
tion is absorbed by the surface of the stock or ingot. The further
diffusion of heat inside the stock or ingot takes place as a result of
the thermal conductivity of the steel.
As we know, the thermal conductivity of steels varies with their
chemical composition. The more alloying elements in the steel,
the poorer its thermal conductivity is. Inasmuch as thermal conduct­
ivity indicates the speed of the transfer of heat from the surface
to the interior of the heated steel or ingot, it follows that low-car­
bon (mild) steels will reach a uniform temperaturo throughout
their cross-section more quickly than alloy steels. The heating pro­
cess in thick pieces of steel is different to that in thin pieces. The
110 Heating Steel for Forging

temperature is not distributed uniformly throughout the cross-

section of heavy pieces of steel or ingots; the temperature at the
centre is lower than that at the surface; moreover, the lower the
thermal conductivity of the steel, the greater will he the difference
between the temperature at the centre of the ingot or of the stock
and at its surface. The more rapid the rate of heating and the larger
the cross-section of the steel, the greater will be the difference
between the furnace temperature and that of the surface of the ingot
being heated.
This uneven distribution of temperature throughout the cross-
section of an ingot or piece of stock gives rise to what are called
thermal stresses. Thermal stresses are due to the fact that the outer
layers of the steel, being at a higher temperature than its central
portions, expand in volume to a greater extent than the latter. As a
result, the outer layers of the metal of the ingot or stock strive,
as it were, to separate themselves from the inner, cooler layers, which
retard the expansion of the outer layer (surface) of the steel. Con­
sequently, if an ingot is not uniformly heated throughout its cross-
section, compression stresses will occur at the surface and tensile
stresses in the centre; and it is these stresses which give rise to cracks
during heating.
The process of heating stock or ingots can be divided into two
periods: the first period—that of heating in the low-temperature zone—
up to 500-700°C, and the second period—of heating in the high-
temperature, or forging zone. The first heating period is very impor­
tant as at comparatively low temperatures the plasticity of carbon
and ordinary alloy steels, and the thermal conductivity}of high-
alloy steels are low. Large ingots or heavy stock, particularly of
high-alloy steel, should be heated with extreme caution to avoid
the formation of thermal stresses which may lead to cracks. For
this reason, the heating should be effected as slowly as possible,
and the furnace charging temperature of cold ingots, particularly
of alloy-steel ingots, should not exceed 600-800°C. Stock of mild
carbon steels and thin pieces of alloy steel (up to 100 mm thick)
may be charged into furnaces heated up to the forging temperature.
The second heating period—that of heating in the high-tempera­
ture zone—is characterised by the high-heating rates. At tempera­
tures above 500-700°C, carbon steels possess a good degree of plas­
ticity and therefore the internal thermal stresses which arise during
the heating of such steel cannot give rise to cracks in the ingot
or stock. During the second heating period, care must be taken
to avoid burning the steel. For this purpose, the temperature of the
furnace gases in box-type furnaces, in which steels are heated to
high temperatures, must never be more than 100-150°C above the
required temperature of the steel.
 How to Determine the Duration of Heating Steel 111

H@W TO DETERMINE THE DURATION OF HEATING STEEL

By the duration of the heating is understood the time necessary

for uniformly heating an ingot or piece of stock to a definite temper­
ature. There are many methods for determining the time for heat­
ing steel. The simplest formula, and one which gives values close
to actual results, is that proposed by Academician N. Dobrokhotov.
He recommends the following formula for determining the dura­
tion of heating cold ingots or pieces of stock up to 1,200°C:
z = k D V D hours,
where z— the heating time, in hours;
D —the diameter or length of opposite side of the ingot or stock,
in metres;
k—a factor, equal to 10 for carbon steels containing up to 0.4 per
cent of carbon, an d 20 —for alloy steels.
When determining the duration of heating by N. Dobrokhotov’s
formula, it must be remembered that this formula holds good only
for the case when an ingot or piece of stock is heated from all four
sides. In actual fact the position of ingots or stock on the hearth
furnace will vary; for this reason the results obtained from the above
formula must be multiplied by a factor, depending on the position
of the stock in the furnace. These factors are given in Fig. 65. The
time required for heating one piece of stock placed on the hearth
of a furnace is taken as unity. For other positions, for instance,
when round stock is loaded on the hearth of a furnace without
spaces between them, the required heating time will be doubled. To
ensure better utilisation of the furnace hearth, and to reduce the fuel
consumption when heating round stock, the latter should be loaded
onto the furnace hearth without any packing between them and the
hearth and spaced at intervals of one half the diameter of the stock.
Square and rectangular stock should be placed on packings; in this
case, the stock will be “licked” on all sides by the furnace gases;
the distance between the pieces of stock should be equal to the length
of the side of the square.
Example. Determine the heating time for a piece of alloy steel
stock 1 m in diameter. The stock is loaded on the hearth with spaces
equal to one half its diameter.
Solution. According to the formula,
z = kD VT) = 20 x 1 V T = 20 hrs.
This holds good if only one piece of stock is placed in the furnace
and is heated on all sides by the furnace gases. In our case, how­
ever, three round pieces of stock are charged into the furnace simul-
112 Heating Steel for Forging

taneously, the distance between each piece of stock being equal to

one half its diameter (see Fig. 65). In this case the correction factor
depending on the method of loading the stock on the furnace hearth,
will be 1.4. Therefore the actual heating time will be:
z = 20 x 1.4 —28 hours.
So far none of the theoretical methods of determining the dura­
tion of heating give results coinciding with data obtained in prac­
tice. The heating time usually is first of all determined by formula,

Correction Correction
$ Position of stock factor Position of stock factor
6 su

W TO \\V >\\\\

tA
\\N \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'

\V V

IA * \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\N \\\\\\n
2.2

13 2.0

2a

\\\ t.8

Fig. 65. The influence of jthe position of the stock in the furnace on the
duration of heating

and then found more exactly by practice. As a matter of fact, dif­

ferent factories make use of steel-heating tables drawn up on the
basis of the prevailing conditions and the state of their equipment*
 Heating by Electric Current 113

HEATING BY ELECTRIC CURRENT

The following two main methods of heating steel by electricity

for forging and stamping are employed: contact and induction elec­
tric heating.
Fig. 66 shows the diagram of an installation for contact electric
heating of forge stock. Stock 3 is held between contact holders 2
of a secondary low-voltage mains. The
current, flowing through the stock,
heats it to the required temperature
as the result of the conversion of elec­
tric energy into heat energy. Alter­
nating current of industrial frequency
is mainly used for contact heating.
Stock is heated by this method
uniformly throughout its entire cross-
section; along its length, however, its
B fL
temperature will vary; the tempera­
ture of the ends of the stock secured
between the contacts will be below
the required forging temperature. Con­
tact heating is employed for heating
stock from 18 to 70 ram in diameter;
it cannot be employed for heating
stock of stepped cross-section. Contact
and induction steel heating methods
are steadily displacing furnaces
in serving High-productive forging
units such as forging machines and
forge-stamping presses. Reduced heat­
03 =;
ing time cuts down losses of steel
due to scale, and results in finer grain
structure. This permits a higher tem­ Fig. 66. Wiring diagram for the
perature forging interval (deformation electric contact heating of forge
temperature interval) which, in its stock:
turn, increases the productivity of 1ding —transformer; 2 — contacts for hol­
stock; a— stock; 4 — photometer
forge units. (Instrument for measuring tempera­
The most progressive heating method ture)
in use to-day is the induction
heating method. This method results in high speeds of heating and
permits heating stock of stepped cross-section by electric current.
Fig. 67 shows an induction apparatus for heating cylindrical
stock. Stock 8 is inserted ipto the inductor along guides 4. Alternat­
ing current of high or extra-high frequency is passed through coil 1.
114 Heating Steel for Forging

As a result of electro-magnetic induction, turbulent currents are

generated inside the stock thereby heating it. For heating a piece
of stock from 30 to 80 mm in diameter, an alternating current of
2,500 cycles per second is passed through the coil; and stock up to

Fig. 67. Inductor for heating cylindrical stock:

1 — coil of copper tube; 2 — electrical insulation (niicamtc cylinder); 3 — hent
Insulation (ceramic brick); 4 — hollow heat-resistant steel cunles, 5 — asbocc-
ment plates; 6 — brass bolts; 7 — wooden beams; s — stock to be heated

150 mm in diameter is heated by an alternating current of 500-1,000

cycles per second.
The current must be of still lower frequency for heating stock of
greater diameter, when ordinary alternating current, or so-called
industrial frequency, is used.
 C H A P T E R VI

CHIEF IiAND-FORGING OPERATIONS

GENERAL INFORMATION ON BLACKSMITH’S TOOLS

Blacksmiths have to perform all kinds of forging work, for which

various tools and implements are needed. They use special tools
and fixtures for hand forging.
The Anvil. The blacksmith’s anvil is a heavy block of iron or
steel on which the metal is forged. Anvils have to be very heavy so
that hammer blows do not cause them to move. They are generally
made of steel and weigh
from 80 to 300 kilograms—
usually, 150 kg. The top of
the anvil, called the face,
must be hardened and
always smooth.
The blacksmith general­
ly judges an anvil by the
sound it gives when struck
with a hammer. If a good
anvil is struck-with a ham­
mer, the hammer will
rebound, and the anvil will
give a clear, sharp sound.
A faulty, i. e., cracked Fig. 88. Single-horn anvil
anvil will give a dull sound.
It is always easier to wofk on a good anvil than on an anvil which
sounds dull.
The anvil is usually mounted on a heavy block of wood let into
the soil, to which it is secured by spikes or clamps. Anvils should
be set up at a definite height: standing upright beside it, the black*
smith should be able to reach its face with his finger-tips.
Fig. 68 shows an anvil. Projected from one side is horn 1 which
is mainly used for bending forgings. The opposite end 4 of the anvil
is rectangular and is called the tail; it is used to bend work at right
angles. The anvil has four feet 5 at its base. These serve to secure
the anvil to its foundation 7 with the aid of straps 6 or spikes. Forg­
ing operations of all types are performed on face 2 of the anvil.
116 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

The tail of the anvil has two

holes 3—one round and one square.
The round hole is used when punch­
ing holes and the square one —
for securing various devices during
the forging operations.
Two types of anvils are em­
ployed—the single-horn anvil which,
, , , as its name implies, has only
Fig. 69. Double-horn anvil on e horn (Fig> 68) and the double­
horn anvil (Fig. 69). Single-horn
anvils are more frequently met with.
Tongs. Tongs are used for gripping and turning work during forg­
ing. They are made of carbon steel containing 0.3-0.4 per
cent of carbon. Blacksmith’s tongs consist of two bars secured by a
rivet. Each bar consists of two sections: a short one, called the jaw,
and a long one, the handle. The total length of a blacksmith’s tongs
varies from 475 mm to 650 mm, the length of their jaws being from
75 to 140 mm. Tongs are made in various designs to suit the differ­
ent. shapes and dimensions of the work being forged. If the black-

fig . 70. Blacksmith’s tongs

 General Information on Blacksmith's Tools 117

smith has no tongs of the required shape and dimensions in

stock he can always adapt one of the tongs to suit the forging to be
made. For this purpose he heats the jaws of a suitable tongs to
a cherry-red colour, and then inserts one end of the forging between
the jaws which he then hammers until they grip the work
tightly.
When performing prolonged forging operations, or when forging
heavy work, the blacksmith slips a ring, or stirrup, over the shanks
of the tongs to keep them closed, and to lighten his work. Fig. 70
shows the most commonly used types of blacksmith’s tongs.
Hand Hammers and Sledge-Hammers. In their work blacksmiths
employ hand (blacksmith’s) hammers, weighing from 0.5 to 1.5

Fig. 71. Blacksmith’s hand ham- Fig. 72. B la c k s m ith ’s sledge-ham­

mers mers

kilograms (Fig. 71). These hammers, are used for making light forg­
ings. The blacksmith also uses the hand hammer to show his striker
where to hit the forging. The handles of these hammers are made
of strong tough dry wood, for instance, birch, maple, etc. They
must be firmly attached and wedged inside the hammer head. The
length of the handle is usually from 350 to 400 mm.
Sledge-hammers (striking hammers) vary from 2 to 10 kg in weight
(Fig. 72), and are the striker’s chief tool. The striking surface of a
sledge-hammer must be slightly convex, smooth, and never lopsid­
ed. Sledge-hammer handles are made from 700 to 900 mm long;
their length is selected to suit the blacksmith’s arm and his height.
Measuring Tools. Blacksmiths employ simple measuring instru­
ments for checking forgings in the process of work (Fig. 73).
Common calipers (Fig. 73, a) are employed for checking only one
dimension of a forging. The blacksmith sets the caliper legs to the
required distance and, while working, repeatedly checks the dimen­
sions of the forging with the calipers set in this way.
Double calipers (Fig. 73, b) are employed for checking two dimen­
sions of a forging. The blacksmith sets one pair of legs to one dis­
tance required and the second pair to the second distance required;
he checks the dimensions of the forging while working with the cal­
ipers thus set.
118 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

Triple calipers (Fig. 73, c) are employed for checking three

dimensions of a forging, and are set and used in the same way as
double calipers.
Inside calipers (Fig. 73, d) are employed for checking the size
of holes and recesses in forgings.

(f) (9)

Fig. 73. Various types of measuring instruments

Gauges (Fig. 73, e) are employed for checking the thicknesses of

bars and light forgings.
Templates (Fig. 73, /) are employed for checking the accuracy
of the shape of intricate forgings. They are made by cutting a piece
of steel plate to the shape and dimensions of the required forging;
when checking forgings with a template, the latter is placed on the
forging to be checked. Fig. 73 shows two templates—one (/)for check-
 General Information on Blacksmith's Tools 119

ing the pro Tile of a lever, and a second (g) for checking the pro hie
of a bracket. Templates must be employed only for checking the
work for which they are made.
In addition to the tools mentioned above the blacksmith must
also have a folding rule, a steel straightedge and a try-square, as
well as other special [Link] tools will be described when the
various operations entailed in hand forging are dealt with.
When making forgings, the blacksmith usually employs several
measuring instruments simultaneously. For instance, suppose a
shackle is to be forged (Fig. 74). This will entail several operations
or passes as they are called. Before proceeding to the final opera­
tion the blacksmith will set his measuring instrument for checking
the dimensions of the shackle at the dimensions indicated in the draw­
ing. In this case he will use the following instruments:
1) Steel rule; he transfers the length / of the shackle (Fig. 74)
to the steel rule with the aid of his folding rule, marking it off on
the latter with a piece of chalk;
2) Triple calipers (see Fig. 73, c); he sots one pair of legs of the
calipers to dimension a, the second pair—to dimension b and the
third pair—to dimension c.
3) Inside calipers for checking dimension c (see Fig. 73, d); with
the aid of his folding rule, he sets the logs of the inside caliper to
dimension c.
In the process of forging,
the blacksmith, using these
three measuring instru­
ments, checks the dimen­
sions of the shackle by
placing the -corresponding
instrument against the
forging.
The proper care of tools
and instruments length­
ens their life, reduces the
cost of their repairs and increases the productivity of the black­
sm ith’s work. The chief rules for the maintaining of blacksmith’s
tools and instruments are: store them carefully, keep them free from
dust and dirt, check them at regular intervals and repair them if
necessary. Moreover, care must be taken to prevent the tools from
overheating, as they soften, bend, and often become unfit for fur­
ther use. They should be cooled in water as frequently as possible
during the process of work.
The head of blacksmith’s tools (i. e., the part of the tool which
is struck with a hammer as, for instance, the head of a set, punch
and similar tools) should never be hardened; otherwise heavy blows
120 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

may result in chips flying off and wounding the blacksmith. Before
commencing work, always make sure that the handles are properly
secured to hammers and sledge-hammers.

GENERAL INFORMATION ON HAND FORGING

When forging work by hand, the blacksmith grips the metal,

heated to the forging temperature in a hearth or in a small furnace,
with his tongs (which he holds in his left hand) and places it on
the anvil.
His helper or striker hits the work with his sledge-hammer at the
spot indicated by the blacksmith with the hand hammer, which he
holds in his right hand. When he needs any tool (set, fuller, etc.),
the blacksmith takes it in his right hand in place of the hand hammer,
while the striker hits the head of the tool with the sledge-hammer.
If the temperature of the forging falls below the forging temper­
ature specified for the given grade of steel, work on it must he stopped
and the forging reheated to the required forging temperature
before work is resumed. Sometimes a forging has to be reheated six
times or more before it acquires its proper shape and dimensions.
In spite of the fact that blacksmiths, in the course of their work,
have to make forgings of many different shapes and sizes, they al­
ways employ the same operations, but in varying order. In general
only a few operations are used in forging, these may be called the
principal hand-forging operations. They include: 1) drawing-out
and fullering; 2) cutting; 3) jumping or upsetting; 4) bending; 5) pierc­
ing and punching holes; 6 ) twisting; 7) welding; 8 ) finishing.
Every blacksmith should always try to make forgings of high
quality with the fewest number of passes and, consequently, to re­
heat his work as few times as possible. Making a high-quality forg­
ing with a minimum expense of physical energy and time depends
on the blacksmith’s skill. The work of a blacksmith is very compli­
cated and demands great skill. While the stock is still in the hearth,
the blacksmith should he visualising mentally the various operations
which he has to execute on the heated steel. Only a poor workman
puts his heated metal on his anvil with no clear idea as to what he
intends to do first.
To avoid accidents, blacksmiths must observe the following
safety rules:
1) Employ only those tongs whose jaws fit the shape of the forging;
2) See that the hand hammers and sledge-hammers are always
securely attached to their handles;
3) Thoroughly clean the hot stock and anvil from any accumula­
tions of scale with a steel brush or scraper; on no account should the
anvil be cleaned with the hands, even when protected by gauntlets;
 Drawing-out and Fullering 121

4) See that the anvil is never wet or greasy;

5) Nevor attempt to forge cold or burnt steel;
6 ) Keep his working place clean and tidy; never accumulate any
refuse, forgings, hot cuttings or anything which may interfere with
his work or lead to accidents;
7) Always work in working clothes as specified by the safety
engineering rules.
Before commencing work the blacksmith must always:
1) See that his equipment is in good condition, remove all scale,
water and grease from the anvil;
2) Select and prepare all the tools which he may need; see that
they are in good condition; wipe all traces of water and oil from
tools and instruments with a rag; and before commencing work
warm up all tools which have to be struck;
3) See that he has the proper number of pieces of stock for his
task. Check the stock and see that it is of good quality;
4) Put his working place in order.
During his work, the blacksmith must:
1) Use each tool only for the work for which it is designed;
2) Protect his equipment and tools from damage and regularly
remove all scale from the anvil;
3) Never allow any forgings and waste material to accumulate
around his working place; put all forgings and waste material in
their proper place.
At the end of his work the blacksmith must always wipe his tools
and instruments with a rag, put all his forgings and waste material
in their proper place, and tidy the area around^the anvil or hammer.

DRAWING-OUT AND FULLERING

Drawing-out is a forging operation during which the cross-sec­

tion of a piece of stock is reduced and its length increased. During
the drawing-out operation, the fibre of the metal is lengthened more
or less uniformly throughout its entire cross-section.
In practice the drawing-out operation consists in hammering a piece
of stock after it has been taken out of the hearth or furnace and
placod on the anvil, either directly with a hand- or sledge-hammer, or
with the aid of drawing-out tools. The stock will become thinner where
it is struck, but will at the same time increase in length and width. It
is then turned through 90° (placed on its edge) and its drawn-out
portion hammered in the same way, thus reducing its width and in­
creasing its length. After each blow, the forging must be turned through
90° and moved backwards and forwards all the time; in this way,
a piece of metal can be drawn out to any required length and cross-
section. If it is required to increase the length and width of a piece
 122 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

of work, it must be placed on the anvil and struck with a hand- or

sledge-hammer; if only the length is to be increased, a flat or round-
faced smoother must be placed on the work and then struck with a
[Link]
drawing-out process will
proceed faster if narrow­
faced tools are used (Fig.
75). After being drawn out,
the surface of the work must
be smoothed out with a tool
called a smoother, or
flatter.
Fig. 75. Drawing-out a bar
Work must always be
drawn out in a square sec­
tion. If a round piece of
stock is to be forged into a round bar of smaller diameter, it must
be first forged down into a square bar, drawn out to a cross-
section approaching the required final diameter and the square bar
then forged into a hexagonal, and the hexagonal bar—into a round
bar. If, however, an at­
tempt is made to draw out
round stock without these
intermediate operations,the
face of the sledge-hammer
will strike only a small sec­
tion of the metal,which will
lengthen very slowly and,
moreover, only on the sur­
face; the inner layers of the
metal will not be forged, (a)
and this circumstance may
lead to the development of (b)
cracks in the forging.
Fullering, or spreading, (c)
is a forging operation where­
by the width of a piece
of work is increased to a (4)
greater extent than its Fig. 76. Spreading a piece of stock:
length. Spreading must be a) scheme of drawlng-out; b) round-faced fuller;
commenced from the middle c) flat-faced fuller; d) half-round faced fuller
of the stock. A nar­
row steel bar called a spreader is placed in the middle of the stock
(Fig. 76), and struck with the sledge-hammer; the force of the blow
on the spreader is transferred to the metal over a small area, after
which the spreader is shifted first to the right and then to the left*
 Drawing-out and Fullering 123

each time being struck with the sledge-hammer. By thus moving the
spreader from the middle of the work to its sides, the metal will be
gradually spread from the centre to the side. After being spread out,
the bar must be smoothed with a flat smoother (sometimes called
a flatter) or with the broad face of the sledge-hammer.
In addition to ordinary blacksmith's tools, special tools are used
for drawing-out and spreading metal. These tools include:
Spreaders are employed for
drawing-out and spreading
Sledge-hammer metals; they are made in a
great variety of shapes (see
Fig. 76). Flat-faced fullers or
spreaders are employed for
smoothing-out the surface of
the forging after it has been
drawn out or spread.
Fullers are employed for
drawing-out metal and also for

(a) (b)
Fig. 77. Fullers: Fig. 78. Smoothers
a ) s le d g e -h a m m e r; b ) fu lle r; c) a n v il

finishing grooves and concave surfaces. Fullers arc made of tool steel
and hardened; their faces are polished. They are also made in a great
variety of shapes. Fig. 77, a shows a round-headed fuller for making
grooves and concave surfaces; the fuller shown in Fig. 77, h is used
for drawing-out. The top illustration in Fig. 77 shows how a fuller
is used for drawing-out a bar of steel.
Smoothers, or smoothing hammers, are employed for levelling and
finishing flat surfaces. They are made with flat faces (Fig. 78, a)
or with sharp or rounded edges, as in Fig. 78, b. As a rule, after a
piece of work has been drawn out with a fuller, its surface is levelled
with a smoother. When levelling a surface, the smoother should be
struck lightly, as in this case no considerable deformation of the
metal is necessary; it is only necessary to level the uneven surfaces
and to bring the forging to the required dimensions.
Swages are employed for swaging (drawing-out) or changing the
sectional shape of round work. Swages are usually made in pairs, or
124 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

sets—top and bottom swages. The bottom swage, or swage block, as

it is sometimes called, is held by its shank in the hole of the anvil
(Fig. 79, a). The top swage (Fig. 79, b) is fitted with a wooden handle,
and is placed over the work; the striker hits the top swage with his

sledge-hammer. Fig. 79, c illustrates how a round piece of work is

drawn out with the aid of top and bottom swages. In addition to
round swages, blacksmiths use swages of other cross-sections as,
for instance, hexagonal swages, used for finishing holt heads, etc.

Fig. 80. Sets, or chisels

Hardies, chisels, or hot sets, as they are more often called, are tools
used for nicking metals. Nicks are made in work to indicate where
to begin reducing the cross-section of a piece of work, i. e., the com­
mencement of the drawing-out operation. They are used in couples—
the bottom set or anvil cutter, which has a shank for insertion into
the hardie-hole of the anvil, and the top hot set, which has a handle
 Drawing-out and Fullering 125

and Is placed over the metal at the spot where the nick has to be made.
Fig.180, a shows a top hot set, and Fig. 80, b—an anvil cutter. Nick­
ing is usually the first operation in forging. By driving the bottom
and top sets into the work to the desired depth, as shown in Fig.
80, c, the blacksmith prepares the stock for the subsequent drawing-
out ^operation. Fig. 80, d shows a piece of work nicked before being
drawn out, while Fig. 80, e shows the same
piece of work after being drawn out from one
end.
Below are given some examples of draw­
ing-out, spreading and finishing the surface
of a forging.
Example 1. It is necessary to draw out a
square bar (Fig. 81, a) into a bar with one
shoulder (Fig. 81, d). This work is performed
by the following operations and with the fol­
lowing tools:
1. Setting the stock. In order to mark the
place from which the stock has to be drawn
out, it must be necked to a depth equal to the (d)
height of the shoulder, i. e., it must be set.
The stock is heated in a hearth or small fur­ [Link] Drawing-out
a single
nace to forging temperature (1,150-1,200 °G) shoulder
and removed with the aid of a pair of square
jawed tongs; a ring is slipped over the tongs, and the stock is placed
on the anvil. The distance from which the square bar is to be drawn
out into a flat bar is measured off with a steel folding rule, or
ruler. The hlacksmith places his hot set on this spot, and the striker
drives its edge into the metal to the required depth with light blows
of his sledge-hammer. After necking, the stock will appear as shown
in Fig. 81, b. If during the necking operation the temperature of the
stock falls to 800°C, it must be reheated in the hearth.
2. Drawing-out the stock. The heated stock is then placed on the
anvil, which must be previously wiped clear of scale. The blacksmith
places his fuller on the part of the stock to be drawn out, and the
striker hits the fuller with frequent, heavy blows. The blacksmith
gradually shifts the fuller from the nick towards the end of the
part to be drawn out.
To ensure a sound forging, the stock must be turned from time to
time (after every 2 or 3 blows) on to its edge and lightly hammered
in this position. When hammering thin work on its edges, care must
be taken not to bend it. If it is bent, it must be immediately straight­
ened out.
After the stock has been drawn out its shape will be as shown in
Fig. 81 ,c, i. e., the surface of the drawn-out section will be uneven.
126 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

It must be smoothed out with the aid of a flat smoother (see Fig.
78, a), after whieh it will appear as shown in Fig. 81, d.
Example 2. It is required to draw out one end of a square bar (Fig.
82, a) into a flat bar of smaller cross-section as shown in Fig. 82, d.
This is performed by the following operations and with the follow­
ing tools:
1. Setting the stock from both sides. The heated stock is placed
over an anvil cutter inserted in the bardie-hole of the anvil. The
blacksmith places the top set on
the slock, and the striker hammers

(a)

? // S s
M I *i
(c)

Fig. 82. Drawing-out a square Fig. 83.’Drawing-out a square

bar from both sides into a flat bar into a square bar of smal­
bar with two shoulders ler cross-section

it lightly wilh a sledge-hammer, thus forcing the anvil cutter and top
set into the top and bottom of the stock to the required depth. After
setting, the stock will appear as shown in Fig. 82, b. Care must be
taken to place the hot set vertically on the stock and to see that it
is exactly in line with the anvil cutter.
2. Drawing-out the stock. After setting, the stock is drawn out
with the aid of the fullers, as described in the first example. In doing
so, it must be drawn out with the fuller from one side, then turned
through 180°, and drawn out from the opposite side. It must be
turned through 90° after every 2 or 3 blows, and its edge lightly ham­
mered with the sledge-hammer. After being drawn out, the stock
will appear as shown in Fig. 82, c. M
3. Finishing the surface. As in the first example, the drawn-out
section of the work will have an uneven surface. To finish the surface,
the forging must be heated, carefully cleaned of scale and smoothed
 Drawing-out and Fullering 127

on all sides with a flat smoother (see Fig. 78, a), after which it
will appear as illustrated in Fig. 82, d.
Example 3. It is required to draw out one end of a piece of stock
to a square of smaller dimensions (Fig. 83, a and Fig. 83, d). For
this purpose it is necessary:
1. To set the work from both sides. As in Example 2 the stock is
set on two opposite sides, then turned through 90° and the other two
sides are set to the necessary depth of the shoulder; after this, the
work will appear as illustrated in Fig. 83, b.
2. Drawing-out the stock. The stock must be drawn out with the
aid of fullers. After each blow, the stock is turned through 90°. The
stock will finally appear as illustrated in Fig. 83, c.
3. Finishing the surface. The forging (Fig. 83, c) must be heated,
carefully cleaned of scale, and levelled with a flat smoother. After
every 2 or 3 blows the forging is turned through 90°. After surface
finishing, the forging will appear as illustrated in Fig. 83, d.
Example 4. Drawing a square bar into a round bar. A square piece
of stock must never be directly forged to a round bar of considerable
smaller diameter (i. c., entailing considerable reduction of cross-
section) as this may result in cracks. The bar must be first drawn down
to a bar of smaller cross-section, with opposite sides equal to or slight­
ly less than the required diameter of the round bar.
1. Drawing the stock into a square bar of smaller dimensions. The
operations and tools are the same as those employed in the third exam­
ple. After drawing-out, the work will appear as illustrated in Fig.
84, a.

(!) (b) ^ (0
Fig. 84. Drawing-out a square bar into a bar of round cross-section

2. Forging the square bar to an octagonal cross-section bar. After

heating the work and cleaning it from scale, the blacksmith rounds
its corners by placing it with the aid of his tongs on its edge on the
anvil, when the striker rounds the edges with frequent, heavy blows
of his sledge-hammer. The stock must be turned through 90° after
every 2 or 3 blows, so that the edges are rounded off gradually on all
128 Chief 'Hand-Forging Operations

four sides. After such hammering, when all its edges have been round­
ed off, the forging will appear as illustrated in Fig. 84, b. After
being hammered to an octagonal cross-section, it will have the
shape shown in Fig. 84, c.
Hammering (rounding) the octagonal bar into a round bar.
Before proceeding with this operation, the work must be heated,
cleaned from scale and then placed on the bottom swage (see Fig.
79, a), which is inserted in the hardie-hole of the anvil; the blacksmith
then places the top swage (see Fig. 79, b) over the work, and the striker
hits the former lightly with his sledge-hammer (see Fig. 79, c).

Fig. 85. Spreading a bar

During this operation the blacksmith must turn the work around
its axis and gradually move it forward until it is forged completely
to the required cross-section. After forging the work will appear as
illustrated in Fig. 84, d.
Example 5. Spreading a bar. To do this the following operations
are performed:
1 . Setting the slock. The heated stock is placed on the anvil and the
amount to be spread measured off with a folding ruler or steel rule.
A thin round spreader is then placed across the bar (see Fig. 85, a).
The striker then forces the spreader into the metal to the required
depth with his sledge-hammer. The bar will then look as illustrated
in Fig. 85, b.
2. Spreading the bar. The spreader is placed in the middle of the
bar and is struck lightly with a sledge-hammer (Fig. 85, c).
The spreader should be moved uniformly along the bar, alternate­
ly to the left and right. After spreading, the bar will appear as
illustrated in Fig. 85, d.
3. Levelling the rough surface of the stock. After the work has been
spread,, its surface will be rough and uneven. To level the irregular­
ities of the surface, the work is heated, cleaned, placed on the anvil,
 Drawing-out and Fullering 129

and then finished with a flat smoother (see Fig. 85, d). After smoothing
the spreaded work will appear as illustrated in Fig. 85, e.
Defects During Drawing-out and Spreading. The following defects
may occur during drawing-out and spreading:
1. The stock may sag if it has been hammered on one side only
without being turned (Fig. 86 ). Moreover, it may bend because of
not having been heated uniformly throughout its entire cross-section.
To prevent work from bending when being drawn out, it should be
thoroughly heated throughout its entire cross-section to the forging
temperature. During the drawing-out operation it must be turned
through 180° after every 2 or 3 blows.

(b)
Fig. 86. A piece of work Fig. 87. The fibre of metal
bent during forging during drawing-out

2 . If,the work is being drawn out with the aid of fullers and spread­
ers, and deep nicks are made in it, there is a danger of cutting the
fibre of the steel and thus lowering its mechanical properties. To avoid
this, the fuller or spreader must be shifted along the work so that
the place where one blow was struck is overlapped by the following
blow. After such a thorough drawing-out or spreading, the surface
of the forging will be smoother and its fibres will not be cut.
Fig. 87, a illustrates how a spreader should not be shifted along the
length of a piece of stock; the hammer blows were too heavy, the hol­
lows too deep, and the fibre of the work has been cut through. Fig.
87, b shows the right way of shifting a spreader.
3. Laps occur when a tool is improperly placed on the stock.
Fig. 88 ,a illustrates how a smoother should not be placed on the work
when levelling it; Fig. 88 , b shows a forging with a lap.
4. If a round or square piece of stock is drawn out into a round bar
of smaller diameter without the intermediate forging steps previous­
ly described, the metal will not be uniformly forged throughout its
cross-section: only its surface layers will be lengthened, and this may
result in axial, cracks. Fig. 89 illustrates cracks and folds resulting
130 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

from improperly forging (drawing-out) a round bar to a bar of smaller

diameter; the hammer blows were too light in this case.
5. Forging metal at low temperatures (below the required temper­
ature) results in what is known as cold-working of the metal, i. e.,
increased hardness and brittleness
of the surface metal. Continued
hammering of cold metal can re­
sult in surface and even in internal
cracks; cold-working is a defect
which can be remedied, but in most

Fig. 89. Formation of cracks

and folds during forging

cases cracks cannot be remedied, and such forgiugs have to be rejected.

Forgings arc generally annealed to eliminate the effects of cold-work­
ing.
To avoid cold-working and cracking when drawing-out work, par­
ticularly in the case of bars of light sections, they should be drawn
out rapidly by a sledge-hammer, with frequent, heavy blows, and the
work turned through an angle of 90° after every 2 or 3 blows. Never
draw out work which has become cold during forging, but always
reheat it to the required forging temperature.

CHISELLING

Chiselling is an operation whereby a part of metal is separated

from a piece of stock or from a forging. Cracks and other surface
defects can be removed from a forging or a piece of stock by chis­
elling. Two types of chiselling processes are employed in hand forging,
notching and cutting-off.
Notching is a form of chiselling whereby the work is nicked, or
notched, to a definite depth. Notching is employed for making necks
or shoulders in a piece of work. This operation is also called marking
or setting. Some examples of setting, or notching, when drawing-out
bars with one shoulder (i. e., from one side), with two shoulders
(i. e., from opposite sides) and from all four sides, were described
earlier.
Blacksmiths should always remember never to set a piece of work
too near its end, as, during the subsequent drawing-out operations.
 Chiselling 131

axial cracks and folds may appear on the end of the forging, which
will have to be scrapped.
Fig. 90 gives an example of the formation of folds and
axial cracks on a forging caused by setting too near the end of the
stock.
Cutting-off is a form of chiselling whereby a long piece of stock is
cut into several specified lengths, or a forging is separated (cut off)
from its stock. Metals can be cut
either hot or cold. Tt is danger­
ous to chisel cold steel, as chips
of metal are liable to fly off in
various directions for consider- (a) (b)
able distances, and to injure work­
ers. For this reason all recom- Fig- ^0- fo r m a tio n o f a x ia l cracks
mended safety precautions must andfolds
be taken when cold chisel­
ling; and, above all, working places should be protected by wire
netting and workers kept away from the end of the work being cut.
Gutting thick or wide cold bars is a long operation. Moreover it
entails frequent, grindings of the set. During chiselling considerable
stresses and even cracks may occur in the
metal. For this reason only thin and nar­
row mild steel bars are chiselled in the
cold state. Special and high-alloy steels
should never be chiselled cold, as consider­
able stresses occur at the ends of tho
cold stock in the spots where it is being 7 45-60*
cut; these stresses give rise to cracks.
For hot chiselling, steel must be heat­
ed in a blacksmith’s hearth or furnace
to a light cherry-red heat, i. e., to
850-950°C.
Blacksmith’s chisels, or sets, as they are
sometimes called, are used for cutting
steel. They arc made in various designs
according to whether they are used for
chiselling cold or hot metal. Chisels for
cutting cold metals must be ground to
an angle of 45-60°, while those for cut­ Fig. 91. Blacksmith’s sets,
ting hot metals must be ground to an or chisels
angle of 80-85°.
Fig. 91, a shows a cold set used for cutting cold metal, while
Fig. 91, h shows a hot set for cutting hot metal. These chisels are made of
hard tool steel; after forging, the cutting edge (lip) of the chisel must
be ground to the proper angle and hardened. The chisel head is either
132 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

fitted on a wooden handle, or a handle made by twisting steel wire.

When cutting hot steel, the lip (cutting edge) of the chisel must be
frequently cooled in cold water as otherwise it will become very
hot^and consequently will rapidly become soft and useless. The cut­
ting edg e of a cold set should be greased with machine oil to increase
its life.
When cutting with chisels, the hammer blows are directed onto
the chisel head, which must be slightly rounded. Frequently an anvil
cutter is used to lighten cutting operations
(Fig. 92).
Anvil cutters are made with square tails,
or shanks, for inserting in the anvil hardie-
hole. The head of the anvil cutter is ground,
like that of a chisel, to an angle which de­
pends upon the operation to be performed
(either hot or cold cutting). The anvil cut-
Fig. 92. Anvil cutter ter is first in serted in th e h a rd ie-h o le and
the work is then placed on its edge; the hot
(or cold) set, depending on the kind of operation, is placed over the
blade of the anvil cutter and struck with the sledge-hammer. The use
of anvil cutters considerably speeds up cutting operations.
Anvil cutters are made of hard tool steel; their cutting edges are
temperedjifter hardening.

Examples and Methods of Gutting Work. Before cutting a cold piece

of stock the blacksmith marks the place, where the stock is to be
cut, with chalk. He then places the stock on the anvil, holding it
in place with his left hand and places the chisel on the spot where
the stock is to be cut (Fig. 93, a). The striker hits the chisel with his
sledge-hammer to make a notch about one half the thickness or diam­
eter of the stock.
 Chiselling 133

Care must be taken to keep the work steady on the anvil, and the
chisel—perfectly vertical on the work, or otherwise, when struck
with the sledgo-hammer, the chisel may fly aside and injure anyone
in the vicinity.
After the spot where the stock is to be cut off has been notched, the
work must be turned through an angle of 180° and the chisel placed
exactly opposite the notch; the required length of metal can then be
cut off by giving the chisel a few blows with the sledge-hammer. Be­
fore striking the last blow, the blacksmith must place the stock on
the anvil so that its cut-off end is parallel with the edge of the an­
vil, as shown in Fig. 93, b.
If the steel is very hard, four notches will be required instead of
two, i. e., the stock will have to be turned through 90° after each
blow, instead of 180°. When cutting thin sheet steel the surface of
the anvil should be protected with a plate of mild steel in order to
avoid blunting the edge, of the chisel on the hardened surface of the
anvil.
Special and alloy steels, as well as thick steel plates (over 20 mm
in thickness) and engineering steel stock, are cut hot. The work is
first heated in a hearth or furnace until it is light cherry-red (850-
950°C); the blacksmith then grips it with his tongs and places it on
the anvil, where he notches the place at which the work is to be cut
off. He then places it on the anvil cutter, and puts the hot set on the
work in a vertical position opposito the anvil cutter. The striker
hits the chisel several times so as to leave a small neck between the
set and the anvil cutter. During the cutting operation the blacksmith
must take care to keep the hot set exactly over anvil cutter.
After this the work must be placed on the anvil with its notch over
the anvil edge, the set inserted into the notch and the stock cut off
with a light blow on the chisel.
Safety Rules for Chiselling. In addition to the ordinary safety pre­
cautions, the following rules must be observed during chiselling oper­
ations:
1. The head of the chisel should never be allowed to spread. When
struck, such a head is liable to crack and split, chips may fly off and
injure workers near by.
2. Blacksmiths and their helpers, when cutting metal with sets,
must always stand so as not to be struck by chips of metal.
3. When cutting hot or cold metal, the last blow must always be
made very carefully.
4. When cutting, care should be taken never to stand opposite the
metal being cut, as pieces of metal may fly off and cause inju­
ries. To prevent accidents during cutting operations, a movable guard
should always be placed near the side of the anvil from which pieces
of metal are liable to fly off.
134 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

5. Chisels should always he placed absolutely vertically on the

work; when using an anvil cutter the chisel should be placed exactly
opposite it; otherwise, on being struck, the chisel will fly aside and
may cause injuries.

UPSETTING

Upsetting is a forging operation whereby the length of a piece of

metal is reduced and its cross-scctional area is increased. Three types
of upsetting are applied in forging practice: full, head and central
upsetting. Sometimes the two latter types are called heading.
Full, or complete, upsetting is employed when it is necessary to
increase the cross-section of the stock along its entire length. For
this purpose, the stock must
be first heated and then
placed upright on the an­
vil; its top end is then
struck with a sledge-ham­
mer, causing it to become
shorter in length, but to
increase in cross-section.
Head upselling is em­
ployed in cases when it is
(a) V/TX//, (b) required to increase the
cross-section of the stock;
Fig. 94. Die header for central upsetting, only
the central section of the
slock is heated; the stock is then placed vertically on the
anvil, and its head is struck with a sledge-hammer, thus increasing,
or upsetting, the cross-sectional area of the centre of the stock. When
it is required to upset only a small section of a piece of stock, and
a considerable length of the stock has been heated, the excess length
of heated stock which is not to be upset should be cooled by water.
When upset, the stock bulges out and assumes the shape of a barrel.
Therefore the fibre of an upset piece of work or stock will be bent. If
a very hard steel is heavily upset, the fibre may split, thus leading
to the development of cracks. To ensure a perfectly homogeneous
structure of the metal throughout its cross-section after upsetting, the
fibre of the stock must run parallel to the direction of the hamme.r
blows.
Soft metals upset more easily than hard metals; and the thicker the
stock, the greater the energy required to upset it.
The usual blacksmith’s tools are employed for upsetting: anvil,
tongs, hand- and sledge-hammers. In addition, various other imple­
ments are employed depending on the work to be upset. Fig. 94,a
 Upsetting 135

illustrates a die header for upsetting the head of]a countersunk screw;
Fig. 94,b illustrates a die header for upsetting a square bolt head;
Fig. 95 shows a swage employed for straightening and finish­
ing the hexagonal head of a bolt after it
has been upset in a die header.
Before upsetting, the work must be heat­
ed thoroughly and uniformly through its
entire cross-section and along the entire
length to be upset; the temperature of the
steel, which must be high, will depend on
its grade, and will be specified by the shop
foreman or technologist. To ensure uniform
upsetting, the work must be rotated round
its axis all the time it is being struck.
The length of the upset section of the work
should not be more than 2 -21j2 times its Fig.195. bottom swage
diameter, or side of square, as otherwise
it will buckle during upsetting. For instance, if the diameter of
a piece of stock is 25 mm, the maximum length which can be upot-

Fig. 90. Upsetting the end of a piece of stock

will be 25x2.5=62.5 mm. If the length of the section to be upset

is 150 mm, the stock will buckle during upsetting.
Some examples of upsetting.
Example 1. Upsetting the end of a piece of stock. Heat the end
to be upset in a hearth up to its forging temperature, and then place
136 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

the stock, hot end up, on the anvil. The blacksmith with his left
hand supports the work in the tongs and, with the hand hammer
in his right hand, shows the striker where to hit the work with the
sledge-hammer. If the work is placed hot end down on the anvil,
the length of the upset head will be greater, but its diameter will be
smaller.
Fig. 96,a shows how a piece of stock is placed on an anvil for up­
setting, and Fig. 96,6 illustrates the upsetting of one end of the stock.
Example 2. Upsetting the central section of a piece of stock. The
central section of the stock is heated in a hearth up to forging temper­
ature. Then it is placed vertically

Fig. 97. Upsetting Fig. 98. Piece of stock fully upset

tongs, not at the point to be upset. The top of the stock is then
struck with a sledge-hammer or hand hammer, thus upsetting the
central portion. Fig. 97 illustrates the operation of upsetting the
central portion of a piece of work.
Example 3. Complete upsetting uf a piece of slock. The stock must
be first heated uniformly along its entiro length and then placed ver­
tically on the anvil, being held in place by tongs gripping its centre.
Then the top of the stock is struck, at first lightly and then more
heavily. As the upsetting proceeds, the blows should increase in
force and frequency.
Fig. 98 illustrates a piece of work after it has been upset. When
upsetting work, care must be taken to prevent it from buckling or
from becoming out of square.
Upsetting Defects. Upsetting defects include: 1) buckling of the
stock during the upsetting process (Fig. 99,a), 2) the faces of the
stock becoming out of square (Fig. 99,6).
The stock is liable to buckle and become out of square if:
1) The length of the stock exceeds 2-2*/a times its diameter;
2) The stock is not turned round its axis during upsetting;
 Bending 137

3) The stock is struck at the edges instead of in the centre of

its end; n#-*
4) The stock is insufficiently heated throughout its cross-section;
5) The upsetting is continued without straightening the stock af­
ter it has begun to buckle.
In addition to these defects,
folds are liable to occur in
work being upset; they often
appear after straightening a con­
siderably bent piece of work
(Fig. 100).

Fig# 99. Work buckled (a) Fig. 100. Fold in stock

and mis-shapen (b) during
upsetting

Surface and, internal cracks are also liable to occur if the work has
not been heated to the proper temperature, or if it has not been heated
uniformly throughout its entire cross-section.

BENDING

Forging often entails bending a hammered stock or piece of work.

The simplest method of bending a piece of metal in hand forging is
to place it on the anvil and, holding it in place with one sledge-ham -

Fig. 101. Location of stresses in bar of steel when bending

mer, to strike its free end with a second sledge-hammer. If the forgo
shop is equipped with forging hammers, the stock can be secured be­
tween the top and bottom dies, and bent by striking its free end with
a sledge-hammer. When a piece of metal is bent, its outer layers aro
 138 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

subject to tensile stresses, and its inner layers—to compression

stresses (see Fig. 101).
Let us consider a bar which has been bent, as in Fig. 101. Before
bending, the metal in this bar was distributed uniformly throughout
its entire length. After bending, the metal to the left of point A and
to the right of point B in the bar underwent no change whatsoever.
But the metal in the section of the bar between points AOB undergoes
the following changes: the metal lying above the line AOB will be
stretched, and the further its particles are from line AOB, the greater

Fig. 102. Bending a previously Fig. 103. LJpsotting a bar

upset bar: after bending:
/ — bar; 2 — anvil; 3 — hammer; 4 — upset 1 — bar; 2 — anvil; 3 — direc­
metal of stuck; 5— direction of striking tion of blows
stock

this stretching will be. However the metal below line AOB will be
compressed, the degree of its compression increasing with its distance
below line AOB.
The layer of metal lying along line AOB will be neither com­
pressed nor stretched; it is called the neutral layer.
If the metal is not plastic, or if it was insufficiently healed before
bending, cracks may develop on the outer surface of the bent bar, and
iolds on the inner surface; moreover, the shape of the cross-section
of the bar will change after being bent; it will become oval, as shown
in Section I-I, Fig. 101. For this reason the following precautions
must be taken lo preserve the initial cross-sectional shape of the
bar when it is being bent.
Before commencing to bend the bar, it must be upset at the spot
where it is to be bent (Fig. 102). The surplus metal left at this spot
after upsetting will help to preserve the initial shape of the cross-
section of the bar after it has been bent (Fig. 103).
Only that part of the work which is to be bent should be heated;
if a greater length of the work is heated than is actually required, the
«nds of the healed section will bend and will have to be straightened
later. Thin bars of low-carbon steel are often bent without previous
heating.
 Bending 139

Various devices are used for bending: forks, cramps, links, tem­
plates, bolster swage, etc. Fig. 104,a shows a fork for bending on
anvils; Fig. 104,/;—a bending link also employed for bending on
anvils. In addition, blacksmiths frequently employ bolster swages,
which greatly lighten bending operations.

Fig. 104. len ding devices:

a) fork; b) bending link

Fig. 105,a shows bolster swage for bending hooks of flat and round
steel slock. Fig. 105,6 shows a vee swage, and Fig. 105, c—illus­
trates its use for bonding flat stock at right angles.
Below are given some examples of bending operations.

Fig. 105. Bolster swage for bending (a); vee swage (6); how to use a vee swage (c)

Example 1. Bending round bars. To ensure a sound bend when

bending round bars or rods, they should be thoroughly heated to red
beat, i. e., to about 800°C, at the place where they are to be bent.
Depending on the grade of steel, the heating temperature for
bending may be increased; as a rule, the harder the steel, the higher
the temperature to which it must be heated.
Forks (see Fig. 106) are very convenient devices for bending round
steel bars of not very large diameter. The heated section of the stock
is inserted into the fork and is then bent to the required angle by
striking its free end with a hand hammer.
140 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

Example 2 . Bending a flat bar. Flat bars can be conveniently bent

with the aid of a bending link or vee^swage. Fig. 107 shows how a
flat bar is bent with the aid of a bending link. The bending link is
placed on the anvil, and the bar—on top of the link, the part to be bent
being placed between the legs of the bending link. The bar is then bent

Fig. 106. Bending rod in fork Fig. 107. Bending a flat bar by using
a bending link

to the required angle by striking a fuller placed on it with a sledge­

hammer or hand hammer.
Fig. 105,c illustrates the bending of a bar in a vee swage. The
method of bending work in vee swages is the'same as that used with
bending links. The bar must
be placed on the link or the
vee swage perpendicular to
its legs, as otherwise it
will be improperly bent.
W The fuller must always be
placed exactly in the centre
of the bending link or vee
swage.
Example 3. Making (bend­
ing) a small eye. The heat­
ed end of the stock is
placed across the horn of
(d) the anvil, and the overhang­
Fig. 1.80 Beipnng an eye by using the horn
of an anvil: ing end bent as illustrated
1 — anvil horn; e — anvil in Fig. 108, a, by striking
it with a hand hammer.
Then the stock is placed on its edge on the anvil and one end bent to
an angle of 60-70°, as shown in Fig. 108,6, taking care to make the
length of the bent end equal to the length of the eye whon developed
along its neutral (central) line. The stock is then turned through an
angle of 180°, placed across the horn of the anvil and the eye is com-
 Bending 141

plcted as shown in Fig. 108,c. The work is then turned again through
an angle of 180°, placed on the horn of the anvil and its end bent
to the required dimensions. The eye is then finished with light blows
of the hand hammer (Fig. 108,d).
Example 4. Bending a sharp corner. An allowance of extra metal
is necessary to ensure a sharp corner at the bend of a piece of work.
This extra metal may be obtained by local upsetting. For this pur­
pose the work is heated at the place where it is to be bent, placed
upright on the anvil and upset by striking its upper end (Fig. 109,a).

Previously upset place where

work is to be bent I

(a)

(0
HI 00
ig. 109. Bending a piece of work at right angles, with
a sharp corner at the bend

If the stock to be bent is very long, it must be upset as follows:

the stock is first heated at the place to be upset; it is then struck ver­
tically against a steel plate or supported horizontally against the side
of the anvil, and its opposite end struck with a sledge-hammer. The
heated section of the stock will then be upset. After upsetting, the
stock is straightened on the anvil face and then bent to form a right
angle, with the bend, or the apex of the angle in the centre of the
upset section. The stock should be placed in the hole of the anvil so
that its heated section coincides with the edge of the hole; then its
other end Is bent over onto the anvil (see Fig. 109,6).
Bending blocks are very convenient to use and indispensable in
blacksmith’s shops. These are massive blocks pierced with holes
in which pins can be inserted. Work is bent on these blocks as follows:
the work to he bent is placed between a series of pins, previously in­
serted in the holes (Fig. 110) and bent with a special lever. Work so
bent will have no sharp angles. To sharpen the angles of the bends.
142 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

llie work must first bo placed on the anvil as shown in Fig. 109,c,
and hammered, the direction of hammering being as shown by the
arrow in Fig. 109, d.
Bending Rolled Sections. Black­
smiths frequently have to bend
rollod sections, such as angle
bars, tee-bars, etc. As a rule,
rolled sections are bent against tem­
Fig. 110. Blacksmith’s bending plate.
block Fig. I l l ,a illustrates a tem­
plate used for bending angle bars on
an anvil, while Fig. 111,6 shows a method of bending an angle bar.
The angle bar, after being heated, is secured to the edge of the lem-

plate with a movable clamp, and bent to the required shape by strik­
ing iLs free end with a sledge-hammer. During the bending process
wrinkles will be formed on the angle bars; those can be smoothed out

with the aid of a flat smoother. After smoothing (finishing) the bent
section of the angle bar, the clamp must be shifted further and the
bending continued to the required length.
 Punching and Piercing Holes 143

Should it be required to bend an angle bar to a sharp corner, one

of the webs of the angle bar must first be notched, as shown in Fig.
112, a. The angle bar can then be bent to the required shape wilh
the aid of a template (Fig. 112, b and c). After bending, its webs must
be smoothed (finished) with the aid of fiat smoothers.

Fig. 113. Bending defects: a) tears; b) reduction of metal

Bending Defects. The following defects may occur during bending:
1) Rupture of the metal. This occurs either if the stock has cooled
down during bending, or if it has not been properly heated be­
fore the bending was started (Fig. 113, a).
2) The work becomes thinner at its bending point. This results if
the work is not upset before bending (Fig. 113, b).

PUNCHING AND PIERCING HOLES

Punching and piercing are employed for making holes in work
during forging.
Holes in a thin work are made by pierc­
ing; for this the metal (previously heat­
ed to 900-1,000° C) is placed on anvil
5 (Fig. 114) so that the place to be
punched coincides with the hardie-hole
in the anvil; or work piece 2 is placed
over ring 3, the inside diameter of
which is slightly greater than that of
the required hole. Punch 1 is then placed
over the spot to be pierced, and its head
struck with a sledge-hammer. The punch
will cut through the steel almost without
spreading the metal surrounding the hole.
When the punch passes through the metal, Fig. 114. Punching a [holo
it forces the cut piece of metal, called in a bar with a punch
the slug 4, through the hardie-hole or the
ring 3; the height of the slug will he almost the same as the thick­
ness of the work being pierced.
In thicker works holes are punched. The process of punching
holes is altogether different from that of piercing.
144 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

First of all, the work, after being heated to 900-1,000°C, is placed

on the anvil so that the location of the hole which is to be made coin­
cides with the hardie-hole. A punch is then placed on this spot. The
punch 1 is forced about half-way through the work 2 by striking it
lightly with a hand- or sledge-hammer until a bulge is formed on the
underside of the work (Fig. 115, a). The punch is then removed, the

(to

Fig. 115. Piercing a hole in a bar with a piercor

work turned over, the bulge struck several times with a hand hammer
the punch placed on the bulge (Fig. 115, b) and driven into the metal
by the sledge-hammer.
The resulting slug 5 can then be driven out through the hardie-
hole of anvil 3 by striking the punch with the sledge-hammer.
When making holes with punches, the metal spreads, thus result­
ing in changes in the shape of the forging.
Holes are punched if they are to be made at the beginning of the
work, i. e., before it is completely forged. On the contrary, holes are
pierced if they are to be made in a nearly finished forging, as the shape
of the work is practically unchanged after piercing.
 Punching and Piercing Holes 145

During hand forging, holes are punched or pierced in steel with

the aiu of punches or piercers. The working ends of these tools can be
either square (Fig. 116, a) or round (Fig. 116, b), and are always
tapered—both to facilitate its withdrawal from the hole, and for
making holes of various sizes. They are fitted to wooden handles.
When making holes, the head of the punch is struck by a hand- or
sledge-hammer.
The swage-block (Fig. 117) is used for making holes in forgings.
Swage-blocks are square, massive blocks of steel or cast iron, with
holes of different shapes and
sizes. The blacksmith selects
a suitable hole, places the
heated work over it, and
punches the required hole

Fig. 116. Blacksmith's punches Fig. 117. Swage-block

with the proper tool. The sides of the swage-block are made with
recesses of different shapes, designed to shape and smooth forgings;
this is done by placing the heated work in the selected recess and a
smoother, or top swage, over it, and then hammering the smoother
or top swage as required.
The steel must always be hot for punching or piercing holes. The
spot to be punched or pierced must be heatod to an orange-yellow
heat, which corresponds to about 900-1,000°C. It is not recommend­
ed to punch or pierce holes in cold steel, even in a thin work, as this
may lead to cracks and burrs developing at the edges of the hole.
The punch should always be placed exactly upright on the work
and the first blow of the sledge-hammer on its head should be a light
one. A heavy, slanting blow may cause the punch to fly out of the
blacksmith’s hand and injure bystanders. After each blow, the punch
should be shaken slightly, to prevent it from sticking into the steel.
If the work is very thick, the punch should be removed from time
to time, and its point cooled in water. Otherwise, it will become heat­
ed and will bend without piercing the steel.
10U4M
 146 Chief Rand-Forging Operations

Powdered charcoal should be sprinkled inside the hole being

punched; the gases evolved by the burning charcoal will prevent the
punch from sticking in the steel.
After punching or piercing, the walls of a hole will never be exactly
vertical. This is because the punch or drift is tapered.

Fig. 118. Drifting (widening) and Fig. 119. Spreading a ring:

smoothing the walls Of a hole. j — sledpc-hninmer, 2 — half-round faced
J— drift; 2 — ring hammer (lullcr); 3 — anvil, 4 — ring;
j — tongs

Fig. 118, a shows a pierced hole, and Fig. 118, b—a punched hole.
The walls of holes thus made must be smoothed, and the hole given
a proper circular shape, by forcing a barrel-shaped drift through it,
as shown in Fig. 118, c.

Fig. 120. Defects occurring when punching and piercing holes

After punching, a hole can be widened if necessary by driving a

drift of barrel-shaped cross-section through it. Sometimes several
drifts (or mandrels) of increasing diameters have to be used. Seamless
rings can be made in this way. To do this, after the diameter of the
hole of the ring has been sufficiently increased with the drifts, it is,
placed over the horn of the anvil (Fig. 119), and its inner diameter
increased by reducing the thickness of its walls. This is effected by
striking the ring with a hand hammer or with a sledge-hammer, the
ring being rotated all the time over the anvil horn. The walls of the
ring will be drawn out, and the diameter of the hole will be increased.
This operation is called rolling or saddling.
 Forge Welding 147

Defects Which May Occur During Piercing or Punching. The

following defects may occur during punching or piercing:
1) The hole may be out of centre (Fig. 120, a); this may occur when
piercing a hole in a thick piece of work in one operation, without
turning it over;
2) The opposite sections of the hole may not be in line (Fig. 120, b)
due to improperly placing the punch on the work after the latter has
been turned through 180°;
3) Burrs may occur (Fig. 120, c) if the diameter of the hardie-hole
of the anvil, swage-block or ring is considerably greater than that
of the hole being pierced;
4) Tears and cracks may occur at the edges of the hole as a result
of punching or piercing cold or insufficiently heated work.

FORGE WELDING

Forge welding is a process whereby two pieces of metal, heated

to a plastic condition, are joined together under external pressure. As
has been learned, steel, on being heated to a definite temperature,
becomes highly plastic; if the temperature of two pieces of steel is
raised until their surfaces become pasty, and they are then pressed
or hammered together, they will be welded, i. e., form a single piece
of steel.
If two pieces of slecl are properly welded together, the tensile
strength of the resulting single piece of steel at its welded joint must
be equal to that of the parent metal, that is, to the tensile strength
of either of its two separate pieces. As a matter of fact, however, it
is impossible to attain a perfectly close contact of all the particles of
the steel being welded; and for this reason, the tensile strength of
a welded piece of work at its joint is usually less than that of its two
separate components. A weld is considered as being sound if the
tensile strength of the welded joint is not less than 85 per cent of
the tensile strength of the parent metal.
Welding is employed chiefly when the forging of a whole piece of
work presents difficulties. In such cases, separate parts of the work
are forged and then welded together. Welding is also widely practised
in repairing operations.
Forgo welding consists of the following separate operations: 1) pre­
paring the ends of the pieces to be welded together; 2 ) heating them
for welding; 3) welding the ends together; 4) hammering and fin­
ishing the weld joint.
The weld joint must be thoroughly hammered. In order that, af­
ter welding and hammering, the cross-section of the work should be
the same as it was before welding, the ends of the pieces to be welded
must be first upset and then hammered, depending on the welding
148 Chief Hand-Forging Operations
9 i i i ■ i. - —

method employed. After the ends have been prepared for welding,
they must be heated to welding temperature. This is usually done in
the hearths or in special welding furnaces. As a rule, forge furnaces
are not suitable for heating steel for welding and are unable to en­
sure the required welding temperature. Tne best fuels for weld heat­
ing are charcoal and coke. Coal is also used for weld heating, but only
if its sulphur content is less than 1 per cent, as sulphur is detrimental
to high-quality weld joints.
• Welding temperatures range from 1,27b to 1,400° C, i. e., they are
considerably above the initial temperature of ordinary forging. This
high temperature ensures the better joining of the parts being welded.
The welding temperature depends on the chemical composition of the
steel: the greater the content of carbon and alloying elements in the
steel, the lower must its welding temperature be. The heating of
low-carbon steels must be stopped when the ends of the parts to be
welded are at a blinding white heat; of high-carbon steels—when
they are at white heat, tinged with yellow. The welding temperature
is generally determined with the aid of optical pyrometers; and some­
times by the naked eye.
The heating of steel to be welded demands considerable attention
and care. It is absolutely necessary that the places to be welded
together are free of scale, slag, etc., i. e., the surfaces of the steels to
be welded must be absolutely clean. Cleanliness of the surfaces to be
welded is a most important condition for ensuring sound welds, as
all foreign matter (slag, scale, etc.) will prevent intimate contact
of the particles of steel, thereby lowering the mechanical strength
of the welded joint. The steel must be heated in such a way as to
avoid an oxidising flame in the hearth or in the furnace; in other
words, the flame should be free of any traces of excess air; the steel
being heated must also be covered with a layer of slag to protect it
against direct contact with the flame. To achieve this the surface
of the steel must be sprinkled during the heating with what is called
flux. Screened fine river sand mixed with borax can be used for
flux.
The flux melts very rapidly to form a slag which protects the sur­
faces of the steel being welded. It also dissolves any scale which may
have formed before it was sprinkled on the steel. After heating the
ends to the necessary welding temperature, they must be quickly
taken out of the hearth or furnace, struck against the anvil to remove
all slag which may have stuck to their surfaces, rapidly cleaned with
a steel brush or scraper and no less rapidly placed on each other and
then hammered, lightly at first, and then heavily, with a hand- or
sledge-hammer. The pieces of steel will then come into intimate con­
tact and be welded, i. e., they will join to make a single piece of
steel.
 Forge Welding 149

Vigorous hammering ofthe welded parts is also necessary in order

to ensure sound welds. When forge welding, the wrork must be ham­
mered quickly and heavily, as only thus will an intimate contact be­
tween the particles to be welded be ensured at the highest possible
temperatures. Moreover, the grain structure of the welded parts of
the steel is coarsened when the steel is heated to welding temperature;
vigorous hammering breaks up and refines the grain, thereby im­
proving the quality of the weld joint.
It should be remembered that a sound weld can only be ensured
at a proper high temperature and therefore welding should be comp­
leted at this temperature. This can only be ensured when the welding
is done quickly.
The last operation in forge welding is the finishing of the weld
joint; this is effected with the aid of swages and fullers, depending on
the shape of the welded work and the method of welding.
Not all metals possess what is called weldability. For instanco, lead
cannot be welded. By no means do all steels possess good weldability.
The less alloying element in a steel, the better it welds. Pure iron is
highly weldable, but any alloying element lowers this property. The
higher the carbon content, the poorer the weldability of a steel. The
weldability of steel likewise decreases with the increase of the phos­
phorus, sulphur, chromium and copper content, etc. A manganese
content up to 0 .6 -0 .8 per cent improves weldability, and for this
reason manganese steels intended for welding may have an increased
carbon content.
The following maximum contents of alloying elements are recom­
mended for ensuring sound welds: carbon —from 0.2 to 0.3 per cent,
but not exceeding 0.5 per cent; silicon—not more than 0.2 per cent;
manganese—0 .6 -0.8 per cent; phosphorus and sulphur—as low
as possible, but not more than 0.05 per cent of each. If it is nec­
essary to weld a steel containing over 0 .2 -0 .3 per cent of carbon,
filings of some mild steel having a small carbon content must be ad­
ded to the welding flux. This will result in the decarburisation of the
steel at the joint, thus ensuring a better weld.
Welding Methods. The chief methods of welding parts are: 1) butt
welding; 2) lap welding; 3) fork and wedge (cleft) welding; 4) tee-
joint welding; 5) vee welding.
B utt welding entails the following operations: slightly upsetting
the ends of the pieces of steel to be welded and then slightly rounding
the faces of the ends (Fig. 121, a). The upsetted ends are rounded off
in order to facilitate removing the slag formed on their surfaces when
they were heated to welding temperature. Then both ends are heated
to welding temperature. The blacksmith and his striker each take
one end of the work in their tongs, place the heated ends close to each
other (Fig. 121, b) and strike the opposite, cold ends, of the work
150 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

with sledge-hammers, thereby welding the ends together (Fig. 121, c).
This done, the weld joint must bo well hammered and finished with
swages and smoothers.
Lap welding is a more reliable method than butt welding. Before
welding by this method, the ends of the work are upset, and then
hammered or scarfed as shown in Fig. 122, a. Then the ends are heat­
ed to welding temperature and cleaned from slag and scale; after
which one scarfed end Is imposed over the second as shown in Fig.

Fig. 121. Butt welding Fig. 122. Lap welding

122, e, and both ends hammered and welded together. The weld
joint is then finished with the aid of swages and smoothers; the re­
sulting bar will then look as illustrated in Fig. 122, c.
Fork and wedge, or cleft welding is employed for joining parts
of heavy cross-section or for welding two pieces of different grades
of steel. Nq
By this method, the end of one bar, preferably that of the softer
steel, is heated and upset; the upset end is then split and opened, as
shown in Fig. 123, a. The end of the second bar, after being upset,
is hammered to a point as shown in Fig. 123, b. Both ends are heated
to welding temperature and cleaned from slag and scale. The point­
ed end is inserted into the fork of the end of the first bar (Fig. 123, c).
The weld joint is then hammered and finished with swages and
smoothers. If two pieces of steel of different grades are to be welded,
their welding temperatures will differ and for this Teason they
should be heated in separate hearths.
 Forge Welding 151

Tee-joint welding is a method of welding two parts to form a tee-

joint (Fig. 124).
Vee-welding is employed for joining heavy parts. The ends of parts
a and b are first upset and cut to a taper of approximately 30-40°,
as shown in Fig. 125. Then two in­
serts c of the same grade of steel are
forged to the same taper angle as
the parts to be welded. The ends to
be welded are heated to welding
temperature after which the inserts,

Fig. 123. Fork and wedge

or cleft welding

also brought to the welding heat, are placed in the triangular space
between the ends of a and 6, and the entire work is hammered with
a sledge-hammer. This method is very convenient for welding circu­
lar parts, particularly when
repairing broken rings.
Inspection of Welds, Weld­
ing Defects. A weld is con­
sidered as being sound if the
tensile strength of the weld­
ed joint is at least 85 per
cent of that of the parent '
metal. As a rule, the tensile
strength of a weld joint is from
60 to 80 per cent of that of the
parent metal.
The strength of a weld joint (c) (0
is determined by mechan­
ical tests, for which pur­
pose test specimens are cut out Fig. 125. Vee-welding
and prepared from steel of
the same grade as that used for making the welded work. In prac­
tice, the quality of a weld can be checked by bending the bar at the
weld joint. If^on bending, the joint does not separate, i. e., it does
152 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

not display signs of cracks, the weld is considered as being sufficient­

ly good.
The surface of a weld must be even and smooth. However, the fol­
lowing defects may occur in a weld joint:
1) Incomplete fusing, which may be due to scale left on the surface
of the ends being welded; for this reason, scale must always be com­
pletely removed, and the ends to be weld­
ed must be sprinkled with flux (mixture
of quartz sand and borax);
2) Incomplete weld (Fig. 126, a). This
may be due to slag and scale on the ends
of the work if they have not been rounded
off, thereby preventing proper welding;
this generally occurs during butt weld­
ing;
3) The thickness (cross-section) of the
Fig. 126. Welding defects work at the weld joint is less than re­
quired (Fig. 126, b). This is a result of
not upsetting the ends of the bars before welding, the cross-section
of the welded bar at its joint is therefore reduced when hammered;
4) Burns, which occur when the ends of the work to be welded are
heated to an excessively high temperature.
The very nature of the above-mentioned welding defects shows
that they depend chiefly upon the blacksmith himself. It is difficult,

(0 (d)
Fig. 127. Making a welded chain

if not impossible, to remedy these defects after welding, and for this
reason such work is either scrapped or rewelded. In order to avoid de­
fects in welding, the blacksmith must always scrupulously fulfil
all conditions and operations in welding work. Below a few examples
of making welded parts are described.
Example 1. Making chain links. It is required to make a chain of
three links (Fig. 127, a). For this, three pieces of the required length
from a rod of the proper grade of steel are first cut off with a chisel.
 Forge Welding 153

Each piece of steel is heated and upset separately ( Fig. 127, 6).
Then tflie centre of the rod (stock) is heated and bent. After bending,
the ends to be welded are scarfed on the anvil as shown in Fig. 127, c.
Then the scarfed ends are bent on the anvil horn so as to lap over each
other (Fig. 127, d). These ends are heated to welding temperature,
all scale is removed, and the bar
is placed in the bottom swage
with a semi-circular recess (Fig.
127, e). Then the ring is covered
with a top swage of a similar
shape, and the ends of the link
welded together by striking the
top swage. The weld joint must
be then hammered and finished
on the anvil horn. 4
To make a chain of three links, (b)
two links are first welded and
finished as described above, and
then joined together by the third
link (Fig. 127, f) which is welded
and finished in the same way as
the first two. If it is required to (<*J
make a chain several metres long
several sections of three links
each must he first made, and ( eJ
then all the sections joined to­
gether to form a chain of the re­
quired length. All links must be
of the same shape and dimensions.
Example 2. It is required to
make a wrench for a two-inch
w
nut (Fig. 128, a). This can be
made from bar stock 50 x 12 mm
in the following way. Fig. 128. Making a wrench by
A piece 400-410 mm long is cut welding
from th&bar; its ends are heated
and pointed (Fig. 128, b); they are then heated to 700° C and doubled
over for a length of 100 mm from each end, as shown in Fig. 128, c;
then each double end is bent in turn, as shown in Fig. 128, d; one end
so bent is heated to welding temperature and welded; this operation
is repeated for the opposite end (Fig. 128, e). After the ends have been
welded, they are hammered thoroughly and smoothed. To form the
required corners the bar is fullered in three places as shown in Fig.
128, /, and bent to shape as shown in Fig. 128, g; then, after the handle
has been inserted between the ends, they are all welded together.
154 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

as shown in Fig. 128, h. Then the wrench is straightened and finished

to the required dimensions.
Example 3. It is required to make an axe-head (Fig. 129, a), with
a blade o£ tool steel and body of low-carbon steel. A bar 60 x 35 mm is
used. The axe-head is made in the following order:
The required length is measured and cut off from the bar. The cut­
off piece is heated and drawn out as shown in Fig. 129, b. Then the
stock is fullered and bent as shown in Fig. 129, c, d.

Fig. 129. Making an axe-head

A wedge-shaped piece of tool steel is prepared by hammering as

shown in Fig. 129, e; its width should be equal to that of the blade
of the axe-head. Then this wedge is inserted and fitted into the prin­
cipal low-carbon steel forging (see Fig. 129, d), as shown in Fig.
129, /, after this the work is heated to welding temperature and weld­
ed. This done, the axe-head is hammered and finished.

EXAMPLES OF MAKING PARTS BY HAND FORGING

We now know how to forgery hand. Now let us discuss a few prac­
tical examples of making various forgings. . . ,
The Technological Process of Making a Bolt. It is required to forge
a hexagonal-headed bolt according to drawing (Fig. 130), out of car-
® bon steel stock, 25 mm m diameter;
21 length of stock is 280 mm.
T B o lts can be m ad e b y v a r io u s
SI In
to L* m eth o d s, b u t th e sim p le st and m o st
t com m on m eth od is as follow s: a bar
—-M
—------- 200 “ of th e sam e d iam eter as th e b o lt
req uired, and s lig h tly lon ger th an
Fig. 130. Hexagonal-headed bolt it s required le n g th , is h ea ted a t
 Chart 1
Bolt Process Chart

Description of pass and Equipment and

elements of operations tools required Sketch of pass

1 Take a 25 mm diameter Hearth tools

bar and place it in hearth

2 Take hot stock out of Anvil, sledge­

hearth, place on anvil, hammer, tongs,
measure 280 mm from hot set and
one end of stock and steel rule
cut off with hot set

3 Heat ono end of stock Hearth,

to length of 90 mm hearth tools,
tongs

4 Grip stock heated at one Anvil, tongs,

end with tongs, place hand hammer,
it vertically on anvil sledge-hammer
and upset heated part
with sledge-hammer

5 Place cylindrical part 3 Bolt-header,

of stock in bolt-header anvil, hand
2. Place stock on anvil hammer
1 so* that shank of bolt
passes through hardie-
hole in anvil, and
spread (upset) head of
bolt with hand hammer
 Chart 1 (continued)

Description of pass and Equipment and

elements of operations tools required Sketch of pass

6 Withdraw bolt from Anvil, hand

bolt-header and round hammer, tongs
bolt {head on anvil face
with hand hammer

7 Heat bolt head in Hearth, tongs

hearth

8 Insert bottom swage 2 Anvil, bottom

of %required hexagonal swage, tongs,
bolt head dimensions in hand hammer
hardie-holc 1 of anvil;
remove stock 3 from
hearth, give it required
hexagonal form in bottom
swage 2

9 Insert shank 4 of bolt Anvil,boet-head-

in bolt-header 2, place er, smoother,
stock on anvil 1 so that hand hammer,
its shank passes through tongs
hardie-holc in anvil.
Place smoother 3 on bolt
head and, by striking
smoother with hand ham­
mer, make top of bolt
head spherical in shape

10 Straighten shank of Anvil, hand

bolt on face of anvil. hammer, tongs,
Check length of shank. hot set
If it is more than 200 mm
long, heat end and cut off
surplus with hot set
 Socket Wrench Process Chart

]) os'*" ipi Ion of pass and Equipment and •Sketch of pass

No. elements of operations tools required

1 Heat one end of bar Hearth,

in hearth hearth tools

2 Remove bar from hearth Anvil, anvil

and place on anvil, cutter, hot set,
measure off required sledge-hammer,
length of stock ana cut folding rule
off with hot set and anvil
cutter

3 Heat one end of stock Hearth,

to length or 100-120 mm hearth tools,
in hearth to 1200-1250 °C tongs

4 Remove stock 3 from Anvil, tongs,

hearth, place its cold square punch,
end upright on anvil 1, sledge-hammer
drive square punch 2 to
required depth in hot end
of stock to form socket
hole
 Chart 2 (continued)

Description of pasB a n d Equipment and

No. elements of o p e r a tio n s toolB required Sketch of pass

5 Drive square mand­ Anvil, tongs,

rel in square hole to square mandrel,
make proper shape for sledge-hammer,
wrench hand hammer

6 i Swage end of stock Anvil 7,

4 with nole; after swag­ tongs, bottom
ing, withdraw mand­ swage 2, top
rel 5 from socket hole swage 2, hand
hammer and
sledge-hammer

7 Heat stock along its Hearth,

entire length hearth tools

8 Fuller bar as shown Anvil, hot

in sketch set, bottom
swage, sledge­
hammer, hand
hammer

9 Draw out centre of Anvil, tongs,

bar, hammering first fuller top and
of all to square cross- bottom swages,
section, then to octa­ sledge-hammer,
gonal and then to hand hammer,
round cross-section; calipers, fol­
swage drawn-out part ding rule
in half-round faced
smoothers to dimen­
sions given in
drawing
 Chart 2 (continued)

Descripl ion of pass and Equipment

No. elements of operations and tools Sketch of pass
required

10 Heat second end of Hearth, hearth

stock in hearth tools, tongs
11 Draw out and flatten Anvil, tongs,
end into har for handle spreader, sledge-
of socket wrench, punch hammer, hand
a hole into it, and split hammer, cape
with cape chisel as shown chisel, punch
in sketch
float split end of stock Hearth, hearth
12 in hearth tools
Bend shank of socket Anvil, tongs, MW
13 wrench as shown in sledge-hammer,
sketch (this makes it pos­ top and bottom
sible for blacksmith to swages, cali­
draw out ends of cross­ pers, i folding
bar handle); draw out one rule
of split ends by hammer­
ing to square, octagonal
and round cross-sections
in succession; swage and
draw out to dimensions
indicated in drawing
Ileat opposite split end Hearth, hearth
14 of stock in hearth tools, tongs
Draw out heated end to A nvil, tongs,
dimensions indicated in sledge-hammer,
15 drawing, in the same way top and bottom
as first end swages, cali­
pers, folding
rule
16 Straighten forging on Anvil, hand
anvil, check forging hammer, tongs,
dimensions against draw­ half-round
ing; if necessary, cut smoothers,
off surplus length of folding rule, hot
handles and swage ends set, calipers
of socket-wrench handles
160 Chief Hand-Forging Operations

o n e e n d , and p la ced u p r ig h t w ith it s c o ld en d on th e a n v il. I ts h ea ted

en d is th en stru ck r e p e a te d ly w ith th e sled g e-h a m m er. T h e h ea ted end
w ill b ecom e th ick er (be u p set) as a r e su lt of th e se b lo w s, th e reb y
fo rm in g th e h ead of th e b o lt. T h e u p set h ea d is th e n w orked in cor­
resp o n d in g d e v ic e s, and g iv e n its n ecessa ry sh a p e (sq u are, h ex a g o n ,
e tc .) in b o lt-h ea d ers.
T h e secon d m eth o d c o n s is ts in ta k in g a p iec e of sto c k of th e sam e
cro ss-so ctio n a s th e req u ired b o lt h ea d , and d raw in g it o u t to th e
required le n g th and cr o ss-sec tio n (d ia m eter).
P rocess C hart 1 d escrib es th e v a r io u s o p era tio n s and p a sses of th e
te c h n o lo g ic a l p rocess of m a k in g a b o lt; p rocess C hart 2 — th e te c h n o l­
o g ic a l p rocess of m a k in g a so ck et w rench.
 C H A P T E R VII

THE INFLUENCE OF DEFORMATION ON FORGINGS

AND THE CALCULATION OF FORGINGS

PLASTIC DEFORMATION

By the deformation of a body is understood alteration of its shapo

under the action of external or internal forces. If, on the removal of
these forces, the body resumes its initial shape, this deformation is
called elastic (reversible) deformation. If, however, the body fails
to resume its original shape alter the removal of the forces acting on
it, the deformation will be what is called plastic, or permanent, de­
formation. When subjected to plastic deformation, a body should
not display signs of rupture, i. o., should have neither internal nor
external cracks. I
Forging is based on plastic deformation, during which tho forged
metal, under the blows of a hammer or the pressure of a press, changes
its shape without breaking the continuity of the metal, i. e., without
developing any cracks. After plastic deformation (forging) the vol­
ume of a given piece of meLal will remain unaltered, the only change
being in the relative location of the particles of which the given met­
al consists.
During the process of working a piece of stock heated to forging
temperature, the blacksmith, with the aid of hammer blows or the
pressure of a press, and employing various tools, forces the metal
to flow in required directions until the work attains its specified
dimensions and shape. In order to ensure sound forgings with a min­
imum expense of time and energy, blacksmiths must be conversant
with the principal laws of the flow of metals in a plastic state.
Let us consider how a piece of stock changes its shape under the
action of the blows of the hammer dies for the case of plastic defor­
mation during forging, or smith forging, as it is also called.
Under the blows of the hammer die, tho height of the stock is re­
duced, its length and width simultaneously increasing. This is
shown schematically in Fig. 131. The arrows indicate tho direction
of the flow of the particles of metal, squeezed out by the hammer
dies. The volume of metal compressed between the ram or hammer
dies is called the deformation centre. The ratio of the increased length
to the increased width of a bar of metal, i. e., between the volume of
11—489
162 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and^the Calculation of Forgings

metal displaced along the length and width of the bar, will depend
on the shape of the deformation centre.
The shape of the centre of deformation depends on the length I of
the top die of the hammer, and on the width b of the bar. The longer

Fig. 131. Scheme of flow of metal: Fig. 132. Shape of

a) commencement of deformation; b) end ol
doformation centre
deformation (plan)

and narrower the centre of deformation (Fig. 132, a), the greater will
be the bar’s increase in length and the less its increase in width. This
flow of metal in length and width during forging is governed by the
law of least resistance. According to this law, each particle of metal
subjected to the pressure > of hammer
dies, strives to liberate itself from the
hammer dies by the shortest route. With
a long centre of deformation, the great­
er part of the metal will be displaced
longitudinally; and blacksmiths mako
skilful uso of this law.
Hammer dies and anvils or top and bot­
tom dies with narrow faces should be
employed for drawing-out metals, or
ig. 133. Drawing-out (red­ the drawing-out effected with short
oing) a piece of stock with grips, as shown in Fig. 133. Also the
snort grips fact should be taken into consideration
that the shallower the depth of deforma­
tion is, the loss thoroughly will the metal be forged through its cross-
section. The width of the ram head (top hammer die) is generally de­
termined by practical experience. If the work is to be drawn out with
short grips, then, in order to ensure a smooth surface, the stock
 Plastic Deformation 163

must be moved forward, i. e., moved across the anvil or bottom die
for a definite part of the width of the top die of the hammer.
Wo have discussed the effect of the law of least resistance on metal
for the case of the plastic deformation of a piece of work forged in
length and width between a hammer and an anvil (or dios). However,
the deformation of a piece of stock is similarly unequal along its
height. For instance, when upsetting a short solid cylinder, the metal
will flow more intensively at its centre than at the areas contacting
the top and bottom dies (Fig. 134, a).
Moreover, during upsetting, the stock
will become barrel-shapod for two rea­
sons: 1) the friction between the surfaces
of the stock and the faces of tho top and
bottom dies of the hammer; 2 ) the cool­
ing action of the hammer dies on the
metal being forged.
Owing to the fact that the faces of the
hammer dies can never bo perfectly (a) (b)
smooth, friction is always generated be­
tween tho metal being forged and tho Fig. 134. Uneven deforma­
tion of a piece of stock along
surfaces of the hammer and anvil or dies its height
where they contact tho stock. Because
of this, tho particles of metal contacting these surfaces will flow
more slowly than those located at the centre of the stock. Hence
the following conclusion may be drawn: the smoother the surface of
the hammer and anvil or dies, the less will be tho friction between
them and the metal and, consequently, the loss the motal will buckle
at its centre. In order to reduce friction of the metal, the faces of the
hammers and anvils or dies must be highly polished and lubricated
with a special grease; even then, this buckling can never be com­
pletely eliminated—it can only bo reduced to a certain extent.
The cooling effect of the dies, or of the hammer and anvil, on the
surface of the work being forged also influences the flow of metal.
Cold hammers and anvils absorb heat from the surface of the stock
being forged; consequently, the temperature at the surface of the
stock will be lower than at its centre; it follows, therefore, that the
particles at the surface of the stock will be less mobile than those
at its centre. And this increases the bulging of the work when forged.
When upsetting long work, i. e., stock, the length of which is 2.5
times more than its diameter or the distance between its opposite
sides, a double-barrel deformation can be observed (Fig. 134, b). This
can be explained by the fact that, depending on the degree of reduc­
tion in length of the stock and the speed of application of
force to the metal, deformation is diffused throughout the section
of the hammered stock to a definite depth, beginning from the
164 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

face of the ram head and the anvil or the faces of the top and bottom
dies of the hammer; in this case the metal at the centre of the work
is not subject to deformation.
The greater the degree of deformation, and the lower its speed, the
deeper will the deformation penetrate into the hammered (forged)
metal. For this reason, the capacity of a hammer, or the pressure
of the press, must correspond to the cross-section of the work being
forged in order to ensure that the metal is properly worked.

THE EFFECT OF HAMMERING ON THE STRUCTURE

AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A METAL

When a metal is hammered or forged, its macrostructure and me­

chanical properties undergo changes. These depend on the following
factors: 1 ) the temperature conditions of the forging process; 2 ) the
_________ __________ degree of reduction of the cross-sec­
tional area; 3) the method of forging
employed; 4) the chemical composition
of the metal.
When forged, the structure of the
' - metal changes in two diametrically-
, 6 v - k opposite directions. The structure of an
^ r-r. * ' » ingot when hammered becomes fibrous.
The formation of a fibrous structure is
' characterised by the fact that, when
an ingot of steel, for instance, is
forged, the liquation zones, gas bubbles,
(a) slag inclusions, etc., and, at low tempe­
Fig. 135. Elongation of cry­ ratures, the grains of steel (dendrites),
stals during forging: are drawn out in the direction in which
a) macrostructurc of cast steel; the metal flows. The structure of the ingot
b) niacrostructnre of metal after
forging changes from coarse-grained to fine­
grained, because the crystals are crushed
under the blows of the hammer or the pressure of the press. Fig. 135
illustrates the macrostructure of cast and forged metal.
Other structural changes of the metal also take place when rolled
metal is forged. The grains change to a lesser degree, as they have al­
ready been crushed to a certain extent during the rolling process.
Forging, as distinguished from rolling, results in a greater degree
of disorientation of the fibre of the metal. For this reason, the mechan­
ical properties of forged metal are higher than those of rolled metal.
As a result of forging at high temperatures, the grains of the metal
grow simultaneously with the change in the crystals. This is due to
the creation of conditions which aid the combination of tiny grains
 The Effect of Hammering 165

to form larger grains. This phenomenon of grain growth, i. e., of the

combination of small grains to form larger grains, is called collec­
tive recrystallisation. The higher the forging temperature, the great­
er will be the growth of the grain.
Collective recrystallisation tends to lower the resistance of a metal
to deformation. Consequently, metals should be forged at tempe­
ratures which foster grain growth (recrystallisation), and bo com­
pleted at temperatures at which recrystallisation no longer occurs.
This will ensure fine-grained forgings possessing high mechanical
properties.
From Lhe foregoing, it can he concluded that the structure of a
metal, and, at the same time, the mechanical properties of a forging
will depend on the degree to which its grains have been crushed as
a result of their deformation and recrystallisation.
The structure of a metal likewise depends on the reduction factor,
i. e., on the reduction of its cross-sectional area (during drawing).
By the reduction factor is understood the ratio of the cross-sectional
area of a piece of stock to that of the finished forging. The greater
the reduction fact or (i. e., the degree of drawing) the finer will be the
grain and the more pronounced will be the band structure of the
forging. Ingots can be reduced to a greater degree than rolled stock.
The minimum reduction factor for forging carbon steel (flat parts)
is 3.0; for flanges and shoulders—1.75; for alloy steels (flat
parts) — 2.0; for flanges and shoulders of alloy steels—1.5. The
reduction factor for forgings from ingots is accepted as 3-4 (flat
parts) and 1.5-1.75, for flanges and shoulders.
When an ingot is forged, its large crystals are destroyed and the
metal is made denser (compressed); this results in the elimination of
cavities, welding bubbles, etc., in the ingot, whereas in rolled sec­
tions the crystal-like structure of the metal is destroyed (crushed) dur­
ing the rolling process. The higher the heating temperature of the
metal before forging, the greater the reduction factor will be.
If a piece of work has been reduced in forging to a greater degree
than normal, the mechanical properties of the metal will he increased
along the direction of drawing, and reduced in the transverse direction.
Example. Determine the reduction factor of a forging when drawn
out (reduced) from 300 x 300 mm to 200x200 mm.
Solution. Cross-sectional area of forging
Aforg — 20x20 = 400 cm1.
Cross-sectional area of stock
Astock = 30 X 30 = 900 cm1.
Reduction factor = —^
a ,nrtt
= 400
— = 2.25.
166 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

The mechanical properties of forgings also depend on the method

of their production. The same piece of work can be forged by differ­
ent methods; moreover, the forging3 obtained by these methods can
likewise possess different mechan­
ical properties. It is always nec­
essary to try to make forgings
without cutting across the fibre
of the metal.
Let us lake two methods of
making a crankshaft: Method 1
(Fig. 136, a) by cutting out the
cranks, and Method 2 (Fig. 136, b)
by bending. The mechanical
properties of the crankshaft bent
will be the same in all its sec­
Fig. 136. Two methods of forging a tions (in journals 1 and cranks 2),
crankshaft: as the fibre of the metal has
a) by cutting out cranks; b) by bending
not been interrupted and con­
tinues along the entire length
of the shaft. The fibre of the metal of the crankshaft made by the first
method has, however, been interrupted; and for this reason the me­
chanical properties of this shaft will bo poorer than those of the crank­
shaft made by the bending process.

ALLOWANCES FOR MACHINING FORGINGS,

FORGING TOLERANCES AND ALLOWANCES

Forgings produced in forge shops are classified as rough and fin­

ished forgings. Rough forgings are subjected to subsequent machining;
finished, forgings are however not subjected to any further machining.
Before a rough forging can be produced, a forging drawing, based
on the dimensions of the finished part or of the machined rough forg­
ing, must be made. The dimensions of the forging, i. e., the nominal
forging dimensions, are obtained by adding the machining allowances
to each dimension of the finished part. Allowances are the amounts
of stock provided over and above the nominal dimensions of the fin­
ished part. The amount of the allowance must be such as to ensure
the specified dimensions and surface finish of the part.
No matter how carefully the blacksmith may do his work, the
dimensions of the forging will always be greater or less than its nom­
inal dimensions. For this reason, in order to minimise the varia­
tion from the nominal forging dimensions, forging drawings always
specify the permissible variations, or tolerances, thereby limiting
the blacksmith’s inaccuracy. Consequently, the tolerance for any di­
mension of a forging is the difference between its maximum and min-
 Allowances for Machining Forgings, Forging Tolerances and Allowances 167

imum permissible dimensions. The permissible variation from the

nominal dimension of a forging by which a given dimension can be
increased is called the upper tolerance: the upper tolerance is the
difference between the maximum permissible dimension of a forging
and its nominal dimension. The permissible variation'of the dimen­
sion of a forging by which a given dimension can be decreased from
its nominal dimension, is called the lower tolerance. In other words,
the lower tolerance is the difference between the nominal dimension
and the lower minimum dimension of the forging.

qi<M
J**********************************************
^ICS)

*****************************
Fig. 137. Location of'allowances and tolerances of external
dimensions of a forged part

Machining allowances can be minimum, nominal or maximum,

depending on the tolerances.
Fig. 137 illustrates the diagram of the location of allowances and
tolerances for the external dimensions of a part,
where A — the nominal dimension of the part;
6 — tho nominal allowance for dimension A ;
B — the minimum permissible dimension of the forging,
equal to B —A -f 6 ;
a — the nominal allowance for dimension A , equal to 6 -f--y j
C — the nominal (calculated) dimension of the forging, equal
to A -\-a\
A — the tolerance;
^— variations from the nominal dimension of the forging;
D — the maximum permissible dimension of forging, equal to:
B + -y = A -f- 6 + A.
Example. The nominal dimension A (diameter) of a shaft is
200 mm; the allowance a = 15 mm; tolerance A= ± 5 mm. Determine
the maximum and minimum permissible diameters of the shaft.
168 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

Solution. The nominal (calculated) dimension (C) of the forging

will be:
C = 200 + 15 = 215 mm.
The maximum dimension D of the forging will be:
7? + -^-= (200+15) + 5 = 220 mm.
The minimum dimension B of the forging will be:
A + 6 , where (6 ) = a — ~ -, or
B = 200 + (15 —5) = 210 mm.
Consequently, the forging will be considered as being acceptable
if it is made with a maximum diameter of 220 mm and a minimum
diameter of 210 mm.
Only forging tolerances are specified for finished forgings; no ma-
chiniug allowances are specified as finished forgings will not be sub­
jected to machining. Every blacksmith must do his best to make the
forgings with the minimum upper tolerances and allowances. The
smaller the upper tolerance and the smaller the allowance, the less
metal will be required for making the forging, and the less time will
be needed for its machining. Consequently the work will be cheaper.
It must always be remembered that the upper variations of the
forging dimensions arc the maximum limits by which its dimensions
may bo increased. The maximum upper variations should never be
increased; on the contrary, during the forging process, they should
always be reduced as much as possible.
When making a drawing of a forging, it is often necessary to sim­
plify its profile, leaving extra metal in the form of additional allow­
ances at certain places. These additional forging allowances are
simply increased allowances, which simplify the profile of a forging
because of the impossibility or high cost of making the forging exact­
ly conform to the profile of the finished work. These additional
allowances increase the consumption of metal and the time needed
for machining the forging.
Appendix 2 gives the allowances and tolerances specified in GOST
7829-55 for carbon and alloy-steel hammer forgings.

DRAWINGS OF FORGINGS

The drawing of any forging is always tTased on the designer’s

drawing of the finished part. The dimensions specified in the forging
drawing are always increased by the amount of the allowance spec­
ified for machining its surface; in addition, the forging tolerances
are also specified. In special cases, when making complicated work,
 Drawings of Forgings 169

the profile of the forging is simplified with the aid of additional

allowances.
The drawing of a forging is begun by drawing the finished contour
of the part in thin lines; at the same time the basic finished dimen­
sions arc indicated. This done, the amounts of additional allowances
are determined and, in conformity with tables, the machining al­
lowances and tolerances for the nominal forging dimensions, depend­
ing on the type of forging, aro specified. After this, the contours
of the forging are drawn around the finished contour, in thick lines,
and the forging dimensions and allowances written in. The nominal
dimensions of the forging are written above the dimension lines,
together with the forging tolerances, while the dimensions of the ma­
chined part are written in brackets under the dimension lines. If the
forging is to bo produced in a press, its nominal dimensions are
rounded off to the nearest 5 or 0. This means that all forging dimensions
ending in 3,4, 6 , or 7, are rounded off to the nearest 5, while dimen­
sions ending in 1, 2, 8 , and 9 arc rounded off to the nearest 0. For
instance, forging dimensions of 282 and 288 mm will be rounded off
to 280 and 290 mm respectively.
If a forging is to be made with a test specimen, i. e., with an
additional allowance for a test specimen, the dimensions of this
specimen are included in the drawing of the forging.
Some typos of forgings include the following elements: collar­
'd section of the forging, having a cross-section greater than the rest
of the forging, and the length of which is equal to, or less than 0.3 D ,
where D —the diameter or length of the greatest side of the collar;
step—a section of a forging with a smaller cross-section than that of
the adjacent section of the forging; shoulder—a section of the forging,
having a ctoss-section greater than that of its adjacent section;
neck—a section of a forging having a diameter or side shorter than
the diameter or side of the two sections adjacent to it.
It has already been learnt that allowances are specified for the
nominal dimensions of a part. These allowances are calculated for
machining the forging from two opposite sides, and must be sufficient
to ensure the production of a good part after the forging has beeh
machined. The amount of the allowance, tolerance, and additional
allowances will depend on the type of a forging and the proportion
of its dimensions. For this reason all forgings, depending on their
profile and cross-section, are classified into 16 types, for the pur­
pose of specifying allowances and tolerances. Fig. 138 gives some
types of forgings.
Type 1 includes straight forgings of round and rectangular cross-
section;
Type 2 includes stepped forgings of round cross-section;
Type 3 includes flanged forgings of round cross-section;
170 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

Type 4 includes collared forgings of round cross-section;

Type 5 includes necked forgings of round cross-section;

Type 6 includes stepped forgings of rectangular cross-section,

similar to forgings of Type 2;
Type 7 includes stepped forgings of rectangular and round cross-
section, with steps of various shapes and contours;
 Drawings of Forgings !171

Types 8 , 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 include cylinders, bars, cubes,

plates, discs, holed discs, holed plates, rings, bushings, solid and
hollow stepped bushings.
Below are given several examples of making drawings for forgings,
and of calculating their allowances and tolerances.
Example 1. It is required to make a forging drawing of a gear blank
{Fig. 139). The forging is of Type 11—a disc with a hole (see Fig. 138).
First of all, a scale draw­
0350 ---------
ing in thin lines is made
of the contours of the gear
blank (Fig. 140). Then, the — 0120—
V3
allowances and tolerances — •
for this type are determined t —
§
(see Appendix 8 ). The data
in this table refer to forg­ m vvsr V .
ings having a shape in
which H ^ D , and rf^0.5Z). Fig. 139. Designer’s drawing of a gear
As can be seen from this blank
table, the allowances a, b
and c, as also the variation
will depend on the
outside diameter D and
height H of the gear. In
this case, for a gear with
outside diameter D of
350 mm, and height H of
110 mm, the allowance and 0366**
tolerance for diameter D (0350)
will be 0 = 1 6 ^ 4 ; the allow­ Fig. 140. Forging drawing of a gear blank:
ance and tolerance for in­ 1 — contour of gear after machining; 2 — forging
ternal diameter d will be allowance; 3 — contour of gear blank forging
c = 2 2 ± 4 mm, and the al­
lowance and tolerance for its height / / will be fr= 13±4 mm. Conse­
quently, the dimensions of the forging will be: outside diameter
D^=D + a = 350 +16=366 mm; height of forging H —H -|-fr= 110
-f-13=123 mm; and internal diameter dx= d—c= 120—22=98 mm.
However, the forging dimensions of the hole will depend on
the nominal diameter of the punch. In this case, dx will be
100 . mm.
On the completion of the above-mentioned calculations, the con­
tour of the forging is drawn in thick lines around the contour of the
finished work; the forging dimensions and tolerances are then writ­
ten on the drawing, taking additional allowances into account (see
Fig. 140).
172 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

Example 2. It is required to make a forging drawing of the shaft

shown in Fig. 141. The forging is of Type 2, i. e., it is a stepped
forging with a round cross-section.
As in Example 1, a scale drawing of the finished shaft, in thin
lines, is made (Fig. 141). Then the machining allowances and the
forging tolerances are selected. The data of the tables given in Appen­
dixes 2 and 3 refer to forgings of the shape shown in Fig. 141, where
1>Q.3D, and ht , ,, ,, and t = 5m m (Z—being the length of the cylin­
der, D —the diametcr^of the cylinder, and k—the height of the shoul­

der). The basic allowances and tolerances for the dimensions of sec­
tions D 0, D xy D 9 and Z) 4 will depend on the dimensions of each
of these sections and on the total length of the shaft.
Additional allowances are also specified in addition to the basic
allowances for the various sections of a stepped shaft. The magnitude
of these additional allowances, S t , and £ 4, for the diameter
of each step, depending on the difference between the greatest dia­
meter Z>0 of the shaft and the diameters D lt Dt> D a and Z) 4 of each
step, can be found in the tables (see Appendix 3). These additional
allowances are calculated either for the diameters D x, D %tD t and DA,
or for the greatest diameter D0 of the shaft, depending on the ratio
of the length of the step in question to the length of the step having
the greatest diameter

A, '
In this case, the length of the shaft, L , is 875 mm; the diameters
of each section are: D o=190 mm; 7 ^= 7 0 mm; D 2= 110 mm; D a=
= 150 mm; Z)4=90 mm. The lengths of the steps are: Z, =38 mm; Z2=
=80 mm; Z,=122 mm; Z4= 85 mm; and the length of step Z„=550 mm.
From the tables in Appendix 3, the basic allowances and tolerances
for the diameters of each step are selected, as follows:
 Drawings of Forgings 173

For diameter ZZ0= 190 mm, the basic allowance a 0 will be 15+Jmm;
For diameter D x—-10 mm, the basic allowance ax will be 10+*mm;
For diameter D ■= 110 mm, the basic allowance a,■ will be 12+smm;
“"4 7
For diameterD t = 150 mm, the basic allowance a# will be 13+4 mm;
For diameter D *= 90 mm, the basic allowance a.4 will be 12+*—4 mm.
Then the additional allowances are determined and specified for
the corresponding sections (steps) of the shaft according to the
tables of Appendix 3. This done, the total allowance for each section
of the shaft is calculated:
For diameter Dx an additional allowance £ , = 6 mm is specified
I 70
since the ratio ^1= |- ^ = 0.12 is less than the ratio 2.6 given in the
table for a section of diameter D x=70 mm;
For diameter D t ail additional allowance S t = 4 mm is specified;
For diameter /), an additional allowance £ , —-3 mm;
For diameter Z) 4 an additional allowance *$’4= 0 mm.
No additional allowance is specified for diameter Da of a section
of the given dimensions. Thus the full allowance and tolerances for
the diameters of each section of the shaft will be:
For diameter Z)o= 190 mm, full allowance a0--15ltj mm;
For diameter D x=10 mm, full allowance (ax —10 4-6 =
mm;
For diameter J) 2—110 mm, full allowance (a 2 4-SJ = 12+4 =
= 16+2 mm;
For diameter Z)s= 150 mm, full allowance (at -|-5,) = 13+3==
—164:4 mm;
For diameter Z>4=90 mm, full allowance (a44 -N4) —12+6--
= 18+: mm;
/ A \

When specifying additional allowances, the tolerance ( ) is not

increased and is selected to correspond to the tolerance for the basic
allowance. Consequently, the forging diameters of the shaft, and its
tolerances, will bo as follows:
D; = iy 0 + 1 5 ± := 2 0 5 l: mm; D ;= 7 0 -fl6 ± := 8 6 ± : mm;
D'z= 110-{-16+2=126+2 mm; Z)' = 150-|-16+ 4=166+ 4 mm;
D\ = 90-fl8± := 108± 4a mm.
The allowances and tolerances for sections lx, lt , Z, and Z4 will
be calculated from the initial basis, and will be equal to those for
the dimensions of the largest section D t and the total length L of
the shaft. In this case, for a shaft of diameter Z?o= 190 mm and
L=875m m , the allowance (b) and tolerance for the length of
174 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

the shaft and the length of its various sections (see Appendix 2)
will be: 6 = 4 5 ^ 1 5 mm, or, per side: — = 2 2.5± 7.5 mm.
A sketch of the shaft, specifying the allowances, is given in Fig.
142.

After determining the allowances, Ihe possibility of forging the

sections of the shaft is checked against the tables of Appendix 5 ;
the selected allowances and additional allowances are also verified.

According to the tables of Appendix 5(a), the length / of the forged

tail section, adjacent to the section having a diameter D 's = 126 mm,
must be longer than the maximum length of 45 mm (see Fig. 142).
Actually, however, the length fxof this section is 38 mm, i. e., less
than the maximum. Therefore, this section is not forged separately,
but is given an allowance making its diameter the same as its ad­
jacent section, D 2= 126 mm (see Fig. 143). Intermediate section 2
is forged to the same diameter as section 1. The sum of the lengths^of
 Engineering Specifications 175

sections 1 and 2 (i, +Z2= U 8 mm), is greater than the maximum,

permissible when the diameter D0 of the adjacent section is 205 mm.
From these considerations, this section must be forged without any
additional allowance for length (see Appendixt 5, b).
Intermediate section 4 is forged. Its length Z, = 122/
mm is greater
than the maximum (60 mm) when the diameter D 0 of the adjacent
section 3 is 205 mm. The length of second tail section 5 is 85 mm,
which is greater than the maximum length (55 mm) for an adjacent
section with a diameter ZT = 160 mm. But, according to the tables
of Appendix 5 (b), the length of this section is less than the maximum
(90 mm) and will therefore have to be forged with an additional
allowance to a length equal to the maximum length, i. e., to a length
of 90 mm.
After checking the possibility of forging each section, the final
outline and dimensions of the forging are determined, it is drawn in
thick lines and the forging dimensions are written in. This done, the
drawing of the forging is considered as being complete. Fig. 143 shows
the drawing of the forging with final dimensions and additional
allowances.

ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS FOR FORGINGS

AND THE SELECTION OF STOCK FOR FORGING
Every forging made in a forge shop must meet definite require­
ments, or engineering specifications, as they are called. As a rule,
these specifications are indicated in the technological (process)
charts', if, as an exception to this rule, a forging is to be made without
a process chart, the necessary specifications are given in the forging
drawing.
The engineering specifications must indicate: 1) the grade and chem­
ical composition of the steel from which the forging is to be made;
2 ) the forging method and conditions (when forging responsible
parts); 3) the necessary mechanical tests and the number of test speci­
mens, their dimensions, and the places where they are to be taken
from; 4) the specifications of the mechanical tests; 5) the condi­
tions to be satisfied with regard to surface finish of a forging, speci­
fying the maximum depth of surface defects (cracks, blebs, hair-
seams, laps, etc.); 6 ) the requirements for marking the forging.
On the basis of the forging drawing it is always possible to calcu­
late the weight of the metal required for the production of the forg­
ing. The weight of metal required for making a given forging from
an ingot will be:
W i. =--+ " V * * + + w sc+ Wcrop kg,
176 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

where W in is the weight of the initial material, in kilograms;

W forg — the weight of the forging;
W h disc—the weight of the ingot head discard;
W b'd!sc—the weight of the ingot bottom discard;
Wsc—weight of loss due to scale;
and W crop—weight of loss due to croppings.
The weight of metal required for making a forging from rolled
stock will be:
kg.
Where W in is the weight of the initial material, in kilograms;
W f0rg—the weight of the forging;
W croy—the weight of the croppings and the sludge;
VT,C—the weight of loss due to scale.
Calculating the Volume and Weight of a Forging {Wforf^. The
volume and the weight of a forging arc calculated from the forging
drawing. The volume of the metal in small and medium-size ham­
mer forgings is usually calculated in cubic centimcLres, and the
volume of heavy press forgings in cubic decimetres. The weights
are correspondingly calculated in grams and kilograms.
The weight of a forging is equal to the product obtained when its
volume is multiplied by the specific gravity of the metal from which
it is made. To calculate the volume of forgings made up of irregular
sections, or having complicated configurations, they are divided in­
to separate sections of definite simple geometric patterns, such as:
cylinders, spheres, cones, etc.
When calculating the volume and weight of heavy forgings and
especially of stepped shafts, it is absolutely necessary to take into
calculation the amount of metal required for ensuring the transition
from one diameter to another. Fig. 144 gives a nomogram for calcu­
lating the weight of metal required for the transition from one dia­
meter to another in cylindrical sections. The weight of metal so cal­
culated is added to the weight of the forging.
This nomogram is employed in the following way:
1) First, half the sum of the adjacent diameters, — ^ mm is cal­
culated and the resulting value marked off on the right-hand scale;
2) Then half the difference of the same adjacent diameters mm
is calculated, and the resulting value marked off on the left-hand
scale;
3) The points so marked off on the right-hand and the left-hand
scale are joined by a straight line, which will intersect the middle
scale at a point G; this point G will indicate the weight of metal in
kilograms required for the transition of the forging from diameter
D to a lesser diameter d.
 Engineering Specifications 177

Let us suppose that the weight of metal required for the transition
of one section of a forging to another, smaller section, has to be cal­
culated when the diameter of the first section, D = 1,000 mm, and the
diameter d, of the adjacent
section, is 500 mm. D+d**
-j-mm
Half the sum of the dia­
meters will be:
1,000+500 1,500 ^ K A _____
- — 2----- = —j - = 7o0 m m ;
and half the difference of
the diameters, -1400
1.000—500 500 -1200
=250 mm.
750 is marked off on the
D+d.
2 scale, and 250 on the
D—d
2
scale; and the points
so marked are joined by a
straight line which inter­
sects the middle scale at a -600
point corresponding to 100 .
Consequently, the weight -500
of the metal required for
the transition of section
D = 1,000 to section d= 500,
will be 100 ,kg.
Example 1. Calculate
the weight of a forging for
the gear blank shown in
Fig. 140 (stock-grade Or-
3 steel).
The volume of the forging
will be: Fig. 144. Nomogram for determining the
weight of metal for transition from one
cm* section to another of smaller diameter
( ¥ - ¥ ) *

where. D —outside diameter of forging=36.6 cm;

H —height of forging (gear blank)=12.3 cm;
d—diameter of hole in gear b la n k = 10.0 cm.
Substituting figures for the symbols, the volume of the forging,
VJorg will be:
3.14x36.6*
/org 4
.q-Mxip*) 12.3 = 11,968.0 cm*.
- ( 4
178 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

The weight of the forging will be:

^fo rg ^ fo rg X & lfg j

where g—the specific gravity of the metal (steel) —7.85 g/cm*.

By substitution
Tj/ _ 1 1 .9 6 8 .0 x 7 .8 5
W i°rg ~ 1,000
93.9^*94 kg.

Example 2. Calculate the weight of Ihe shaft forging shown in

Fig. 143 (material—grade Ct - 3 steel).
The entire forging has to he divided into four sections:
1) A cylinderof length Z, = 11.8 cm, diameter £^ = 12.6 cm;
2) A cylinderof length Zt —59.5 cm, diameter D 2= 20.5 cm;
3) A cylinderof length Z,—12.2 cm, diameter Z?#=16.0 cm;
4) A cylinderof length Z4 = 9.0 cm, diameter £)4= 10.8 cm.
The volume of the forging VforR will he equal to the sum of the
volumes of its four component sections.
‘ Vforg=V i+ ^ 2 + ^8 + ^ 4 cm >-
The volume of the first section will be:
/nD* \ 3 .14x12.6* „ , , „
!/,= ( — / , ) = ----- ^------11.8—1,471.5 cm .
The volume of the second section will be:
nD\ 3 .1 4 x 2 0 .5 '
59.5 — 19,641 cm*.

The volume of the third section will he:

nD\ 3.14x10.6*
V, = ^----- 12.2=2,640 cm8.
The volume of the fourth section will be:
jt/J* 3.14x10.8* „
V.*= —Aj-1.* — ----- A
r 9 = 824.5 cm*.

The volume of the entire forging will be:

1^ = 1,471.5 + 19,641 + 2,640 + 824.5 = 24,577 cm*.
The weight of the forging will be:
24,577X 7.85 , QQ
^fo rg yfo rg XS [Link] kg-
 Engineering Specifications 179

I ijthis case, the volume of metal required for the transition from
one diameter to another is neglected, as the difference in the diame­
ters is insignificant and the volume of metal required for the transi­
tions is also negligible.
Determining the Loss of Metal During Hammer Forging. In hammer
forging, the following losses of metal are met with: ingot head and
bottom discard, when forging from an ingot; loss due to scale during
heating and forging; slug (when making hollow forgings), croppings
and remainder.
Metal losses due to ingot top and bottom discard are unavoidable
when forging from the ingot. The weight of the head discard, W [Link]
is usually taken as from 14 to 25 per cent of the weight of the ingot,
when making forgings from structural carbon steels, and up to 35
per cent of the weight of the ingot when making forgings from alloy
steels.
The weight of the ingot bottom discard W [Link] for ingots of struc­
tural carbon steel is taken as being from 5 to 7 per cent, and for
ingots of alloy steel—from 7 to 10 per cent of the weight of the en­
tire ingot. It should always be borne in mind that the loss of metal
is least when making hollow forgings, and greatest when making
solid forgings.
Loss of metal due to scale is also unavoidable in forging practice.
For calculating the weight of the stock, loss due to scale is usually
taken as being from 2 to 3 per cent of the weight of the stock or ingot
for full heating, and as 1.5 to 2 per cent for each extra heat. When
heating in blacksmith's hearths, where the fuel comes in direct con­
tact with the steel, the loss due to scale reaches 4 to 5 per cent of the
weight of the stock per full heat.
The loss due to scale when heating alloy steels is considered as
being less than that when heating carbon structural steels.
Slug is the loss of metal entailed when punching holes in forg­
ings. The volume and weight of slug losses are determined by cal­
culation. Generally, the height of the slug is taken as being one-third
of the full height of the forging H in which the hole is punched (-^).
After calculating the weight of metal required for making a given
forging, the corresponding ingot or rolled stock must be selected.
Ingots are always cast to definite weights, and it often happens that
an ingot of the required weight is not readily available. In this case
an ingot must be selected with a weight approximating as nearly as
possible to that required, but which must always be more, and never
less, than the calculated weight.
The difference between the weight of the available ingot and the
weight of the calculated ingot comprises the waste as remainder.
When making forgings from rolled sections, remainders occur as
180 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

shear waste when the bar stock cannot be cut up in an exact number
of lengths for forging. This waste can be utilised for making other
forgings.
Croppings are unavoidable losses entailed in any technological
procass of forging. As a rule, they are formed at the ends of the forg­
ing and their dimensions and weight depend on the shape and cross-
sectional area of the stock.
The volume of the croppings can be calculated from the following
formulas.
For press forgings:
for cylindrical sections of diameter D
^ , . , = 0.21 Z>«,
for rectangular sections of width B and height H:
Verop = 0.2SB*H.
For hammer forgings:
for cylindrical sections of diameter, d
V„o, = 0.23d\
for rectangular sections of width W and height H :
Verop = Q.3W*H.
Cropping losses can also be calculated as a percentage of the weight
of the forging, as indicated ^in Table 6 .

Table 6
Table of Losses of Metal Due to Croppings

Type of forging Loss, In per

cent

Forgings of simple shape (shafts, discs) 5—10

StpmmH nod flnncrftH stiAfta .................... 10—20
Connecting rods (various shapes) . . . 15—20
T.a v e r s ........................................................... 1 4 -2 5
Small crankshafts with flanges . . . . 25—30
Locomotive connecting r o d s .................... 2 0 -3 0

Selecting the Initial Stock. After calculating the initial weight of

metal (W in) required for making any given forging, the problems of
the profile and dimensions of the ingot or rolled stock must be decid­
ed. If the forging is to be made from rolled stock, the profile and
dimensions of the rolled stock must meet the following requirements:
 Engineering Specifications 181

1 . If the forging is to be made by drawing (without upsetting),

the dimensions of the cross-section of the rolled stock must ensure
a minimum reduction factor of 1.3-1.5 fer blooms, and of 1.1-1.3
for ordinary rolled stock.
2 . If the forging is to be upset, tbe maximum ratio between the
length of the stock and its diameter (and, for square stock—Ihe length
of the side of the square) must not exceed 2-2.5. If the length
of the piece of stock is more than 2.5 times its diameter, or its thick­
ness, it is quite possible that the work will buckle during upset­
ting.
When the forging is to be made from an ingot, the first question to
be decided is the number of forgings which are to be produced from
one ingot. This will depend on the weight and designation of the forg­
ing. If tbe forging is intended for an important part of a machine,
it will, as a rule, be made from a separate ingot, taking into consid­
eration the fact that, the lighter the ingot, the better the quality
of the metal will be. For less important parts, and if the proper equip­
ment is available, it is necessary to select ingots of sufficient weight
to make several forgings; in this case metal is saved and the time for
producing the forgings reduced. Moreover, when making forgings
from ingots by drawing, an ingot must be selected the cross-section
of which will ensure a reduction factor of 3; otherwise the forging
will entail end-upsetting.
The weight of an ingot for making a given forging is calculated as
follows:
1) The weight of the stock is calculated;
2) The weight of each of the following elements is calculated:
loss of metal due to scale, croppings, slug, ingot head and bottom dis­
card, etc;
3) From the total weight of the ingot, which is taken as 100 per
cent, are then subtracted, in percentages, the total weight of loss
and waste metal: loss due to scale, ingot head and bottom discard.
The resulting percentage expresses the weight of metal required for
making the forging, including the croppings.
The theoretical weight of an ingot can be calculated from the fol­
lowing formula:
(Wf0rg~\~WwaSfe)X 100 ^

where: W ing— theoretical weight of ingot, in kilograms,

W forg— weight of forging, in kilograms,
Wwastg— weight of losses (scale losses -f-head discard -{-bot­
tom discard)•
• ^waste = W sc + W kmdise + W [Link]\
182 The Influence of Deformation on Porgings and the Calculation of Forgings

T|— permissible percentage of ingot metal which can

be utilised:
T, = 1 0 0 - <JVK + w hdisc + Wtlisc) %.
Example. Required to make a smooth shaft of the following forg­
ing dimensions: diameter Z)=800 mm; length Z=5 m. The forging
will require two heatings. Select an ingot for the above forging.
Solution. Volume of forging, in cubic decimetres:

V/°rs - ■4jX8-0' 50.0 = 2,612 dm’.

Weight of forging, Wforg will be:
V/orgXg = 2,612x7.S5 = 20,500 kg,
where g—specific gravity of the metal=7.85 kg per cubic decimetre.
The loss of metal due to scale, W sc, incurred in two heatings will be:
2+1.75=3.75 per cent.
The weight of the ingot head and bottom discards are presumed to
be W [Link]= 20 per cent and W [Link]-=5 per cent.
According to Table 6 , the loss of metal as croppings W crop is
5 per cent of the total weight of the forging or:
W crop = 20,500x0.05^1,025 kg.
Thus, the total weight of the waste: ingot head discard +ingot
bottom discard+loss due to scale, will be:
20 + 5 + 3.75 = 28.75%.
The weight of metal, in per cent, lor the forging plus croppings
will be:
T) = 100— 28 75 = 71 25 per rent.
The theoretical weight of the ingot will be:
(R forg + W erop) ^ q q (20,500 + 1,025)
100as*30,310 kg.
*1 ’ 71725
The ingot is selected from the table in Appendix 1. As this table
does not specify an ingot of the required weight, one approximating
to it is selected; the weight of this ingot will be 32,368 kg.
Below are given several examples of selecting ingots.
Example 1. Select an ingot for making the forging of the gear blank
shown in Fig. 140.
Solution. The weight of the initial stock for making the forging of
the gear blank will be:
W u = W„,r' + W ,c + W ^ t' kg.
 Engineering Specifications 183

It was previously calculated that the weight of the gear blank forg­
ing, W jorg, was 94 kg, and that its volume, V/org, was 11,968.0 cm*.
This is considered a light forging and will therefore be upset from
a rolled steel bar. The only loss of metal incurred will be the slug
when punching the hole for the shaft in the gear blank. The diameter
of the slug is presumed to be the same as that of the hole; its height
will be one-third of the height of the forging.
The diameter of the slug, dsl is 100 mm.
The height of the slug, ^ * = 1 /3 # —~ = 4 \ mm.
The volume of the slug will therefore be:
3.14x10*
Vsl=V..,..,.
waste = ^ h= 4
4.1 = 322 cm*.

The forging is to be made in one heat, and therefore the losses

due to scale Vsc will be about 2 per cent of the volume of the stock.
The weight of the initial stock is taken as 100 per cent. The volume
of metal lost as scale will be:
y (Vforg + V sl) V Sc (11,968 + 322)2
Vsc 100 _ ysc 100 — 2
= 251 cm*.

The volume of the initial stock will be:

Vln = Vforg + Vsc + Vsl = 11,968 + 251 + 322 = 12,541 cm*.
The dimensions of the stock for maki ng tho forging of the gear blank
are calculated on the basis of the following considerations (the for­
ging will be upset):
1. Convenience of upsetting. The shorter the stock, the more con­
venient will it be to upset it. The stroke of the ram and the capacity
of the hammer on which the forging is to be made must be taken
into consideration. The shorter the piece of stock, the longer
will be the stroke of the ram, and the easier the upsetting opera­
tion.
2. The possibility of cutting or shearing the stock from the bar
approximating as nearly as possible in volume or weight to that
necessary for making the part in question. In this case, the opposite
holds good: the longer the piece of stock, i. e., the greater the ratio
of its length to its diameter or side of square, the closer will be the
volume of the piece of stock which can be cut off or sheared to that
required for making the given part.
3. The availability of the selected size of material.
4. The length of the stock must not exceed 2 to 2.5 diameters or
sides of its square, inasmuch as the forging is to be upset.
184 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

Taking all the above-mentioned considerations into account, in

this case a square bar 200 X 200 mm or a 200 mm diameter round bar
is selected. The required length of the stock will be:
L = Vin *
Astock
where L — length of stock,
Vin—volume of initial material, and
Ast0ck—cross-sectional area of stock.
By substitution we obtain:
12,541 12,541
20X20 400
= 31.0 cm = 310 mm.
It is necessary to see whether the selected length of the stock meets
the requirements of the fourth condition:

£ = 1 . 5 to 2.0 = g§,*1.55.
Thus, a piece of stock 200 mm in diameter or 200 X 200 mm in cross-
section and 310 mm long will be quite suitable for the forging.
Example 2. It is required to select a piece of stock for making a
forging of the stepped shaft shown in Fig. 143.
Solution. The volume of the initial stock Vin will be:
V/org + V s c + Vwaste C m '-

The volume and weight of this forging have already been calculat­
ed above, and will be 24,577 cm* and 193 kg respectively.
During the forging of the shaft, waste metal will be incurred when
cropping the ends of the forging. Therefore, before calculating the
weight of the waste metal, it must be decided which process to em­
ploy for forging the shaft. If it is forged from stock long enough to make
only one shaft cut from a bar, tbe waste will be cropped off from both
ends of the stock. On the other hand, if the shaft is forged from a long
bar and then cut off, the waste will be cropped from only one end of
the bar. In this case it is taken that the shaft will be forged from
a piece of stock long enough for one shaft only.
The volume of metal lost as croppings from both ends of the shaft
can^be calculated from the formula (for hammer forging):
Verop=0.23d* cm*'
where d is the diameter of the cropping.
For this forging, the volume of metal lost as croppings from'_each
end of the shaft will be:
from the left-hand end
V'croP=0.23d\ = 0.23x 12.6* = 460 cm*;
 Engineering Specifications 185

from the right-hand end

V"crov = 0.23^ = 0.23x10.8* = 290 cm*.
Total loss of metal as croppings will therefore equal:
Vcrop = V crop + Vcrop = 460 + 290 = 750 cm*.
According to practical data, the shaft will be forged in one heat.
The loss of metal due to scale is calculated as 2 per cent of the vol­
ume or weight of the stock itself. The volume of the metal of the stock
is taken as 100 per cent.
The volume of metal lost as scale will therefore be:
^ fo rg "f" Vcrop) ^sc (24,577 + 750)2
100—2
= 517 cm*.
Vsc 100— V5e

The volume of the initial stock will therefore be:

v ln = v f0rg + Vsc + Vcrop = 24,577 + 517 + 750 = 25,844 cm*.
The weight of the stock will, correspondingly, equal:
25,844X7.85
1,000
= 203 kg.

When calculating the dimensions of the stock for making the

above-mentioned forging, the material from which the forging will be
made (ingot or rolled stock), must be taken into account, as well
as the method of forging the shaft. The forging is comparatively
light and therefore it will be more economical to make it from
rolled stock. If the stock is to be drawn out (reduced), the reduction
factor must be from 1.3 to 1.5 to ensure a high-quality, forging.
In this case, the reduction factor is taken as 1.4. The greatest dia­
meter of the shaft, Z>, is 205 mm (see Fig. 143). Correspondingly,
the greatest cross-sectional area of the shaft will be:
A nD* 3.14x20.5*
A shaft ~ “ 4 “ —
4
= 330 cm*.
For a reduction factor of 1.4, the cross-sectional area of the stock
must be:
A stock = A shaft X 1 .4 = 330 x 1 .4 = 462 cm*.

This cross-sectional area corresponds to that of a square bar

215x215 mm. GOST 4692 does not specify blooms of this size, so
a bloom of the nearest cross-section 2 2 0 x 220 mm must be selected.
The length of the stock required will be:
Vin = 25,844
L stock = 53.6 cm = 5 3 5 mm.
A stock 484
 186 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

Thus, for the shaft forging a bloom of L = 535 mm, and cross-section
220x220 mm is required.
Example 3. Required to make a forging drawing of the stepped
shaft shown in Fig. 145.
Solution. First of all a scale drawing of the external contour of
the shaft (in thin lines) is made and the basic dimensions are writ­
ten in.
This is a Type 2 forging (see Fig. 138), i. e., it is of round section,
stepped, and of large dimensions; it will have to be made in a forging

Fig. 145. Forging drawing of a stepped shaft:

l — contour of shaft after machining; 2 — shaft forging: 3 — test specimen

press. The machining allowances and forging tolerances will be se­

lected from the tables of Appendix 3 for the dimensions of each sec­
tion of the shaft, depending on its dimension and on the total length
of the shaft. Moreover, it must be borne in mind that, for necked
shafts, the allowances for the diameters of the necks and steps D ,,
Z>2 and Dt must be increased, as compared with the allowances for
forgings of smooth round cross-section, by an amount x equal to
0.07 of the step hx, hm, and h,, i. e., by 0.07 hx for diameter Dt, by
0.07 ht for diameter D 2, and by 0.07 h3 for diameter Dt.
When increasing the allowance by a:, the tolerances given
in the tables are not altered.
The allowance per side for the length of the forging is equal to
0.75 a, for the length of each shoulder, and 1.5 <z—for the length of
each end of the forging, where a is the allowance for each correspond­
ing diameter.
No allowances or tolerances will be specified for the necks. The
allowance for the diameter of each section of the forging is now cal­
culated.
 Engineering Specifications 187

For a shaft with a length £=2,300 mm and diameter of section I

£ > ,= 2 0 0 mm, the allowance a for the diameter will be 20 mm (see
Appendix 3). As is already known, the allowance for diameter I
will be increased by
xi = 0.07^ = 0.07 = 0.07 -5- y 2Qt) = 8.75 mm.
The full allowance for the diameter of the first section will be
(20+8-75)=28.75 mm, and the final diameter £>, after rounding off
to the nearest 0 ,will be:
£>, = 200 + 28.75 = 228.75^230 mm.
The allowance for the diameter of the collar (section II) for a length
of 2,300 mm and diameter £>2= 450 mm will be 28 mm (see Appen­
dix 2). The allowance is to be increased by:
x,i = 0.07A, = 0.07 + Ld+ = 0.07 ri00~£d 4!i0 = 1.75 mm.
The full allowance on the diameter of section II will be 28 +
+ 1 .7 5 mm. Thus, the final diameter will be:
Z>,= 450 + 29.75 = 479.75^480 mm.
The allowance for the diameter of the necked section (section 111)
for the length £=2.300 mm and having diameter £>,=300 mm will
be 24 mm. The increased allowance X m will be:
/4rk« ,
0.07/?, = n0.07
A 7 f i , —D s n n7 500—300 n
——— 5= 0.07 ---- ^---- = 7 mm.

The full allowance for the diameter of necked section III will
be 24 +7 = 31 mm, and the final diameter of this necked section
will be:
£>, = 300 + 31 = 331 ^330 mm.
The allowance on the diameter of the collar (section IV) over a
length £=2,300 mm and diameter £>,=500 mm will be 28 mm. The
diameter of section IV will be:
Z) 4 = 500 + 28 = 5 2 8 5 3 0 mm.
The allowance for the end stepped section (section V) will be taken
as 20 mm. The increased allowance xy will be:
0.07/i, = 0.07 D‘~ D' = 0.07 500~ 200= 10.5 mm.
The full allowance, a, for the diameter of stepped section V will be:
20 + 10.5 = 30.5 mm.
188 The Influence of Deformation on Forgings and the Calculation of Forgings

The diameter of section V will therefore be:

D %= 200 + 30.5 230 mm.
The allowances and lengths of each section and the total length
of the forging are now calculated. The length of section 1 is included
in the total length of the forging. The allowance per side for the
length /a of section 11=200 mm will be 0.75 of allowance a on the
diameter D a=450 mm as follows:
2 (0.75a) = 2 (0.75 x 29.75) = 4.62^45 mm.
The full length Za of section II will thus be 200+45=245 mm.
The minimum length of a shoulder of diameter Z) 4= 450 mm and
diameter of step Z),=200 mm must be 110 mm (see Appendix 6 ).
According to calculations, however, its length is 245 mm, which is
greater than the minimum forging length.
No allowance is specified for the length of section III. The allow­
ance per side for the length of section IV, Z4=600 mm will be 0.75
of the allowance a on diameter Z)4=500 mm, as follows:
2 (0.75a) = 2 (0.75 x 28) = 42 mm.
The length of section IV will be:
Z4 = 600 + 42 = 642 ss640 mm.
The length of section V, including its allowance, will be:
lt = 400 + (1.5x 30.5) - (0.75x 28) = 424.75^425 mm.
The total length of the forging will thus be:
L = (2,300 + 1 .5 x 28.75) + (1.5x 30.5) = 2,388.8 « 2 ,390 mm.
The length of section VI together with collars and including al­
lowances, will be:
lt = (200 + 700 + 600) + (0.75 x 29.75) + (0.75 x 28) =
= 1,544.6 fta1,545 mm.
The permissible variations (tolerances) for the diameters will de­
pend on the allowances (according to Appendix 3); and the tolerances
will not be affected by an increase of the diameters by x. The tol­
erance on the dimension D x will be± 7 mm, and hence D x will be
230+7 mm. In exactly the same way, D %will be 480+10, D, will
be 330+8, Z) 4 will be 530+10, and D %will be 230+7 mm.
The tolerance for the length of the forging and its necks will be
as follows.
Variation (tolerance) for the length of section II:
(0.75x20)2 = 30 mm,
 Engineering Specifications 189

where 20 is the allowance for the diameter of section If, the tol­
erance for which is ± 1 5 mm.
Allowance on length of section IV:
2 (0.75 x 20) = 30 mm.
Consequently, the tolerance will be ± 1 5 mm.
The tolerance for the dimensions of the shoulders along the length
of section VI will be
(0 .7 5 x 2 0 )+ (0 .75x20)—30 mm;
then the tolerance will be±15 mm.
The allowance for the length of section V will be:
1.5 x 14=21 ”mm £the tolerance^ will be±10 mm.
The tolerance for the total length of the forging will be:
, A (1 .5 x 1 4 + 1 .5 x 1 4 ) 42 , 0 i l ___
± ~ 2 = ---------- 2----------= y = ± 2 1 mm.
The nominal length of the forging and its sections, including the
tolerances, will be:
Z, = 245 ± 15 mm;
Z4 = 640 ± 1 5 mm;
Z, = 1,545 ± 15 mm;
Z, = 425 ± 10 mm;
Ltotal = 2,390 ± 21 mm.
After determining the allowances and tolerances the forging draw­
ing is drawn in thick lines around the thin design contour drawing
of the shaft, and the forging dimensions and forging allowances are
written in, as shown in Fig. 145.
 C H A P T E R V III

HAMMERS FOR HAMMER FORGING

GENERAL INFORMATION ON HAMMERS

Heavy machine parts cannot be forged by hand, since the compar­

atively light blows of a hand or sledge-hammer are unable
to produce a great degree of deformation in the metal being forged.
Moreover, hand forging is a lengthy process and requires repeated
heatings of the metal. For this reason, hammer forging, sometimes
also called power or machine forging, is used for the manufacture of
heavy forgings. When forging with power hammers, the deformation
of the heated metal takes place either under the action of repeated
blows, or of gradually applied pressure. Machines which work on
forgings by blows are called hammers, while those working by pres­
sure are called presses.
Forging under hammers or in presses is further divided into
hammer forging, when the work is forged with the aid of flat dies,
and stamping or die forging, when the forgings are made in stamps,
i. e., in blocks containing impressions of the forging to be made.
Hammers are classified as mechanical and air-and-steam hammers.
In their turn, the former are further classified into lever-spring ham­
mers, pneumatic and friction hammers. Air-and-steam hammers
are sub-classified into single- and double-action hammers. The part
of the hammer which serves as a rigid support during forging is
called the anvil block. The heavy falling part cf the hammer is called
the ram. The lower part of the ram, which comes into direct contact
with the forging, is called the bottom die. The heavier the falling part
of a hammer, and the greater the height and velocity of the fall, the
greater will be the force of the blow of the hammer.
The capacity or the tonnage of a hammer is determined by the
weight of its falling parts. For instance, if the falling parts of a hammer
weigh 100 kg, the hammer is rated as a 100 kg hammer; if its falling
parts weigh 5,000 kg, the capacity of the hammer is said to be 5
tons. The force of the blow of the hammer is transferred through
the forging to the bottom die and then to the anvil block; the
greater the capacity of the hammer, the greater will be the force
of the blow and, consequently, the greater must be the weight of
the anvil block in order to preserve the stability of the hammer.
 Spring Hammers 191

Each blow of the hammer shakes the anvil block, which transmits
its vibration to the foundation. Of course, the heavier the foundation
is, the less susceptible will it be to vibration, but only very large
foundations can be completely free from vibration. Moreover, when
erecting hammers, it must always be borne in mind that the vibra­
tions to which they are subjected will be transmitted to the adjacent
buildings and installations. In order to protect hammers and their
mechanisms against vibration, the anvil blocks and frames of power­
ful hammers are installed on separate foundations, wooden beams
being inserted between tho base of the anvil block and the founda­
tion itself.
SPRING HAMMERS
The spring hammer shown in Fig. 146 is formed of connecting
rod 1 one end of which is connected to sheave 2, its opposite end being
connected to the rear end of spring 3, which oscillates in bearings 4

secured in frame 5. When treadle 6 is depressed, the sheave which

is connected to the crank gear commences to rotate and the spring
to oscillate. Ram 7 of the hammer is connected to the front end of
the spring. When the crank gear is depressed, the ram, which travels
between guides 8, will be raised; when the crank gear is raised, the
ram will fall and strike the forging on the anvil. The force of the
blow, and the height of the ram lift can be regulated by adjusting
the stroke of connecting rod 1 through lever 9.
192 Hammers for Hammer Forging

Spring hammers are built with rams weighing from 30 to 250 kg.
Most common are hammers with rams weighing 100 kg with a speed
of up to 200 blows per minute, and hammers with rams weighing
50 kg and speeds of up to 300 blows per minute.
The distinguishing feature of spring hammers is the simplicity
of their design which permits the regulation of the speed and force
of their blows. Their disadvantage is the frequent breaking of springs
due to vibrations when in operation.
Spring hammers are generally used for drawing-out (reducing)
operations, as well as for drawing in swaging dies.

PNEUMATIC HAMMERS

Pneumatic hammers are mainly employed for hammer forging mis*

cellaneous work and for forging in bolster dies.

Fig. 147. Pneum atic forging hamm er

The most common types of pneumatic hammers are those driven

by an individual electric motor (Fig. 147). In these hammers the ram
can be held suspended in any position, make light or heavy blows
as desired, and press the forging to the bottom die of the hammer
 Pneumatic Hammers 193

if so required. In pneumatic hammers the rams fall not only under

their own weight, but are also forced to fall by the action of compres­
sed air above the piston.
Sheave 2 is rotated by electric motor 1 located at the rear of the
hammer, through a belt drive (Fig. 148). The sheave is mounted on
shaft 3 the crank throw of which is located inside the hollow frame
of the hammer. Movement is transmitted from journal 4 of the crank­
shaft with the aid of connecting rod 5 to piston 6 of air cylinder 7.

Fig. 148. Schematic section of a pneumatic

hammer

Piston 9, cast integral with its heavy hollow rod, travels inside work­
ing cylinder 8. The piston, together with its rod, acts as the ram
of the hammer. The bottom end of the piston rod has a slit for secur­
ing top die 10. The cylinders are connected by two channels.
Motion is transmitted from electric motor 1 through sheave 2,
crankshaft 4 and connecting rod 5 to piston 6, which travels up and
down. During the down-stroke of piston 6, a partial vacuum is
created above it. As this air cylinder communicates with the working
cylinder through a channel, a partial vacuum will also be created in
working cylinder 8 above piston 9. On the other hand, during its
down stroke, piston 6 of the air cylinder compresses the air below it,
forcing it through the bottom channel into the working cylinder
of the hammer; this causes the air to exert an upward pressure on
piston 9 of the hammer, forcing the piston together with its piston
rod to rise. During the reverse, i. e., upward, stroke, the piston
 194 Hammers for Hammer Forging

of the working cylinder compresses the air in the upper part of the
cylinder and forces it through the upper channel into the working
cylinder. At the same time, a partial vacuum is created under the
working cylinder. The compressed air exerts a downward pressure on
the piston of the hammer forcing it down, as a result of which the
ram falls, i. e., strikes the forging. The piston of the air cylinder
travels continuously up and down.

Top valve
3 3 3

Bottomvolvo
Fig. 149. Diagram of air flow in the valves of a pneu­
matic hammer

Anvil block 13 rests on a foundation and is supported by wood

blocking 14. The bottom die 11 is secured by keys in the slits of up­
per part 12 of the anvil block. The ram is raised and lowered with
the aid of two rotary-type valves 15, one of which is located in the
upper channel and the second—in the lower channel. The valve
comprises a cylinder with a channel machined in its centre. This
cylinder rotates inside a bushing fitted with ports located so as to
coincide with the channels in the cylinder.
Depending on the relative positions of the valve and the channels
in the cylinder, the ram of the hammer can: 1) effect blows, i. e.,
alternately rise and fall; 2) remain suspended, or 3) be pressed against
the forging. The corresponding positions of the valves are schemati­
cally shown in Fig. 149. The arrows in this figure indicate the di­
rection of the air flow. If the valve is in the position shown in Fig.
149, a, then channels 1 and 4, connecting the valves with air cylin­
der, and channels 2 and 5, connecting them with the working cylin­
der, will be open while channels 3 and 6, connecting the valves with
 Spring and Pneumatic Hammer Maintenance and Operation Rules 195

the oujtside atmosphere, will he closed. In this position, air will flow
from the air cylinder to the working cylinder and hack. The piston of
the working cylinder and the ram secured to it will travel alter­
nately up and down, striking the forging on the down-stroke.
If it is required to hold the ram in a suspended position, channel
3 of the upper valve is opened (Fig. 149, b) thereby releasing the air
from the working and air cylinders. At the same time, channel 6
of the lower rotary slide valve, and channel 4 leading from the
air cylinder are closed; channel 4 is closed by valve 7 which can open
only inside the slide valve. When the air cylinder piston descends,
the air beneath it will be compressed, opening valve 7 and will
flow along channel 5 under the piston of the working cylinder. During
the up-stroke of the air cylinder piston a partial vacuum will be creat­
ed beneath it, and valve 7 will tightly close channel 4. Thus, when
the valves are in this position, air will flow only beneath the piston
of the working cylinder; and as the air pressure increases with each
stroke of the air cylinder piston, the piston of the working cylinder
will ascend and remain in this position until the hammer operator
changes the position of the valves.
If it is required to press the ram with considerable force against
the forging, tho rotary-type slide valve must be positioned
as shown in Fig. 149,c. Here channel 3 is completely closed,
and channel 1 is closed by valve 8 which, like valve 7,
can open only inside its valve. During the up-stroke of the air cyl­
inder piston, the air beneath the piston will be compressed, open
valve 8 and flow through channel 2 into the working cylinder. When
the piston of the working cylinder falls the compressed air of this
cylinder will close valve 8\ thus, during the up- and down-strokes of
the air cylinder piston, air will be forced only into the space above
the piston of the working cylinder, creating a high air pressure which
will cause the ram to exert a great pressure on the forging.
The rotary-type valves are controlled by a hand lever or with the
aid of foot treadle. The force of the blow is controlled by a handle
which adjusts the opening of the valve through a system of levers.
The greater the required force of the blow, the further the handle
must be turned (until it can go no further), so as to completely open
the channels.

SPRING AND PNEUM4TIC HAMMER MAINTENANCE

AND OPERATION RULES
Before commencing operations, always:
1) Check the hammer for any damage or defects, and see that
the top and bottom dies are properly secured and that the hammer
is properly lubricated;
196 Hammers for Hammer Forging

2) Remove all scale, grease and moisture from'the faces of the top
and bottom dies with a wire brush or broom;
3) Remove all tools, fixtures and other articles not directly needed
for the execution of the work in hand;
4) See that the control gear and mechanism operate properly.
During operation:
1) Always keep the forging as close as possible to the centre of the
die, as the hammer will wear more quickly, and the piston rod may
break if work is done on the edge of the die;
2) Avoid, as far as possible, idle blows of the top die against the
bottom die; heavy idle blows may lead to breakages;
3) Forge only well-heated metal;
4) See that the tongs are never caught between the dies; always
hold the handle of the tongs sideways, and not directly in front of
you;
5) Never attempt to clean, lubricate or repair the hammer before
the ram has been lowered, the electric motor switched off and the
hammer stopped. Never clean, lubricate or repair the hammer while
it is in motion.
After the completion of work:
1) Always stop the hammer and lower the ram onto the anvil
block;
2) Remove all tools, fixtures and forgings to their allotted places
and clean the working place from all scale and cuttings;
3) Always report any trouble in the operation of the hammer ob­
served during work to the shop maintenance foreman.

STEAM-AND-AIR HAMMERS

Steam-and-air hammers are most widely used in forging practice.

They are so called because they can operate eitherfcon steam or on
compressed air.
The steam-and-air hammer consists of a frame installed on a rigid
foundation. A cylinder is firmly attached to the top of the frame. A
piston travels inside this cylinder as in a steam engine; the piston is
connected to a rod, to which a ram with a die at its lower end is fast­
ened. Steam is let into the lower section of the cylinder, beneath
the piston, thereby raising the piston rod together with the ram.
When the valve is opened, the steam escapes from the cylinder, and
the piston, together with the ram, falls onto the forging. The greater
the height from which the ram falls, the greater will be the force of
the blow.
Steam hammers are generally built with falling parts weighing
0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0 tons. However, steam-and-air
 Steam-and-Air Hammers 197

hammers with falling parts weighing 25, 50, 75, 100 and 150 kg are
also employed.
Steam-and-air hammers are divided into single- and double-action
hammers. In single-action steam hammers (Fig. 150) ram 1 is attached
to piston rod 2 and travels along guides 8. Piston 3 travels inside
cylinder 4. Steam is delivered to the cylinder from the steam line

Fig. 150. Single-stroke Fig. 151. Double-stroke

air-and-slcam hammer ^air-and-steam hammer
diagram diagram

through inlet 5, thus raising the piston and the ram connected to it.
The steam is cut off after the ram has risen to a sufficient height, and
escapes through port 5. The ram falls under its own weight and strikes
the forging on anvil block 7. Located in the upper section of the
cylinder are several ports 6 designed to slow down the speed of the
piston as it reaches its upper position. It is slowed down as follows:
as it ascends, the piston closes these ports and compresses the re­
maining air in the upper section of the cylinder which acts as a buffer.
Single-action steam hammers are seldom built nowadays.
198 Hammers for Hammer Forging

Double-action hammers (Fig. 151) differ from single-action ham­

mers in that the steam is employed both for raising ram 1 and for
increasing the force of its impact against bottom die 7. This is done
by letting steam into the space above the piston as the ram is low­
ered. During the down-stroke of rod 2 and piston 3 steam is delivered
into cylinder 4 through channel^ and exerts a downward pressure on
the piston. During the up-stroke of this piston steam enters through
channel 6 and forces the piston downwards. At the same time, the
steam above the piston escapes
through channel -5.
Steam-and-air hammers designed
for hammer forging are classified
into four types, each differing in the
design of the frames and the number
of guides.
Single-frame hammers, without
guides. These hammers, as can be
seen from Fig. 152, are built with
a single frame 1 on the top of
which is bolted steam cylinder 2.
In this cylinder travels the piston
with its rod £, ending in ram 4 to
which is keyed top die 5. Bottom die
6 is keyed to anvil block 7.
The hammer is equipped with a
special steam delivery mechanism
called the steam distributor. Steam
is delivered to the top or bottom
of the piston, depending on whether
the ram is to be raised or lowered.
The steam distributing mecha­
Fig. 152. Single-frame hammer, nism is shown in Fig. 153. Steam
w ithout guides
is delivered through channel 5 and
discharged along pipe 6. Rotary
valve 2 is shaped like a hollow cylinder, diameter of its central sec­
tion being less than that of its ends. Fig. 153 shows the valve posi­
tioned in such a manner as to enable steam to escape from channel 4
through the inner chamber of the rotary valve into pipe 6 and thence
into the atmosphere. The central, narrower section of the valve
connects channel 3 with channel 5; hence, fresh steam will be de­
livered through channel 5 beneath the piston of the cylinder. Thus,
the piston in cylinder 1 will be pressed downwards by fresh steam
under a pressure of 6-8 atmospheres. The piston in cylinder 1
will not be subjected to this downward pressure of steam, and there­
fore will rise, taking with it the piston rod and the ram together
 Steam-and-Air Hammers 199

with its die. If the valve is moved upwards, channel 3 will communi­
cate with pipe 6 and the steam beneath the cylinder will escape,
while channel 4 will he closed by the central (narrower) section
of the valve, thus communicating with the fresh steam chan­
nel 5. This will result in the space above the piston being filled
with steam, which will force the piston downwards; the piston,
together with the ram, will commence to fall, thus delivering the
required blow.
Fresh steam is delivered along the pipe; before it can flow
into the slide valve chest, it flows through gate 7 designed to
disconnect the cylinder of the hammer from the steam inlet piping.
The gate consists of a cyl­
indrical valve, which is
held by a spring against
the inner cylindrical sur­
face of its chamber. When
this valve closes channel 5,
the pressure of the spring
is increased by the pressure
of the steam, the valve will
be pressed more closely to
the surface of the chamber
and, consequently, will cut
off the steam supply more
reliably. Frequently stop
valves are installed instead
of gate valves to cut off
the supply of steam.
Let us return to Fig. 152.
In steam hammers, the ro­
tary valves can be moved Fig. 153. The steam distributing mechanism
either by hand or automati­ of the ham m er shown in Fig. 152
cally. Manual control is
effected with the aid of handle 8 connected to rod 9 by a system of le­
vers. (Fig. 153 shows valve rod 8 connected to the slide valve.) Auto­
matic control of this valve is effected with the aid of curved lever 11
attached to equaliser 12; when handle 8 is disconnected, lever 11
thrusts against horn 10, which is attached to the ram of the hammer.
By this arrangement, horn 10, when the ram travels up and down,
will rotate curved lever 11 thus causing equaliser 12 to swing up and
down, forcing rod 9 likewise to move up and down, and rod 9 to
move the valve. (In Fig. 153 the equaliser is numbered 9 and the rod—
10.) This mechanism can transmit various motions to the valve and
thus ensure a wide range of hammer blows from the heaviest to the
lightest.
 Fig. 154. Single-frame hammer, with guides:
i — frame; g —anvil block; a —wooden support; 4 — bottom die; 9 — top die; 9 — rarr:
7 — piston rod; 8 — piston; 9 —cylinder; 1 0 — rotary-type slide valve; 1 1 —guides
 Steam-and-Air Hammers 201

The hammer described above is built without ram' guides, and

is for this reason called a single-frame hammer without guides.
The absence of ram guides permits unhampered forging; the work
can be approached from three sides.|> These hammers are very con­
venient for repair jobs. Their disadvantage is that, when deliver­
ing eccentric blows, the stuffing box, piston rodf^and cylinder are
liable to break.

Fig. 155. Double-frame 2-ton steam hammer

Single-frame hammers with guides. Fig. 154 shows the’cross-section

of(|a single-frame hammer with guides. In these hammers the cylin­
ders very seldom break, as the horizontal forces resulting from off-
centre (eccentric) blows are taken up by the guides and are imparted
only in a very insignificant degree to the stuffing box, rod and cylin­
der. They do not,‘ however, possess the advantages to be found in
single-frame hammers without guides: work on these hammers
is hampered by the guides which, moreover, limit the size of the
work to be forged. Single-frame hammers with guides are chiefly
employed for reducing (drawing) operations and for forging in
hoisted dies.
 10

Fig. 156. Section of double-frame 2-ton steam hammer:

l — an v il block: 2 — pillow ; 3 — bottom die; 4 — top die; s — ram ; 6 — R H frame;
7 — LH frame; 3 — foundation p late; » — guides; i o — cylinder; l i — piston rod;
12 — piston; 13 — slide valve; 14 — live steam In let pipe; I S — steam retu rn
pipe; id -s lid e -v a lv e m echanism lever; 1 7— stuffing box
 Steam-and-Air Hammers 203

The hammer is erected on a concrete foundation; anvil block 2

an d frame 1, however, are not installed directly on the concrete, but
on wooden beams 3. These beams serve as shock absorbers, which
protect the concrete foundation from rapid destruction through the
vibration caused by the blows.
Single-frame hammers with guides are usually built with falling
parts weighing from 250 to 1,000 kg, and, more rarely, with falling
parts weighing up to 2,000 kg.

Fig. 157. Double-frame bridge-type steam hammer

Double-frame steam-and-air hammers are built in two designs:

arch- and bridge-type hammers.
Arch-type double-frame hammers. The general view of a double­
frame hammer of this type is shown in Fig. 155; Fig. 156 gives the
longitudinal section of such a hammer. The frames for these hammers
are of cast steel and shaped like an arch; the cylinder is installed
between the frames.
204 Hammers for Hammer Forging

Arch-type double-frame hammers are widely used. The cylinder

and slide valve chest of these hammers are not liable to displace­
ment as a result of heavy blows, neither are they liable to get out
of alignment.
Arch-type double-frame hammers permit the work to be approached
only from two sides (from the front and from the rear); this is not very
convenient for making complicated and heavy forgings. Arch-type
hammers are built with falling parts weighing from 1 to 5 tons.
Bridge-type double-frame hammers. Fig. 157 shows the diagram
of a bridge-type double-frame hammer. The frame of such a hammer
is usually built from two rivetted or welded posts 1, to which is rivet-
ted or welded a cross-beam 2. The dimensions and weight of such
hammers are much greater than those of arch-type hammers.
The chief advantage of bridge-type hammers compared with arch­
type double-frame hammers is that they allow the blacksmith to
approach the work from any direction, thus permitting their use for
forging a wide variety of intricate work and, chiefly/for making
heavy and large forgings. These hammers are built with falling
parts weighing from 1 to 5 and even 7 tons, but more frequently,
from 3 to 5 tons.

HAMMER FOUNDATIONS AND ANVIL BLOCKS

The foundation is one of the most important parts of a hammer.

During the operation of a forging hammer, only a part of the energy
of the blow is utilised in deforming the forging. The remaining ener­
gy of the hammer blow is transmitted through the bottom die and
anvil block to the foundation. Besides this, the foundation serves as.

Fig. 158. Single-frame hammer foundation:

1 — reinforced concrete foundation; 2 — wooden beams;
3 — hammer foundation plate; 4 — anvil block; s —
foundation bolt
 Hammer Foundations and Anvil Blocks 205

a support for the hammer. The greater the weight of the falling parts
of the hammer, the heavier must be the foundation.
Weak foundations lead to the poor utilisation of the energy of the
hammer blows for deforming the forging. Moreover, each blow sets
up vibrations in the soil and foundation, which may be transmitted
to the hammer frame and result in its breakage.
Hammer foundations are generally made of reinforced concrete.
In single-frame hammers, the anvil block and the foundation plate
to which the frame is secured rest on a common foundation (Fig. 158).

Fig. 159. Foundation of two sections for

double-frame steam hammer

Double-frame hammers of the arch and bridge types are usually

erected on foundations consisting of two independent sections
(Fig. 159). Section 1 is designed for installing foundation plate 3, to
which the hammer frame is secured, while anvil block 4 is mounted
on foundation 2. Wooden beams 5 and d, usually made of oak or
any other deciduous timber, and bolted together, are inserted under
the anvil block and foundation plate to dampen the blows of the
hammer.
The anvil block comprises a massive steel casting with a mortise
on its top for securing the bottom die. The anvil block absorbs the
energy of the hammer blow, which is transmitted from the forging
[Link] bottom die and thence to the anvil block. Jf the latter is not
sufficiently heavy it will rebound under the impact of the hammer
blow, thus reducing the force of the blow and even resulting in the
damage or breakage of the hammer.
Hammers of light capacity are usually built with cast-iron anvil
blocks. The anvil blocks of heavy hammers are of steel and made in
.sections, which are secured to each other with dovetails 3 and keys 4
206 Hammers for Hammer Forging

(Fig. 160). Built-up anvil blocks are not so efficient as solid anvil
blocks, but they are easier to manufacture and to handle.
To reduce the pressure on the foundation, the cross-sectional area
of the shoe 1 of the anvil block is made greater than that of its upper

Fig. 160. Built-up anvil block

section 2. Its top and bottom surfaces must be machined smooth to

ensure close contact with the wooden beams under it, and with the
dovetail of the bottom die on top. The anvil block should weigh, as a
rule, from 15 to 20 times as much as the falling parts of the hammer.

STEAM DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL OF STEAM HAMMERS

In steam hammers the steam is most commonly distributed with

the aid of a simple rotary-type valve (see Fig. 153).
Depending on the control system, hammers with rotary-type valve-
steam distribution are classified as: 1) hand controlled, 2) automati­
cally controlled and 3) combined-control hammers.
Fig. 161 gives a diagram of a manually controlled hammer. Steam
flows from the steam line through steam inlet into throttle chest 3.
On turning handle 6 throttle 4, mounted on spindle rod 5, will also
turn, opening the port connecting valve chest 2 with throttle chest 3.
The steam, flowing through this opening, enters the annular space
in the central section of rotary valve 7. The rotary valve can only
travel up or down when actuated by valve rod 8 and lever 9.
In doing so, the slide valve will open the upper and lower ports ot
the valve jacket, which are connected by channels 10 and 11 to the
top and bottom, ol cylinder 1. The piston, together with the piston
ro d a n d th e ra m , w ill ris e o r f a ll, d e p e n d in g on th e p o s itio n o f
th e r o t a r y v a lv e .
 Steam Distribution and Control of Steam Hammers 207

In the position illustrated in Fig. 161, when lever 9 is pushed

upwards, the steam will flow from the central annular space of
rotary valve 7 along channel 10, under piston 12 and, on expand­
ing, will force the piston and piston rod 13 upwards, together with
ram 14. The exhausted steam
above the piston will escape
through channel 11 into the
exhaust pipe.
When lever 9 is depressed,
the rotary valve will trav­
el upwards. The steam from
the central annular space of
valve 7 will then flow through
channel 11 into the upper
part of the cylinder above the
piston. The piston together
with the piston rod and ram
will be forced downwards,
thereby causing the ram to
strike the forging. The exhaust
steam will be discharged from
beneath the piston through
channel 10 into the valve
chest and, through the open­
ings in the valve, into the
steam exhaust pipe.
Fig. 162 shows the dia­
gram of automatic steam dis­
tribution in a steam hammer.
The ram of the hammer has
a roller 1 which, as the ram
travels up or down, presses
against curved lever 2 connect­
ed with the rotary valve.
This lever is pivoted at Fig. 161. Manual control diagram
point 0, which can be adjust­
ed as desired. Valve 3 is connected to the short horizontal sec­
tion of lever 2, which is always pressed against the roller of the ram
by spring 4. By turning handle 5, the position of the centre of rota­
tion (point 0) of the curved lever can always be changed, thereby reg­
ulating the length of the stroke of the ram. During its upstroke, the
ram pushes the lever, thereby displacing the valve upwards. This
causes steam to flow from the valve along the channels into the top
section of the cylinder, forcing the piston down. Lever 2 under the
pressure of spring gradually resumes its former position, and steam
F ig . 162. S te a m h a m m e r a u to m a t i c c o n tr o l d ia g r a m
 Steam Distribution and Control of Steam Hammers 209

flows under the piston and once more forces the ram upwards,
etc.
Automatic distribution of the steam is effected in this manner.
Hammers equipped with automatic steam distribution gear can

also be manually operated with the aid of levers 6 and 7; in this

case, the steam distribution will be effected as shown in Fig. 161.
Heavy hammers employed for hammer forging are also some­
times equipped with automatic control mechanisms. Such a mechanism
consists of the following chief units: electric motor 22, reductor
8 and a system of links (Fig. 163). The reductor is connected to
the electric motor through jaw-clutch 10. Crank 9 which is connected
210 Hammers jor Hammer Forging

to the link mechanism through rod 7 is mounted on the shaft of

the reductor. The motion of the link mechanism is transmitted to
the valve rod through rod 13 and lever 14. To operate the hammer
automatically, the electric motor must be switched on; rack lever

5 is released with the aid of handle 6 and inserted in the required

position in toothed sector 4. The manual control is switched off by
turning handle 2 clockwise, thereby releasing lock 1.
When handle 6 is pulled upwards, the force of the blow of the ram
will be reduced. This is due to the fact that the length of the arm of
 Steam Distribution and Control of Steam Hammers 211

the link is shortened, because rod 13 is moved towards the centre by

lever S, gear 4 and rack lever 5 which is connected to lever handle 6.
On the other hand, when handle 6 (see Fig. 164) is depressed,
the force of the blow of the ram will be increased. The force of its
blow can also be increased or lessened by adjusting the length of
crank 9 by inserting pin 12 in the corresponding hole in the
crank (see Fig. 163).

Ran rises Ram falls

Steam
o u tlet

Pig. 1(>5. Combined steam distribution diagram

This mechanism permits regulating the force of the blow of the

hammer, and speedy transition from automatic to manual control,
and vice versa, as desired.
Steam can he economised when raising the ram by not completely
filling the bottom section of the cylinder with steam. The steam en­
tering the bottom section of the cylinder must be cut off in time by
skilful manipulation of the slide valve; this will ensure the further
upward travel of the ram as a result of the expansion of the steam. If
it is required to hold the ram in a suspended position, small portions
of steam should bo discharged aL short intervals into the lower part
of the cylinder, because steam, on condensing, contracts in volume,
thus permitting the hammer to drop. Should it be necessary to
squeeze the forging between the dies, the upper half of the cylinder
must be completely filled with steam. In this case, the pressure of the
212 Hammers for Hammer Forging

weight of the falling parts of the hammer on the forging will be in­
creased by the pressure of the steam on the head of the piston. Auto­
matic control is recommended for ensuring heavy and frequent blows.
As regards the degree of utilisation of energy, steam hammers
are far from being perfect machines. Their efficiency is exceedingly
low. In order to increase the efficiency of a hammer (i. e., to reduce
the steam consumption), so-called combined steam distributors fitted
with economic rotary valves are employed.
Fig. 165 shows the scheme of a combined steam distributor, em­
ploying a cylindrical rotary-type valve (a so-called piston valve).
Valve 1 having several ports in its head and slits in its central section,
is located in the valve chest of the steam cylinder and is connected
to lever 4 by rod 2. The valve can be vertically adjusted by moving
the end of lever 4. Simultaneously, the valve can be rotated with the
aid of a special mechanism 3.
In order to lift the ram, steam must be delivered below the
cylinder piston.
For this purpose, control lever 4 must be raised, thereby causing
the valve to descend, and its ports to come to the position, shown in
Fig. 165, b. Steam will then enter under the piston and the ram will
commence to rise. The steam in the upper half of the cylinder (above
the piston head) will be discharged through the channel in the cyl­
inder and the valve ports into the steam exhaust line. After the valve
has risen and the piston has made approximately half its stroke,
automatic mechanism 3 rotates the valve, thereby closing the lower
steam outlet channel and cutting off any further delivery of steam
beneath the piston or, in other words, the steam will be cut off.
At this moment the valve will be in the position shown in Fig. 165, a.
The steam, now in the lower half of tho cylinder, will expand
and continue to force the piston upwards and, with it, the ram of
the hammer. Inasmuch as the further delivery of steam has been cut
off half way through the upstroke of the piston, its consumption
will be less than if the valve had been open until the ram reached its
extreme top position.
To deliver a blow with the ram, the control handle 4 must be
turned downwards. This will cause the rotary valve to rise to the po­
sition shown in Fig. 165, c, in which fresh steam enters into the upper
part of the cylinder (above the piston) and forces the piston, togeth
er with the ram, to travel downwards rapidly and strike the forging-
At the same time, the steam will escape from the bottom part of the
cylinder through the lower channel and the valve chamber into the
steam exhaust line. During the downward stroke of the ram of the
hammer, automatic control mechanism 3 will once more rotate the
valve, so as to cut off the steam being delivered into the upper half
of the cylinder (Fig. 165, d).
 The Falling P arts of Hammers 213

THE FALLING FARTS OF HAMMERS

Falling parts of hammers include the piston rod, piston and ram.
Piston Rods. As regards design, piston rods can be classified into
solid rods, i. e., those forged integral with their pistons, and rods
with assembled pistons. Formerly the pistons and piston rods of steam
hammers without guides were usually forged from one piece of metal.
In steam hammers with guides, the pistons and piston rods are
forged separately, and the piston is fitted
onto the piston rod in a hot condition
and then spread.
Fig. 166 shows a piston rod 1 with a
removable piston 2. The piston was hot
fitted over the tapered section 3 of the
Axis of piston rod Ar/i ofpiston rad

d
JJ.V '.V A x

L 1 lb)
Fig. 106. Piston rod Fig. 167. Right (a) and wrong
with assembled piston (b) position of forging

piston rod. Head 4 of the piston rod after the piston has been fitted
is spread to fill the tapered section of the piston.
Piston rods arc forged from carbon or alloy steels. Carbon steel
piston rods are rarely used owing to their short life. Chromium-nick­
el or chromium-nickel-molybdenum steels are generally used for
making piston rods, which are annealed after forging. After anneal­
ing, the piston rods are rough turned and then heat-treated (hard­
ened and tempered). If the piston and the piston rod are forged inte­
gral, they are turned immediately after heat-treating. If, however,
they are forged separately, the body of the piston is first machined
on a lathe, fitted to the piston rod and spread; only then is the piston
rod finished on the lathe together with the piston.
Piston rods have to be replaced more frequently than any other
part of a hammer as they frequently break (every 4-12 months),
when hammers are continuously subjected to heavy duty. The chief
reasons for piston rod breakages are:
214 Hammers for Hammer Forging

1. Faulty hammer design, loosening of fastenings (nuts, bolts,

etc.) or ^wear of parts during the operation of the hammer.
For instance, displacement of the axes of the piston rod and ram (the
axes must always be in one line); misalignment of the axis of the
cylinder relative to the guides, etc.
2. Poor mechanical properties of the metal from which the pis­
ton rod has been forged (presence of flakes, residual stresses, etc.).
3. Forging struck out of centre (Fig. 167) resulting in misalign­
ment of ram and consequent breakage of piston rod.
4. Piston rod badly secured to ram.
5. Piston rod insufficiently heated before commencement of work,
particularly in winter. Never start operating the hammer until the
piston rod has been heated to a temperature of 150-200° C near the
ram. Piston rods are usually heated by packing them with hot pieces
of metal.
The piston rod is lilted to the cylinder through a stuffing box
which is designed to prevent steam leaking from the cylinder. The
stuffing box is fitted in a special recess in the cylinder, where it is
secured with the aid of studs. The studs are fastened by nuts and lock
nuts from the bottom, thus making it possible to tighten the stuffing
box when necessary. As the packing wears out, it must be compressed
by tightening the stuffing box or adding a few packing rings. Two
types of gland packings are employed: hemp packing and graphit-
ised asbestos packing rings. The latter aro far bettor and serve far lon­
ger than hemp packing. The gland is packed by wrapping a piece
of packing, equal in length to the circumference of the piston rod,
around the latter taking care to prevent the ends of two adjacent
rings from coinciding, as otherwise the packing will not be steam-
proof and steam will leak between the ends of coils of the packing
rings. When tightening up the stuffing box, all the nuts of the
studs must be tightened up in turn and uniformly. In this way,
the stuffing box will be forced upwards and firmly support the
packing.
Pistons. Pistons are cylindrical in shape, with a diameter slightly
less than that of the piston rod (1-2 mm less), and are fitted to the
top tapered section of the piston rod (see Fig. 166).
In certain small hammers, piston rods forged integral with their
pistons are used even nowadays. This design is more reliable, but
more expensive, inasmuch as should the piston break, both piston
and piston rod will have to be re-forged. For this reason, piston rods
with replaceable pistons have nowadays displaced piston rods
forged integral with their pistons.
In this case: 1) there is no need to forge the piston rod of the ham­
mer from a billet of large dimensions; 2) the piston can be used for
other rods (in practice, one piston can be fitted 5 times to piston
 The Falling Parts of Hammers 215

rods); 3) when the piston and the rod are separately forged, the
heat-treating and machining processes are greatly simplified.
Pistons are forged from carbon steel containing from 0.45 to 0.55
per cont of carbon, and are normalised after forging. They are made
with grooves in which the piston rings (Fig. 168) are inserted. Pis­
tons are fitted with piston rings for the following reasons: 1) to fill
the clearance between the piston and the cylinder of the hammer;
this is necessary to prevent the leakage of steam from the bottom sec­
tion of the cylinder into the upper section; 2) in order to give the
piston a certain amount of “play” in its travel, as the piston rings act
as springs during side blows; 3) to decrease the wear of the cylinder
walls and the piston, thus
preventing the occurrence of
scratches on the cylinder walls
and the piston and increasing
their service. /
Piston rings are made of softer
steel than that used for the pis­
ton and cylinder. Steel contain-

Fig. 168. Piston ring Fig. 169. Rigid attachment of

ram to piston rod and attach­
ment of ram head to ram

ing 0.3-0.4 per cent of carbon and from 0.5 to 0.8 per cent of man­
ganese is recommended for forging piston rings of hammers.
Gray cast iron should never be used, as such rings are liable to
break rapidly because of the shocks to which they are subjected.
Piston rings wear out very quickly and therefore have to be
frequently replaced.
Rams. The bottom end of the piston rod ends in the ram, in which
the upper die of the hammer is inserted by means of its dovetail.
Sometimes, in small capacity hammers, the ram is forged integral
with the piston rod. The advantage of such a construction is that
it makes the entire falling system (piston, rod and hammer)
far more rigid; however, this design is more expensive and com­
plicated.
216 Hammers for Hammer Forging

In modern forging hammers the rams and rods are made separate.
For small capacity hammers the rams are forged, while for large ca­
pacity hammers they are made of cast steel. Rams can he made of
carbon or of alloy steel. It should always be borne in mind that
rams and dies made of high-alloy hard steel containing more than
0.5 per cent of carbon are liable to develop cracks; and that some­
times pieces of metal are liable to fly off at the fracture. This is very
dangerous for the working personnel, and for this reason rams and
top dies should be never made of steels containing over 0.5 per cent
of carbon. They should likewise never be hardened.
There are many different ways of attaching the ram to the rod.
This is a very important matter, as the rigidity of the piston rod,
piston and cylinder, and the safe operation of the hammer, depend
on how the rAm is attached to the rod. The simplest method is that
of rigidly attaching the ram and piston rod by a taper fit, as shown
in Fig. 169.
By this method the tail end of the piston rod is forged to a greater
diameter than the rest of the rod, and then turned down to a taper.
A tapered recess is turned in ram 10 which has shoulders 8 to fit the
guides. The tapered tail end of the piston rod 1 is forced into recess
2 of the ram. Before fitting the piston rod into the ram, the latter
must be uniformly heated to a temperature of 400-450°C. This
causes the tapered recess to expand and the tapered tail end of the
piston rod will slide smoothly into the hole. On cooling, the ram will
firmly hold the piston rod. Should the piston rod break, its end can
be driven out of the recess through hole 3; moreover, this operation
is facilitated by the insertion of a copper gasket 4 between the piston
rod and ram.
The bottom of the ram has a dovetailed recess 5 for the attach­
ment of the top die 9 of the hammer. The die is secured to the ram
with the aid of key 6 and lock pin 7 To avoid breakage of the die
and ram, the central section of the die should press firmly against
the dovetail recess in the ram, with a clearance of 0.5-1.5 mm
between the ends of the ram and the dovetail wings. Lock pin
7 must be constantly checked and, when replacing dies, must be with­
drawn and carefully inspected as otherwise it will be liable to stick
so firmly in its recess, that its removal will be impossible. Prolonged
operation may result in dents in the die where it contacts the ram.
These dents must be removed from time to time by machining on a
planing machine in order to ensure the correct installation of the die.
The length of key 6 must be such that, when driven into its key way,
it will project only slightly. A long projecting part of the key may
cause severe accidents to the operators.
The key is driven into the keyway with a sledge-hammer, and
must be tightened up from time to time, as it is liable to work loose
 I

1 H !;ri
hitH
f
5 ---------------- 7

F ig . 170. D i s m o u n t a b l e 'a s s e m b l y o f p i s t o n ro d w i t h r a m
of ham m er

F ig . 171. D i s m o u n t a b l e a s s e m b ly o f p i s t o n ro d
w i t h r a m o f h a m m e r ( U r a lm a s h W o rk s )
218 Hammers for Hammer Forging

during the operation of the hammer. Gaskets should not be inserted

between the ram head and the die block, as they may lead to break­
age of both ram and die. The blacksmith must always see that the
maintenance staff have the die planed to fit the ram.
Removing the broken end of a piston rod from the ram is a very
difficult job, but this difficulty can be avoided if the attachment of
the piston rod to the ram is carried out as shown in Fig. 170 (assem­
bly attachment). Here, piston rod 1 is made with a reverse tapered
tail, which is inserted into ram 2. Piston rod 1 and liner 3 are se­
cured in place by bushing 4 which is fastened by wedge 5; the latter is
secured by lock pin 6.
An assembly attachment of a different design, illustrated in
Fig 171, is used at the Uralmash Works and other Soviet plants. Here,
the spherical-headed tail of piston rod 1 is inserted into ram 2.
A split tapered cup is placed between the piston rod and the ram. The
hollow of the cup is made to fit the upper part of the spherical head
of the piston rod. This cup supports the piston rod during its up­
stroke. The bottom of the spherical head thrusts against recessed
thrust block 4 which is held against the piston rod by key 5, beneath
which is installed thrust block 6.
This design of fastening the piston rod and ram permits the ram to
change its position relative to the piston rod and to protect it from
breaking when striking blows out of centre.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Careless control of hammers and breakages of the piston rod may

result in the piston striking against the cylinder cap with consider­
able force and causing its breakage. To prevent any possibility of
breaking the cylinder cap and the consequent breakdown of the ham­
mer the cylinders are equipped with cpocial protective devices locat­
ed at the top of the cylinder: the steam or cushion protective devices
and the stop spring protective devices.
The steam protector (Fig. 172) consists of cushion cylinder 1 bolt­
ed to the top of cylinder 8 (instead of its upper cap), cap 2 and
plunger 3. Plunger 3 is fitted with two or three rings. Steam or air is
delivered along pipe 4, fitted with a stuffing box 5. Cylinder 1 has
throe horizontal ports 6 the dimensions of which depend on the ham­
mer capacity.
This protective device operates as follows. When piston 7 strikes
against plunger 3 the latter rises and closes port 6’ thereby cutting
off the outlet of the steam; the steam remaining inside cylinder
1 is compressed and thus prevents any further movement of the
plunger and, consequently, prevents the piston rod from rising
further.
 Steam Hammer Lubrication 219

The spring stop (Fig. 173) consists of: pin 1 which passes through
top tap 1 of cylinder 3 of the hammer. When piston 4 strikes pin
i , the latter rises and spring 5 hitting against cross bar 6 is com­
pressed, thereby absorbing the blow. Spring stop-type protectors have
the following disadvantages compared to steam (or air) protectors:

1) the difficulty of regulating the plunger so as to avoid breakages

of the spring; 2) should any of the tie bolts 7 break, the broken parts
of the bolt may cause injuries to persons standing near the hammer.

STEAM HAMMER LUBRICATION

Proper lubrication is one of the most important conditions ensur­
ing the normal operation of any forging hammer. However well the
different parts of a steam hammer may be fitted to each other, if
they are not lubricated, or improperly lubricated, the hammer will
always work inefficiently. In some cases, improper or insufficient
lubricationmaylead to a breakdown of the hammer or even its breakage.
The better the hammer mechanisms are lubricated, the less energy
will be spent on overcoming friction between the various reciprocat­
ing parts. The better the hammer is lubricated the less will its parts
wear and the less repairs will it require, thereby considerably reducing
idle time. Consequently, hammer operators must carefully look af­
ter the reciprocating parts of their hammers and see that they are al­
ways properly lubricated.
220 Hammers for Hammer Forging

The rotary valve cylinder and the throttle must be lubricated with
cylinder oil which is fed into the steam inlet pipe together with the
steam. The method of lubrication is shown in Fig. 174. Cylinder oil
is poured into lubricator 1, which is a mechanism for forcing the oil
into pipe 2. It is mounted on the frame or on the anvil block of the
hammer, to which it is secured with
the aid of bracket 3 and bolts. Oil
line 2 comprises a coiled copper
tube of 8-10 mm inside diameter.
The upper end of this oil pipe is
inserted inside a special valve 4.
The Rubricator is operated hy
a system of levers (Fig. 174, a).

nr/ — 19

(a) (b)
Fig. 174. Slide valve and throttle lubricating diagram

Link 6, connected to tie rod 7 through a universal joint, is attached

to valve rocker 5. The tie rod is also connected through a universal
joint to rocker 8 which is freely mounted on bracket 9, which is in
turn secured to the anchor plate of the hammer. The other end of
rocker 8 is connected to rod 10, the bottom end of which is attached
to lubricator lever 11. Thus, at every upward stroke of the slide valve,
lubricator lever 11 will slightly turn lubricator shaft 12, thereby
forcing a portion of oil into oil pipe line 2. As the rotary valve rod is
constantly travelling up and down during the entire operation of
the steam hammer, the lubricator will be in constant motion, ensur-
 Selecting and Calculating the Capacity of a Hammer 221

ing a continuous delivery of oil. From the oil line the oil flows into
the valve 4 illustrated in Fig. 174, b.
The body of this valve has two holes. The left-hand hole is plugged
with a special bolt 14 with a recess in which are inserted spring
15 and valve 16. The flange of valve 16 thrusts against nut 17 which
is screwed into the right-hand hole of the valve body. The end of
the oil pipe is inserted into hole 18 of nut 17 through a special
union. Oil is delivered under pressure along the oil line from the
lubricator. This pressure compresses valve spring 15. From here, the
oil flows through the third top hole in nut 19 into the steam inlet
pipe of the hammer.
The oil, on entering the steam line, is atomised by the steam and
mixes with it uniformly. Owing to the fact that the temperature of
the cylinder walls of the hammer is lower than that of the steam, the
steam condenses on the walls, and the oil mixed with the steam cre­
ates a thin lubricating him. To ensure better atomisation of the
oil, the oil pipe must be inserted exactly in the centre of the steam
pipe.
The guides are lubricated with grade T nigger oil, which possesses a
high degree of viscosity. They must be greased by hand, with a long-
handled brush so as to protect the hands of the hammer operator
lubricating the guides from being caught by the moving parts. When
greasing guides, it is always necessary to make sure that they are even­
ly greased along their entire length, and that no foreign matter, like
scale or chips of metal, fall on them. Otherwise the guides will be
scratched.
To ensure the easy operation of the hammer, the universal joints
of the control rods and levers should be regularly lubricated. Uni­
versal joints-which rotate in roller bearings must bo greased with soli-
dol. Bushed joints must he lubricated with machine oil.

SELECTING AND CALCULATING THE CAPACITY OF A HAMMER

In hammer forging, the necessary reduction and, consequently,

good-quality forgings, are difficult to attain on hammers of insuffi­
cient capacity. In addition, the forging time will be longer, more heat­
ings will be required, the fuel consumption and loss of metal due
to scale will be increased, as also the cost of the forging itself. If,
on the other hand, a forging is made on a hammer of more than the
required capacity, the forging cost will be increased as a result of
increased overhead expenses. For this reason, the question of the prop­
er selection of hammer capacity for making a given forging acquires
great importance.
The necessary weight of the falling parts of a hammer depends on:
1) the cross-sectional area of the forging; 2) the operations entailed
222 Hammers for Hammer Forging

in making the forging (drawing, upsetting, etc.); 3) the material of

which the forging is to be made, and on a number of other conditions.
The question as to which hammer to employ for making a definite
forging is usually decided by the shop administration: the black­
smith is given a process chart which indicates the method of making
the given forging and the equipment on which it is to be made. But
every blacksmith should know that the forging which he is to make
must be made on a hammer of the proper capacity. This is necessary
to enable him to increase his productivity an d to try to lower the
cost of his forgings. As a rule, the required capacity of the hammer is
selected by formulas, charts and tables which have been drawn up
on the basis of experience. Table 7 gives data for determining the ca­
pacity of a hammer required for the production of forgings depending
on their weight and cross-section.
Table 7
Chart for Selecting Hammer Capacities
W eight of forgings, kg

Smooth Maximum
Weight of Shaped forgings cross-section
shafts
fal liner of stock, mm
parts, kg (dianielcr or
Average Maximum Maximum side of square)
weight weight weight

100 0 .5 2 10 50
150 1 .5 4 15 60
200 2 .0 6 25 70
300 3 .0 10 45 85
400 6 .0 18 60 100
500 8 .0 25 100 115
750 1 2 .0 40 140 135
1,0 0 0 2 0 .0 70 250 160
2 ,0 0 0 6 0 .0 180 500 225
3 ,0 0 0 1 0 0 .0 320 750 275
5 ,0 0 0 2 0 0 .0 700 1 ,5 0 0 350

Charts for selecting the weight of the falling parts of hammers have
been drawn up on the basis of data supplied by G. Reznichenko,
E. Duletov and I. Grigoryev. Figs 175 and 176 give diagrams for:
1) selecting the weight of falling parts of a hammer for rolling
rings, depending on their inside diameter and height; and
2) determining the weight of the falling parts of a hammer for
making gear-type forgings by the upsetting method.
Example of Employing the Diagrams. It is required to determine
the weight of the falling parts of a hammer for making a ring by roll­
ing, if d (inside diameter)=800 mm and h (height)=185 mm.
 Selecting and Calculating the Capacity of a Hammer 223

Solution: A point corresponding to 800 mm is marked off on the

vertical scale of the diagram (Fig. 176) and a point corresponding to

Heiohi (h)t mm
. Fig. 175. Chart for selecting weight of falling parts of a hammer
for rolling ring-type forgings

185 mm—the height of the forging—on the horizontal scale. From

the point corresponding to 800 on the vertical scale, a horizontal line
is drawn, and a vertical line from the point corresponding to 185 mm
224 Hammers for'Hammer Forging

on the horizontal scale. The point of intersection of these two straight

lines will fall within the range of hammers with falling parts weighing
5 tons. Consequently, a hammer of 5-ton capacity will be required
for forging the ring.

Fig. 176. Chart for selecting weight of falling parts of a hammer

for upsetting gear-type forgings

MAINTENANCE OF STEAM-AND-AIR HAMMERS

Before commencing work, always:

1) Inspect the hammer for any damage and defects; see that it is
properly lubricated; that the dies are reliably secured; that the top
and bottom die blocks are in perfect alignment; that the piston rod
and the upper die block are properly heated;
2) Check the die-blowing mechanism;
3) Prepare all tooltf for work;
4) Remove all tools, fixtures and other objects not directly need­
ed for the work in hand;
5) Open the steam-and-air line exhaust valves fully, then slightly
open the air-and-steam line inlet valves and blow out the steam and
air system, after which fully close the steam inlet valve;
 Drop Hammers 225

6) Remove all water which may have accumulated in the cylin­

der after prolonged shutting-down of the hammer (for repairs, rest
days, holidays, etc.).
During operation, it is necessary:
1) To see that the keys securing the die blocks to the ram and an­
vil block are firmly driven into place; see that the top and bottom
dies are in perfect alignment; f* P
2) To avoid idle blows of the top die against the bottom die;
heavy idle blows may break the piston rod;
3) Not to forge metal which has cooled below the permissible tem­
perature;
4) To see that the tongs are never caught between the dies;
always hold the handle of the tongs sideways, and never directly in
front of you;
5) Never allow the dies to be examined or cleaned while the ham­
mer is in operation; before doing so, always stop the hammer and
lower the ram on a special fixture;
6) To give your orders to the hammer operator loudly and clear­
ly; to indicate the required force of the blow by the following com­
mands: “Strike lightly”, “Strike more heavily”; and indicate the num­
ber of blows by the commands: “Strike once”, “Strike twice”, “Strike”,
“Stop”; only the blacksmith may give orders to the hammer operator;
his helpers may not give any orders to the hammer operator;
7) When the job in hand is finished, stop the hammer by giving
the order “Stop”; and, only after the hammer has been stopped, re­
move the forging from the bottom die;
8) Always warn the hammer operator before placing any tool on the
forging or changing its position.
After the completion of the day’s shift:
1) Stop the hammer and lower the ram smoothly;
2) Close the valves on the steam inlet and outlet lines;
3) Remove all tools, fixtures, forgings and waste metal to their
proper place;
4) Check the chief parts of the hammer and report all defects and
troubles to the maintenance man on duty or to the foreman;
5) Put your working place in order and wipe the hammer clean.

DROP HAMMERS

Drop hammers include all power driven hammers in which the

ram, after being raised to a definite height, falls freely under its own
weight. The force of the blows of these hammers will be the greater,
the greater the weight of the ram and the height of its fall. Usually,
drop hammers are employed for stamping (die-forging) light and
medium weight forgings.
226 Hammers for Hammer Forging

The following types of drop hammers are employed in modern forge

shops: 1) belt drop hammers, in which the ram is suspended jfrom
a belt; 2) rope drop hammers, with the ram suspended from a rope;
and 3) board drop hammers.
Belt Drop Hammers. Fig. 177 shows the arrangement of a belt drop
hammer. Ram 1 is suspended from belt 2, which is passed over rotat­
ing pulley 3 mounted on shaft 4 and rotated by sheave 5. Flywheel
6 is mounted on the opposite end of shaft 4 which runs in bearings 7.

/k

i t

Fig. 177. Belt drop hammer

The ram travels in guides 8. If we pull the belt by means of handle

9, it will be pressed against pulley 3. As a result of the friction aris­
ing between the belt and the pulley the latter will carry the belt
with it, raising the ram. If we then release the belt, the ram will
fall under its own weight onto the forging on the anvil or bottom die.
The anvil or bottom die rests on plate 10 of anvil block 13. Lever
11 serves for holding the ram at any desired height; lever 12 sorvos
for starting pulley 3. The disadvantage of these hammers consists in
the rapid wear of the belts which are in constant contact with rotat­
ing pulley 3.
 Drop Hammers 227

The mechanism of belt drop hammers is operated by 5-15-hp elec­

tric motors. Generally, these hammers are made with rams from 100
to 150 kg in weight.
Board Drop Hammers. The operation of a board drop hammer
will be clear from Fig. 178. Board 1 (Fig 178, a) to the lower end of
which is attached ram 2 is installed between two rotating rolls 3.
Oh pressing the rolls against the board, the friction between them and
the board will raise the latter, and with it, the ram. Fig. 178 shows
fh
4

(W

Fig. 178. Scheme of board drop hammer

the ram held in its lop position with the aid of brake'shoes 4. On
raising the brake shoes 4 as shown in Fig. 178, a, the hoard, and with
it the ram, will drop and strike the forging.
The ram is made of forged or cast steel. During its travel, the sides
of the ram, which are grooved, slide in guides of the frame posts. The
top die is secured to the lower part of the ram with the aid of keys..
The board is attached to the head of the ram with the aid of key
5 and pressure holts. Boards are usually made ofjhigh-grade hard
wood, beech, for instance. |g
In modern board drop hammers, each roll is rotated by a separate
electric motor. They are switched in automatically by a lever operat­
ed by the ram during its up-stroke. The position of this lover can be-
adjusted to regulate the height to which the ram is raised. After the
rolls have been disconnected, the board will be held in its raised posi­
tion by brake shoes 4 until they are raised by depressing the treadle.
228 Hammers for Hammer Forging

Drop hammers are employed for die stamping miscellaneous

work of light and medium weight. The disadvantages of these ham­
mers are: 1) the hoards are liable to frequent breakages; 2) the diffi­
culty of controlling the force of the blow durin ; operation.
Maintenance of Drop Hammers. Before commencing work on a
drop board hammer, the blacksmith must check all holt fastenings,
the boards, belts and die blocks; see that the ram is not cracked and
that the die is securely fastened to the ram, etc.; check the fastening
of the reductor and electric motors on the top of the hammer. Before
inspecting the top part of the hammer, current must be switched
off. All unneeded objects, such as wrenches, tools and small pieces
of work must he removed from the top of the hammer.
After the hammer has been checked and the working place has
been prepared (tools, fixtures and stock), the electric motors can be
switched on. The hammer must be started gradually, and the elec­
tric motor allowed to run idle for some time. After making sure that
the electric motors are running properly and that the hammer is in
good condition, a few blows may be made on a board placed on the
bottom die. In doing so, the blacksmith must take special care to see
that the ram does not fall when held suspended, i. e., that the brake
shoes work properly. If, for any reason, the ram starts slipping when
it should remain suspended (for instance, because the board has be­
come worn, or is not of the proper thickness), work on the hammer
should not be commenced, as the ram may fall unexpectedly and
cause severe injuries to personnel or result in a breakdown.
During the operation of drop hammers, the same rules as for the
operation of mechanical and steam hammers must be observed.

HAMMER OPERATION SAFETY RULES

The blacksmith must always hold the forging horizontally on the

anvil, or bottom die of the hammer. This is particularly important
with old hammers, the anvil blocks of which usually sink into the
soil as a result of the sinking of the foundation. In practice, the anvils
(bottom dies) of such hammers are frequently much lower than is re­
quired to ensure the normal position of the blacksmith’s body during
his work. When a blacksmith forges a long piece of stock, he frequent­
ly has to look along the length of the forging to see that it is perfectly
straight; to do this, he is obliged to bend to the level of the anvil
(or of the bottom die), or else raise the end of the forging. As it is
very inconvenient and fatiguing to work on an anvil or bottom die
located at a low level, it is natural for the blacksmith to prefer rais­
ing the forging. Should the ram strike the forging when it is raised
for inspection, the blow will unavoidably tear the forging or tongs
out of the blacksmith’s hands. For this reason the normal height of
 Hammer Operation Safety Rules 229

the face of the anvil or of the bottom die above floor level should be
from 650 to 750 mm.
The top and bottom dies must be of the same width. A top die
wider than the bottom die will be dangerous, because the tongs hold­
ing the forging can in this case be forced down and torn out of the
blacksmith’s hands by the overlapping of the top die. Therefore, as
a rule, the top and bottom dies must be of equal width, and their
edges should coincide.
The top and bottom dies must always make perfect contact with
each other and be in perfect alignment. Improper contact of the dies,
or uneven settling of tbe anvil block may lead to clearances between
them at one side. This will, during forging, result in uneven deform­
ation of the stock, and lead to crooked forgings. Moreover, when the
dies are so positioned, the tongs will always be subject to considera­
ble strains, and sometimes the blacksmith will be unable to retain his
hold on them, and they may fly out and injure nearby personnel. The
same may happen if the top and bottom dies are out of centre, or
misaligned, as a result of faulty keying of the top die in the piston
rod, or as a result of the piston rod itself being out of centre in the
gland.
The forging must always be held in the centre of the anvil (or bot­
tom die). Burnt metal, or metal which has cooled below the permis­
sible temperature must never be forged. As a rule, the blacksmith
and the hammer operator must see to this; and they will act properly
if they refuse to forge cold metal.
When cutting hot metal, the last blows must be lighter, and great
care must be taken to place the cutting tools correctly on the work.
Never cut cold metal without special fixtures. If the forging is being
executed with the aid of a crane, i. e., if it is suspended from chains,
care must be taken to see that the impact of the hammer is not trans­
m itted to the chain—the chain should always be slackened out in
time.
Hand tools should never be held at right angles to the body;
for instance, the handle of a hammer should always be held at the
side.
All scale falling off the forging must be brushed away from the an­
vil or bottom die. This is extremely necessary, both for safety’s sake,
and to ensure a clean surface of the forging. Scale should never be re­
moved with bare hands, or even with gloved hands, as the hand
or glove may be crushed between the hammer dies. Every hammer
must he equipped with a long hose with a nipple, connected to an
air or steam line, for blowing the scale away. In the absence of a hose,
the scale can be removed with a brush or broom, which must always
be placed near every hammer. The stuffing boxes must always be prop­
erly drawn up, to prevent hot condensed water from leaking when
230 Hammers for Hammer Forging

the hammer strikes, and causing burns. If the anvil or bottom die is
wet, because of leakage from the stuffing box, the scale which falls
on the anvil or die during work will fly off in all directions with great
force, which can be dangerous to people standing near.
Before commencing work on a steam hammer, the condensed wa­
ter should always be removed from the cylinder. The valve chest
should be warmed by letting in the steam gradually. Then the cylin­
der is run in with several idle strokes of the piston rod.
The top die and the piston rod must always be heated before com­
mencing -work. This can be done by placing a hot bar on the die
and wrapping tow impregnated with masout round the piston, and
setting fire to it. It is particularly important to heat the piston rod
and die in winter. As a rule, work should not be started in winter if
the temperature of the die and rod is less than 50-100°G.
All protruding and moving parts of the hammer must be protected
in order to avoid accidents. If the hammer is operated with the aid
of a treadle the latter must be protected so as to prevent all possibil­
ity of its being accidentally depressed.
The hammer operator strikes the work at the blacksmith’s orders
but if he notices that the blacksmith has placed his tool on the work
wrongly, or is about to use a dangerous method in his work, he must
refrain from striking, and is bound to warn the blacksmith of his mis­
take. The hammer operator’s duties also include keeping the stuffing
boxes in good condition, drawing them up whenever needed and re­
placing old and worn-out packing.
The keys of the dies must always be tightened up in good time. As
a rule, idle blows of the top die against the bottom die should never
be allowed. When stopping the hammer, the ram must be gently
lowered to its extreme lower position and the hammer motors
switched off.
It should never be attempted to make any repairs or adjustments
to the hammer during its operation. Also, all the safety rules should
be strictly observed when repairing hammers and operating auxilia­
ry equipment.
Replacing Dies. The dies are delivered to the hammers by overhead
travelling cranes. Dies are made with handling holes, and, when
being handled, rods are inserted into the holes of the die, the crane
chains slung over the rods, and the die is then delivered to the ham­
mer. But as a rule the hammer prevents the chain from being brought
exactly into the position for installing the die. The workers have
to swing the die until it is exactly over its place of installation; at
this moment, the chain must be rapidly lowered, and the die wiJl
fall into its required position. But the first attempt is not always suc­
cessful and the operation must be repeated, often several times, be­
fore the die falls in place.
 Hammer Operation Safety Rules 231

T h is m eth o d of in s ta llin g d ies is b y n o m ea n s safe; th e c h a in m ay

fly off th e rod s and in ju re n ea rb y w orkers; m oreover, fingers are fre­
q u e n tly cru sh ed d uring th e lo w er in g of th e d ie in to p o s itio n . T here­
fore, sp e c ia l fix tu res h a v e to be u sed for in s ta llin g dies; F ig . 179 sh o w s
on e of th e se fix tu res w h ic h en su res safer w o rk in g c o n d itio n s.
T h is fix tu re c o n sis ts o f rod i , w e ld e d in to th e gro o v e of c o u n te r ­
w e ig h t 2. T w o h o o k s 4 are m o u n te d on t h is rod , an d h a n d le 3 is w e ld ­
ed to th e c o u n te r w e ig h t. From th e en d o p p o site to th e c o u n te rw eig h t
are su sp en d ed tw o e n d le ss c h a in s, w ith th e ir s lin g in g lin k s 5 slu n g

Fig. 179. Fixture for installing dies and stamps

th ro u g h c o n n e c tin g rin g 6. O ne of th e se c h a in s 7 is s ta tio n a r y , an d is

secu red b y strap 8. M o v a b le c h a in 9 ca n b e s h ifte d to s u it th e d im e n ­
sio n s of th e sta m p s or d ies. T h e c h a in is p rev e n ted from s lip p in g b y
sto p s 10.
W h en it is req u ired to sh ift or in s ta ll sta m p s or d ies, th e en d s of
th e ov erh ea d tr a v e llin g cran e c h a in s are secu red to h o o k 4; th e d ie
or sta m p is th e n lifte d w ith th e a id of lif t in g rod s 11 an d c h a in s 5
a n d in s ta lle d on th e h am m er.
C h a n g in g P a c k in g a n d R ep a irin g G la n d s. C o n v e n ien t and sta b le
la d d ers are req u ired w h en r e p la c in g g la n d p a ck in g s or rep airin g
g la n d s. U s u a lly , ord in ary p o rta b le la d d e rs are e m p lo y e d , h u t th e y
are u n sta b le and w ork ers fr e q u e n tly f a ll from th em . F o ld in g lad d ers
w ith p la tfo rm s are b est and sh o u ld b e u sed w h erever p o ssib le .
M isce lla n e o u s M a in ten a n c e W o rk . B efore co m m en cin g a n y k in d
of m a in te n a n c e w ork , th e p erson n el m u st be p rop erly in str u c te d , so
as to a v o id a cc id e n ts.
 CHAPTER IX

FORGING OPERATIONS AND HAMMER FORGING TOOLS

THE PRINCIPAL FORGING TOOLS

Dies. Dies are the chief forging tools. The metal is deformed
between the hammer dies, the bottom die supporting the work and the
various tools employed during the forging operations.

(b)
Fig. 180. Attachment of dies

Dies are used in pairs—top and bottom dies (Fig. 180). The top die
2 is fitted to the ram, and the bottom die 1 to the sow-block
8 by means of dovetails, and both are held in place with keys 4,
 The Principal Forging Tools 233

J, 6 and 7; they are likewise locked to prevent longitudinal move­

ment with the aid of dowel or locking pins. In single-frame hammers,
when the frame hinders the removal of the keys, bottom die 1 and top
die 2 are secured from both sides (Fig. 180, a), the top left-hand key 5
being driven into the dovetail with its thin end towards the black­
smith, and the right-hand key 4 with its thin end towards the frame.
When replacing dies, the left-hand key is driven out first, after
which the right-hand key, having been thus loosened, can be taken
out by hand. In other hammers the dies are secured in place by one
key only (Fig. 180, b). A groove for the dowel pin is machined in the
centre of ram 3 and sow block 8.
The shape of each die is determined by the purpose for which i
is designed. In hammers for hammer forging the top die is usuall;
made with a flat working surface. Bottom dies are made in three de­
signs: flat, recessed and saddle dies. The fiat bottom die 1, together
with its flat top die 2 (Fig. 181, a) are universal forging tools and are
employed for many forging operations: for drawing, upsetting, for
punching holes, etc.
The recessed bottom die (Fig. 181, b) is a special forging tool. It
is employed only for forging round work such as, for instance, rail­
way car axles. The die for rolling (saddling) rings, called a saddle
(Fig. 181, c) is also a special forging tool and is only employed for
this purpose.
When a forging job calls [Link] a recessed bottom die and a
flat bottom die the combined die designed by P. Levandovsky should be
substituted for them (Fig. 182). This combined die obviates the ne­
cessity for changing dies. In this case flat die 1 serves as a sup­
port for recessed die 2 when the latter is needed. When carrying out
forging operations needing only flat bottom dies, the work is done
without insert 2. For drawing operations which have to be executed
in recessed dies, insert die 2 is placed on flat die i , thus transforming
it into a recessed die.
The recessed die is secured in place on flat die 1 by means of guide
pins 3 (see Fig. 182) inserted into the hole of flat die i , the diameter
of the hole being about 20 mm larger than that of the guide pin, to
exclude any possibility of the latter sticking in the hole. The dia­
meter of the pin holes is smaller at the bottom than at the top, and
thoy have an outlet 4 in the side of the die to facilitate the extraction
of scale. When it is necessary to work with flat dies, recessed die 2
is removed.
Dies are generally forged out of grade 30 and grade 50 carbon steel,
and are not hardened. Their working surfaces must be made with
rounded edges, since sharp edges will lead to cold shuts and are liable
to cut the fibre of the metal when reducing (drawing) the forgings.
In smith hammers, the bottom dies are generally made longer than
 (0 (0
F ig . 181. H a m m e r fo rg in g dies:
-.b ottom jd le; 2 — top_dIe; 3 — handling holes; 4 — d ovetail — dowel groov

F ig. 182. C o m b in ed d ie fo r fo rg in g h a m m e r
 The Principal Forging Tools 235

the top ones. This facilitates the location of the various implements
on the dies during forging, such as: saddles, inserts, insert dies, etc.,
and also makes for greater convenience in straightening long forg­
ings, such as shafts. However, the width of the top and bottom dies
must always be the same.
The working surface of the dies must always be absolutely smooth,
without any visible dents. The entire working surface of the top die
must be absolutely flat and, when lowered onto the bottom die,
must make perfect contact with the latter. Insufficiently close contact
between the faces of the top and bottom dies may be due to their in­
correct machining, improper installation of the anvil block, and oth­
er causes.

(b) ^ (e) (d)

Fig. 183. Blacksmith’s hot sets

The width of the die is selected to suit the capacity of the ham­
mer, as, the wider the die, the less energy will be transmitted by the
impact to each unit of area of the metal which is to be worked. Re­
cessed dies are made from 15 to 20 per cent wider than flat dies, as,
when forging between such dies, the metal contacts a smaller area of
the working surface of the die than when forging in flat dies.
Hot Sets. Hot sets are used for cutting metal. Fig. 183 illustrates
the types of hot sets most commonly used in forging practice.
Single-sided, hot sets (Fig. 183, b), having a cross-section in the shape
of a rectangular trapezium, are used when it is required to cut
stock so that the cut end is perfectly smooth and square.
Double-sided hot sets (Fig. 183, a), having a cross-section shaped like
an equilateral trapezium, are also used for cutting stock; when they
are used the ends of the cut stock will not always be square.
Fig. 183, c, shows a hot set employed for cutting round bars on
recessed dies. Such a hot set damages the surface of recessed dies
less than others. Fig. 183, d, illustrates a shaped hot set.
Hot sets are made of grades 40 and 50 carbon steel, while those of
large size are made of grades 5XHM, 5XTM and other grades of steel.
236 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

The handles of hot sets are made of grade 15 or grade 20 carbon

steel, and are either forged together with the hot set from a single
piece of steel, or separately, from a steel rod, after which they are

(«> (t>) (C) (t) (e)

Fig. 184. Cutlers-
a) 6quart>cutter; b) ruitcr used with receded dies; c) half-round cutter' d) flat square cutterj
e) side cutter

attached to the set. Separate handles, forged from rods, are however
preferable, particularly for the larger hot sets. Hot sets are heat-
Lreated (hardened with subsequent tempering) in order to prolong
their life. They must be cooled from timo to time in the course of work.

Fig. 185. Setting tools:

a) round set; b) oval set; c) side set; d) square set

Gutters. Gutters are used as auxiliary tools when cutting and as

extensions for cutting off burrs, when the height (thickness) of the
forging is greater than that of the hot set, and in other cases. Fig. 184
shows the most commonly used types of cutters. They are made of
grade 35 or 40 carbon steel, and their handles—of grade 15 or 25
carbon steel.
 The Principal Forging Tools 237

Setting Tools. Setting tools (Fig. 185) are used chiefly for heavy
forgings and are made in various sizes. They are used much in the same
way as fullers, i. e., for the first forging operation—for marking the
limits of the sections of a forging. They are made in various shapes,
as illustrated in Fig. 185—round, oval, triangular (called side-sets)
and square. If, for instance, it is required to draw out one end of a
square bar to a round section, the tool is set on the bar at the point
where reduction is to begin, and forced to a slight depth into the bar
with a hammer. The setting tool will thus make notches in the bar to
indicate the boundaries between the different sections of the forging.

Fig. 186. Spoon fuller Fig. 187. Tapered set

These tools are made of grades 35 and 40 carbon steel; their

handles—of grades 15 and 25 carbon steel. Small sets are forged
together with their handles.
Fullers. Fullers or spreaders, as they are sometimes called, are
used for drawing-out (reducing) heavy forgings to smaller cross-sec­
tions, if the distance between the shoulders and flanges is less than
the width of the dies. In such cases, flat fullers are used for reducing
the cross-section of the stock.
Fullers are mado in various cross-sections and dimensions to suit
the stock with which they will be used. Setting tools are often used as
fullers. When drawing-out large flat surfaces both in length and width,
spoon-shaped fullers, as shown in Fig. 186, are used. They are called
spoons because of their shape. Fullers are made of grade 35 or 40
carbon stoel; their handles are made of grade 15 or 25 carbon steel.
Tapered Sets. Tapered sets (Fig. 187) are used for finishing opera­
tions when making tapered forgings. They are used in pairs, and are
made with various angles, not exceeding 20° between their broad
sides. One tapered set is placed on the bottom die of the hammer, and
the other—on top of the forging. The hammer strikes the top set.
Work is usually rough taper forged between flat dies without ta­
pered sets.
238 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

Swages. Swages as shown in Fig. 188 are used for rounding and
smoothing forgings to the required size. The stock is inserted in the
bottom swage, which is placed on the hammer anvil, and the top
swage is struck with the top die; during forging, the stock must be
constantly turned within the swage after each blow, and moved back-

Fig. 188. Swage

wards and forwards. Forging in swages gives the stock a smooth

surface and the correct cross-section. Swages are made of grade 50
carbon steel, and their handles—of grade 15 or 25 carbon steel; small

Fig. 189. Punches:

a) tapered punch; b) cylindrical puneb; c) hollow punch; d) wedge punch

swages (with recesses up to 50-60 mm in diameter) are made in pairs

with a common handle shaped like a spring yoke, as shown in Fig.
188. The dimensions of swages are calculated according to the fol­
lowing considerations: if the diameter of the working part of the swage
is D, its width will be from 2 to 3 D, its length from 3 D to 5 D, and
the thickness of each swage will vary from 1.5 D to 2D. Swages can
 Fixtures and A uxiliary Tools 239

be made with working parts (recesses) of round, square, hexagonal and

other cross-sections.
Punches. Punches are used for making holes (Fig. 189). They are
usually made of grade Y7 carbon tool steels.

FIXTURES AND AUXILIARY TOOLS

Blacksmiths often have to handle heavy forgings weighing up to sev­
eral hundred kilograms each. Many different types of fixtures and
arrangements are used for lightening the work of the blacksmith and
for increasing his productivity. ft
These fixtures and arrangements can be divided into two groups,
depending on the kind of work for which they are to be used: 1) those
used for gripping, supporting and shifting the stock during the proc­
ess of hammer forging; 2) handling (transporting) fixtures and ar­
rangements designed for transporting stock and forgings in the shop.

.................. ...
u

^VAV.V*V*:*Yto»:*AVAHM
I
Fig. 190. Pinch-bars for handling wagon axle forgings

for charging them into furnaces, and for delivering them from the
furnace to the hammer. We will first discuss the first group—fixtures
for handling stock during its forging.
Tongs. Tongs serve for gripping, holding, turning and shifting the
metal and tools during forging operations. The tongs used in hammer
forging are of the same design as those used for hand forging.
Pinch-Bars. Pinch-bars (Fig. 190) are used for turning the stock
during the process of hammer forging. Sometimes two suspended
pinch-bars are used, when forging long and heavy work. Fig. 191
illustrates the process of forging an axle with two such pinch-bars.
Portabars. Portabars are used for handling and turning heavy forg­
ings and for withdrawing heavy stock from furnaces. They consist
of a pair of clamps with long handles bolted together, as illustrated
in Fig. 192; they are used for handling square-section forgings, and
by adjusting the distance between the clamps one portabar can be
used for forgings of different sizes. When working with portabars, care
must be taken that the tie-bolts are properly drawn up as
otherwise tho portabar may fall on the feet of those handling it.
 Fig. 191. Forging a shaft with pinch-bars:
1 , 2 — bottom and top dies; 3 — chain for suspending
pinch-bar; 4 — crane chain; 5 — pinch-bar; 6 — forging
(shaft)
 Fixtures and Auxiliary Tools 241

Chucks. Chucks (Fig. 193) are used for turning stock when consider­
able quantities of duplicate forgings such as, for instance, railway
wagon axles are being made. For this purpose, chuck 1 is inserted
over the end of stock 2 and secured in place with bolts 3. The chucks
can be rotated inside ring 5 suspended from chain 6.
In addition to the above-mentioned fixtures, long and short bars
are also used for shifting forgings between the dies.
As was previously mentioned, handling and transporting devices
fall into the second group.

Fig. 193. Chuck

Let us discuss some of these devices.

Bar haml tongs are used for handling and transporting short heavy
pieces of stock, as illustrated in Fig. 194.
Self-closing crane longs (Fig. 195) are used for handling croppings,
shaft-type forgings, medium-sized blocks, plates and other forgings
and production scrap. For this purpose, the crane is brought near the
objecL to be moved, and the tongs are lowered with arms open to grip
the forging. On raising the tongs, the arms will automatically tight­
en around the work to be handled and lift the load.
Handling tongs for discs, blocks and other forgings comprise a left-
hand 2 and right-hand 1 arms, each made of two steel bars, as shown in
Fig. 196. The gripping section (jaws) of each arm is connected by plate
5, and the shoulders—by cross plate 4. The right-hand jaw is insert­
ed between the bars of the left-hand arm, and connected by axle 5.
The bar of tho left-hand jaw is lifted with a guide bar tf, to the end of
F ig . 194. H a n d F ig . 195. S e lf-
b a r to n g s c lo s in g c ra n e lo n g s

F ig . 196. D isc a n d b lo c k ^ h a n d lin g to n g s

 Fixtures and Auxiliary Tools 243

which,are welded four shackles 7 for holding bolts 8 of the left-

hand and right-hand jaws.
Upright 9, consisting of two plates separated by rib 10, is welded
in the centre of this fixture. Lock 11 is bolted inside and to the right-
hand foot of this support; it is connected to handle 12 by a clamp.

Fig. 197. Charging bar

Before gripping any load, the tongs are always open, as lock 11 pre­
vents axle 5 from moving upwards.
When it is required to transport a load, the tongs must be lowered
by the crane onto the load, lock 11 opened with the aid of handle 12\
when the tongs are lifted by the crane, they will grip the load. After
the latter has been lowered into position, the lock will automatically
resume its initial position, the tongs will re-open and be ready for
handling the next load.
The Charging Bar. The charging bar shown in Fig. 197 is designed
for charging round and square bars from 500 to 2,000 kg in weight
into heating furnaces, and for delivering them from the latter to the
bottom die of the hammer.
244 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

The charging bar consists of bar 2, one end of which is inserted into
the grooves of counterweight 2. Gross bars 3 are welded to the opposite
end of the bar and in its centre. Right-hand shaft 4 and left-hand
shaft 5 are inserted inside these cross bars. Gripping jaws 6 and lev­
ers 7 to which hoisting unit 8 is attached are welded to these shafts.
The charging bar is handled in the following way: the hoisting
unit is attached to the crane, and the free end of chain 12 is hooked
onto counterweight 9. In order to grip the work, hook 10 must be se­
cured to shackle 22, thus releasing levers 7, which open gripping jaws
6 through shafts 4 and 5. In this position the charging bar is lowered
onto the load to be lifted. Then hook 10 is released from shackle 22,
and chain 12 is lengthened to enable its link 13 to be attached to hook
9 of the counterweight, thereby shifting the centre of gravity of the
charging bar; in this position the bar is ready to lift the work.

Fig. 198. Furnace charging and discharging lever:

1 — fork; 2 — lever; 3—counterweight; 4 — lever rinp; 5 — counterweight hoisting hook;
fi — shackle, 7 — lever shaft; S — lever chain; 9 — counterweight chain

Furnace Charging and Discharging Lever. The device shown in

Fig. 198 is designed for charging ingots and blooms weighing up to 2
tons into furnaces, and deliveringjthem to the forging hammers. The
fork of this charging lever, as shown in Fig. 198, is placed over the
ingot head with the aid of an overhead travelling crane, with its
swinging shackle 6 in the upright position locking lever 2. The
counterweight of this fixture is then lowered onto the floor, where­
by shackle 6 automatically falls onto the fork, releasing lever 2;
the charging lever is then lifted with the aid of chains 8 and 9 suspend­
ed from the overhead travelling crane. When chain 8 is tightened,
lever 2 will grip the head of the ingot. In this position, the crane
will carry the fixture, together with the ingot, to the furnace, and
will load it into the hearth of the furnace, as shown in Fig. 199, a.
 Fixtures and Auxiliary Tools 245

To release the charging fixture, chain 8 is slackened by moving the

crane nearer to the furnace and lowering the chain hook. As chain
8 slackens, as shown in Fig. 199, a, lever 2 will fall onto fork i ,
after which shackle 6 is placed over lever 2\ the fixture is removed
from the furnace in this position.
To withdraw the heated ingot from the furnace and to deliver it
onto the hammer anvil or die, the ingot is grasped by the fixture in
the position shown in Fig. 198, with shackle 6 thrown over lever 2.
The counterweight end of the fixture is then lowered onto the floor,
as shown in Fig. 199, b. Shackle 6 will automatically fall onto fork 1.
The counterweight chain 9 is removed from hook 5 and ring 10 of
chain 9 attached to hook 5. In this position the charging fixture is
then raised with the aid of the crane. Fork 1 will then grasp the in­
got head, lever 2 will close and the entire fixture together with the
ingot will be removed from the furnace and delivered to the hammer.
Inasmuch as chain 9 is now longer than chain 10, the end of counter­
weight 3 will be lower than the ingot, thereby preventing the ingot
head from slipping from the fork of the charging fixture.
Bracket Cranes. Bracket cranes are used for delivering metal from
heating furnaces to hammers and for supporting work during forging
operations. Electric motor-driven bracket cranes are used with forge
hammers with falling parts weighing 1 tou and over, which turn
the crane around its axis, drive the truck and lift the metal.
Bracket crane control posts must be located slightly above floor
level so as to enable the crane operator to follow the operations of the
blacksmith.
Forge hammers with falling parts from 0.75 to 1 ton in weight are
generally equipped with swivelling bracket cranes. The lifting capac­
ity ofjthe bracket crane must be equal to the weight of the falling
parts of the hammer. For instance, a hammer with falling parts weigh­
ing 3 tons must be equipped with a 3-ton lifting capacity bracket
crane. As distinguished from ordinary-type bracket cranes, which
are equipped with hooks, those cranes have a rotating block and end­
less chain, on which the forging or mandrel is placed. The block and
its endless chain are suspended from the crane with the aid of a spe­
cially designed spring compensating block, shown in Fig. 200, which
absorbs the shocks resulting from the impact of the hammer against
the forgings, and protects the crane from breakage and the chain
from rupture.
Overhead travelling electric cranes are employed for transporting
metal in forge shops.
Special Fixtures Used for Forging Operations. Drawing and
cogging ingots, forging axle shafts, etc., are very arduous opera­
tions for which various types of manipulators and turning blocks
are employed.
Fig. 202. Gar for turning heavy forgings
248 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

The travelling manipulator shown in Fig. 201 travels from hammer

to hammer; the forgings which it handles are rotated by its cantilever
arm. Fig. 201 shows a manipulator holding a forging between a
flat top and a bottom recessed die during the drawing-out operation.
Electric power trucks equipped with swivelling platforms are em­
ployed for rotating forgings when required (Fig. 202).
With the introduction of automatic hammer controls, manipula­
tors and electric swivelling platform power trucks, all the operations
of ingot cogging, shaft forging, ring rolling and other arduous forging
operations have been completely mechanised at the Uralmash Works.
Here, ingots and other heavy stock are placed on the swivelling plat­
form of the electric power truck with the aid of a charging fixture and
delivered to the manipulator. The manipulator grips the work or
ingot, places it between the hammer dies and turns it in the required
direction.
Saddles of the type shown in Fig. 203 are employed for rolling
rings up to 400 mm in diameter. Rings from 400 to 1,000 mm in dia­
meter are rolled on special fixtures as shown in Fig. 204. This fixture
consists of base 2, two uprights 2 and a hinged bottom die 3. The up­
rights are secured to the base by hinges; when they are swung back,
as shown in Fig. 204, b, they are supported by brackets 2 and secured
by lock pins 5 to base 1.
Fig. 204 a shows the saddle in its working position, i. e.. during
the rolling of a ring. In this position the saddle is placed on the bottom
die of the hammer, with the ram raised; and saddle die 3 is lifted up
until its centre of gravity is beyond the axis of its hinge. The ram then
is very slowly lowered, and a special bolster plate is inserted under
the saddle; this done, the uprights are raised with the aid of a chain
passed over handling rods inserted in holes 6 and, after installation in
place, as shown in Fig. 204, a, with the aid of the hammer ram, are
secured by lock pins 5. The pierced work is placed over the mandrel
with the crano, and then installed on the uprights for subsequent roll­
ing.
On the completion of the rolling operation, the ring is removed
from the uprights; the latter are released from their locking pins and
are easily lowered onto brackets 4 with the aid of small levers. Saddle
die 3 which was lowered during the rolling of the ring, is now
inserted into the recess of saddle base 1; and in this po­
sition the edges of the ring are finished on the die, as shown in
Fig. 204, b.
At the Uralmash Works, the rolling of rings from 400 to
1,000 mm in diameter has been completely mechanised w ith the aid of
manipulators. The ring rolling fixture is rotated through 90°, and the
mandrel is turned by the manipulator. Rings of the same diameter
are rolled two at a time.
 Fig. 203. Saddle for rolling rings up^to
400 mm in diam eter

(a )

Fig. 204. Ring for rolling fixture

250 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

THE PRINCIPAL FORGING OPERATIONS ON FORGE HAMMERS

Hammer forging entails the same operations as those practised in
hand forging—cutting, drawing-out, or reducing, upsetting, bend­
ing, twisting, punching and piercing holes, and finishing (smooth-

Fig. 205. Cutting a piece of work under a hammer; first method

ing) surfaces. The methods used in hammer forging differ but slight­
ly from those used in hand-forging operations.
The following are the principal working methods and rules for
using forging tools in executing the main hammer-forging opera­
tions.

Fig. 206. Cutting a piece of work under a hammer;

, second method

Gutting. The usual blacksmith's sets are employed for cutting

operations in hammer forging. As a rule in hammers the metal
should be cut hot at temperatures not below 700°C. Different methods
can be employed for cutting stock in hammers; they are as follows:
 T h e P r in c ip a l F o r g in g O p e r a tio n s o n F o rg e H a m m e r s 251

First method (Fig. 205). The heated stock 4 is placed on the bottom
die 2 of the hammer, the location of the cut is marked and hot set 3
placed on this mark. Under the blow of top die 2, the blade of the
hot set will be forced into the metal and will displace it in the direc­
tion of least resistance, i. e., in direction 5, as shown in Fig. 205,a.
The cutting tool, however, will travel
along the line AB . After the stock
has been notched half way, it must he
turned over, the hot set placed opposite the
first cut, as shown in Fig. 205, 6, and the
cutting operation completed. Part 5 of the
stock will be cut off and the remaining sec­
tion 6 will have the shape shown in
Fig. 205, c. When this method of cutting is
employed, the stock will have burrs 7 which
are then removed with the aid of a square
cutter or taper sets.
Second method. Cutting with the aid of a Fig. 207. Cutting a piece
hot set and square cutter, as shown in Fig. of workthird under a hammer;
method
206. Stock 1 is cut nearly all the way, the
blade of hot set 2 not being allowed to go
completely through the metal, in order to avoid harming bottom die#
(Fig. 206, a). The stock must then be slightly lifted and square cut­
ter 4 inserted under the work; the hot set is withdrawn and the work
struck by top die 5, which cuts it in two, as shown in Fig. 206, b.

Fig. 208. Various methods of drawing-out

Third method (Fig. 207). Work 1 is placed on bottom die 3 and

cut from both sides with hot set 2, leaving a small neck between the
bottom and top cuts. The back of the hot set is then inserted into the
cut and its blade struck with top die 4, thus cutting the narrow neck.
The second method is the safest, and is most generally employed
in practice.
 252 F o r g in g O p e r a tio n s a n d H a m m e r F o r g in g T o o ls

Burrs left after the cutting operations must always be removed with
the aid of square cutters and taper sets. A piece of work having burrs
should never be forged, as they may lead to laps and similar defects.
Drawing-out. Drawing-out is executed between the hammer dies
as shown in Fig. 208, a. Drawing-out with the edges 3 and 2 of the
dies will result in nearly all of the displaced metal being spent for
lengthening stock 1. The same effect is obtained if the operation is
carried out with narrow dies, as shown in Fig. 208, b, or if a fuller 4
placed between the top and bottom dies is used as shown in Fig. 208, c;
tho fuller in this case will act as a narrow
top die, i. e., displace the metal along
the length of the stock. Drawing-out
between narrow dies is considered the
most efficient method. Large forge shops
are equipped with hammers with narrow
dies for drawing-out, and with wide dies
for smoothing, i. e., for finishing the
surface of the work after reduction be­
tween narrow dies.
Fig. 209. Bending of stock Drawing-out must be carried out grad­
during drawing-out: ually along the entire length of the
l — stock; 2 — bottom die; s — work, usually beginning from its centre.
top die
Short work should be drawn out from
one of its ends. Ingots are drawn out from their centre, in order
to “squeeze out” the defects located near the ingot head and tail,
thereby ensuring that they are discarded together with the top and
bottom discards. After one side of the ingot has been struck several
times, it must be turned through 90 °, hammered, and then returned
to its original position and rehammered, the ingot being turned
round after every few blows, until it is drawn out (reduced) to the
required length and cross-section.
This method of reduction cannot however always be employed.
When forging in hammers, the stock will always be cooled by the
bottom die more rapidly than by the top one, as the top die contacts
the metal only when it strikes it, whereas the bottom die is in contact
with the metal all the time it is being forged. This unequal cooling
of the work (from its top and bottom) may lead to its distortion—
its end may bend up, as shown in Fig. 209. If this occurs, it will be
out of the question to turn the forging through an angle of 90°, as it
may get out of balance. In such cases the work must be turned over
and drawn out on its opposite side, thus straightening it out; after
being straightened, it must be once more turned through an angle of
90° and hammered on its edge.
For the complete drawing-out of a piece of work, the metal must be
heated to forging temperature throughout its entire length. When
 The Principal Forging Operations on Forge Hammers 253

a heavy piece of work is to be completely drawn out, this must be

done in sections, each section being heated in turn, i. e., first at one
end and, when that has been drawn out, at the opposite end, and so
on. When local reduction is required, the work is subjected only to
local heating.
Metal must be reduced, or drawn out, by rapid, heavy strokes,
when the penetration of the force of the blow will be deeper, and the
grain of the metal will be refined throughout its entire cross-section.
Light blows, on the contrary, only result in the deformation of the
surface of the metal, and in drawing-out its core to a much smaller
degree; as a result, stresses will develop between the inner and outer
layers of the metal, which may lead to cracks
Drawing-out should be conducted between flat top and bottom
dies, or between a flat top die and a recessed bottom die. Round work
can be reduced much more rapidly between recessed dies than be­
tween flat dies; when hammered between recessed dies, the trans­
verse flow of the metal will be less than when hammered between
flat dies. Work can be drawn out from 20 to 30 per cent faster between
recessed top and bottom dies than between flat top and bottom dies;
and drawing-out between a flat top die and a recessed bottom die,
though faster than drawing-out between flat top and bottom dies,
is nevertheless slower than between recessed top and bottom dies.
Upsetting. Upsetting is an operation whereby the cross-sectional
area of a forging is increased and its height reduced. Upsetting is
accompanied by considerable stresses resulting from the strains de­
veloped in the metal. Before being upset, the work must be heated
throughout its entire cross-section and along its entire length to a
high temperature.
Upsetting is resorted to in the following cases: 1) when the fibre
of the metal has to be given a definite direction to ensure higher
strength of the forging (as, for instance, when forging gear^blanks);
2) when forging a stock of required weight but of insufficient cross-
section; 3) when the available stock does not ensure the required re­
duction factor.
When upsetting, care must always be taken that the length of the
stock does not exceed 2.5 times its diameter or thickness. Otherwise
the stock may buckle and even fly out of the dies during the upset­
ting process.
Before being upset, the work must be heated uniformly throughout
its entire mass and then placed vertically in the centre of the bottom
die. Then, under repeated blows of the top die, its cross-section is
increased and its height reduced (Fig. 210). During this operation,
the stock must be turned round its vertical axis after each blow. To
speed up the upsetting process, half-round or oval fullers are some­
times employed; and, towards the completion of the process, a steel
254 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

bar 3-4 mm thick and 70-80 mm wide is used after which the forging
is smoothed out between flat top and bottom dies.
The head or central section of short pieces of work is usually
upset in rings. Fig. 211 illustrates one method of upsetting the head
of a piece of work in an upsetting ring. Ring 3 is placed on bottom
die 4; the diameter of its hole must be slightly larger than that of
stock 7, and the height of the ring must be equal to that of the section
of the stock which is not to be lipset. After being heated to the required
temperature, the stock is in- ,
sertod into the ring, and its proje- Z r
cting head 1 struck by top die 5, / T
thus upsetting it to the shape v.
Y /S S ///S '/ / / / / , A
shown in Fig. 211, 2.

Fig. 210. Upsetting: Fig. 211. Upsetting the

1—stock before upsetting; end of a piece of stock in
2— stock after being upset; an upsetting ring
3— top die; 4—bottom die

To facilitate the removal of the section of the forging which has

not been upset from the ring, the inside diameters of upsetting
rings have a taper of 6-7°; they are, however, also made without
tapers, in which case the forging is removed with the aid of inserts
and extension rings as shown in Fig. 212. In order to remove the forg­
ing from upsetting rings by this method, upsetting ring 3 is slightly
raised and insert 4 placed between the ring and bottom die 5. The
diameter of this insert must be less than that of the ring; extension
ring 1 is then placed on upsetting ring 3; when top die 6 strikes
ring i , the head of the forging will be driven out of upsetting ring 3.
The centre of short work can likewise be upset with these rings,
as shown in Fig. 213. In this case both ends of the stock are first
drawn out to the required diameter 1; one end is then inserted in hot-
 The Principal Forging Operations on Forge Hammers 255

tom ring 3 placed on bottom die 6, and upper upsetting ring 4 is

placed over the opposite end. Stock 2 is then struck by top die 5
through ring 4 until the central portion
of the stock has been upset to the re­
quired dimensions.

rr7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ^7 7 7 7 7 7 7 X

Fig. 212. Removing the Fig. 213. Upsetting (jumping) a piece

upset forging from the of work at its centrej with the aid of
ring upsetting rings
When upsetting the central section of a piece of work by this meth­
od, the inside diameter of one of the upsetting rings must have a

Fig. 214. Schematic illustration of punching a hole:

a) the first operation; b) the second operation; c) removing punch; l — stock; 2 —bottom die;
3 — punch; 4 — slug; s — ring; e — top die

taper of 6 -7 °, as otherwise the work will be very difficult to with­

draw.
Punching and Piercing Holes. Holes in thick billets are made with
special punches, the use of which differs from that employed in hand
256 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

punching or piercing. Fig. 214 shows how a hole is punched in a thick

piece of work. Here, stock 1 is placed on bottom die 2 of the hammer,
without using any holster dies or rings. Punch 3 is then placed on
the stock and forced into the metal by blows of the top die, as shown
in Fig. 214,a. As the stock is in close contact with the surface of the
bottom die, the metal will be forced to flow transversely away from
the punch, thereby increasing the diameter of the stock (the stock
“spreads”), and also leading to its distortion (the stock bends
upwards, as can be seen from Fig. 214, b). The stock is then turned
over, through an angle of 180°. The opposite surface of the work
will display a slightly darkened area corresponding to the outline
of the base of the punch, which must be placed exactly over it;
the punch is then driven into the work by the blows of the top
die, as illustrated by Fig. 214, b. When the hole is finally punched
from this side, slug 4 will fall away.
The punch is prevented from sticking in the metal at the beginning
of the punching operation as follows: after ascertaining that the punch
has been correctly installed,it is struck lightly by top die 6, and then
withdrawn from the impression it has made when powdered char­
coal is sprinkled inside the hole. The heat generated by the subsequent
blows of the die against the punch, will ignite the charcoal, which
will burn away; the resultant gases will attempt to force the punch
out of the hole in the stock, thereby facilitating its removal from the
hole after punching. Fig. 214 c illustrates another method of with­
drawing punches with the aid of a ring. By this method ring 5 is
placed over the punch and onto the stock; the ring is then struck
lightly by top die 6, whereupon the stock will straighten out and the
punch can be easily withdrawn.
The hole thus formed will not be of proper shape, as the punch
itself is tapered. For this reason, the hole must be finished, or sized,
to the required dimensions and shape with tapered or barrel-shaped
mandrels in the manner shown in Fig. 215.
In addition to the above methods of punching holes, they can also
be pierced in the way shown in Fig. 216. Here the work is placed
over ring 2 the inside diameter of which is slightly larger
than that of the hole to be punched; the hole is made with the larger
end of punch 3. The hole is then punched right through the metal
without turning the work over. Slug 4 falls out through the hole
of the inserted ring. During piercing, the dimensions and shape of
the work remain practically unchanged while during punching both
dimensions and shape are altered. This circumstance is a deciding fac­
tor in the choice of the method used for making holes. Usually the
following rule is observed: if the work has boon completely forged
and only a hole remains to be made in it, it is pierced; holes are
punched if they are to be bored after the forging is completed.
 The Principal Forging Operations on Forge Hammers 257

The height of the slug a (see Fig. 214, b) when holes are punched
usually equals one-third of the height H of the work. The volume V
of the slug in this case will be equal to the area A of the base of the
punch, multiplied by one-third of the height of the work:

The height of the slug of a pierced hole is accepted as being 0.9

of the height of the pierced work: a = 0.9//.
Bending. Frequently a forging has to be bent at various angles. To
do this, the work, when forged in hammers, must be held between
the top and bottom dies and bent
to the required angle by striking
its free end with a sledge-hammer.
In this case, the outer layers of the
metal will be stretched and its in­
ner layers compressed. Before bend­
ing, the work must be subjected

Fig. 215. Sizing a hole: Fig. 216, Piercing a hole:

l — slock; 2 — sizing punch; / — stock; 2—ring; 3— punch;
3—ring; 4 —bjttom die; s —top die 4 — slug; 5 — bottom die

to local heating, i. e., it must be heated only at the place where it

is to be bent.
Whenever possible, insert dies should be employed for bending
in hammers. Bending in insert dies is much more rapid, and the di­
mensions of the forging are more accurate. Insert dies are used when
a considerable quantity of duplicate forgings have to be made, in or­
der to justify the expense of making the insert die.
Surface Finishing. The surfaces of forgings must always bo finished
by smoothing; they are smoothed with flatters, or smoothers, as
they are also called, of various designs depending on the shape of
17—489
258 Forging Operations and Hammer Forging Tools

the surface of the forgings. Flat forgings are sometimes smoothod

with light blows of the flat top die. This is always the last forging
operation, which is performed after the scale has been removed.
Should it be required to reheat the forging for smoothing, the scale
formed by this must always be first brushed off.
Since smoothing, as has already been said, is the final forging oper­
ation, it is always accompanied by the checking of the dimensions
of the forging against the drawing. If the forging is of a complicated
and assymetrical shape, it must be checked by placing a template
against the surface; this will clearly show whether the forging has
been made properly, and where it has to be corrected.
Insert Dies. Of recent years the insert dies havo been increasingly
widely employod in hammer forging. Their use does not entail any
large expense, and therefore their manufacture is justified even when
forging small lots of duplicate work. The chief advantage of insert
dies is that they limit the flow of metal to the walls of their impres­
sion and that the precision of the resulting forgings approaches that
of die forgings. This permits a considerable reduction in machining
allowances and, consequently, in the consumption of metal and the
total man-hours required for the production of forgings. Moreover,
the working conditions of the blacksmiths are improved, and their
productivity is increased from to 6 times.
Technological process Chart 5 for forging a bevel-gear blank,
given in Chapter XVIT, illustrates an example of hammer forging in
insert dies. This is a flange-type forging made in an insert ring.
 CHAPTER X

THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS

AND EXAMPLES OF HAMMER FORGING

THE TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS

One and the same component can be forged by different methods

and on different forging machines. However, it is always necessary
to select the most suitable method for making any given forging,
which will: a) ensure a high-quality forging; b) ensure high productiv­
ity, i. c., entail the least expense of time in making the forging; c) en­
tail the minimum consumption of physical energy on the part of
the workers; d) entail the minimum consumption of metal; and
e) ensure complete safety during forging.
The process of making a part by forging consists of several separate
operations, the chief of which are: 1) selecting and preparing the
stock for forging; 2) heating the metal for forging; 3) forging the stock
to the requisite shape and dimensions. The process of making any
piece of work by the hammer forging method entails many different
forging operations—cutting, upsetting, bending, drawing, pierciug,
punching, drifting, twisting and surface finishing. The production
of any kind of forging necessitates the employment of some, or all
of these operations in different sequences. Sometimes, one, two or
three operations (steps) may have to be repeated several times.
Every blacksmith should always try to make his forgings in the
least possible number of operations. This will reduce the time need­
ed for making the forging, reduce the number of heatings and, con­
sequently, increase his productivity. Before commencing to make
any forging, the blacksmith should know exactly which operations
are to be employed, and in what sequence. The tools and devices
which he selects will depend on the method of forging.
The blacksmith generally works together with one or more strik­
ers; and, to ensure perfect co-ordination between him and his strik­
ers, he must explain the sequence of each operation and tell them
beforehand which tools they will have to use. The striker, under the
blacksmith’s supervision, has to put each tool in its working place
in the order of the operations to be performed; this prevents any de­
lays entailed in looking for the required tools during the work.
The basic document for making any hammer forging is what is
called the technological process chart, which sets out the sequence
17*
260 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

of oach forging operation. Process charts specify: 1) the grade of steel

required for a given forging; 2 ) the dimensions and weight of the
stock for the forging; 3) the tools and equipment required for making
the forging, including furnaces, cranes, hammers, etc.; 4) how many
pieces of stock are to be charged into the furnace at one heat, and
the method of stacking the stock in the furnace; 5) the time required
for heating the steel to the forging temperature; 6 ) the initial forging
temperature of the steel; 7) the final forging temperature of the steel;
8 ) composition of the crew employed in making the forging; 9) the
time required for making the forging; 10 ) the scheme of organisation
of the working place; 11 ) operations and passes, tools and devices,
required for making the forging. Moreover, every process chart gives
a forging drawing of the work.
Below a few examples of hammer forging are described.

EXAMPLES OF HAMMER FORGING

Forging a Shaft. Required: to draft a process chart for making the

forging of the stepped shaft, shown in Fig. 217. Material—grade 45
steel.
+ 2 8 7 - ---------- 803 --------------- * - ----- 567 -------- - ----------- 803 ----------------•+■
------------ m-----:—
M TZ _
r s s
1
803-10
a m " (803) M27t20
2804*20_ (1657)'
(2747)
Fig. 217. Drawing of a stepped shaft forging

The first stage in drafting the process chart is to make a forging

drawing. Let us consider all the stages of drafting the technological
process in detail.
1. Making the forging drawing of the shaft. For this, the outline
of the shaft is drawn, in thin lines, and its chief finished dimensions
written in. Then the machining allowances and forging tolerances are
specified, taking them from GOST 7829-55.
From Appendices 2 and 3, the basic allowances and tolerances are
selected for the diameter of each step, for the total length and for the
length of each section of the shaft; from Appendix 4 the additional
allowances for the diameters of each section are calculated. The
basic allowances and tolerances for the diameters of each section for
a shaft with a total length of 2,747 mm will be the following:
 Examples of Hammer Forging 261

For diameters:
Dr= 133 mm al =■ lG l* mm
D2— 182 mm a 2 --17 ± 5 mm
D0= 278 mm a0= 19^« mm
D, = 182 mm a 8 = 17 + 5 mm
Z) 4 133 mm a 4 == 16*J mm.
Additional allowances for the diameters of each section: on section
with Dj —133 mm, for difference D0—D1—145 mm, the addition­
al allowance S will bo 8 mm. This allowance is specified lor the
I 287
section having a diameter D,, since the ratio — = ^=
l Q 5b7
= 0.3, which
v
i$
less than 2, indicated in Appendix 4 for sections of this diameter.
For section with D 2—182 mm, S 2 will be G mm. This allowance is
I 803
specified for the section withD0 -278 mm, inasmuch asratio~ = ^ =
—2 .2 , which is more than the ratio 1.5 for the diameter of this sec­
tion.
For section with Z)8= 182 mm, S s will he G mm.
For section with £)4= 133 mm, S Awill be 8 mm. Consequently, the
diameters of the various sections of the shaft, including tlieir allow­
ances and tolerances, will be as follows:
D[ = 133 + 1615 + 8 = 15714, mm
Dz -= 182 -|-17 + 5 = 199 + 5 mm
Do — 278 +1915 +"b = 303^ mm
Ds = 182 + 17 ± 5 = 199 ± 5 mm
D[ = 133 + 16lj + 8 —157 ts mm.
The allowances and tolerances for the length of each section will
be calculated from the initial base for the section with diameter D0=
=278 mm and for the total length 7/=2,747 mm of the shaft. They
will be the same for each section. According to Appendices 2 and 3,
the allowance and tolerance b for the length will be equal to 57+20 mm
or — per side.
The total length of the forging and the lengths of each section will
be:
Total length
L' = 2,747 + 57 ± 20 = 2,804 ± 20 mm.
Length of section V:
Zo= 567 + 57 + 20 = 624 ± 20 mm.
262 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

Length of section II
/; = ( 8 0 3 - ^ ) + 5 I | i ? = 8 0 3 ± 10 mm.
Length of section III
l, = (803—” ) + ” |i 2 = 8 0 3 ± 10 mm.
Length of section IV
= ( 2 8 1 - - ) | Sl | ^ = 287 ± 10 mm.
After the above calculations have been made, we ascertain the pos­
sibility of forging the sections using Appendix 5.
The length /' of section II is 803 mm. The diameter of the adja­
cent section/)' is 303 mm. Consequently, section II located between
them will be forged without any additional allowance, as its length
is greater than the corresponding length indicated in the table. The
length Z' of section I is 287 mm. The diameter of tho adjacent sec­
tion /)' is 199 mm. According to the table, this section can be forged
without any additional allowances since its length is greater than the
corresponding length indicated in the table.
Sections III and IV are of the same length and diameter as sections
I and II, and are therefore to be forged with the same allowances and
tolerances.
After the allowances and tolerances for each section of the shaft
have been calculated, its forging drawing is made. The forging con­
tour of the shaft is drawn in thick lines around the thin-lined drawing,
and the forging dimensions, calculated from the allowances and toler­
ances just found, written in. The thick-lined contour of the drawing
shown in Fig. 217 represents the forging drawing of our shaft.
2. Determining the volume and weight of the forging. For this pur­
pose, the shaft is divided into five sections, I, II, III, IV and V. In
this case, sections I and IV, and II and III have the same dimensions
and, consequently, their volumes will be equal.
The volume of section I and, consequently, of section IV will be:
*(/>;>« 3.14x15.7*
V i-* 4 4
28.7 —5,556 cm*.
The volume of section II and, consequently, of section III:
3.14x19.9*
V*-» 4 80.3 = 24,973 cm*.
The volume of section V, will be:
a (D')‘ , 3.14x30.3’
V .= A Zo= A 62.4 = 44,997 cm*,
 Examples of Hammer Forging 26:*.

The volume of the entire forging will be:

+ + + cm8.
By substitution, we obtain:
V = 5,556 + 24,973 + 24,973 + 5,556 + 44,997 =-106,055 cm'.
The weight of the forging of the shaft will be:
106,055x7.8!)
^ Vjorg S
Jorg 1,000
833 kg.
3. Calculating the volume and weight and selecting the dimensions
of the slock. It is taken that the shaft is to be forged from a billet of
square .section. The volume of the stock (billet) will then be:
^ s t o c k ~~ ^ f o r g ~ ^ ~ ^ c r o p " t" " ^ sc •
Calculating the volume of the cropping from each end of the stock
from the formula: Vcrop—0.23</8 cm8, whore d is the diameter of the
cropped ends, which in this case equals D'x —d -157 mm, the result
is obtained: F’cro/>-0 .2 3 x 1 5 .78--0.23x3,869.9—889 cm8 per end;
for both ends, the corresponding volume will be 889x2 —1,778 cm8.
The volume of the forging, together with its croppings will be:
100,055 + 1,778=107,833 cm8.
It is ascertained that the forging will require two heatings; taking
the volume of loss due to scale as being 3.5 per cent of the weight or
volume of the forging together with its cropping, it is found that:
Vsr = 107,833 x 0.035=3,774 cm8.
The total volume of the required stock will therefore be:
V/org = 106,055 + 1,778 + 3,774 =111,607 cm8,
and its weight will be:
111.607x7.85
WJ org— i ?o o o
= 876 kg.
The cross-sectional area of the stock must now he calculated:
a) since the forging is to be made from rolled steel, its reduction
factor is taken as being 1.4;
b) the maximum diameter of the forging (Fig. 217, section V)
Do=303 mm; its cross-sectional area will be:
3.14X30.3*
A forg~ 4
= 721 cm*;

c) th e c r o ss-sec tio n a l area of th e b ille t m u st be n o t le ss than:

Asiock= 7 2 1 X 1 . 4 = 1 ,0 0 9 .8 cm *.
S u ch a c r o ss-sec tio n a l area w ill correspon d to a sq uare b ille t
3 1 9 x 3 1 9 m m . B ille t s of t h is siz e are n o t a v a ila b le . T h e sq u are b ille t
w h ich m o st n e a r ly a p p r o x im a tes th e on e requ ired is ta k e n — 3 2 0 X
X 3 2 0 m m , w ith a c r o ss-sec tio n a l area of 1 ,0 2 4 c m 9.
264 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

The length of the billet which will be used as stock is now calculat
ed by the following formula:
I Vs jack H I .607 108.9 cm.
stock Astock 1.024
For making the shaft, a billet of the following dimensions is select­
ed: length—1,090 mm; cross-section—320x320 mm.
4. Determining the passes needed for forging the shaft and calcu­
lating its intermediate dimensions (Fig. 218).
The first step, or pass, in making the forging will be the cutting
of the stock to a length of 1,090 mm (Fig. 218, a). The second pass
will bo the drawing, or reducing, of the stock to a diameter of
315 mm, as, when the stock is grooved, the metal at the corners of
section V will unavoidably spread out.
The distance between the ends of the stock and the grooves for
section V must now be calculated; the cross-sectional area of the
stock with diameter D = 315 mm will be:
3.14x31.5*
A stock = 779.3 cm8.
4
The third pass will be the grooving of section V (Fig. 218, b).
The volume of metal required for sections I and II and for the
croppings will be: 5,55G I 24,973+889-^31,418 cm8.
The distance between the grooves will be:
31,418
779.3
= 40.3 cm.
On section V, the distance between the grooves will be:
V. 44,997 e7 7 cm.
stock 779.3 — '
The fourth pass will be the reducing (drawing) of the end of the shaft
(sections I+ II) to diameter £>'=199 mm, and grooving section I
(Fig. 218, c). The fifth pass (Fig. 218, d) will be the reducing of
section 1 to diameter Z)| = 157 mm; cropping the end; straightening and
finishing the surface of forged sections I and 11. Then, in the same se­
quence, sections III and IV are forged, after which the forging of sec­
tion V to the required dimensions is completed (Fig. 218, e).
The tools and devices necessary for executing the above-mentioned
operations are likewise indicated on the process chart.
5. Selecting a suitable hammer for forging the shaft shown in Fig.
217. From Table 7 it is found that a forging having a maximum dia­
meter of [Link] and weighing 833 kg c a n be forged on a hammer
with falling parts weighing 5,000 kg. The required forging tempera­
ture interval will be 1,220-700° C»
266 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

Flat Forgings. Flat forgings of the gear blank type are very com­
mon. Upsetting the stock is a necessary operation in making these
forgings. When this is done, the direction of the fibres of the finished
part will be as shown in Fig. 219. This will ensure the maximum
strength of the teeth of the finished gear.
If a square piece of stock is to be upset, it will be necessary to round
off its sharp corners before proceeding to the upsetting operation.
It is advisable to round off the corners of the stock 1 (Fig. 220)
in order to ensuro the more vigorous subsequent upsetting of the
metal: by this method deeper forg­
ing is obtained together with a
greater incroase in the cross-section
of the work. The method shown in
Fig. 220 can also be employed for / —/1
//(//S////ZI
I
straightening axial misalignments
which sometimes occur when work
is upset between top and bottom
dies 2 and 3:

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ^7 7 .
f

'

Fig. 219. Direction of fibres Fig, 220. Rounding tho

in a gear blank forging sharp corners of a piece of
stock before upsetting

If the capacity of the hammer is insufficient for the final upset­

ting operation, fullering or spreading will have to be employed.
Holes are made, as has already been described, by piercing or punch­
ing, while large holes (as, for instance, in tires and gear crowns) by
rolling.
Let us now consider several examples of forming gear blanks
and rings (tires).
Example 1. Required: To forge the gear blank shown in
Fig. 221, a. Material—grade 45 steel.
1. The forging drawing of the gear blank is first made, outlining
its contours in thin lines and indicating its dimensions, as shown in
Fig. 221,* a. For this purpose the machining allowances and forging
tolerances are calculated from Appendices 7 and 8 .
The allowance and tolerance for diameter Z)=»528 mm will be
a = 2 4± 8 mm and the allowance and tolerance for height 228 mm
will be 6 = 1 9 ^ 7 mm. The allowance for the hole of diameter
 Examples of Hammer Forging 267

d= \ 75 mm will be c=31=jI 8 mm. Consequently, the forging di­

mensions of the gear blank will be:
Diameter D l — D + a = 528 + 24 4 - 8 - 552 ± 8 mm;
Height i / 1= tf+ fc = 2 2 8 + 1 9 ± 7 ^ 2 4 7 ± 7 mm;
Diameter of hole, d l = d — c = 175—31 ± 8 = 144 ± 8 mm.
The diameter of the hole is taken as being 145^8 mm, equal to
the diameter of the punch.

Fig. 221. The technological process of forging a gear

blank:
a) forging drawing of gear blank; b, c, d, e, f, g and h)—
sketches of passes In forging gear blank

The outline of the forging drawing of the gear blank is now drawn
in thick lines round the contour of the drawing of the finished
gear blank, and the forging dimensions calculated above written in.
2. The volume and weight of the gear blank forging are now calcu­
lated. Its volume, Vforg, will be:
268 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

On substituting:
'3.14x55.2* 3.14x14.5*
) 24.7 = 55, 032 cm3.
forg> - 0V 4 4
The weight of the forging, W forg, will be:
jy —y a — 5 5 ,0 3 2 x 7 .8 5 _ w
VVforg — V forg S - i ^ Kg

3. The volume, weight and dimensions of the stock are now cal­
culated.
Its volume, Vsiock, will be equal to:
^stock ^forg ^ w aste “1“ ^ sc ■
In this case, the waste entailed will be that of the slug formed
when punching the hole for the shaft. Presuming that the hole is
made with a punch 145 mm in diameter, and that the height (h)
of the slug is equal to one-third of the full height H 1 of the forging,
the volume of the slug, Vsl, will be:

Vsi cm8,

the height of the slug // = — «J

= —
<)
= 82 mm,
the volume of the slug, V7j/t will be:
t/ nd2 *
Vsl =— h = 3.14x14.5*
---- ^ ------ 8o .2
o a oro
= 1,353 s
cm8.
Assuming that the forging will require two heatings, the volume
of the loss due to scale will be 3.5 per cent of the volume of the stock.
Volume of forging together with slug 55,032-1-1,353—56,385 cm8.
Volume of steel lost as scale
Vsc = 56,385x0.035= 1,973 cm8.
Total volume of stock, Vsiock= 55,032+1,353-1-1,973 = 58,358 cm8.
Weight of stock,
tx7 _ 58,358 x 7.85
w stock — i (oo0 = 458 kg.
4. The weight of the falling parts (the capacity) of the hammer is
now selected. According to the chart in Fig. 176, a forging 552 mm in
diameter and 247 mm in height can be made on a hammer with
falling parts weighing 5,000 kg.
5. Calculating the dimensions of the slock. When calculating the
dimensions of the stock for gear blank-type forgings, it is always
necessary to take into consideration the stroke (Lravel) of the ram of
 Examples of Hammer Forging 269

the hammer on which the forging is to be made. As a rule, the cross-

section of the stock to be forged should be as large as possible in com­
parison with its length; this ensures that the stock will be short in
length, which facilitates upsetting, since the idle travel of the ram
will be longer and, consequently, I he force of the impact greater.
The maximum length of the stock must not exceed 2.5 diameter or
2.5 times the length of the side of the square, if it is a square bar.
Presuming that the gear blank is to be forged from a 500 x300 mm
square billet, the cross-sectional area of the billet will be:
A stock = 30 x 30 -- 900 cm*.
The length of the stock, Lstock, is calculated from the formula:
__ Vstack __ 58,358 = 04.8 cm.
stock 9U0
A,,tack
The ratio of the length of the stock to the length of the side of the
(54 8
square is |~ = 2 .1 6 ; this is less than the maximum permissible ra­
tio 2.5. Consequently, the correct cross-section for the stock has been
selected.
Thus, for making this forging a square piece of slock of length
050 mm and cross-section 300x300 mm, will be selected.
0. The forging operations for making the gear blank are now chosen
and its intermediate forging dimensions calculated.
1) Cut off piece of stock to length from a billet (Fig. 221, b);
2) Round off stock between flat dies (Fig. 221, c)\
3) Upset stock to height of forging 77=250 mm (Fig. 221, d);
4) Forge to diameter (Fig. 221, c);
5) Make hole with punch of c(=145 mm (Fig. 221, /);
6 ) Hammer forging all round, without removing punch (Fig. 221 ,g);
7) Size (calibrate) hole (Fig. 221, h)\
8 ) Flatten (swage) faces of gear blank.
Forging temperature interval 1,200-750°C.
Tools and fixtures for operations: 1st operation—flat top and
bottom dies, hot set, cutter extensions; 2nd and 3rd operations —
flat top and bottom dies; 4th and 5th operations—flat top and bot­
tom dies, punch; 6 th and 7th operations—flat top and bottom dies;
finish punch, ring.
Example 2. Required: to forge the ring (tire) shown in Fig. 222.
Allowances and tolerances are selected from the tables of Appen­
dix 8 and the forging drawing of the tire made (Fig. 222, a).
1. Calculating the volume and weight of the forging. Volume:
(nD*— JtZ)*)
Vorg 1 4 H cm',
270 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

where D — outside diameter of tire equal to 820^9 mm,

D{—inside diameter of tire equal to 640^9 mm,
H —height of ring, equal to 190±6 mm.
14 x 82* 3.14 x 64*
f°rg — ^ 4 4
) 19 = 39,216 cm*.
Weight of forging W /org=V/org g kg,
ixr7 39,216 x 7.85 ono i _
W fo —=
' rg Tooo = 308 kg-

Fig. 222. Technological process of forging a ring (tire):

a) forging drawing of u tire; b, c, and rf)—sketches of passes in forging tire

2. Calculating the volume and weight of the stock. The volume of the
stock, Vstock, required for making the forging will be:
^stock ^ fo r g ”1“ ^ si "I” ^ sc •
It is taken that the diameter d of the hole in the tire before rolling
is 200 mm. The hole will be punched. The height of the slug is —,
where h is the height of the upset stock of the ring before rolling.
The height of the upset stock before rolling can be calculated from
the formula:
h = 1.05 kH,
where k—the expansion factor,
H —height of forging/in mm.
 Examples of Hammer Forging 271

The expansion factor k is taken from the chart in Fig. 223. For
this vire, the rolling factor q and the ratio -=r will be:
n _A '__ 640__ o o. J L .__ 122__ 0 23
q~ d D ~820 —
From point 3.2 on the coordinate marked “rolling factor q '\ a
line is drawn parallel to the coordinate marked “expansion factor k’*

1 OSS OSt OJBO 084 0.80 0.T8 O il 0S0

Coefficient of expansion k
Fig. 223. Chart for determining height
of upset pieco of slock

until it intersects straight line II for — <0.3. From this point^of

intersection, a perpendicular is dropped to coordinate k and the expan*
sion factor /r=0.84 found. Consequently, the height of the stock be*
fore rolling will be:
h = 1.05x0.84x 190= 168 mm.
And the volume of the slug will be:
T/ nd\ h' '3 .1 4 x 2 0 * \ 16.8 , »
V s i= =- 4 - X - 3 = J 3 =1,758 cm*.
272 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

The tire is to be forged in two heatings, hence the loss of metal

due to scale is taken as 3.5 per cent of the volume of the stock. The
volume of the forging together with the slug will be:
39,216 +1,758 = 40,974 cm*.
The volume of the metal lost due to scale, Vse, will be:
Vsc = 40,974x0.035= 1,434 cm8.
The volume of the forging, Vf , will be:
Vforg 39,216 + 1,758 + 1 ,4 3 4 -4 2 ,4 0 8 cm8.
Its weight, W f0rg, is calculated from the formula:
TTT 17 4 2 , 4 0 8 X 7.8 1 ) q n q 1
w !«rg -- Vf „ , X g - — lfOOU = 333 kg.
3. Calculating the dimensions of the stock. A billet of diameter
(d) 300 mm is selected for making the forging.
The cross-sectional area of the billet, A forg, will be:
zid2
A 1OT& ~T 3 . 1 44x 3 0 2 —706.9 cm8.
The height of the stock, hsiock, will be:
, 4 2 ,408 rfJ Q pr.
hs to c k -= -j^ = 59.9«60 cm.
Ratio of stock height to diameter
60_ 9
W _ 3 0 ~ 2,
i. c., the calculated dimensions of the stock meet the requirements
necessary to ensure upsetting without buckling.
A billet 300 mm in diameter and 600 mm Jong will be used.
4. Specifying the forging operations and calculating the interme­
diate forging dimensions:
1) Cut stock to length from the billet (Fig. 222, b);
2) Upset stock under flat dies to height h=168 mm (Fig. 222, c),
i. e., to a height 22 mm less than that of a tire, to allow for expansion
of the tire during rolling, and also for straightening its faces after
rolling;
3) Punch hole with 200 mm diameter (Fig. 222, c);
4) Roll (saddle) ring on mandrel 150-175 mm diameter and
straighten edges (Fig. 222, d).
Tools and fixtures required: for the 1st operation—hot set, hot sot
extension, flat top and bottom dies; the 2 nd operation—flat top and
bottom dies; the 3rd operation—flat top and bottom dies, punch;
the 4th operation—flat top die, saddle, mandrel.
 Examples' oj Hammer Forging 273

Flat Forgings with Bosses. Flat forgings with bosses are made
with the aid of rings (see Figs. 211 and 213) Suppose a gear blank
with one boss has to be forged, as shown in the forging drawing of the
gear blank in Fig. 224.
1. First of all the volume and weight of the gear blank forging are
calculated.

Volume of section I, Vt (the boss), will be:

/nd1 nd\ 3.14x25.7* 3.14x9.5*
V .= 4 ^ 12 =
I 4 > * = ( V. 4 4
= (518.7 - 70.8) 12 = 447.9 x 12 = 5,375 cm*;
volume of section II, V2 (gear blank itself), will be:
/ni>* nd‘ \ . '3 .1 4 x 4 2 .9 * 3.14x9.5*
4 J 4
9.8 = 4
)
v^ \-*
= (1,445—70.8) 9 .8 = 1,374.2x9.8= 13,467 cm*;
the volume of the forging will be:
Vforg = 5,375 +13,467 = 18,842 cm*;
the weight of the forging, W forgy will be:
W7J,...=
org 18,y1,000
2A 7 85 = 148 kg.

2. Calculating the volume and weight of the stock. The volume of

the stock, Vaioch% will be:
• y ^ f V t „t + V K + y , .cm*.
 274 The Technological Process and Examples of’\Hammer Forging

Volume of slug:
3 .1 4 x 9 .5 * 2 1 .8 „ „„
1/ <4 ~3"
H -------------- 5- = 70.8 x 7.26 = 514 cm*.
v s i~ 4 3'
The forging is to be made in one heating. Consequently, the loss
due to scale will be 2 per cent of the volume or weight^of the stock:
Vsc= (18,842 + 514)U02 = 387 cm5;
volume of stock
Vsiock= 18,842 + 514 + 387= 19,743 cm*,
weight of stock
19,743x7.85
W stock = 155 kg.
1,000
3. Calculating the basic dimensions of the slock. The gear blank
will be forged by upsetting in a ring. The cross-sectional area of
the stock must be now calculated. Its diameter is taken as being
250 mm. Its cross-sectional area will be:
, _ 3rd* 3.14x25*
■™-stock 4 4 490.9 « 491 cm*.
The height (length) of the stock, Z, to be upset will be:
I = "stock __ 19,743 40.2,
stock 491
I is taken as being equal to 400 mm.
The ratio n of the height of the stock logits diameter, will be:
l __ 400
1. 6 ,
d 250

Fig. 225. Technological process of forging'a"gear^blank'with[boss

a), b, c, d, and e)—sketches of passes in forging gear blank
 Examples of Hammer Forging 275

i. e., within the range recommended for upsetting without buckling.

Thus, the dimensions of the stock will be: diameter rf=250 mm,
length 2=400 mm.
4. Determining the forging operations and the intermediate forg­
ing dimensions.
Operation 1 : cut stock to length from billet (Fig. 225, a).
Operation 2: taper draw (reduce) one end of stock (Section 1) to
diameter d%=220 m; 2t = 120 mm (Fig. 225, b).
Operation 3: upset stock for part II of forging to height A=98 mm
(Fig. 225, c). The tapered end (Part I) of the forging is insert­
ed in the ring; and Part II of the forging is then given a
series of frequent and heavy blows with the top die of the hammer.
During the upsetting process, the stock must he constantly rotated,
together with the ring, around
its vertical axis. Section H
Operation 4: punch hole
from both sides of stock
(Fig. 225. d). m ? T
Operation 5: hammer the
circumference of the forging • w '
in the ring without removing
1 *
punch, and flatten its faces ;;i:i
(Fig. 225, e). ili'V
Operation 6 : remove ring
from boss. If the ring is made
with an inside taper, it can be
easily removed from the boss Fig. 226. Forging drawing of’a shackle
of the gear blank on the com­
pletion of the fifth operation. If, however, it has no inside taper,
the boss will be a very tight fit inside the ring, and the latter
will be very difficult to remove In such cases, packing and
supplementary rings must be employed for removing the forg­
ing.
Making Shaped Forgings. Special tools are usually employed for
making intricate forgings, or, as they are called, shaped forgings.
In most cases, it is advisable to make shaped forgings with the aid
of insert dies. Shaped forgings call for creative initiative on the part
of the blacksmith in addition to a good knowledge of the chief forg­
ing methods and operations. He must always try to simplify and
improve technological processes.
Here is an example of the technological process for forging a shackle
(Fig. 226) in a hammer with falling parts weighing 3 tons. The n o ta­
rial to be used will be grade 45 steel, and the forging is to be a finish
forging, requiring no subsequent machining. Weight of forging—
125 kg.
276 The Technological Process and Examples of Hammer Forging

Shackles can be forged by several different methods, but the best

method will be that which will ensure high mechanical properties
of the finished shackle. These can only be obtained if, during the forg-
ipg process, the fibres of the steel are not cut in the direction of the
forces which will be applied to the shackle during its service.
The fibres of the metal will not be cut if the shackle is made in
swages by the bending process. In this case, the fibres of the metal
will run parallel to the direction of the application of the forces act­
ing on the shackle. Therefore the technology of forging the shackle,
given in this example, will ensure simultaneously high mechanical
properties of the work, high productivity and the minimum loss of
metal as waste.

Fig. 227. Technological process of forging a shackle:

a), b, c, d, e, /, g, h and i ) —sketches of passes In forging a Ttfiackle
 Examples of Hammer Forging 277

The technological process comprises the following operations:

Operation 1. Cut stock to length (Fig. 227, a);
Operation 2. Taper draw end 1 and cut with semi-circular hot set
(Fig. 227,6);
Operation 3. Form eye with tapered sets (Fig. 227, c);
Operation 4. Finish form eye with the aid of swages (Fig. 227, d);
Operation 5. Taper draw end 11 and cut with semi-circular hot
set (Fig. 227, e);
Operation 6 . Form eye II with tapered sets (as in Fig. 227, c)\
Operation 7. Finish form eye II with swages (as in Fig. 227, d)\
Operation 8 . Draw central section of stock to 115 X 145 mm
(Fig. 227,/);
Operation 9. Bend stock with bottom swage die and mandrel
(Fig. 227,g);
Operation 10. Finish bend stock and finish form eyes with the aid
of tapered set (Fig. 227, h);
Operation 11. Finish head to specified dimensions with the aid of
bottom swage die and mandrel. Check dimensions with template
(Fig. 227, i).
Tools and fixtures for operations: the 1st operation—hot set;
the 2nd and 5th operations—semi-circular hot set; the 3rd and
6 th operations—special tapered sets; the 4th and 7th operations—
special swage; the 8 th operation—flat top and bottom dies; the
9th operation—special bottom swage and mandrel; the 10 th oper­
ation—special tapered sets and mandrel; the 11 th o p eratio n -
bottom swage, mandrel and template.
 CHAPTER XI

FORGING PRESSES AND THEIR OPERATION

HYDRAULIC AND STEAM-HYDRAULIC FORGING PRESSES

Depending on their method of actuation,forging presses are class­

ified as: a) hydraulic and steam-hydraulic presses and b) presses
driven by individual electric or other motors.
Hydraulic and steam-hydraulic forging presses are employed for
heavy forgings only, while motor-driven presses are employed for
die stamping and die forging.
Part of the energy of the falling parts of all hammers, whatever
their design, is transferred through the hottom die and the anvil
block to the foundation of the hammer and the soil, causing consid­
erable jars and vibration which harm both the hammer itself and
adjacent buildings and installations. In forging presses, however,
the top die gradually transfers its pressure through the forging to the
bottom die; and the design of the press ensures the transmission of
this pressure to the columns of the press instead of to the founda­
tion, thus avoiding vibration of the floor. For this reason forging
presses do not require large foundations for their erection.
In hammer forging, especially when forging heavy work, the force
of the blow of the die fails to penetrate the entire depth of the forg­
ing, as the speed of the ram at the moment of impact is greater than
the speed of the flow (deformation) of the metal. Because of this,
hammers of considerable capacity would be required to ensure the
deformation of the metal throughout its entire depth when forging
heavy work. When forging in presses, however, where the metal is
subjected to the gradually increasing pressure of the top die instead
of to instantaneous blows, the pressure succeeds in penetrating
throughout the entire thickness of the forging. In addition, the effi­
ciency of forging presses is higher than that of forging hammers.
Fig. 228 shows a schematic diagram of a hydraulic press. The press
consists of bottom plate 1 which is connected by four steel tie rods 2
to upper plate or crown 3. The tie rods are threaded and secured
in the plates by nuts. Working cylinder 4 and plunger 5, which is
connected to slide 6, are attached inside the crown. When water
under high pressure (100-400 atmospheres) is forced into the work-
i ng cylinder, the plunger, together with the slide, will descend. Top
o
 Hydraulic and Steam Hydraulic Forging Presses 281

die 11 is secured to the slide, and bottom die 12—to the bottom bed
plate, linder the pressure of the top die a piece of hot metal or ingot
placed on the bottom die will be squeezed (deformed). The slide can
be raised by pull-back cylinder 10.
This forging press is equipped with only one working cylinder;
presses of greater capacity (3,000-10,000 tons), however, are built
with two or three working cylinders. This means that various pres­
sures (for instance, of 1,500 to 3,000 or
even to 10,000 tons) can be obtained by
connecting or disconnecting as required
the corresponding cylinders. Medium
capacity hydraulic forging presses are
built with tables capable of travelling
along the longitudinal axis of the
press, while those of greater capacity
have tables capable of longitudinal
and transverse travel.
Fig. 229 shows a general view of a
hydraulic press installed in a press
shop.
In hydraulic forging presses, water
under high pressure is delivered by
electric motor-driven pumps; the water
is stored up in accumulators or pre­
fillers as they are also called. These
pre-fillers can be air or weight oper­
ated. Weight-operated pre-fillers work
on the following principle: a heavy Fig. 230. Air accumulator
load, suspended from a crossbar
coupled to a pistou, compresses the
water confined in a cylinder, thereby forming a reserve of water
under high pressure. These accumulators, however, are very clumsy
and are no longer built today; air-operated accumulators have
taken their place.
A ir accumulators without pistons are a more modern type of accu­
mulator. Fig. 230 shows such an accumulator, which operates
as follows: water is pumped into steel cylinder i , which is filled
with water to about three-quarters of its capacity; the remaining
space is filled with compressed air delivered from compressed air
cylinder 3 through compressed air pipe 2. In this way, the surface
of the water in cylinder 1 is under a constant pressure of compressed
air, which acts in the same way as the load in the weight-operated
accumulators.
Fig. 231 shows a diagrammatic scheme of a hydraulic forging
press installation. It consists of hydraulic press A , distributor C
282 Forging Presses and Their Operation

and pre-filler B, containing water under a pressure of 3-9 atmos­

pheres of air.
In order to lower slide #, lever 1 must be placed into position II,
when valve 5 will open, and valves 2, 3 and 4 will be closed. Work­
ing cylinder 9 of the press will be rapidly filled with waterjflowing

-■tvwwwS,

Fig. 231. Diagram of hydraulic press

along pipe 14 from pre-filler B , since the pressure of the water will
open valve 10. From the lifting cylinders 7 and servo-motor l i , the
water will flow into the overflow tank through valve 5 and pipeline
17. By further moving lever 1 to position I, valve 3 will be opened,
water under high pressure will then be forced into cylinder 9 along
high-pressure pipe 12 and valve 10 will be closed by the pressure of
the water. The water under high pressure will act on the piston which
will transmit the pressure to slide# and the top die; as a result, the
metal on the bottom die is squeezed and deformed.
 Hydraulic and Steam Hydraulic Forging Presses 283

To lift the slide together with the top die, lever 1 must he shifted
to position IV, thereby opening valves 2 and 4 and closing valves
3 and 5. The water under high pressure will then enter pull-back
cylinders 7 through high-pressure pipe 6, and force the piston and
tie-rods to raise slide 8. The pressure of the piston will force the wa-

Fig. 232. Press with steam-hydraulic intensifier:

1 — Intensifier cylinder; 2 — piston; 3 — piston rod; 4 — hydraulic cylinder; 5 — pipeline;
6 — press cylinder; 7 — slide; 8 — lifting cylinder; s — plunger; id —tank

ter from the working cylinder along water line 12 and through valve
2 into the discharge tank; a portion of the water will flow through
valve 10 supported by rod D of servo-motor 11 into pre-filler B. Any
excess water will be discharged from pre-filler B through valves
15 and 16 along water line 17 into the overflow tank. In order to
hold slide 8 in the suspended position, lever 1 must be shifted into
position III, thereby opening valve 2 and closing valves 3, 4
and 5.
Nowadays hydraulic forging presses are being built for producing
medium heavy forgings only, steam-hydraulic presses being employed
284 Forging Presses and Their Operation

for producing hdavy forgings. Steam-hydraulic presses differ only

slightly from ordinary hydraulic presses, having so-called intensi­
fies, operated by steam or compressed air, instead of a pump and
accumulator. Fig. 232 shows a schematic diagram of a forging press
equipped with a steam-hydraulic intensifier.
The intensifier comprises large cylinder 1 inside which travels
piston 2, rod 3 of which is located inside cylinder 4. From this cylin­
der water under a pressure of 300-400 atmospheres is forced along
high-pressure pipeline 5 into the working cylinder 6 of the press.
Slide 7 is connected by tie-rods to the piston of the pull-back cylin­
ders 8 , designed for raising slide 7 and working cylinder plunger 9
connected to it. If slide 7 is to he lowered and, with it, the top die,
cylinder 6 is filled with low-pressure water from low-pressure tank
10; this will force the plunger downwards and, when the top die
contacts the forging, the low-pressure line will be disconnected from
low-pressure tank 10 and steam will flow into intensifier cylinder 1;
the pressure of this steam on plunger 9 is transmitted to the water in
hydraulic cylinder 4} whence it flows along pipeline 5 into work­
ing cylinder 6. There it brings the water to a high pressure which is
transmitted through the working cylinder plunger of slide 7 and to
the top die.
Though the operating conditions of forging presses are more fa­
vourable than those of forge hammers, since they are not subject to
such severe shocks, their maintenance must he no less careful, as
the various parts of the press are under constant high pressure. The
high-pressure water lines in particular are subject to frequent break­
downs. The flanges of all pipelines must always be tightly drawn
up, and no leakage whatsoever allowed. Water must not be permit­
ted to leak from sleeves through the plunger; worn sleeves should
always be replaced, as they lead to leakage of the water and, con­
sequently, to loss of pressure.
While in hammers the force of the blow of the dies is transmitted
to the foundation, in forging presses the pressure is taken up by the
columns, or tie-rods, along which the slide travels; for this reason,
all nuts on the tie-rods must be always tightly drawn up and careful­
ly checked. The slide must travel along the rods with a minimum
possible clearance; they should also always be kept in strict align­
ment, as misalignment may lead to breakages. Before starting work,
the tie-rods must be copiously greased. In winter, on days when the
press is not in operation, the cylinders and pipelines should be
warmed to prevent the water in them from freezing. The water-dis­
tributing valves are a very important part of the press, and its opera­
tion depends to a high degree on their condition; for this reason,
great attention must be paid to keeping them in good condition and
seeing that they are properly ground in.
 Selecting the Required Pressure of a Press 285

SELECTING THE REQUIRED PRESSURE OF A PRESS

The pressure necessary to forge any given work in a press is selected
according to the same requirements which must be met when selecting
the capacity of a forging hammer. The pressure depends on the cross-
sectional area of the forging.
The required pressure can be calculated by the following formula
P = 6A kg,
where P —pressure developed by the press, in kg,
6 —tensile strength of the metal at the forging temperature in
kg/cm1,
and A — area of contact of the top die and forging in cm*.
The required pressure for making the forging is calculated for
the two chief forging operations—upsetting and reducing (drawing).
In upsetting, the area A of contact between the top die and the
forging will be:
ftd * 3.14d* n nQ . j i
Aa = ~ 4
r, or Aa = — 4
— = 0.785er.
In reducing, this area will he:
A = bl,
where b — width of the forging,
and I — length of feed, i. e., the length of that section of the forging
directly under the die of the press.
Table 8 gives the maximum tensile strength of certain steels at
various temperatures.
Table 8
Tensile Strength of Certain Steels a t Various Temperatures
Tensile stren g th , kg tarn*, a t various tem peratures, “C
M etal
15—20“ 600° 700“ 800® 900“ 1000“ 1100“ 1200“ 1300“

Steel A 40 12 7.2 6.25 5 3.1 2.5 2 1.8

Steel B 60 25 16.2 11.2 7.6 5.5 3.7 2.5 2.0
Steel C 80 37.5 24.5 17.5 11.0 7.0 4 .9 3.1 2.5
Steel D 100 52 32 21 13.5 8.5 6 .2 3.8 2.6

The pressure required for drawing (reducing) operations can be

selected from Table 9, compiled by engineer M. Storozhev.
286 Forging Presses and Their Operation

Table 9
Selection of Pressures of H ydraulic Forging Presses

Diameter of Ingot Diameter of Ingot

Pressure, or stock, mm Pressure, or stock, mm
tons tons
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

600 200 550 3,000 1 ,0 0 0 1,600

800 300 800 4,000 1 ,2 0 0 1,900
1 ,0 0 0 400 900 5,000 1,400 2,100
1 ,2 0 0 500 1 ,0 0 0 6 ,0 0 0 1,600 2,300
1,500 600 1,150 8 ,0 0 0 1,900 2,600
2 ,0 0 0 700 1,300
2,500 850 1,500 1 0 ,0 0 0 2 ,1 0 0 2,800

SAFETY RULES TO BE OBSERVED WHEN WORKING

ON FORGING PRESSES

The following safety rules and regulations must be strictly ob­

served when working on forging presses:
1 . Never use a forging press for work for which it is not designed.
2. Never attempt to remove scale, wipe the press or^make any re­
pairs while the press is working.
3. Never attempt to forge any work with wet dies, as hot water
may injure workers standing nearby.
4. Never carry out any work on a press with faulty pressure-
gauges.
5. Only the foreman is entitled to give orders to the press and
crane operators; assistants may not issue any orders—they may
only carry out the orders of their foreman.
6 . Forge only in the centre of the dies. (Use only the centres of
the dies for forging.)
7. Never attempt to forge metal at temperatures below those
specified in the process chart.
8 . When cutting with hot sets:
a) never place the hot set on the work in a slanting position;
b) see that the head of the hot set is perfectly smooth;
c) see that the extensions are in close contact with the entire sur­
face of the head of the hot set.
9. Never use tapered sets, as they may fly off the work and injure
workers standing nearby.
10. Never attempt to cut work near the edge of the bottom die.
11. See that the top and bottom dies are securely bolted in place.
 Forging Operations Executed in Presses 287

12. When punching holes and when ejecting slugs from holes, see
that the initial pressure is effected gradually.
13. If the punch sticks in the hole, never use the crane to pull it
cut.

FORGING OPERATIONS EXECUTED IN PRESSES

Hydraulic and steam-hydraulic presses are employed for produc­

ing heavy forgings weighing up to 100 tons and more, and from 150
to 2,500 mm in thickness. Forging operations in presses differ some­
what from forging operations in hammers—mainly because of the
larger cross-sections of the forgings and stock. As a rule, ingots of
polyhedral cross-section are used as stock for press forgings.
Drawing the Tail for the Chuck. The first
operation in forging an ingot is that of draw­
ing the ingot tail to fit the chuck. As a rule,

Fig. 233. Draw­ Fig. 234. Right (a) and wrong (b) way of rcduc
ing the tail of an ingot in a press:
ingot I —stock Ingot; 2 — top die; 3 — bottom die; 4 — la

the tail is drawn from the top discard side; more rarely—from the
bottom discard side.
In spite of its apparent simplicity, this is an exceedingly impor­
tant and difficult operation, because the tail must be forged so that
its axis 1 is in perfect alignment with axis 2 of the ingot (Fig. 233, a).
Sometimes inexperienced blacksmiths draw the tail of an ingot as
shown in Fig. 233, b, with axis 1 of the tail parallel to, but not
in line with, axis 2 of the ingot; or as shown in Fig. 233, c, with the
axis of tail 1 at a slight angle to the axis of ingot 2. In both
cases the forging must be corrected so that the axis of the tail is in
strict alignment with that of the ingot.
Billeting the Ingot. The second operation when forging an ingot
in a press is that of billeting, or rounding the edges of the ingot.
Ingots are billeted, in the first place, to make them perfectly round,
288 Forging Presses and Their Operation

without any taper and, secondly, to increase the density of the metal
at its edges. Ingots are best billeted in recessed dies.
When billeting an ingot, its reduction should not be too great,
i. e., it should be worked under a light pressure of the dies, at a re­
duction rate of 35 to 50 mm
per stroke. Greater reduction
may cause surface cracks on
<7the ingot. After the ingot has
been completely reduced at
the above rate, the pressure
can be increased to a reduc­
tion of 75-100 mm per stroke,
but the smaller the dia­
meter of the ingot is, the less
its reduction per stroke must
be, and the length of the part
of the ingot gripped by the
dies must be always greater
than the reduction per stroke
of the press, as shown in
Fig. 234, a.' If, however, the
length of the grip per stroke
is smaller than the reduction
of the ingot per stroke, laps
may result (Fig. 234, b).
Gutting. Gutting is per­
formed both on recessed and
flat bottom dies, recessed dies
being employed for cutting
round stock in the following
manner.
The forging is placed on the
bottom recessed die, so that
the place to be cut is exact­
Fig. 235. C utting round stock from ly in the centre of the die
three sides: (Fig. 235, a). The first two cuts
1 — bottom die; 2 — hot set for cutting stock In
l recessed die; 3 — stock; 4 — hot square cutter are performed with a straight
hot set (Fig. 235, b and c),
while the third, final cut, is performed with a shaped hot set
(Fig. 235, d).
Plates and rectangular-shaped forgings must be cut on flat dies..
Three methods of cutting forgings on flat dies are distinguished:
a) cutting with a square cutter; b) cutting from two opposite sides, and
c) cutting from all four sides. Gutting operations between flat dies
are performed in presses in the same way as on hammers.
 Forging Operations Executed in Presses 289

Upsetting an Ingot. Ingots are usually upset after beiug billeted.

Comparatively light ingots are upset between flat dies (without
plates). When making forgings from heavy ingots, top and bottom
bolster plates must be used for the upsetting operation; the bottom
plate, which is ring-shaped, is placed on the table of the press, and
the top plate is placed over the ingot. Recesses in the upsetting
plates facilitate the centring of the ingot in the press.
The ingot is upset in the following manner (Fig. 236). The billeted
ingot, heated to the proper temperature, is placed on table 6 of the
press so that its tail 2 enters the
hole of bottom bolster plate 3. Top
plate 4, which has a spherical recess,
is placed over the head of the ingot.
After the ingot, together with the bol­
ster plates, has been installed on the
press table, the ingot is slid into the
press and centred under top die 5; the
slide is then lowered and gradually
squeezes the ingot, upsetting it to the
required diameter. After upsetting, the
ingot is removed with the aid of a crane
and secured in the chuck for further
forging.
Installing the billeted ingot verti­
cally in the press for upsetting, and
installing it on the upsetting bolster
plate are very arduous and important
operations. Relatively light forgings
can be installed vertically for upsetting Fig. 236. Upsetting
press
ingot in
with the aid of tongs, while special fix­
tures have to be employed for heav­
ier forgings. Fig. 237 shows how a billet is installed vertically
with a shackle and chain. Shackle 1 is placed under the ingot, which
has been previously placed on support 2. Crane chain 3 is lowered
onto ingot 4 and passed round the shackle with the aid of long steel
hooks. As the crane travels upwards, the chain tightens and holds
the ingot in an upright position (Fig. 237, ft).
Forgings are upturned directly in the press by manipulating the
top die and the travelling table (Fig. 238). Top die 2 is pressed down­
wards. on the edge of forging 4, and table 1 moved in the direction
indicated by the arrow in Fig. 238, a. The forging is then raised by
the combined slow travel of the table and the pressure of the top die
until it touches slide 3 (Fig. 238, ft). Subsequent movement of the
table will bring the forging into a vertical position in which it is
held by the slide, as shown in Fig. 238, c.
290 Forging Presses and Their Operation

Ingots with chucked tails are placed upright in presses with the
aid of the special upsetting ring shown in Fig. 239 designed by
P. Levandovsky and F. Tkachenko in the following way.
This upsetting ring comprises a hollow cylinder 1 with two levers
2 welded opposite each other and fitted with trunnions 3 and 4. The
crane chain is hooked onto trunnions 4, and the ring, with the aid of
the crane, brought under the chucked^tail of the ingot; it is fitted
on the tail, after which crane chain*7 is hooked onto trunnions 3,

Fig. 237. Scheme of installing billeted (reduced) ingot in vertical

position,'using shackle and crane:
a) ingot before being raised in position; b) ingot placed ini vertical] posi­
tion; J—shackle; 2— insert/plate; 3—chain; 4 —Ingot

and the ingot lifted together with the ring, the ingot taking an up­
right position as it is lifted. Togother with the ring, the ingot is
then placed on the travelling table of the press, and upset. After
upsetting, the crane chain is again hooked to trunnions 3 , thereby
turning the ingot into a horizontal position. The ingot is further
squeezed between top and bottom dies 6* of the press (Fig. 239, b),
during which operation the ring is withdrawn and a chuck inserted
over the ingot tail for further drawing (reduction).
Punching. Two punching methods are employed, depending on
the type of tool used: punching with a solid punch (Fig. 240) and with
a hollow punch (Fig. 241).
When employing a solid punch, the metal will flow against the
travel of the punch, i. e., the core of the stock b'ing punched will
spread along the inside surface of the cylinder.
When punching with a hollow punch, the metal is ’,ut out, as it
were. In this case, the shape of the resultant slug will b as shown in
ring; L) removing ring from Ingot after upsetting
 Forging Operations Executed in Presses 293

Fig. 240. Punching holes in heavy forgings with solid punches:

i ) b, c and d)—sequence of punching operations; l — forging; 2—punch; 3 — extension;
4—ring; 5—slug

[Fig. 241. Punching holes with hollow punches:

a)^b, c'and d)—sequence of'punchlng operations; l —forging ; 2—hollow punch; s —extension;
4 —ring; J —slug

Fig. 242. The advantage of this method as

compared with the first method is that it
removes the shrinkage zone of the ingot
(its core), thereby improving the mechani­
cal properties of the forging.
The selection of the punching method
depends on the grade of steel of the ingot
and of the type of forging to be made. Gen­
erally, carbon-steel ingots are punched
with solid punches; in this case, the punch
is forced into the ingot to about 150-
200 mm from its bottom surface, the
punch and the pads are removed, the in­
got is turned through 180°, and a piercing Fig. 242. Slug after punch­
punch placed over the hole to finish the ing hole with nollow
punching operation. The diameter of the punch
294 Forging Presses and Their Operation

through, or finish, punch must be from 15 to 20 mm less than that

of the first punch; this will ensure a better piercing of the remain­
ing metal.

HANDLING MECHANISMS AND FIXTURES

EMPLOYED IN PRESS FORGING

Tongs are the chief tools used in hammer forging. The blacksmith
and his helpers with their tongs place the work on the anvil or die of
the hammer in any required position.
Press forging is performed on heavy work, with heavy tools;
for this reason hand operations during press forging are carried out
with great difficulty and, at times, are impossible. For this reason,
most of the stock handling operations (turning, installing the stock,
etc.) are performed with the aid of overhead travelling cranes, mani­
pulators, turning blocks and other fixtures, as, for instance, travel­
ling tables for installing the bottom die of the forging press.

•J 5

a
/— r [j 4

i n
_
__1

I
3
___
__

//- -
---
---
---
---
---PT ~
_

Fig. 243. Chuck employed for forging on presses:

/ —chuck; *—forged rod; 3 — tail of ingot or forging; 4— ingot or forging 6 — coun­
terweight; 0—turning block chain

Chucks. Chucks are used instead of ordinary blacksmith's tongs

for press-forging operations. The chucks employed for press-forging
operations differ from those employed for hammer forging. Press-
forging chuck 1 (Fig. 243), is secured to forged rod 2. The tail 3 of
ingot or stock 4 is inserted into the chuck, and counterweight 5
attached to the opposite end of the chuck rod.
The chuck is used in the following manner. The first ingot press­
forging operation, as has already been mentioned, is to draw out
its chuck tail; this is performed without employing the chuck. Chain
6, suspended from the crane, is passed over the ingot at its centre of
gravity. The turning block turns the chain and the latter causes
the ingot to rotate around its centre of gravity.
After the chuck tail has been forged, all further operations on the
ingot are performed with the aid of the chuck; for this purpose, the
 Handling Mechanisms and Fixtures Employed in Press Forging 295

ingot is held between the dies of the press, and chain 6 of the turning
block is passed over rod 2 of the chuck in such a position that,
when lifted, the chuck, suspended from the crane, remains balanced.
The overhead crane is then moved to the press and the chuck in­
stalled with its hole exactly opposite tail 3 of the ingot; when the
crane travels “forward”, the chuck moves over the ingot tail; to en­
sure that the chuck grips the ingot tail tightly, it is rotated round

°o m m see tm m too m
Diameter of chucking tail in mm.

Pig. 244. Chart for selecting diameter of chucking

tail to suit weight of ingot:
1 —chucking t u l of insufficient diameter (above upper curve
bent In mandrel during forging); 2 —chucking tail of proper
diameter (between upper and lower curve)

its axis by tho turning block, causing it to thread itself, as it were,

on to the tail of the ingot.
The diameter of the ingot tail depends on the weight of the ingot;
if the diameter of the tail is too small it will bend during forging.
Fig. 244 shows a chart for selecting ingot tail diameters corresponding
to the weight of the ingot. If a diameter of ingot tail is selected ac­
cording to the upper curve, the tail will bend, this will not happen
if its diameter is selected according to the lower curve.
Example. It is required to select the diameter for the tail of an
ingot weighing 50 tons. The point corresponding to 50 tons is found on
the vertical scale in Fig. 244, and from this point a horizontal line
is drawn until it intersects the curves. The point of intersection of
296 Forging Presses and Their Operation

this horizontal line with the upper curve corresponds to a chuck

diameter of 750 mm; and the point of intersection of the above-men­
tioned horizontal line with the lower curve will correspond to a
chuck diameter of 950 mm. Therefore the required diameter of the
ingot tail ranges from 750 to 950 mm. As chucks of 950 mm diameter
are to be found in the shop, the ingot tail will he forged to a diame­
ter approaching 950 mm.
The Turning Blocks. During both hammer and press forging the
main movement to which a forging is subjected is that of axial ro­
tation. This operation is effectod with the aid of so-called turning
blocks.
Turning blocks are fixtures designed for turning ingots and stock
being forged. They are suspended from the hook of an overhead trav­
elling crane, through the block of which is passed an endless chain,
driven in the required direction by an electric motor. The turning
block is controlled from the cabin of the overhead travelling crane.
The endless chain of the turning block is slung downwards, passed
under the forging or the chuck in which the forging is held; when re­
quired, and at the blacksmith’s order, the chain is turned in the nec­
essary direction. Turning blocks are made with various lifting ca­
pacities ranging from 10 to 200 tons, to suit the capacity of the press.

EXAMPLES OF PRESS FORGING

Press forging has certain distinguishing features as compared with

hammer forging. Below are described a few examples of making some
of the most common forgings in a press.
Forging Shafts. Example 1. It is required to forge the shaft shown
in Fig. 2-15, a; the dimensions of the shaft, after finish machining are
Top of ingot

Flake test ^ la
43351W
coupon (300)

Fig. 245. Technological process of forging a shaft:

a) forging s k e ith of shaft; b, c) sketches of steps in forging sh aft
 Examples of Press Forging 297

given in brackets. The weight of the stock (ingot for one forging) is
5,120 kg; material—grade 40H steel.
First of all the volume and weight of the shaft forging are calcu­
lated. The shaft is divided into five sections:
1) The volume, Vl, of the section I will be:
3.14x27.5*
i= 4 121 —71,846 cm*;
2) The volume* V 2, of the section II will be:
nDl 3.14x36.0*
V
v*
= -_-
4
I — 4
244.5 -2 4 *
3) The volume, Vif of the section III will be:

V, = ^ I, = 68.0 = 58,131 cm*;

4) The volume, V4, of the section IV will be:
nDl 3.14x25*
y* * __
4A? i«4 —
- 4 41.0—20,127 cm*;
5) The volume, Vg, of the section V will be:

V, -- -y* /. = — < 4 ^ 18 ,5' 86 ---- 23,091 cm*.

Thus the volume of the entire forging will be:
Vforg;= 71,846-+ 248,744-1-58,131 + 20,127+ 23,091 = 421,939 cm*.
Its weight, W forg, will be:
TT7
W r
— = tV/orgg
forg
i 421,939 X 7.8o q o/io i
=— ----- = 3,312 kg.
Knowing the weight and volume of the forging, the required volume
and weight of the stock can be easily calculated. Considering the di­
mensions of the forging, it is clear that an ingot must bo used as
stock, and, moreover, that this ingot will produce one forging only.
The volume of the ingot Ving will therefore be:
V ing = ^ forg~^~ Vh-disc “ t” Vcrop “ 1” ^[Link] “ t~ ^ sc •

The head and bottom discards are taken as 20 and 5 per cent re­
spectively, and the loss due to scale as 3.5 per cent (the ingot will be
heated twice). In this case, the waste loss from the head nnd
bottom discards, plus scale loss will equal
20 + 5 + 3.5 = 28.5 per cent;
298 Forging Presses and Their Operation

the permissible volume of metal for the forging, including end crop­
pings, will be:
T] = 100—28.5 = 71.5 per cent.

The end croppings are calculated from the formula:

Verop = 0.21 D* cm',
whore D — diameter of cropped end. In this case it will bo: cropping
from left-hand end (section I), with D —275 mm
Vcrop = 0.21 x 27.5' = 4,368 cm*;
volume of right-hand end cropping (section F), with Z) = 185 mm
F crop = 0.21 x 18.5* = 1,330 cm’.
Total volume of end croppings will therefore be:
V crop = V„ov + v lr o p = 4,368 +1,330 = 5,698 cn.'i
weight of croppings
5,698 X 7.85 ^o
W
TT cropiTood = kg.
The calculated weight of the ingot

Ingots of this weight are not available in the U.S.S.R. Therefore

from the table in Appendix 1, an ingot of the next standard weight
of 5,120 kg is taken; this will give a yield of:
3,312x100
M yicld 5 ,1 2 0
64.7 per [Link]
Now the various forging operations and the intermediate forging
dimensions can be specified. The first operation will be forging the
chucking tail in a 1 ,200 -ton press; the chuck is installed over the
chucking tail and the edges of the ingot rounded to reduce the ingot
to a diameter of 630 mm.
Operation 2: cropping the ingot bottom on the same press
(Fig. 245, b).
Operation 3: forging the largest diameter (630 mm) of the shaft
in recessed dies and grooving for sections 1—II—III—TV—V
(Fig. 245, c).
The length of each section of the forging must now be calculated:
a) The volume of metal F, required for section I, together with
the cropping V'crov» will be:
F 1= 71,846 + 4,368= 76,214 cm’;
 Examples of Press Forging 299

the cross-sectional area of stock, A stock, of diameter Z)=360 mm

will te:
a nu
nD*_ 3.14x36*
A stock ~ 4• = 1,018* cm';

the length of section I of the forging will be:

, Vi 76,214 c
“ = T7vi8
Astock 1.01B = 74-8 cmi
b) The volume of metal, F 2, required for section II will be:
Vt = 248,744 cm*;
its length, /2, will be:
, V2 248,744 0 / / n

r a r - 244-* cm'
c) The length of the forging for sections III+ IV + V h lcrojr
The volume of metal, F, for sections Ill-|-lV+V-t-V*rop win be:
V = 58,131 + 20,127 + 23,091 + 1,330 = 102,679 crn*;
the corresponding length will be:
102,679
1,018
s100.8 cm.

Operation 4: forging and finish forging shaft dimensions

(Fig. 245, a) and cropping ends.
Forging temperature interval for operations 1, 2 and 3 will be
1,220°-700°C.
E x a m p le 2. Required to forge the stepped shaft shown in Fig. 246.
The forging dimensions are given in Fig. 246, a, the dimensions in
brackets being those of the shaft after finish machining. Weight of
stock—5,120 kg (ingot for one forging). Material—grade 40H
steel.
As in Example 1, the weight and volume of the forging are first cal­
culated. The shaft is divided into eight sections and the volume of
each section is calculated separately.
1 ) Volume of section / , Vlt will be:
nD \xlx 3.14X28*
Vi= 4 — 4 45 = 27,675 cm8;

2)jVolume of section II, V 2 , will be:

nD \xlx 3 .1 4 x 3 0
v .- /. 10=7,068 cm8;
300 Forging Presses and Their Operation

3) Volume of section III, Va, will be:

3.14x28*
V,= 4 68 = 41,820 cm*:

(f)
Fig. 246. Technological process of forging a stepped shaft:
a )—forging drawing of abaft; b, c, d, c, and /) —sketches of steps (passes) in forging shaft

4) Volume of section IV, V4, will be:

Tr n D \x U 3.14X41.5* n / ,
Vt = — ^ ^ ------ 24 = 32,457 cm*;
5) Volume of section V, V,, will be:
nDM
t xl, 3.14x37.5*
v>= 142.5 = 157,386 cm*;
 Examples of Press Forging 301

6 ) Volume of section VI, V#, will be:

JtD \ x L 3.14x31.5* _ _
Vt = — ^ ^ ------4 0 .5 - 31,590 cm*;
7) Volume of section VII, V7, will be:
ji.D* x 3.14x26*
4 4
94.0=49,820 cm*;
8 ) Volume of section V III, F a, will be:
jijD* x /8 3.14x22*
4
42.5=--10,150 cin*.
The total volume of the shaft forging, 1^ , will be equal to the
sum of the volumes of its sections:
Vforg= 27,675+7,068 + 41,820 + 32,457 4 157,386 + 31,590 +
+ 49,820 +16,150 —363,966 cm*.
The weight of the forging, W forg1 will be:
v 363,966X7.85
W f o rg V forg S — 1 ,0 0 0 --= 2,857 kg.
The weight of the ingot, W ing, required for the forging will be:
= W /Of, + Wn. « K + W ,.ilK + Wse + W crop kg.
The waste is taken as:
[Link] = 20 per cent; W b dise = 10 per cent;
W sc — 5 per cent.
Threo heats will be required for making the forging.
The losses due to the top and bottom discards and scale will
therefore be:
2 0 + 1 0 + 5 = 35 per cent.
The percentage of metal required for forging, together with the
croppings will be:
tj = 100—35 = 65 per cent.
The volume of the end cropping is calculated from the formula:
VCroP= 0.21D' cm*,
where D is the diameter of the cropped end. In this case:
a) The volume of the left-hand cropping V" (from section I),
will be:
V'ero, = 0.21 x 28’ = 0.21 x 21.952 = 4.610 cm’;
 302 Forging Presses and Their Operation

b) The volume of right-hand cropping, F 'rop (from section VIII)

V”
croP= 0.21Z)* = 0.21 x 22* = 0.21 x 10,648 = 2,240 cm*.
The volume of waste due to croppings, Vcrop, will therefore be:
y crop~ Vcrop-H Vcrop = 4 ,6 1 0 + 2,240 = 6,850 cm*.
Weight of waste due to croppings, lVcrop, will be:

W
ww crop r crop e
6 = C, 800X7.85 = 54 kg.
1,000
The calculated weight of the ingot, W ing, will be:
W forg + W crop ^QQ (2,857 + 54)100
65
= 4,478 kg.
n
Ingots of this weight are not cast; from the table in Appendix 1 ,
it is found that the ingot of the nearest standard size weighs 5,120 kg;
hence, the yield from this ingot will be:
W f0n,X 100 2,857x100 r#>
i— w ~ ------ w r-* 56 per cent-
Now the forging operations and the intermediate forging dimen­
sions can be specified.
Operation 1: forge chucking tail of the ingot (Fig. 246,6).
According to the chart in Fig. 244, the diameter of the chucking
tail should range from 300 to 350 mm. The diameter of the chucking
tail is chosen to suit the chuck available in the shop, i. e., the chuck
with a diameter of 300 mm, after which the chucking tail is forged.
The chuck is installed on the tail of the ingot, aud the edges of the
ingot are rounded; its diameter is reduced to 605 mm, and the bottom
discard is cropped off; this operation will be performed in recessed
dies.
Operation 2 (Fig. 246, c): upsetting the ingot and reducing it in
recessed dies. The method for ensuring the necessary reduction must
now be decided on; as is known, when forging an ingot by the reduc­
tion method, and in the case the ingot will be drawn (reduced),
the reduction factor must range between 2.5 and 3.5. In the case, a
reduction factor of 3.5 is taken. To ensure this reduction, the cross-
sectional area and diameter of the stock must be calculated.
The maximum diameter of the shaft forging, Z?4, is 415 mm, which
corresponds to a cross-sectional area:
3.14x41.5*
A
1,352 cm*.
 Examples of Press Forging 303

To ensure the reduction factor of 3.5, the cross-sectional area of

the initial stock, A stocfc, must be not less than:
A stock = -^4 x 3 .5 = 1,352 x 3.5 « 4 ,732 cm8,
which corresponds to a stock diameter
n _ - i / ' ^ stock i / ~ 4 x 4 .7 3 2
D stock— y 3.14 — y 3.14 —780 mm.
The diameter of [the stock, however (see Fig. 246, b), Dstect, is
605 mm. Therefore, to ensure the required reduction factor of 3.5, the
ingot must be upset. For this reason, the second operation will be
upsetting the ingot to a diameter of 800 mm, and reducing it in re­
cessed dies to a diameter of 450-460 mm (Fig. 246, c).
The metal is then marked off into sections I-fll-M II; IV; V +
-fV I-t-V II+V III (Fig. 246, d) and sections V; VI; VII and VIII
forged and finished (Fig. 246, e)\ the calculation of the metal required
for each separate section is performed in the same way as in Exam­
ple 1 .
After the unforged section of the stock (from the chucking tail
end) has been heated, sections 1, II and III of the shaft are forged
and finished (Fig. 246,/) and the entire forging is straightened.
All these operations are executed in a 1,200-ton forging press.
Working tools used for the 1st operation: dies—flat top die and
recessed bottom die; for the 2nd and 3rd operations—upsetting
plates, flat top die and bottom flat and recessed dies; for the 4th and
5th operations—flat top die, recessed bottom die. Auxiliary tools:
for the 1st operation—hot set; for the 4th and 5th operations—fuller
and hot set.
Forging temperature intervals: for the 1st and 3rd operations—
1,220-800 °G; for the 4th and 5th operations—900-700 °C.
. Forging Tires (Rings). The following three fundamental problems
have to bo resolved when determining the technology necessary for
forging tiros: 1) the length of the ingot to be upset before punching
the hole; 2 ) the diameter of the mandrel over which the tire will be
rolled (it will be spread or rolled over a saddle); 3) the diameter of
the hole before rolling, and the method of forming the hole.
Calculating the length of the stock to be upset before punching
the hole is a most complicated and important problem. When rolling,
i. e., spreading the lire, the metal spreads over the mandrel both
along its circumference and along its width. Errors in calculating
the upsetting height will lead to irremediable spoilage.
The tire will be spread (rolled) by narrow dies from 100 to 150 mm
wide; the narrower the die, the better will the metal flow along the
circumference, and the worse along the width of the tire. According
to calculations made by B. Morozevich and N. Dorokhov, the height
304 Forging Presses and Their Operation

of the stock before punching the hole for spreading (rolling) tires
over 1,000 mm in diameter under dies from 100 to 150 mm wide, can
be determined from the formula
h = H 0x B mm,
where h is the height of the stock in mm,
H 0 height of the forging in mm,
and B is a factor, given in Table 10.
Table 10
T able for D eterm ining F acto r B

♦ Height of forging, H„, In mm

Outside
diameter of
forging, mm 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1 ,0 0 0 1 ,1 0 0 1 ,2 0 0

Up to 1,500 0.7 9.82 0.9 0.93 0.95 0.95 0.95

1,501-2,000 0 . 6 0.7 0 . 8 o.8:> 0 . 8 8 0.9 0.92 0.93 0.94 — —

2,001-3,000 _
0.7 0 . 8 0.85 0.9 0.92 0.93 0. 93 0.95

The diameter of the mandrel must be sufficient to prevent it from

bonding during the rolling of the tire. The mandrel acts as a bottom
die during the rolling process; therefore, the smaller its diameter,
the better (quicker) will the circumference of the tire be spread;
thus, though mandrels for rolling should be of the smallest possible
diameter, they should be sufficiently strong so as not to bend during
the rolling (spreading) of the work.
Fig. 247 gives a chart for selecting the diameter of mandrels, depend­
ing on the length of the stock and its wall thickness. This chart
only holds good when the tires are to be rolled under dies from 100 to
150 mm wide. The chart contains two curves—Curve I, for thick-
walled forgings, and Curve II—for thin-walled forgings.
The diameter of the hole to bo punched after the stock has been
upset will depend on: a) the diameter of madrel 2; b) the condi­
tions for removing the core of the ingot, i. e., the poor metal; and
c) the available punches in stock.
Usually the diameter of the hole to be punched before rolling the
tire must be at least twice the diameter of the mandrel. For respon­
sible forgings, such as tires, the core of the ingot, i. e., all the metal
containing various impurities and inclusions, must be removed. The
core of an ingot can be removed with a hollow punch after upsetting.
In practice, holes up to 350-400 mm in diameter are usually punched
in thick work with the aid of solid punches; holes over 400 mm
in diameter are made with hollow punches.
 Examples of Press Forging 305

Example. As an illustration, let us suppose it is required to forge

the tire (ring) shown in Fig. 248, a from an ingot of grade 45 steel.
Tho\weight of the forging is 14,780 kg.
First of all, a scale drawing of the finish machined tire, in thin
lines, is made and its basic dimensions written in.

1—top die or press; 2 —mandrel; 3 —sad- (h )

die; 4 —forging (tire)

From the tables in Appendix 3 and other appendixes, the necessary

machining allowances and forging tolerances corresponding to the
outside diameter D and height //o f the tire are found. Then, in
thick lines, the forging drawing of the tire is drawn round the draw­
ing of the finished tire, and at the same time the forging dimensions
and forging tolerances are written in (Fig. 248, a).
The volume and weight of the forging are then calculated. The vol-
ume^of the forging, V forg, will be:
.. f n D * — n cF \ „ f 3.14x250*—3.14xl36*>
Vl " t = \ ----- 4 ■)H = 6 0 =
= (49,087- -14,530)60 = 2,073,600 cm*;
The weight of the forging, W jorg, will be:
TJT 2,073,600 X7.85 in nnn ,
w fr ,= vt„ # ------ r^oo------ 1 6 ’ 2 7 3 ke-
The weight of the ingot required for making the forging is now
calculated. The weight^of this ingot, W ing, will be:
w i v = " V e + w *-«'c + w b.d i t c + w s c + w « k g .
 forging a tire:
a) forging"dr avdng of tire; b, c, d, and e) sketches
of passes In forging tire
 Examples of Press Forging 307

Weight of waste: of top discard—20 per cent; of bottom dis­

card—5 per cent; of loss due to scale—3.5 per cent.
Total waste will be: 20+5+3.5= 28.5 per cent.
Yield T] will be: 100—28.5=71.5 per cent.
Weight of metal lost as slug. Before proceeding to calculate the
weight, of the metal lost as slug, we determine: a) the upsetting
height of the stock before punching tho hole; b) the diameter of the
mandrel on which the work is to bo spread, and c) the diameter
of the hole and the method by which it is to be made. The tire is to
be press forged. The width of the dies will bo 150 mm. The height of
our stock after upsetting an-d before punching is calculated from the
formula:
H l = H aB mm.
/ / (Fig. 248, a) is 600 mm; according to Table 10 Factor B for a
forging of outside diameter D = 2,500 mm, and height of forging
^To=600 mm, according to Table 10, will be 0.8; consequently, the
height of the stock, H t , before piercing must be:
Hi = 600X0.8 = 480 mm.
It is clear that, during the process of rolling the ring to diameter
2,500 mm, the forging will also increase its length (height) from
480 mm to the forging dimension H0= 600 mm.
The diameter of the mandrel for spreading the forging is determined
from the chart in Fig. 247; for this, the point on the vertical scalo
corresponding to i7o--=600 (height of our tire) is taken; from
this point, a horizontal line is drawn to its intersection with the
first curve (tho tire is a thick-walled hollow forging). From tho point
of intersection of this horizontal line with tho first curve /, a verti­
cal line is dropped to intersect the horizontal scale, on which the
mandrel diameters are given, the vertical line intersects this scalo
at a point corresponding to a minimum mandrel diameter of 250 mm.
For convenience in forging, the minimum diameter of the hole,
before rolling, must be at least two diameters of the mandrel.
Thus,
Dhole ~ 2dmandrel = 2 X 250 = 500 mm.
To remove the core oE the ingot, it is decided to make the hole in
the stock after upsetting with a hollow punch having an outside
diameter O. D.=500 mm, and inside diameter I. D.=250 mm.
Thus, height H x of the ingot after upsetting=480 mm; the diame­
ter of the hole to be punched, Dh.^= 500 mm. Now the volume and
weight of the resultant slug must be calculated. After piercing with
a hollow punch of 500 mm 0. D. and 250 mm I. D., a slug of the shape
shown in Fig. 242 will be formed.
20 *
308 Forging Presses and Their Operation

Its dimensions will be:

d = 250 mm (equal to the inside diameter of the hollow punch);
.0=500 mm (equal to the outside diameter of the hollow punch);
hl = 150 mm, which is equal to the height of tho unpunched section
of the stock (see Fig. 242).
h2—i.{ (H —^ x) = 1.1 (480—150)=360 mm, i. e., the height of
the stem of the slug will be equal to eleven-tenths of the difference
between the height of the stock and the height of its non-punched
section. Consequently, tho volume of the slug, Vsr when, as in this
case, the hole is made with a hollow punch, will be:
Vsl = ( n<<‘ ***) + = ( 3-u-£ 2'?-x36
+ f ? 14* 50*xl5~) = 16,648+29,445 = 46,093 cm1,
46,093X 7.85
tbe weight of the slug will be: = 360 kg.
1,000
The calculated weight of the ingot, W ing, will thus be:
<Wforg + W sl) i 00 (16,273 + 360)100
W mg
. = = 23,262 kg.
71.5

Ingots of such weight are not available; referring to the table in

Appendix 1, it is found that the ingot approximating to this weighs
26,328 kg, and this is selected. Now the different forging operations
and the intermediate stock dimensions can be specified.
Operation 1: accepting ingot against certificate and melt analysis;
forging chucking tail and cogging the ingot to 1,050 mm diameter
(Fig. 248,5).
The diameter of the chucking tail is determined from the chart in
Fig. 244. For ingots weighing 26 tons, this diameter will range from
600 to 750 mm. Since a chuck of 650 mm is in the shop, it is decided
to forge the chucking tail to a diameter of 650 mm. *.**'•
Operation 2: cropping the bottom discard of the ingot and cutting
the stock to length (Fig. 248,c). The length of the stock is calculated.
The cross-sectional area of a stock of D = 1,050 mm, A siock will b<v
a JtD* 3.14x105* q a a /i ■
Astock=- 4 - = -------4 = 8,660 cm.

The weight of the metal required for'the forging, slug and loss
due to scale will be:
w = w , ort+ w sl+ w „ .
Loss of metal due to scale will be equal to:
W , = (W fe,e + W sl) x 0.035 = (16,273 + 360) 0.035 = 582 kg,
 Examples of Press Forging 309

therefore, the weight of the stock will he:

W = 16,273 + 360 + 582 = 17,215 kg.
The volume of metal required for the forging, slug and scale loss,
will he:
G 17,215x1.000
V 7.85
= 2.193,000 cm*.
e
The required length of stock I will therefore be:
_Vstock _ _ 2.193,000 _ _ 2 5 0
cm.
A stock 8»860
Ratio of height to diameter of stock will he:
2,500 n OQ
U jso""2'*8,
i. e., within the limits which ensure upsetting the stock without its
buckling.
Operation 3: upsetting stock to height of 480 mm, and piercing a
500 mm diameter hole with a hollow punch (Fig. 248,d).
Top of ingot
I

WZZZZZZZZl (b)

test coupon (9Si)

IB)

Fig. 249. Technological process of forging a hollow ring:

a) forging drawing of hollow ring; b, c, d, e) and f) sketches of passes In forging

Operation 4: rolling (spreading) stock on a 250 mm diameter man­

drel to forging dimonsions (Fig. 248, e).
All these operations will be performed in a 2,000-ton forging press.
The following working tools will be used: for the 1st and 2nd oper­
ations—flat top die and bottom recessed die; for the 3rd opera-
310 Forging Presses and Their Operation

tion—flat top plate and flat bottom plate; for the 4th operation-
narrow top die and saddle. Auxiliary tools: for the 1st and 2nd op­
erations—hot set; for the 3rd operation—500 mm diameter hollow
punch, and 600 mm diameter ring; for the 4th operation —250 mm
diameter mandrel.
Forging temperature interval 1200-750°C.
Forging Hollow Forgings. Hollow forgings, as distinguished from
ring forgings, are made by drawing-out over mandrels. Fig. 249, a
illustrates the technological process of forging a hollow ring.
The weight of the slock for this ring is 3,000 kg (an ingot for one
forging only); weight of forging—1,700 kg. Material grade 40X
steel. The ring will be forged on a 2,000-ton press. Tools required:
working tools for the 1st and 4th operations—flat top and bottom
dies, upsetting plate; for the 5th operation—flat top die, recessed
bottom die, marking out tools and a marking punch. Auxiliary
tools: for 1st and 4th operations—hot sets, 350 mm diameter punch;
for the 5th operation—320 mm diameter hollow mandrel,
sledge-hammer.
Forging temperature interval: for the 1st and 4th operations—
1220-800°C; for the 5th o p e ra tio n -1220-750°G.
In this case, the chief and most important forging operation will
be drawing (Fig. 249,/). Forgings of this type are drawn over a man­
drel; during this operation, they increase in longth as a result of the
reduction in their outside diameter and wall thickness.
Drawing on a mandrel is effected between a flat top die and a re­
cessed bottom die, or between recessed top and bottom dies. After
upsetting, the stock is punched to take the mandrel (Fig. 249,e),
the diameter of the hole being about 30-50 mm greater than the in­
side diameter of the forging.
Hollow forgings are drawn over hollow mandrels with tapered work­
ing parts, which facilitate their withdrawal from the forging on the
completion of the drawing operation. The working surfaces of such
mandrels must have a high finish. During the drawing operation, the
mandrel must be cooled by a continuous stream of cold water deliv­
ered to the inside of the mandrel. The diameter of the mandrel must
be equal to the inside diameter of the hollow forging. Fig. 250 illus­
trates a hollow tapered mandrel.
To ensure a sound hollow forging, the following fundamental
rules should be observed when drawing the forging on the mandrel:
1) Before drawing, the metal must be properly and uniformly
heated to the required forging temperature;
2) Drawing on a mandrel must be performed in the following se­
quence:
Insert the mandrel inside the work so as to leave a clearance A
(Fig. 249,/) between the work and the shoulder of the mandrel;
 Fig. 250. Taper mandrel

Flake te st coupon

■"/t9 3 S3
5A
- 345 ■13
(300
(a)

Fig. 251. Technological process for forging a crankshaft:

a) .forging drawing of shaft; b, c, d, e, f and g) sketches of passes for forging crankshaft
312 Forging Presses and Their Operation

then draw out the left-hand end of the work, proceeding from right
to left, i. e., towards the shoulder of the mandrel, and always in the
same direction. In doing so, the metal will he forced against the
shoulder of the mandrel. Then draw out the right-hand taper side
and the central section of the work. This sequence of forging'opera-
tions will ensure a high-quality forging which can be easily removed
from the mandrel.
Forging a Crankshaft. Crankshafts are complicated and important
forgings. The method of making a crankshaft will depend on its
design: on the dimensions, numbers of journals and their relativo
positions, whether the crankshaft is to be flanged or not, on the grade
of material, etc. Fig. 251 shows the forging sketch of a crankshaft
to be made according to the technological process given in Fig. 251a,
b, c, rf, a, / and g.
This technological process incorporates the following operations:
1) Forging the chucking tail, rounding (cogging) the ingot to 820jnm
diameter and cropping off the ingot bottom (Fig. 251,6);
2) Upsetting the ingot to 1,350 mm diameter (Fig. 251,c);
3) Forging on 1,200 X 600 mm plate (see Fig. 251,d);
4) Forging to 1,200 X 550 mm, grooving for sections according to
sketch (Fig. 251, e);
5) Forging to 1,200 X 350 mm at section IV, grooving metal for
sections V-VI and VII (Fig. 251,/);
6 ) Grooving for sections I, II and III, forging and finishing sec­
tion IV, grooving for section V, and forming sections V, VI and VII
(Fig. 251,g);
7) Grooving for section III, forging and finishing sections III,
II and I; straightening the forging, and cutting off excess metal
(Fig. 251,g).
The weight of the stock is 10,300 kg; the weight of the forging is
5,200 kg. Material—grade 35 steel. All operations are performed in
a 3,000-ton press. Tools required: working tools for all operations—
flat top dies and flat and recessed bottom dies; for the 3rd, 4th and
5th operations—flat top die, recessed bottom die and bottom plate;
auxiliary tools: for the 1st and 2 nd operations—upsetting plates,
hot sets; for the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6 th and 7th operations—side sets, hot
sets and square cutters.
Forging temperature intervals: for the 1st and 2 nd operations—
1220-800°C; for the 3rd and 5th operations—1220-750°C; for the
6 th and 7th operations—950-730°C.
 C H A P T E R XI I

AUTOMATIC FORGING AND STAMPING MACHINES

GENERAL INFORMATION
ON AUTOMATIC FORGING AND STAMPING MACHINES

Automatic forging and stamping machinos are widely employed

in nearly all branches of the machine-building industry, particu­
larly in automobile, tractor, aircraft and other plants. These auto­
matic machines are employed for the mass production of nuts, bolts,
rivets, railway track spikes, wood screws, rollers, ball-bearing balls,
and other components. These components can be produced by the
hot, cold or semi-hot (i. e., with stock at temperatures ranging from
600 to 700°C) processes. The cold process is employed for making
components from gauged rods up to 25 mm in diameter, and the hot
process—for making components from bars up to 50 mm in dia­
meter.
The method employed for the production of machine components
on automatic forging machines depends on the dimensions, shape and
required precision of the parts. The greatest precision is attained
by cold stamping parts in cold heading automatic machines. The
precision of work produced in these machines approximates that of
work produced on lathes.
The productivity of automatic forging and stamping machines is
ten or even a hundred times greater than that of automatic machine-
tools. In addition to their high productivity, automatic forging ma­
chines ensure a great economy of metal, particularly when producing
parts by the cold heading process.
Modern automatic machines incorporate a considerable number of
complicated and precise mechanisms which unless properly handled
are liable to break very quickly. Therefore, the productivity, ser­
vice life and quality of production of automatic machines depend on
the strict observance of all the operating and maintenance rules.
Particular care should be paid to proper lubrication of all the mecha­
nisms of automatic machines, as they work under very severe condi­
tions. - As a rule, both centralised and individual lubrication is
employed in automatic machines.
Gauged rods, wire and, more rarely, bar and ribbon are usually
omployed as stock for automatic forging and stamping machines.
The stock used must have a smooth surface, be bright, free of cavi­
ties, cracks, burrs and other similar defects. To facilitate .the defor-
314 Automatic Forging'and Stam ping Machines

mation of the stock and for the better preservation of the tools, tho
stock should be greased with a mixture of oil and crushed sulphur
(sulphofrezol) before cold heading.
Every automatic forging and stamping machine is designed for
stock of definite dimensions and shape and therefore should not be
operated with stock for which it is not designed.

SCHEME OF ARRANGEMENT AND THE OPERATION

OF AUTOMATIC FORGING AND STAMPING MACHINES

Automatic Gold Heading Machines. Automatic cold heading ma­

chines are employed for cold heading gauged wire or rod for the
production of rivets, bolts, wood screws, etc. They are classified into
“toggle joint” and crank-type cold heading automatic machines. The
latter type is most frequently employed.
In addition, these automatic cold heading machines are classified
into solid and open-die machines. The first are employed for cold head­
ing work the shank length of which is less than 8 diameters of the
wire or rod from which they are made. Automatic machines of the
second type are employed for work with shank length greater than
8 diameters of the wire or rod from which they are made. In their turn,
automatic solid and opon-dio machines are grouped into single-,
double- and three-stroke automatic machines.
In a single-stroke automatic machine, the work is upset (headed)
in one stroke of the punch; in tho double-stroke—in two strokes
and in the three-stroke—in three strokes of the punch. The single-
stroke automatic upsetting machine can be employed only for head­
ing bolts, etc., in which the length of the upset section does not ex­
ceed 2.0-2.5 diameters of the stock. These automatic machines
are employed for manufacturing rivets, wood screws and similar
components. Double-stroke upsetting automatic machines are de­
signed for heading work, in which the length of the upset section does
not exceed 4 diameters of the stock. Three-stroke automatic heading
machines are designed for upsetting parts, in which the length of
tho upset section does not exceed 8 diameters of the stock. Double-
and three-stroke automatic heading machines are designed for form­
ing components of complicated shape with extra precision and clean
surface finish.
Fig. 252 illustrates the process of upsetting (heading) a piece of
work in an automatic heading machine. The wire or rod 1 is fed by
continuously rotating grooved rollers 2 into the bore of cutting-
off die 6 until it reaches stop 7. As the wire or rod travels forward,
a piece of stock of required length is cut. off by cutter 8, and pushed
into the upsetting line by special mechanisms. The stock-is pushed
into the bore of die 4 by heading tool 5 until it meets rod 3. The head
 Scheme of Arrangement. Operation 315

of the slock is upset by the further travel of heading tool 5, after

which heading tool 5 is retracted and the finished product ejected
from the bore in die 4 by rod 3.
Fig. 252, a illustrates the process of upsetting ahead at one stroke,
i. e., in a single-stroke cold heading automatic machine, Fig.
252,b illustrates the process of upsetting a head in two strokes in a

(b )

Fig. 252. Upsetting process in automatic heading machine

double-stroke cold heading automatic machine. After the first, forming,
stroke of the punch the stock takes the form shown in the top section
of Fig. 252,9; after this, the punch is automatically withdrawn and
replaced by a second heading tool which performs the final upset­
ting operation, as shown in the bottom section of Fig. 252,b. Two (or
three) strokes are brought about by securing the requisite number of
heading tools in a specially designed slide, which travels in a car­
riage up and down its slide holder.
Cold heading automatic machines consist of tbefollowingmain parts:
1) Mechanism for feeding the stock into the die, with a stock
straightening fixture;
2) Mechanism for cutting the stock into blanks and transferring
the cut-off blanks from the feed line to the heading line;
3) Upsetting heading tool slide holder;
316 Automatic Forging and Stamping Machines

4) Mechanism for shifting the heading tool slide holder;

5) Mechanism for ejecting the finished product.
Fig. 253 shows the AA120 6 X 50 mm double-stroke solid die
automatic cold-heading machine; Fig. 254—the AA161 double-stroke

Fig. 253. The AA120 6 x 5 0 mm double-stroke solid die automatic cold header

open-die automatic cold-heading machine. Modern automatic cold­

heading machines are built to produce cold-headed products from
rods up to 25 mm in diameter, the diameter of the cold-headed sec­
tion being up to 50 mm. The productivity of such automatic machines
ranges from 30 to 400 parts per minute, depending on the dimensions
and shape of the product.
Bolts, screws, rivets and similar products from wire of gauges up
to 6 mm in diameter are made on automatic, open-die cold-heading
machines; in these machines the blanks, after being fed against a
stop, are cut off by the front edge of one of the dies and carried over
from the feed line to the upsetting line, after which both dies are
closed around the blank and the bolt head is preliminary formed by
the heading tool. The slide is turned round, the second heading tool
comes into operation and finishes the product.
 Scheme of Arrangement. Operation 317

The productivity of a double-stroke open-die automatic cold­

heading machine ranges up to 270 parts per minute. They are oper­
ated by 7 kw, 970 rpm electric motors.
Automatic Cutting-off Machines. Automatic cutting-off machines
are employed for trimming the flash from the preliminary upset sec­
tion of the head of the product, usually of square or hexagonal shape.
These automatic cutting-off machines can also be employed for
reducing the diameter of the end of the shank of a bolt for threading,
and also for gauging the cylindrical section (shank) of a bolt, simul­
taneously with the trimming of the flash from the head.
Fig. 255,a illustrates the process of trimming a bolt without re­
ducing its shank, while Fig. 255,b illustrates the process of trimming
the head of a bolt with the simultaneous reduction of the bolt shank
for thread-rolling.
Automatic cutting-of[ machines operate as follows: stock bolt 1
is fed into the orifice of stationary die 2 by sliding die 4. When die 4
and die 2 are in close contact, pusher 5 will exert pressure on the
opposite end of the bolt, and the flash will be trimmed from its head.
After the flash has been cut from the head of the bolt, die 4 will re­
turn to its original position, and the bolt will be ejected by ejector 5
through the hole in sliding die 4 (Fig. 255,a).
Fig. 255,& illustrates the process of trimming the flash from the
bolt head with the simultaneous reduction of the end of the shank for

Fig. 254. The AA161 double-stroke open-die automatic cold header

 318 Automatic Forging and Stamping Machines

subsequent thread-rolling. Here, drawing die 6 and intermediate

ring 7, which can be changed to suit the length of the shank to be
threaded, are inserted into stationary die 2. Before the bolt head is
trimmed, sliding die 4 forces the shank of the bolt into the orifice
of die 2, thereby reducing the tail end of the shank to tho required
diameter for threading. The process of trimming the flash and eject­
ing the finished product takes
place according to the lower
illustration of Fig. 255,a.
In automatic cutting-off
machines, the operations of
feeding the stock, trimming
the head, reducing the shank
and ejecting the finished prod­
uct are completely automised.
The stock is loadod into

xz: ft P a hopper, whence it is delivered

to the feeder and transferred
from the feeding line to
V
5
- 1
the trimming line. These au­
tomatic machines are driven
(a) by individual electric motors
through a gear drive. When
reducing the shank of the bolt,
the tools have to be cooled;
in such cases, the coolant
is delivered by a centralised
forced feed system through a
gear pump. The lubrication
of these automatic machines
(b) is also centralised.
Automatic cutting-off ma­
Fig- 255. Process of cutting-off bolt
shank chines are built to take stock
of various dimensions: 6 X
X 60 mm; 10 X 75 mm; 10 X
X 120 mm, etc. Their productivity ranges from 75 to 130 bolts
and more per minute.
Universal Automatic Forging Machine. Universal automatic
forging machines, called bolt-linkers, have recently been brought into
use. These machines are designed to execute all the operations entailed
in making bolts—upsetting tho head, trim m ing and threading the
shank. Fig. 256 illustrates the gearing diagram of such a machine; the
heading of the bolt is effected in the impressions 1, 2 and 8 of the die;
trimming the hexagonal head—in impression 4, whence the bolt is
automatically transferred to position 5 for thread-rolling. The pro-
 Scheme of Arrangement. Operation 319

duclivity of such a bolt-linker is 18,000 bolts in eight hours. One

bolt-linker does the work of three bolt producing machines.
Automatic Railway Track Spike Producing Machines. The ma­
chines are designed for the mass production of railway track spikes
from preheated rods.

Fig. 256. Bolt-linker gearing diagram

Fig. 257. Process of making railway track spikes on automatic cold header

In these machines, the operations of feeding the stock to the dies,

pointing the end of the spike with subsequent cutting-off and trans­
fer to the die, upsetting the head and ejecting the finished product
are completely automatic.
Fig. 257 shows the process of producing a railway spike in one of
these automatic machines. Square rod 3, heated to the required tern-
320 A u t o m a t i c F o r g in g a n d S t a m p i n g M a c h in e s

per at ure, is caught up and fed into the machine by rolls 1. Simul­
taneously, its end is automatically trimmed to a point by trimming
dies 2, which are fixed in the feed rolls, and also partially cut off from
the rod; after its end has been pointed, it is finally cut off with the
aid of special tongs which also transfer it to die 6. In die 6 the stock
is held in position by sliding die 4 and its projecting end upset by
punch 5, after which sliding die 4 travels upwards and the punch—

Fig. 258. Railway track spike automatic cold-heading machine

backwards. The finished spike is ejected by ejector 7 which passes

through the bore in die 6.
Fig. 258 shows the side elevation of a 16 X 16 automatic railway
track spike producing machine, with a capacity of 85 spikes per
minute. The speed of its crankshaft is 85 revolutions per minute, i. e.,
one spike is produced per revolution of the crankshaft. It is push­
button controlled; lubrication—centralised force feed and individ­
ual.
Automatic Bending Machines. Automatic bending machines are
designed both as universal and highly specialised bending machines.
The former are intended for manufacturing various types of work from
wire or bar stock, such as: cotter pins, clips, hooks, staples, etc.;
special automatic bending machines may only be used for the manu­
facture of the product for which they are designed, such as: spring
washers, chain links, etc.
 Scheme of Arrangement. Operation 321

In most cases, these machines work on cold stock; hot stock is

used only for work of large cross-section. Universal bending machines
are most common in use, and are designed for the production of
articles from wire ranging in diameter from 0.8 to 12 mm and from
flat stock (ribbon) from 2 to 25 mm in thickness.
The chief mechanisms of universal bending machines are: the feed
mechanism, cutting-off and 1st bending operation mechanism, side
bending slides, final bending slide, and the ejector. Fig 259 shows

Fig. 259. The A914 automatic bending machine

the A914 automatic bending machine, designed for bending various

articles from round wire and ribbon. When fitted with special tools
and devices, this automatic bending machine can execute the fol­
lowing operations: point ends, punch holes of various sizes in ribbons,
crimp (corrugate) ribbon, etc. Four bending slides and a vertical
forming mechanism, equipped with an ejector, effect the bending
operations o.n these automatic machines.
The feeding of the wire, straightening and cutting the stock,
bending and ejecting the finished product are all automatic opera­
tions. The machine is driven by an individual electric motor through
a V-belt drive; lubrication is individual. Its main specifications are
as follows:
Maximum diameter of wire .................................... 5 mm
Maximum width of r ib b o n ........................................ 40 mm
Maximum length of s t o c k ...................................... 480mm
Maximum diameter of rings produced . . . . 40 mm
Productivity (ca p a city )................................................ 80 parts per
minute
Electric motor rating ................................................ 2.8 kw
 CHAPTER X III

DROP-FORGING (HOT STAMPING)

THE MAIN TYPES OF DROP-FORGING EQUIPMENT

As distinguished from hammer forging, in which the blacksmith

directs the flow of metal with the aid of various tools, in drop-forg­
ing the flow of metal is limited by the surfaces of the impressions
cut in the die block, in which the metal is forced to take its Anal
shape and dimensions. The production of drop-forgings requires a set
of dies for each piece of work.
Dies are steel blocks into which an impression or impressions are
machined in the shape of the work to be stamped in them. Dies are
made in pairs (top and bottom dies).
Drop-forging occupies a very important place as compared with
other hot-working processes. It has been calculated that, in the Soviet
Union, about 20 to 25 per cent of all metal is drop-forged. Thus,
about 80 per cent by weight of the components of a modern automo­
bile are drop-forgings; of aircraft—about 85 per cent; locomotives—up
to 60 per cent, and so on. In mass and large-scale production, forged
parts are produced mainly by the drop-forging process, as hammer
forging is not profitable for such large scales of production.
When manufacturing forgings on a small scale, for instance, when
a shop makes only 30 or 50 similar forgings per year, it is unprofitable
to employ the drop-forging process, because the expense of making
the dies would considerably increase the price of the forgings; such
forgings are cheaper to make by hammer forging or by stamping^in
insert dies.
Combined forging and stamping (die-forging) on high production
equipment (crank-type forging presses) is employed instead of ham­
mer forging in small-scale or individual production, for making forg­
ings up to 30 kg in weight. Special dies and fixtures are used, and
forging is carried out according to a special technological process in
which the former complicated technology is broken up into separate
simple operations performed in a definite sequence in the impres­
sions of the die or fixture.
The advantages of die-forging as compared ith hammer forging
are not merely limited to saving time. The dimensions of die-forgings
are much more precise than those of hammer forgings; die-forgings
 The Main Types of Drop-Forging Equipment 323

are made with much smaller machining allowances, considerably

reducing the machining time and the consumption of metal required
for the production of the forgings. Die-forging too permits the manu­
facture of forgings of very complicated'shape; and the operation of
die-forging hammers and presses
does not require such high­
ly skilled workers as tha* of
smith hammers.
Forgings produced in die-forg­
ing hammers are always exact

Fig. 260. S tea m -a n d -a ir

drop-forging ham m er

duplicates of each other; their subsequent machining is thus greatly fa­

cilitated; they can be machined in special jigs and fixtures, on auto­
matic machine tools, etc. In many cases, their mechanical properties
are much higher than those of hammer forgings; this is due to the
fact that, when die-forging, it is very easy to create the necessary
conditions in the dies for distributing the metal fibre so as to ensure
the high mechanical qualities required from forgings designed for
heavy duty. As has already been stated, die-forgings require less
metal than hammer forgings.
324 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

The following types of equipment are employed for die-forging:

drop-forging hammers, power-driven presses, hydraulic presses
and horizontal forging machines.
Drop-Forging Hammers. Drop-forging hammers are very similar
in design and arrangement to the steam hammers already described.
They differ from the latter chiefly in that the frames of steam forging
hammers are secured to their anvil blocks, whereas the frames
of drop-forging hammers are secured to special foundations inde­
pendent of their anvil blocks.
The frame of a drop-forging hammer is secured to its anvil block
in order to achieve rigidity of construction and precise alignment
of the top and bottom dies during their impact, thereby ensur­
ing the precision of the required shape and dimensions of the
forging.
Another great advantage of drop-forging hammers is that their
blows can be regulated over a much wider range than in steam ham­
mers—from the lightest to the heaviest, as required. Their control
and operation are much simpler. Drop-forging hammers do not require
a hammer operator—the die forger himself operates the hammer by
manipulating the treadle with his foot. Fig. 260 shows a steam-and-
air drop-forging hammer.
Drop-forging hammers are built in capacities ranging from 0.5
to 100 tons. Such hammers require very heavy anvil blocks, and also
cumbersome foundations. For this reason drop-forging hammers
without anvil blocks have recently come into use. As distinguished
from ordinary drop-forging hammers, they are built without anvil
blocks and cumbersome foundations. They have two rams which
travel towards each other, i. e., the top die falls to'meet the bottom
die which travels up.
Drop-forging hammers are controlled oy the hammer operator
through a system of levers. The control diagram of a drop-forging
hammer is shown in Fig. 261, from which it can be seen that the sys­
tem of levers hinges at four points: at rotary valve 2, at throttle 2,
on hammer frame 3 and at foot treadle 4. Ram 5, on being
moved from its central position by a light pressure on foot treadle
6 commences automatically to swing up and down. So long as the
foot treadle is not touched, point 7 will remain stationary. Lever 8
is pressed against the tapered side of the ram and swings to the left
and right transferring its motion to valve 9. When the ram
makes its down-stroke, the valve falls and steam (or air)'begins to flow
into the working cylinder under piston 10, forcing the ram, through
the piston rod, to reverse its stroke. During the up-stroke of the ram,
the* valve will rise and steam (or air) will flow into the working cylin­
der above piston 10, again reversing the stroke of the ram. This
cycle can be repeated as long as necessary.
 The Main Types of Drop-Forging Equipment 325

In order to deliver the blow, the operator must depress treadle 6

at the moment when the ram begins to make its down-stroke. Then
point 7 will move upwards and, as lever 8 is still pressed against the
ram, it will cause the valvo to rise very rapidly. Simultaneously,
throttle 2 will open to its full extent, and a blow will follow. If the
treadle is depressed after this, lever 8 will cause the ram to rise rap­
idly and to return to its automatic swinging position.
Thus, the main task of the entire system consists in the automatic
raising of the ram. Blows are brought about by the hammer operator
depressing the treadle; and their force, which can be regulated at the
operator’s desire, depends on the pressure of his foot on the treadle
and, consequently, on the degree to which the air channels of the
valve are opened; for the greater the volume of steam or air delivered
into the working cylinder per unit of time, the greater will be the
force of the blow, and vice versa.
Forging Presses. Drop-forging is effected: a) in hydraulic and steam-
hydraulic presses of the vertical and horizontal type, and h) in
power-driven presses. Hydraulic and steam-hydraulic forging presses
are employed in the same way as drop-forging presses, and are
usually employed^for^ the manufacture of heavy forgings.
Hydraulic and steam-hydraulic presses are most advantageous for the
stamping of hollow forgings from plate stock (10-25 mm and over)
instead of from ingots or rolled shapes, as used for hammer forgings.
Power die-forging presses are classified into friction and crank types.
Their design depends on the character of the work to be performed.
Their capacity is indicated in tons. The capacity of a press is the pres­
sure which it can develop. If, for instance, the capacity of a friction
press is indicated as 100 tons this means that the press can develop a
pressure on the metal equal to a hundred tons.
Presses should never he employed for forging or stamping work
requiring for its deformation a greater pressure than that for which
the press is designed; otherwise the press may break.
For this reason, work should always be executed on a press of the
capacity indicated in the technological chart. Below several presses
of different design are described.
Screw-friction presses. These presses are employed for bending and
stamping operations.
The arrangement of the friction press shown in Fig. 262 is as fol­
lows: nut 2 with a square thread is fastened inside frame 1; through
this nut passes screw 3, the tail end of which is connected to slide 4,
and its head—to flywheel 5. Horizontal drive-shaft 6 with two discs 7
is located above the flywheel. The distance between the discs is
somewhat greater than the diameter of the flywheel. Because of this,
when one of the discs is in contact with the flywheel, there will be a
slight clearance between the second disc and the flywheel.
326 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

By moving one or other of the discs to touch the flywheel, the screw
can be made to rotate clockwise or anticlockwise, thus raising^or low*
ering the slide, and increasing or decreasing the working clearance 9.
Drive-shaft 6 together with its discs can be moved to the left or to

6
—

5
.......... 1 A

Fig. 262. Double-disc friction drop-forging press

the right through a system of levers actuated by a handle or by a foot

treadle. The speed of the screw increases as it falls. Because of this,
the increase in the pressure of the slide of a friction press is not so
smooth as in an eccentric or crank-type press—it is accompanied by a
blow. For this reason, friction presses are sometimes called screw-
friction hammers.
 The Main Types of Drop-Forging Equipment 327

This feature permits friction presses to be successfully employed

lor bending and straightening operations and also for upsetting bolt-
heads. For such operations, ejector 10, through screws 11 connected to
the slide, will push, or eject, the forged work from the dies(see Fig.262).
Friction presses are less suitable for sheet-drawing operations,

which need a smooth application of pressure, or for trimming opera­

tions, as tbe dies are liable to more rapid wear and destruction as
a result of the sudden impacts to which they are subjected in these
presses.
Crank-type presses. At present, however, powerful universal
crank-type presses designed by Soviet engineers in conjunction with
skilled blacksmiths are being increasingly widely used, and success­
fully employed for die-forging many types of complicated forgings.
328 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

. Crank-type die-forging presses possess considerable advantages com­

pared with conventional drop-forging hammers for the production
of light forgings, and they can he successfully used instead of 3-4-
ton capacity drop-forging hammers. Their employment sharply in­
creases the labour productivity, reduces the cost of production and
greatly improves working conditions.
Fig. 263 shows the gearing diagram of a crank-type die-forging
press1 and Fig. 264—a crank-type drop-forging press.
From Fig. 263 it can be seen that the press is driven by electric
motor 22, which rotates flywheel 9 through pulley 10 and a Vee-belt
drive. Flywheel 9 is mounted on shaft 7, and is equipped with a
friction protection device which limits the torque on the shaft. Auxi­
liary brake 8 serves to stop flywheel 0, shaft 7 and the large gear.
Brake 8 is brought into action automatically after electric motor 11
is switched on. Main shaft 3 is rotated by gears 6 and 5. Brake 4,
designed for stopping main shaft 3, connecting rod 2 and slide 2,
is mounted on the left-hand end of shaft 3. Slide 1 travels between
guides of the frame and is actuated by main shaft 3 through connect­
ing rod 2. Brake 4 closes after the electric motor has been switched
off. Double-tapered device 12 is designed for adjusting the working
clearance of the press.
At the present time, the Soviet Union is producing crank-type drop­
forging presses of up to 4,000-ton capacity, and presses of greater
capacity—from 6,000 to 10,000 tons and upwards are in the process of
construction. To find the capacity of a forging press corres­
ponding to that of a forge hammer, the following formula is used:
one-ton capacity of a drop-forging hammer is equivalent to a pressure
of 1,000 tons developed by a forging press. Thus, a 4,000-ton crank-
type forging press can be substituted for a 4-ton capacity drop-forging
hammer.
TOOLS AND FIXTURES FOR DROP-FORGING
The tools and fixtures employed for drop-forging are classified
as main and auxiliary tools. Main tools include: dies which are in
turn sub-classified into forging and trimming dies. Forging dies are
employed for the production of the forging itself,while trimming
dies are employed for cutting-off, or trimming the flash after forging.
Drop-forging auxiliary tools and fixtures include:
1) Handling fixtures and implements; they are used to charge the
metal into the furnace, deliver the metal to the hammer from the
furnace, deliver the stock or forging from one hammer or press to
another, etc.;
2) Tools and fixtures which place the stock on the hammer or in
the press for forging, move the forging from one impression to anoth­
er and also remove it from the dies when finished;
 Tools and Fixtures for Drop-Forging 329

3) Measuring instruments and templates for the periodical inspec­

tion (measurement) of finished forgings.
Dies. As has already been mentioned, dies are blocks of steel hav­
ing machined impressions in the shape of the forgings to be made in
them.
Below the design of several dies is examined. For instance, suppose
that a gear blank with a boss as shown in Fig. 265 has to be stamped,
i. e., drop-forged. For this purpose a set of two dies is required. The
gear blank, as shown in Fig. 265, a, cannot be produced by ordinary
r

Fig. 265. Gear blanks:

a) hammer forged; b) drop-forged

hot stamping. Its shape after stamping will be as shown in Fig. 265, .6.
This difference in shape between the forging and its drawing is
explained by the fact that the side walls of the impressions of a die
are never made vertical, as otherwise the forging would stick in the
impressions of the die and its withdrawal would be very difficult.
Another reason for not making the side walls vertical is that the met­
al will not completely fill impressions made with comparatively
high vertical side walls.
For this reason, dies with impressions having vertical side walls
are made with what is called a forging draft, or taper, of up to 7°
for outside surfaces and 10° for inside surfaces. The shape of the forg­
ing is changed because all the sharp corners in the die impressions
(and, consequently, of the forging itself) are rounded, the radius of
rounding ranging from 2 to 25 mm, depending on the depth of the
impression in the die and on the size of the forging.
After correcting the forging drawing to correspond to the dies, it
must be decided which section of the work is to be forged in the top
die, and which in the bottom die. In other words it must be decided
where to locate the parting* line of the die, i. e., the plane in which
it must be parted. The selection of the parting line depends mainly
330 D r o p - F o r g in g ( S o t S t a m p i n g )

on the configuration of the forging and on the ability of the metal to

completely fill the impressions of the die. When stamping in hammers,
the metal flows less readily in the bottom die than in the top die,
while when press-forging the impressions of both dies are uniformly
filled by the metal. For this reason, the impressions for the more
elevated parts of the work (ribs, etc.) must be located in the top die
when drop-forging in hammers. Besides this the parting^ine must
be chosen so as to ensure simplicity and low cost in the manufac­
ture of the dies. In this case, a part­
ing line through I-I is selected
(Fig. 265, b). It is assumed that the
gear blank will be produced by
drop-forging in hammers; in this
case, the upper higher section will
be located in the top die, and the
lower section in the bottom die.
The gear blank forging dies will
appear as shown in Fig. 266.
This illustration clearly shows the
special channel 3 or gutter, ma­
chined round the parting line, into
which the excess metal, called
4 flash, is forced from the body of
Fig. 266. Dies for drop-forging the forging. This channel is called
gear blank: the flash pan (or flash gutter). In
1) top die; 2) bottom ;dlc; 3) flash gutter
dies designed in this way, forgings
will always be produced with flash, regardless of the shape of the
forging and the blacksmith’s wish. Even if a piece of stock is used
whose weight is exactly that of the finished forging, the forging will
still be produced with flash, and the dies will not be completely
filled with metal; such forgings must inevitably be rejected. In such
cases, i. e., when the stock is of the same weight as the forging, flash
is developed because the metal flows, first of all, in the direction of
least resistance. Until the top and bottom dies have not completely
closed, it will be easier for the metal to flow, or spread out, sideways
instead of filling the impressions in the dies. For this reason, when
calculating the dimensions of stock for drop-forgings, a certain vol­
ume for flash must always be added to the volume of the finished
forging. Depending on the shape, dimensions and weight of the work,
the weight or volume of metal required for the flash will vary from
10 to 50 per cent, or even more, of the forging; moreover, the
lighter the forging, the greater the relative weight of the flash will
be. As it leaves the die impression, the flash will flow all around
the forging and, if no special channel (flash gutter) is provided in
the dies, the top and bottom dies will be unable to come into close
 Tools and Fixtures for Drop-Forging 331

contact, with the result that the height of the forging .will never be
the same as that of the side walls of the die impression. To prevent
this, flash pans, or channels, are machined around the impression,
enabling the top and bottom dies to close completely at the end of
the stamping (forging) operation.
Towards the completion of the operation, before the top and bottom
dies have come into contact with each other, i. e., while the top die is
still striking the hot stock, the sound of the blows will be rather dull.

Fig. 267. Drop-forging a lever:

i —top die; 2 —bottom die; 3 —flash gutter

But, as soon as the forging is completed and the top and bottom dies
meet, they will strike each other with a sharp metallic rap; it is by
this sound that the blacksmith knows that the forging is completed.
The flash, leaving the impression as a thin plate, cools more rapidly
than the main mass of the hot stock. On cooling it increases in strength
and becomes less plastic, the flow of metal from the impression into
the flash pan perceptibly slows down and finally ceases, thereby
facilitating the better filling of the impression.
When drop-forging in dies with deep impressions, the stock does
not always completely enter the impressions of the die after being
reheated; this results in the formation of a cushion of air between tbe
bottom of the impression and the stock; on being heated (by tbe hot
metal) this air expands and acts as a shock absorber when the stock is
struck,* ejecting the forging from the impression. To prevent this
happening a vent 4 is incorporated to allow the air to escape from
the dies (see Fig. 266).
As regards the drop-forging of the gear blank under'discussion, no
preliminary forging of the stock is required. The length oTround or
square stock cut off from the bar is heated in the furnace, placed on
332 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

end in the centre of the bottom die and forged into a gear blank with
a few strokes of the top die.
Parts of more complicated shape, as, for instance, the lever shown in
Fig. 267, a, are forged in a different manner. The shape of the stock
for this forging is as shown in Fig. 267,6. If such a piece of stock is
placed straightaway in the impression of the bottom die, the required
forging will not be obtained: the metal will flow in'the direction of
the least resistance, All up the central section of the die impression,
producing very thick flash, and the corners of the impression will
not be filled. For this reason, the stock is first rough formed, as shown
in Fig. 267, c, and then stamped to the required shape between the
dies, as shown in Fig. 267, d.

Fig. 268. Scheme of drop-forging in closed dies:

a) In a horizontal forging machine; b) In a press; c) on a hammer

Drop-forging with formation of flash is also called open-die forging

(see Figs. 266 and 267). Drop-forging can also be effected in closed
dies; when forging in these dies no flash will be formed if the volume
of metal required for making the forging is accurately calculated.
For this reason, drop-forging in closed dies is also called flashless
forging (Fig. 268).
Open-die forging is more commonly practised than forging in closed
dies, the latter being practised for producing forgings up to 100 kg
in weight (Fig. 268), whereas forgings up to 1 ton can be produced
by the open-die method. Open-die drop-forgings are produced in ham­
mers and presses, while closed-die forgings are made in forging presses
and horizontal forging machines and, more rarely, on drop-forging
hammers.
As regards the forging of the lever shown in Fig. 267, the stock for
the forging is formed in a steam hammer. But it can also be forged as
follows: the stock can be rough formed in the so-called preliminary
die (or impression) and then transferred for finish forging into the
finishing impression of the die. The gear blank and lever which have
just been discussed are drop-forged in single-impression dies (see
Figs. 266, 267). However, many forgings have to be stamped in multi-
 Tools and Fixtures for Drop-Forging 333

impression dies, i. e., in dies having several impressions. Such dies

have two types of impressions: 1) preliminary impressions, designed
for preparing the stock for the final forging operation and 2) finish­
forging impressions in which the final forging operations are effect­
ed. Preliminary impressions, in their turn, are classified as fu Her,

' - i-----------------= *

Fig. 269. Multiple impression die for drop-forging con.

necting rod (a) from stock (b):
J—cdger; 2—bender; 3—blocking Impression; 4 —finish Impression;
6, 6 —stock after forming In preliminary Impression (1 and 2); 7—for-
C'ng after blocking lmpesslon (3); 8—forging after finish Impression (4)

bending, edger, and blocking impressions. The fuller impression is

used in drop-forging when it is required to reduce the cross-section
of a portion of the forging stock between the ends of the stock; the
bending impression is used when drop-forging bent work. The shape
•of this impression must correspond to the shape of the bend in the
work. Edging impressions (edgers) are designed for distributing the
metal in the general proportion of the shape to be forged; fullers^
334 D r o p - F o r g in g ( H o t S t a m p i n g )

when it is required to reduce a portion of the stock, as for instance,

when making the reduced central section of the lever shown in
Fig. 269. Benders are designed for forging work with projections,
or bosses, as shown in Fig. 269, a.
Forging impressions are classified as rough and finishing impres­
sions. Finish impressions are used only for forging simple work without
large projecting parts, ribs, and sharp corners. In dies having only
one finish impression the stock is transferred to them and given its
final shape and dimensions immediately after being forged in the pre­
liminary impressions. Rough impressions are employed for rough

Fig. 270. Design of dovetails of die, and attachment of die:

a) Incorrect design of dovetall'and Incorrect attachment of die corners (not rounded
off); b) correct design of dovetail and attachment. of die (corners rounded off)

forming the shape of>the forging; flash is formed in these impressions.

Sometimes the flash is trimmed (cut of!) before the unfinished forging
is transferred to the finish impression.
It is not advisable to use dies with only one finish impression, as
they are liable to rapid wear (their dimensions alter considerably7and
they have to be remachined). It is always hotter, even when only’sim-
ple forgings are being made, to rough forge them in the preliminary
impression before transferring to the finish impression.
Dies are made with dovetails and key ways (as shown in Fig.f 270)
for attaching them to the head of the ram and the anvil block. Dovetail
1 of the top die is inserted in the grooves of the ram head and of die
holder^ and secured by keys 3. Key 3 must be made so that it'contacts
the entire surface of the dovetail (Fig. 270, b). The grooves in the
die-holder and ram head, together with the keys, prevent [transverse
displacement of the die. The locking pins, as shown in Fig. 271, are
used for preventing longitudinal displacement, or shifting,!of the die.
Die'Maintenance. Dies are very expensive tools. To justify their
high expense, it is necessary for them to be capable of^forging the max­
imum quantity of forgings, and for this they[must possess a very long
life. Correct maintenance is one of the chief methods of increasing die
life. The main rules for die maintenance are the f o llo w in g .
 T o o ls a n d F i x t u r e s fo r D r o p - F o r g in g 335

Before commencing work:

1) Make a thorough inspection of the die: make sure that it is abso­
lutely free from damage, cracks or dents; immediately report to the
foreman any defects discovered;
2) Install the dies exactly in position with the aid of the installation
square: if the die has a lock, see that both dies close freely when
the ram is lowered;
3) See that the die is properly installed; never use shims or gaskets;
never permit the die to bear on the dovetail shoulder (Fig. 270, a), as
this may result in its breakage;

Fig. 271. Die secured against longitudinal displacement:

1—keyway In dovetail; S—locking pin

4) Secure the die firmly by driving the keys into place with heavy
blows of the sledge-hammer;
5) Check the installation of the dies by the match marks or with a
trysquare; in the case of any misalignment (planes of dies out of
parallel) of the dies, adjust them with the aid of the side keys;
6) Warm the dies to a temperature of not less than 150-200 °C by
packing them with hot pieces of metal or other means.
During operation:
1) See that the dies are securely attached and check the keys every
half hour;
2) Do not allow any heavy idle blows of the top die against the bot­
tom die; this may result in breakages of one or both dies;
3) Do not forge metal which has cooled below the permissible
minimum forging temperature;
4) Before starting to work, always remove scale from hot stock;
5) Never permit the . dies to reach a temperature above 400°C;
should they become overheated, cool them with compressed air;
6) Grease the dies before each new forging operation;
7) On the discovery of cracks, however small, in one of the dies,
Stop work immediately and have the cracks removed.
336 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

After completion of the work:

1) Blow all scale and dirt from the faces of the dies with com­
pressed air or steam;
2) If operations with the dies are finished: a) remove the dies from
the hammer or the press; b) wipe the die impressions and faces with
clean rags; c) grease the impressions and faces with solid oil; d) place
the dies to their proper storage place.
Making Dies. At present the following types of die are manufac­
tured: cast iron, and cast and forged steel dies.
Cast iron dies are employed exclusively for the production of small
quantities of press forgings. Their advantage lies in their low cost and
simplicity of manufacture: but they wear very rapidly, particularly
as a result of impacts.
Dies of cast steel are very seldom employed, as the surface of cast
steel is usually very porous and, moreover, difficult to machine. Their
life, too, is very short, and for this reason they are employed for the
production of small lots of forgings only.
For large-scale production, dies of forged carbon or alloy steels
are employed exclusively. Carbon steel dies are employed for the pro­
duction of a comparatively small quantity of forgings; alloy steel dies
are generally used for large-scale production of forgings. Tho most
commonly used die steels are: chromium-nickel, chromium-molyb­
denum, chromium-titanium and chromium-tungsten steels.
The first step in the manufacture of a steel die is the forging of the
stock, or die block, as it is called. Die-steel ingots are first cogged in
a press, forged, the head discard cropped off, and the ingot is then cut
to^the specified die-block dimensions. The die blocks are then heated
tOjthe required temperature and forged on all sides in a hammer or a
press, upsetting alternating with reducing. This method of forging
is practised in order [Link] the steel thoroughly throughout its en­
tire mass and to ensure uniform mechanical properties of the steel in
all directions. After forging, the die blocks are annealed and machined
on planing machines, milling machines or lathes. Nowadays impres­
sions are made in die blocks by special machines, called die sinking
machines, which operate with the aid of a master block or template.
After the finish impression has been made, the top and bottom dies
are clamped together in the position they will assume in operation
and a cast is made by pouring molten lead or saltpetre into the finish
impression; this cast is carefully measured and checked; the results
of,the measurements and checking indicate whether the impression
has been properly machined. The dies are finally checked by making
trial forgings in the hammer or press. After machining, the dies are heat
treated, i. e., they are hardened, annealed, and then finish machined.
The method described above for the manufacture of dies is an ex-
ceedingly^lengthy process and is not suited to their mass production.
 Drop-Forging Methods 337

For this reason, the manufacture of die blocks with insert dies is
becoming more widely employed; these are much cheaper than dies
made out of solid blocks.
Insert die blocks are of comparatively small dimensions (Fig. 272)
and consist of insert dies 2 inserted into the master die blocks 1.
The use of insert dies leads to a considerable economy in the use of
expensive alloy steel, since alloy steel is used only for the insert die,
which is relatively light; the die blocks are made of less expensive
carbon steels. Another advantage of insert dies is that after they are

Fig. 272. Die with inserts:

1—die block; 2 —Insert die; 3 —key; 4 —Insert die locking pin

worn out, they can be easily and quickly replaced in their blocks.
Insert dies can be secured in their blocks by one of two methods:
by shrink fitting, as shown in Fig. 272, a; or with the aid of keys
(Fig. 272, b). Shrink fitting gives the best results.

DROP-FORGING METHODS
Two methods of drop-forging are practised: drop-forging in single-
impression, and multiple-impression drop-forging. Single-impression
drop-forging consists in forging the work in one (finish) forging im­
pression. Here the preliminary operations (edging, bending, reducing,
etc.) are carried out on other equipment: forge hammers, forging
rolls, etc.
In multiple-impression drop-forging, all the impressions, from the
preliminary to the finish impression, are contained in one set of dies,
 338 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

and the forging process is carried out on one hammer only. Drop­
forging by steps (passes) is only a variety of the multiple-impression
process, this process entails several sets of dies for forging the
work. In this method, the forging is conducted on several hammers,
each of which is equipped with a different set of dies designed for one
definite operation. Usually the stock is heated only once and then
transferred from hammer to hammer without reheatings. This process
of multiple-impression drop-forging is widely practised in the large
or mass-scale production of forgings, as it is more productive and
permits the organisation of flow lines for the production of
duplicate forgings.
As an example, let us take the process of drop-forging the connect­
ing rod in multiple-impression dies shown in Fig. 2G9, a. The con­
necting rod will be forged from a round stock b in the following se­
quence: it is first drawn in a fuller reducing impression 1 so as to leave
a definite volume of metal at its end for forming head 5 of the rod; in
impression 2 the stock is given the appoximate shape 6* of the forg­
ing, having a sufficient volume of metal at the ends for forming the
heads of the connecting rod; in blocking impression 3 the forging is
given its rough shape 7, while its final shape 8 is given in finish im­
pression 4. Blocking impression 3 is designed for transforming tho
stock, which until then had only a simple shape, into a more intricate
shape approximating that of the finished forging. The use of shaped
rolled sections for stock obviates the necessity for these preliminary
impressions. The rough impression facilitates drop-forging in the
finish impression, reduces the amount of metal wasted as the flash
and prolongs the life of the finish impression, which is more suscep­
tible to wear than the others.

ORGANISATION OF THF WORKING PLACE,

AND LABOUR SAFETY RULES

The following chief safety engineering rules must always be

observed when operating drop-forging hammers. Before commencing
work, it is always necessary.
1) To see that the equipment is in order and that it is properly
lubricated; to check the dies; to clean them from scale; to warm the
dies and piston rod to 100-200° C;
2) To select all tools, tongs, sledge-hammers, etc., which may be
required during work;
3) To check the compressed air and steam lines; to see that the ham­
mer has the proper grade of lubrication in sufficient quantity:
4) After reading the technological process chart, to see that the
necessary quantity of stock is at hand, and that it is of the proper
quality;
 Organisation of the Working Place, and Labour Safety Rules 339

5) To see that the furnace is properly charged with metal and that
the stock in the furnace is heated to the specified temperature;
6) To put on the proper working clothes and protective devices
(goggles, gauntlets, etc.) according to existing safety rules.
During operation:
1. Before placing the heated stock on the bottom die, remove all
scale from its impressions by blowing it with compressed air or, in the
absence of compressed air, by brushing with*a birch brush; scale must
never be removed with the gauntlets.
2. Never permit heavy idle blows of the top die to take place;
should this be necessary, always place a wooden block between
the dies.-
3. Never forge burnt steel or steel whose temperature has fallen
below 800-750° C.
4. Never allow the dies to be heated to temperatures above 400° C;
cool them with compressed air or with a lubricant such as, for in­
stance, a salt solution. Do not use masout, as this may lead to the
development of cracks in the die impressions.
5. Never place your hands or any foreign object in the zoue of
travel of the ram if the latter has become loose, until the hammer
has been stopped and the steam cut off.
G. Always hold the tongs during work so that their handle is at an
angle to your body, and not directly in front of it.
7. Use each impression of the die exclusively for the purpose for
which it is designed; always see that the stock is properly placed in
the impression.
8. Take great care to keep the jaws of the longs away from the top
die.
9. On no account lower the ram below the safety mark.
10. During intervals in operation, always put the ram in its lower
posilion and cut off the steam.
11. During work, periodically check the position of the die block
with a spirit level in order to prevent the possibility of its misalign­
ment.
12. Never allow the working place to become littered with forgings
and scrap; always place them in their respective tote-boxes, and re­
move the boxes periodically.
13. Periodically check the forgings as they come out of the dies;
should any defects be discovered (misalignment, pitting, laps, cold
shuts, etc.) stop work, ascertain and eliminate the cause of the defect.
After completion of work:
1. Clean all scale from the die faces with compressed air or other
means.
2. Put the working place in order and put all tools and fixtures in
their proper places.
340 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

3. If the dies are no longer to be used for forging, remove them,

clean off all dirt and scale, grease their faces and impressions and
have them stored.
When operating power-driven presses, the following safety engi­
neering'rules and regulations must he observed.
Before commencing work:
1. See that the equipment is in proper condition and that it is prop­
erly lubricated; clean all dirt from the table and slide of the press.
2. See that the dies are properly and reliably secured in the press.
3. See that the necessary quantity of stock has been delivered to the
press, and that it meets the specifications.
4. Prepare all tools and fixtures which may be required during work.
During operation:
1. See that the starting gear is in proper condition; at the slightest
sign of trouble, stop work immediately and report to tho foreman.
2. Use dies only for the purpose for which they are designed.
3. Never permit any foreign pieces of metal to fall between the dies.
4. During operation, always make sure that the dies are firmly
secured; should they become loose, stop work immediately and report
to the foreman.
5. See that the drive belt is always in good condition, and taut.
6. See that the brake functions properly, i. e., that the slide halts
immediately on reaching its extreme upper position; should the brake
get out of order, stop work immediately and report to the foreman.
7. See that all parts of the press are properly lubricated.
8. Never allow forgings and scrap to accumulate on the press table;
always store them in their proper place.
9. Before starting the press, keep your hands clear from the working
parts of the dies.
On completion of work:
1. Stop the press.
2. Remove all tools, fixtures, forgings and scrap and put them in
their proper places.
3. Clean all parts of^the press from dirt and wipe them with clean
rags.
4. Grease the dies.
5. Tidy the working place.
Accidents are liable to occur during the operation of drop-forging
presses from the following causes: a) inserting or withdrawing the
work from the press by hand (this should be done with tongs, pincers,
etc.); b) when extracting a forging which has stuck, restarting the
press unintentionally if the press operator has not removed his foot
from the treadle; c) carrying out work without protective devices,
guards, etc.; d) the accidental switching-on of the press by an unauth­
orised person or by an object falling onto an unprotected treadle.
 The Drop-Forging Technology 341

Safety during forge press operation can be ensured by observing the

following rules:
1) The use of forging presses of rational design;
2) The employment of special safety devices and fixtures for feed­
ing stock and withdrawing forgings;
3) The use of dies which meet all the safety engineering specifica­
tions;
4) Rational organisation of the working place; when working, it is
highly important to observe the following rules: a) sit on a convenient
chair—this will reduce fatigue; b) arrange the stock, forgings,
scrap, tools, auxiliary materials correctly at the working place;
c) always remove everything which will not be used during the course
of work;
5) The observance of all sanitary and hygienic rules, such as: a) keep­
ing all aisles and gangways clear of stock, forgings, waste metal,
croppings, boxes, etc.; b) keeping the working place clean and tidy—
by systematically removing all dust, dirt, etc.; c) proper illumination
of the working place; not only the press and dies must be sufficiently
illuminated during the day, but all aisles and gangways around the
press also; artificial illumination must include as well as the general
source of light, local illumination to the rear of the operator; d) wear­
ing special working clothes which will not interfere with the execu­
tion of operations on the press;
6) The proper and timely instruction of the workers as regards the
operation of the press, safety rules, etc.

THE DROP-FORGING TECHNOLOGY

The technological process of drop-forging includes the following

operations: 1) cutting the stock to size; 2) heating the stock; 3) stamp­
ing; 4) trimming (cutting off flash), and 5) straightening. This se­
quence must be observed both when forging in multi-impression dies
and by the flow method. If the drop-forging process is conducted by
the combined method, the stock must be forged in a smith hammer
after the second operation (heating), reheated and only then drop-
forged.
Standard rolled sections and special rolled sections can be used as
stock for drop-forgings. The use of special sections of definite shapes
and dimensions is particularly advantageous in large-scale and mass
production. These sections are rolled to correspond to the shape of the
finished forging, thus obviating the necessity for intermediate opera­
tions preceding the finish forging operation in the finish impression:
their use also results in a considerable saving of metal.
Sometimes parts of grade Or. 3 and Or. 4 steel, which are not de­
signed for heavy duty, are stamped from cast steel blanks. Usually these
342 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

blanks are cast in such shapes so that they can be finish forged direct­
ly in the finish impressions of the dies. The use of cast steel blanks for
drop-forgings greatly simplifies the production of intricately shaped
forgings without resorting to the use of expensive multi-impression
dies. When drop-forging cast steel forging blanks, casting defects,
such as bubbles, cavities, etc., are usually squeezed out. Nevertheless,
it is cheaper to use rolled stock for drop-forgings; rolled stock of
standard and special section is delivered as bars from 3 to 9 metres
long, most commonly, in 6 metre lengths.
The first operation in the drop-forging shop is cutting the bars into
stock of the requisite length. In mass and large-scale drop-forging
shops, stock is cut to length in special bar- and billet-shearing depart­
ments; individual and small-scale drop-forging shops, however, are
usually not equipped with such departments, and the stock is cut to
length on the main equipment of the forge shop.
Practical experience of the most advanced drop-forging shops
shows that every forge shop, whether engaged in individual or large-
scale production, should be equipped with a bar- and billet-shearing
department, as this is particularly important from the point of view
of organising production and economising metal. Such departments
must be equipped with all the necessary machines, and all operations
must be mechanised. The bar and billet departments must be
designed, not only for cutting rolled stock to standard lengths, but al­
so for: reducing the surplus lengths to smaller sections in hammers or
in presses; preparing, whenever possible, drop-forging or hammer­
forging croppings for further utilisation as stock for other forgings;
sorting forging croppings into their respective grades, and for other
miscellaneous work.
The various means of cutting stock to length are: a) cutting with
shears; b) breaking in cold breaking fixtures; c) cold saw cutting;
electric saw cutting, and d) gas cutting.
Shear Cutting. The most general method of cutting stock employed
in mass and large-scale production forge shops is cutting it with
shears or breaking it in cold metal breaking fixtures.
Shears are classified according to design into disc, lever and guil­
lotine. The latter are employed for cutting sheet and plate metal.
Shear presses are most widely used in forgo shops. These presses ope­
rate on the principle of the crank pross.
Shears are used for cutting both hot and cold metal. At present,
shear presses are manufactured which can cut cold steel up to 300 X
X300 mm in cross-section.
Shear presses are a highly productive form of equipment, as they
make one cut with every stroke, and are capable of making from 3 to
32 strokes per minute; however, the greater the cross-section of the
metal to be cut, the slower the speed of the shears will be. They can
 The Drop-Forging Technology 343

be used for shearing stock from shaped rolled sections, but for this
purpose they must be equipped with special fixtures.
Shearing cold metal is accompanied by considerable strains which
are liable to develop cracks at the cut. For this reason, high-alloy
and ordinary alloy steels must be heated to temperatures ranging from
350 to 700 °C before shearing; the higher the temperature, the less
force will be necessary to cut the steel.
Mild and medium carbon steels up to 200x200 mm in cross-
section are usually cut cold. After being cut in shears, the ends of a
piece of work will be rough; the greater the cross-section of the work
and the higher the temperature of tho metal, the greater the rough­
ness of the ends will be. Because of this, the temporature to which
the metal is heated before cutting will depend on the grade of steel
and on the* method of subsequent forging (stamping).
For subsequent upsetting the cut should be as straight and even as
possible. This is not always attainable, especially when shearing
high-alloy and high-carbon steels, since, in order to avoid the de­
velopment of cracks at the shearing section, the steel has to be heated
to very high temperatures (from 700 to 800 and even to 1,000° C); and
at such high temperatures straight edges cannot be obtained by shear­
ing. For this reason other shearing methods must be employed, such
as shearing on cold saws or electric arc cutting, etc.
Stock is also sheared in crank-type and hydraulic presses with the
aid of special dies and fixtures. Smith hammers and drop-forging
hammers must not be used for cold shearing stock, as this operation
is by no means safe.
Breaking Stock on Gold Bar-Breaking Fixtures. Stock can be broken
in hydraulic and power-driven crank-type or eccentric-type presses.
The process of breaking cold metal consists in placing the stock on two
supports and bringing pressure to bear on it through a blunt blade
at a point equidistant between the supports until the stock breaks.
Before breaking, the bar stock must be marked off into the required
lengths, a notch 10-15 mm deep being made at each place where
it is to be broken with a gas torch or, more rarely, with a cold cutting
saw. The bar must be placed on the supports with the notch on Us
underside, exactly opposite the breaking rod (blade); moreover, the
notch must be exactly in the centre between the supports.
The notch is necessary to ensure that the bar breaks exactly at this
point without any visible deformation. Gold breaking of bars is wide­
ly practised since it is a highly economic shearing method, requiring
no special equipment.
Another advantage of cold bar-breaking is that the quality of the
metal can be inspected at the fracture, and this is very important in
the production of high-grade alloy steel forgings. The minimum
standard length of any section during cold breaking must not be less
 344 D rop-F orging (H ot Stam ping)

than 0.8 D, where D is the diameter, or length of opposite sides of the

square of the bar.
Fig. 273 illustrates how a cold breaking fixture is installed in a
crank-type press; the same method can be adapted for other presses.
Cold breaking in forge hammers is prohibited, as this operation is
considered to be very dangerous.
The cold bar-breaking fixture illustrated in Fig. 273, is designed as
follows. Dovetailed plate 2 is secured to shoe 1 of the press by key 4
and dowel pin 5, in the same way as dies are secured in hammers;

Fig. 273. Installation of cold bar-breaking fixture on press

the shoe is also secured to the press table through its dovetail. Two
rods 5 are mounted across plate 2 in special grooves machined in the
plate. Rods 5 are secured to shoe 1 with the aid of shackles 6 and bolts
7. Shearing blade 12 is attached to the top travelling shoe 9 by means
of its dovetail, key 8 and dowel pin 13. Bar 10, previously marked out
and notched to length (notch a) is placed in groove 11 of rods 5 so
that the centre of blade 12 is exactly vertically over that of notch a
of the stock. The bar is broken by the pressure of blade 12. After
the blade has contacted the metal only a comparatively short stroke
of the press—not more than 15-20 mm—is required to break a bar
in such a fixture.
Cutting Stock on Cold and Electric Arc-Type Saws. Cold saws are
employed for cutting stock into precise lengths, with square ends, and
also for cutting short lengths from billets of large cross-section, l. e.,
when the length of the stock is less than 0.8 of the diameter or thick­
ness of the billet. Cold saws are not very productive, and for this
reason are not employed on a large scale in forge shops.
 The Drop-Forging Technology 345

Electric arc-type saws are more than ten times productive than
conventional saws.
Of great interest are electric arc-type saws for cutting metal, partic­
ularly for cutting high-alloy steels and extra hard alloys, which are
usually cut only with special hard-alloy tools. The cutting speed of
these saws is practically independent of the mechanical properties
of the steel being cut.
These saws consume less power than cold cutting saws and produce
much cleaner cuts. Since the cutting tool of the arc-type saw is a very
thin disc—from 2.5 to 3 mm thick, the loss of metal as kerf in
electric arc cutting is insignificant.
Electric arc-type saws operate by generating a high temperature
at the place of contact between a thin disc without teeth and the met­
al to he cut; the metal melts and, as the disc rotates at a high speed,
it sweeps the molten metal from the cut in the form of sparks.
Thus in these saws the discs are designed not for severing the metal,
but for conducting electric current to the metal at the point where
the cut is required, and for sweeping the melted particles of metal
from the cut itself.
Fig. 274 shows an electric arc-type saw, in which electric current
is fed to disc 3 through sliding contact 2 and a shaft from transformer
1 (see Fig. 274, a).
The discs are usually made of iron or steel plate from 2.5 to 3.0 mm
thick. As can be seen from Fig. 274, a, disc 3 is rotated by electric
motor 4 through a gear drive, at a speed of up to 2,200 rpm.
Stock 11 to be cut is connected to transformer 1 by a return wire.
An electric current thus flows between the disc and the stock to be
cut. When the rotating disc comes into contact with the stock, the
electric current generates thermal energy raising the temperature at
the point where the disc comes into contact with the bar stock, until
the latter melts; as a result, the disc easily cuts into the metal and
sweeps its melted particles away as sparks.
The mechanism of an electric arc-type cutting saw is mounted on
cast frame 5 (Fig. 274, b), suspended from beam 10. Electric motor 4
is mounted on bracket 7 which is hinged on axles 6 mounted in frame
5. Disc 3 is rotated by the electric motor through a belt drive. Frame
5, together with disc 3 suspended from hinge 6 is fed gradually by
hand, with the aid of handle 8 towards bar 11 which is to he cut.
Counterweight 9 on frame 5 facilitates the return of the frame to its
original position.
Cutting discs can be made of any steel, as, for instance, grade Ct . 3
steel. Even when cutting high carbon steels, the wear of the disc
is insignificant, since it contacts the cut (high temperature spot)
for an exceedingly short period of time and, rotating at high speed,
cools very rapidly.
346 Drop-Forging (Hot Stam ping)

Gas Cutting. Gas cutting consists in directing a jet of high calorie

fuel (gasoline, acetylene, coke-oven gas, etc.) burning in a stream of
oxygen to the point where the cut is required thereby heating‘it to
above its melting temperature.

Fig. 274. Electric arc-type cutting saw:

a) gearing diagram of electric saw; b) electric arc-type cutting saw

Gas cutting is carried out with special cutting torches—gasolino,

kerosene, or gas torches, depending on the kind of fuel used. Gas
cutting is very frequently employed in forge shops for cutting thick
plates and rolled shapes.
 The Drop-Forging Technology 347

Heating Metal for Drop-Forging. Metal must be heated before drop­

forging for the same reason as it has to be heated before ordinary
hammer forging, i. e., in order to increase its plasticity.
As a rule, the productivity of drop-forging machines is greater
than that of steam hammers. It often happens that the heating furnaces
are unable to cope with the speed of the drop-forging unit (hammer
-or press), thereby curtailing its productivity; and this occurs even
in spite of the fact that the productivity of the furnace should be not
only at least equal to that of the forging unit, but evon slightly in
excess of it.
Two methods are usually employed for heating metal before drop­
forging: flame and electric heating. Of recent years highly productive
mechanised healing furnaces have come into wide use for flame
heating.
The design of these mechanised furnaces depends on the character
of the stock to be heated and also on the type of forging machines
served by the furnace. Mechanised furnaces include continuous-type,
pusher-type, rotary-type and conveyor-type furnaces.
Continuous-type furnaces are employed for heating relatively thick
and long square and flat bars: in these furnaces the work is fed along
the hearth from the charging to the discharging end. In convention­
al continuous-type furnaces, the slock is heated from one side
only; but in the more modern designs higher productivity and
uniform heating of the stock throughout its entire length is ensured
by heating the stock from both sides; in addition, the work is
made to slide through the furnace over water-cooled skidding
tubes. To reduce the consumption of fuel required for heating the
water in these tubes, they are heat insulated with a special refractory
clay.
As can be expected, the productivity of the conventional type of
continuous furnace is much lower than that of the modern type. While
the weight of steel heated per square metre of hearth per hour in the
latter furnaces reaches 500-600 kg and even 900-950 kg, that of the
conventional continuous-type furnace is usually not more than
300-350 kg.
Rotary-type furnaces are employed for heating shaped stock of
round section and short lengths which cannot be loaded in a pusher-
type furnace. The main advantages of rotary-type forging furnaces as
compared with continuous pusher-type furnaces are: 1) they take up
from 20 to 30 per cent less floor space than continuous-type furnaces;
2) they can take stock of any shape. Rotary-type furnaces are particu­
larly convenient for heating short stock, which can be loaded upright
on the furnace hearth; in this position they will be licked on all sides
by the hot furnace gases and will therefore be heated far more rapid­
ly than otherwise.
348 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

Slot-type box furnaces and mechanised conveyor-type furnaces

built with chains travelling outside the furnace, instead of inside the
working chamber, are employed for heating the ends of rods and
bars, for instance, before upsetting in horizontal forging machines.
Electrical heating for drop-forging is nowadays being increasingly
widely used; this method has already been described in Chapter VI.
Scale is very detrimental both to stampings (forgings) and to dies,
causing their rapid wear and destruction due to pitting, etc.; for this
reason scale must always he completely removed from the surface of
the work before forging. There are many methods of removing scale:
cleaning the stock with a jet of steam or compressed air; brushing;
and finally hydraulic descaling. This last method consists in placing
the heated stock from which the scale is to be removed in a chamber
where it is descaled by the action of a jet of water under high pressure
(120-150 atmospheres). Since the stock remains in the hydraulic
descaling chamber for a very short time (1-0.5 second), it is not ap­
preciably cooled.
Hot Stamping. Stamping when the stock is placed upright between
the dies, is called drop- or upset-forging; stock for upset-forging is
always calculated for one forging only. However, whenever the tech­
nological process permits, it is always more profitable to make stamp­
ings from stock calculated for several forgings, and when stamping
heavy forgings, from stock calculated for two forgings.
When stock is calculated for two forgings, it must be turned round
during the drop-forging operation, i. e., after first being stamped
from one end, it must be turned and stamped from the opposite end.
Stamping from stock calculated for several forgings has the advantage
that less metal is wasted than when stamping from stock calculated
for one forging only.
When only one forging is to be made from a piece of stock, a tong-
hold allowance 50-60 mm long must be left at one end of the stock;
this tonghold, together with the flash, is generally lost as scrap. But,
if correspondingly processed, it can be used for making other forgings
of smaller cross-section. Nowadays stamping without tongholds
is coming into wide use.
The technological process and forging methods must he selected
with due consideration of the conditions in which the forged compo­
nent will operate. As an example of the influence of the technological
process of drop-forging on the quality of the finished component let
us take the process of drop-forging a coupling hook.
Coupling hooks are important parts, subject to severe dutv. For
instanco, a railway-car coupling hook has to withstand the tractive
effort of the locomotive, and the safety of the railway traffic depends
to a considerable extent on the strength of the hook. For this reason,
the technological process of its manufacture must ensure its highest
 The Drop-Forging Technology 349

possible tensile strength and it must be forged with due considera­

tion for the direction of the fibre of the steel; on no account should the
fibre of the metal be severed during the forging process, as this will
considerably reduce the mechanical properties of the hook, making it
much weaker.
Fig. 275 illustrates the process of drop-forging a coupling hook by
the old method, in which cutting the fibre was unavoidable. In this

Fig. 275. Coupling hook Fig. 276. Coupling hook

drop-forged by old meth­ drop-forged by new meth­
od: od:
a) stock; b) stock, after draw- a) drawlng-out end ol stock;
mg-oiit; c' head of stock b) stock bent to form head ol
flattened; d) head of stock hook; c) hook after being
after being stamped (direc­ drop-forged without trimming
tion of tractive effort Is flash; d) location of fibres in
shown by arrow) hook after drop-forging

case, the sequence of operations was as follows: 1) cutting the stock to

length; 2) drawing-out the head under a steam hammer (Fig. 275, b);
3) flattening the head, as in Fig. 275, c; 4) forging in dies to the shape
shown in Fig. 275, d and subsequently cutting out the jaw and trim ­
ming the flash in an eccentric trimming press. By this method of forg­
ing the hook the fibre of the metal is severed at the most dangerous
section—at the nose of the hook; and, since the tractive effort is di
rected along, and not across the fibres, there is the danger that the
hook will break at this point.
Fig. 276 illustrates the new technological process of drop-forging a
coupling hook so as to ensure the proper disposition of the fibre. The
350 Drop-Forging ( Hot Stamping)

difference between this method and the former one is that after the
first operation of drawing-out the head of the hook (Fig. 276, a), the
hook is bent, as shown in Fig. 276, b and then stamped and trimmed,
as shown in Fig. 276, c. As a result of this improved technology the
direction of the tractive effort now coincides with that of the fibre,
as can bo seen from Fig. 276, d.
According to this technological process, the coupling hook is forged
in three-impression dies. The first impression is designed for reducing
the stock, the second—for bending, and the third—for finish forging.
The mechanical properties of coupling hooks forged in such dies will
be much higher than those of books forged by the former technologi­
cal process.
The volume of metal required for drop-forging is calculated from
the following formula:
^ sto ck ^ J o r g "1 ” ^ f l a s h " i” ^ s c *

where V tock— volume of stock in cubic centimetres;

Vf0rg—volume of forging in cubic centimetres;
VfiaSfi—volume of flash in cubic centimetres;
Vsc— volume of loss due to scale in cubic centimetres.
When forging is executed in closed dies, the volume of the flash
metal, Vflash, is not taken into consideration, as no flash is formed
and consequently none has to be trimmed.
The volume of metal required to ensure a tonghold is then added
to the calculated volume of the stock. For instance, if, according to
calculations, the length of the stock is to be 600 mm, 50-60 mm are
added to this length for a tonghold—thus making the total length
of the stock 650-660 mm.
The volume of the forging, Vforg, is calculated from its drawing, and
includes all allowances. The volume of the flash is calculated from the
formula:

where p — the perimeter of the forging along which the flash will be
located in centimetres;
a — average width of the flash, in centimetres;
b —average thickness of the flash, in centimetres.
The dimensions of flash are determined from tables, and depend on
the hammer and the forging method used. The volume of loss due to
scale when heating stock in flame furnaces will be from 1.5 to 3.0 per
cent and, when heating it by electric current, from 0.5 to 1.0 per cent
of the sum of the volume of the stock and the volume of the flash.
When the volume of the stock is known, its length and cross-
sectional area can be calculated. When calculating the cross-sectional
dimensions of a piece of stock for drop-forging without upsetting, the
 The Drop-Forging Technology 351

following rule must always be observed: the cross-sectional area of

the stock must be 10-15 per cent greater than that of the finished
forging.
Trimming the Flash. After forging in open dies, the flash
must always be removed from the forging. Flash is removed,
i. e., trimmed, in special trimming dies on crank-type or eccentric
presses; the forgings can be trimmed with or without previous
heating.
Forgings of aluminium alloys, copper, brass, bronze and of mild
steel (grades 20 and 25) are usually trimmed cold; in these cases,
trimming is a special operation,
and is performed separately. The
entire batch of forgings is sent
simultaneously to the trimming
press. Should straightening be
requirod after trimming, it can
also be performed without heat­
ing the forgings.
Components of h&rder steels, ir ~ “ ■N
i
j
as well as those of large dimen­ i
sions, must always be heated be­
fore trimming and straightening. r ~ .
In these cases, the forging and
trimming operations are closely
connected, as all the work is, as Fig. 277. Flash trimming die
a rule, executed in a single heat­
ing; the stamped forgings are transferred to the next unit (trim­
ming press) immediately after the completion of the final forging
operation, after which they are returned to the same hammer for
straightening, without extra heating.
The trimming die, as illustrated in Fig. 277, consists of trimmer
blade t and punch 3; tho trimmer blade is secured in a special pillow
or shoe 2. Shoe 2 is bolted to the table of the press, while punch 3 is
attached to the slide of the press by means of its dovetail. The blade,
which is made of tool steel, has a hole corresponding both in contour
and dimension to forging 4 and, of course, to the finish impression
of the forging die.
The punch is made to fit the trimmer blade with a clearance of 0.5
to 1 mm. To trim the flash, forging 4 is placed over the hole in the
trimmer blade so that the flash serves as a support from which it is
suspended. When the press is started, punch 3 descends and forces
forging 4 through the hole; the flash will be cut off (trimmed), remain­
ing on the top of trimmer blade 1 from which it can be removed,
while the forging falls into shoe 2 and is removed through a hole in
the shoe.
352 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

Straightening. After trimming, forgings may be slightly deformed

(distorted), and must be straightened. This operation is performed on
a hammer^or in a special press immediately after the trimming opera­
tion. Straightening under the hammer is performed with one light
blow in the finish forging impression of the die, or in a special
straightening impression.
Examples of Drop-Forging Operations. Fig. 278 illustrates the tech­
nological process of making a lever, the forging stock being prepared
in a^smith hammer. The weight of the stock is 7.8 kg, that of the forg­
ing is 6.2 kg, the yield being 75 per cent. Material—grade C t . 40
steel. The forging sketch is shown in Fig. 278, a.
The technological process provides for the following operations:
1) Inspecting stock: checking dimensions and accepting metal
against certificate;
2) Cutting stock to length on shears (Fig. 278, b);
3) Hammer forging on 500-kg hammer (Fig. 278, c and d);
4) Accepting forged stock: a) forging in finish impression (Fig.
278, e); b) trimming flash (Fig. 278, /); c) bending in bending impres­
sion of die (Fig. 278, g). All these operations are performed on a
6.5- ton drop-forging hammer and in a 600-ton eccentric press;
5) Removing flash on floor grinding machines;
6) Marking;
7) Pickling in pickling baths;
8) Acceptance of forging by visual inspection and selective meas­
urement.
The following tools will be used for the above operations: working
(main) tools for the 2nd operation: shears; for the 3rd operation:
flat top and bottom dies; for the 4th operation: forging and trimming
dies; for the 6th operation: stamp, hammer. Auxiliary tools: for the
1st, 4th and 8th operations: folding rule, calipers; for the 8th opera­
tion: folding rule, calipers and template.
Forging temperature interval: for the 3rd operation: 1,150-750°C;
for the 4th operation: stamping at 1,200-900°C; flash trimming at
800-750°C; bending at 750-700°C.
Fig. 279 illustrates the technological process of drop-forging a
handle.
Weight of stock—1.31 kg; weight of forging—0.96 kg; yield—73 per
cent; material—grade C t . 3 steel. The sketch of the forging is given
in Fig. 279, a. The process will consist of the following operations:
1) Inspecting stock: checking dimensions and accepting metal
against certificate;
2) Cutting stock to length on shears (Fig. 279, b);
3) Drawing in 2-ton hammer (Fig. 279, c)\ drop-forging in 1-ton
hammer (Fig. 279, d); trimming on 125-ton trimming press, and bend­
ing in 1-ton drop-forging hammer (Fig. 279, e);
 Fig. 278. Technological process of drop-forging a lever:
«'■) .sketch of lever; b, c, d, e and f) sketches of passes In drop-forging lever

Fig. 279. Technological process of drop-forging handle:

a) sketch of forging; b, c, d, e and f) sketches of passes In drop-forging handle

2 3 -4 8 9
354 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

4) Marking;
5) Bending in friction press between bonding dies (Fig.
279, /);
6) Descaling in pickling baths;
7) Removing Hash on floor grinding machine;
8) Acceptance (inspection) by visual examination, selective meas­
uring and marking out.
Tools used for the above operations: working (main) tools for the
2nd operation—shears; for the 3rd operation—dies; for the 4th opera­
tion—hammer, sledge-hammer; for the 5th operation—bending die.
Auxiliary tools: for the 4th operation—stamp; for all other operations
—folding rule and calipers.
Forging temperature interval for all passes of the 3rd operation —
1,200 to 750°C; for tho 5th operation—900-750°C.

HORIZONTAL FORGING MACHINES AND THEIR OPERATION

Nowadays, horizontal forging machines are being increasingly

widely used for drop-forging in closed dies and, more seldom, in open
dies. Drop-forging in horizontal forging machines is mainly an
upsetting operation. These forging machines possess Lhe following
advantages when compared with drop-forging:
1) The quality of the metal after forging in these machines is supe­
rior than after drop-forging in hammers or presses;
2) Drop-forging in forging machines is accompanied by little or
no flash, whereas drop-forging in hammers is accompanied by the pro­
duction of flash weighing from 10 to 75 and even up to 200 per cent of
the weight of the finished forging;
3) Forging machines have a higher productivity, and their mainte­
nance is much cheaper than that of drop-forging hammers;
4) Drop-forging in forging machines does not require forging drafts,
which are essential for forging in hammers; this makes it possible to
save metal and cut machining expenses;
5) When forging gear blank-type forgings with through or dead
holes on drop-forging hammers, they are frequently produced without
the holes, or with holes having considerable taper; this entails extra
piercing or punching (sizing) operations; the accuracy of holes of forg­
ings made in horizontal forging machines is much higher, thereby
obviating the necessity for additional operations.
Fig. 280, a illustrates an example of a component forged on a drop­
forging hammer, and Fig. 280, b—the same forging produced on a
horizontal forging machine. The forging shown in Fig. 280, a has no
through hole and, moreover, has been made with forging drafts; the
forging shown in Fig. 280, 6, produced in a horizontal forging ma-
 Horizontal Forging Machines and Their Operation 355

chine, is made without forging drafts, and its holes are fully pierced;
with this forging the consumption of metal and the machining ex­
penses will be less than with the other.
The above-mentioned advantages of drop-forging in horizontal
machines compared to drop-forging in hammers has led to a steady
increase in their use. Today
this progressive forging meth­
od is developing at an ever-
increasing rate, particularly
in mass and large-scale pro­
duction . (a)
gives a diagram pig. 2 3 9 . work forged in hammer (a); the
matic illustration of upsetting same work upset in a forging machine (b)
in horizontal forging ma­
chines. Suppose that it is required to upset head 2 of the end of
a piece of stock 1 (Fig. 281, a). For this purpose, a rod of the
corresponding diameter is selected, one end of it is heated and insert­
ed between dies 3 and 4 until it contacts stock-gauge tf, as shown in
Fig. 281, b. The dies consist of stationary die 4 and gripping die 3,

Fig. 281. Diagram of upsetting process in a horizontal forging machine:

a) forcing; b) position of stock at? sta rtlrg of machine; c) upsetting dies closed and au-
tomatlc stock-gauge retracted; d) end of upsetting—heading tool (5) and dies (3) return
[Link] position

designed to slide towards the stationary die so as to grip the work

firmly, and away from it to release the work.
Thus, as distinguished from forging hammers and presses, horizontal
forging machines .have two sliding tools—gripping die .3 and head­
ing die, or-punch, 5; their movement is interconnected. After the
stock has been inserted into the dies, as shown in Fig. 281, b, grip
 356 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

ping die 3 moves to the left and holds the end of stock 1 firmly against
stationary die 4; at the same time, automatic stock-gauge 6 moves
aside, as shown in Fig. 281, c. Then heading die 5 presses the protrud­
ing end of the rod, thereby upsetting it until the metal completely
fills the die impression, i. e., until end 1 is upset to form the required
head 2.
The beginning of the upsetting is shown in Fig. 281, d. After the
head has been upset, heading die 5 and gripping die 3 return to their
original positions, releasing the finished product from gripping die
3 (Fig. 281, e). Upsetting can also be performed in open dies, as shown
in Fig. 282; this method, however, is very seldom employed, as it

Fig. 282. Upsetting in Fig. 283._Horizontal forging machine

open die

results in rough edges on the work. Though horizontal forging machines

are designed mainly for upsetting operations, they can also be used
for a wide range of other operations, such as, punching through and
dead holes (for instance,in flanges), bonding, piercing holes, cutting,
squeezing, trimming flash.
Principles of the Operation of Horizontal Forging Machines. Forg­
ing machines are classified into horizontal and vertical types, the
former being the most widely employed (Fig. 283). Horizontal forg­
ing machines are designed for upsetting bars from 20 to 225 mm in
diameter and with a maximum metal deforming pressure ranging
from 50 to 3,000 tons.
 H o r i z o n ta l F o r g in g M a c h in e s a n d T h e ir O p e r a tio n 357

Fig. 284 shows the gearing diagram of a horizontal forging machine.

Here, electric motor 1 rotates flywheel 2 which is mounted on drive
shaft 4; this shaft, through a system of gears, rotates crankshaft 5,
connected to sliding block 6 through connecting rod 16. Sliding
block 6 carries heading die slide 13 in which heading die 12 is insert­
ed. Connecting rod 16 connects the sliding block only when the
foot treadle is depressed. The free end of the connecting rod then
enters the recess of the sliding block, thereby actuating the latter.
Through levers 17 and with the aid of eccentrics 7, lateral sliding

Fig. 284. Gearing diagram of horizontal forging machine

block 8 will actuate gripping die slide 9, which carries gripping die
11. The second, stationary, die 10 is secured in stationary die-holder
18. The movements of sliding block 6 and gripping die slide 9 are
adjusted so that the stock to he upset, when inserted in the machine
up to stock-gauge 14, is gripped between gripping die slide 9 and
stationary die-holder 18 and only after this does heading tool 72,
secured in heading die slide 13, commence to move. Stoek-gauge 14
is now withdrawn from the range of travel of the slide by roll 15.
During its return stroke, the heading tool recedes from the dies, and
 358 Drop-Forging (Hot StampingJ

the die-holders releaso the work. The dies must be very precisely in­
stalled, as, if their grip on the stock is weak, the heading tool will
force the work out of them.
The following rules must be observed when operating horizontal
forging machines:
1. Before commencing operations, make sure that all parts of the
machine are in proper condition; see that the dies and the heading
tool are properly secured and in good condition. Start the machine
on idle load and commence operations only after making sure that
all the mechanisms are functioning properly.
2. Before commencing work, always make sure that the diameter
of the die impression corresponds to that of the stock. If the diame­
ter of the impression is larger than that of the stock, the heading
tool will force the latter out of the dies.
3. Before feeding stock into the dies, clean its heated end from scale.
4. See that the stock is fed perfectly straight into the dies and that
it touches the stock-gauge.
5. Take particular care to see that, when feeding the last length
of stock into the dies to make the final forging, the tongs or the chuck
are kept clear of the dies.
6. During the operation of the machine never place your hand be­
tween the dies.
7. During the operation of the machine, always wear safety gog­
gles to protect your eyes against scale.
8. Never forgo metal the temperature of which has fallen below
850°C.
9. If the forging machine is not equipped with an automatic lu­
bricating system, it must be lubricated only by a specially instructed
greaser.
Examples of Work Done in Horizontal Forging Machines. As has
already been said, horizontal forging machines can be used for a
wide range of work—for upsetting heads of various shape and thick­
ness on rods and bar stock; for bending and punching operations;
for upse tting flanges on bar and rod stock, pipes, etc. Fig. 285 illus­
trates on ly a few examples of the work that can be done on horizont­
al forgin g machines.
We gi^ e below a few examples of drop-forging processes carried
out on horizontal forging machines. Fig. 286 shows the technologi­
cal process of forging a nut on a 2"horizontal forging machine from
22 mm diameter bar stock; each nut requires 137 mm of bar, 17 nuts
being forged from one piece of stock.
The nuts are forged in four passes: the 1st pass—upsetting rod to
length of 112 mm (Fig. 286, b)\ the 2nd pass—upsetting the bar to
length of 76 mm (Fig. 286, c); the 3rd pass—forming nut (Fi?
286, d); the 4th pass—punching hole and trimming flash (Fig. 286, e ).
 Fig. 285. Exam ples of forgings produced by horizontal
forging machines

Fig. 286. Technological process of drop-forging nuts:

a) forging drawing; b, c, d and e) BketcheB of passes when making n u t
 360 Drop-Forging (Hot Stamping)

Fig. 287 illustrates the technological process of drop-forging a

pinion shaft on a 4" horizontal forging machine.

Fig. 287. Technological process ol drop-forging geared shaft:

a) forging drawing of geared shaft; b, e, d, and e) sketches of passes when making geared shafl

Fig. 288. Technological process of forging nut M 30x3.5:

a) forging drawing of nut; b, c, d and e) forging passes

The weight of the stock is 15.1 kg; that of the forging—15 kg.
Material—steel, grade C t . 40. The forging drawing is shown in Fig.
287, a. The pinion is forged in three passes; the technological chart
calls for the following operations:
 Horizontal Forging Machines and Their Operation 361

1) Inspection, checking dimensions and acceptance of stock against

certificate;
2) Gold cutting stock to length (Fig. 287, 6);
3) Upsetting in three passes: the 1st pass is shown in Fig. 287, c;
the 2nd pass—in Fig. 287, d; and the 3rd pass—in Fig. 287, e;
4) Marking;
5) Acceptance after examination and checking dimensions.
The following tools are required for the above-montioned opera­
tions: folding rule, shears, upsetting dies, marking stamp, hammer.
The forging temperature interval for the 3rd operation will be 1,200-
900 °C.
Fig. 288 illustrates the technological process of forging a
M 30X3.5 mm cap nut on a 4" forging machine. The forging sketch
is shown in Fig. 288, b, c, d and e.
 CHAPTER XI V

SPECIAL FEATURES OF FORGING NON-FERROUS METALS,

TOOL AND ALLOY STEELS

SPECIAL FEATURES OF FORGING CARBON TOOL STEELS

Steels with a carbon content ranging from 0.6 to 1.4 per cent are
called carbon tool steels. Such steels are distinguished for their hard­
ness. The greater thoir carbon content, the harder they are, but the
lower is their ductility.
Carbon tool steels are used for making all kinds of tools. In the
forging industry they are used for forging and bench-work tools and
also for dies. For instance, cold chisels, sledge-hammer heads, fitter’s
and blacksmith’s hammer hea(^ are made of grades Y7 and Y8 steel;
punches, swages and smoothers—of grade Y7 and grade Y8 steel.
When forging carbon tool steels, it is always necessary to bear in
mind their characteristics.
The plasticity of carbon tool steels is comparatively low and, as
a result, they are not very malleable. Their plasticity falls consider­
ably with their temperature. For this reason, the final forging tem­
perature of carbon tool steels must be higher than the final forging
temperature of engineering tool steels. Otherwise the steels will
crack.
Carbon tool steels must be heated to a lower temperature than engi­
neering tool steels for forging; and it should be remembered that the
greater the carbon content in the steel, the lower the forging temper­
ature must be; otherwise there is a danger of overheating and burn­
ing. Thus for carbon tool steels the forging temperature interval,
i. e., the difference between the temperatures at the beginning and
end of forging, will be narrower than that for engineering carbon
steels. For this reason these steels require repeated heating when
forging.
Table 11 gives the forging temperatures for carbon tool steels.
The thermal conductivity of carbon tool steels is lower than that
of engineering carbon steels. For this reason carbon tool steels should
be heated at a slower rate, and very cautiously. Carbon tool steel
forgings should be cooled as follows: after the completion of forging,
the work should be held in still air for 5 to 10 minutes (depending
on the dimensions of the forging), until the temperature of its sur­
face falls to about 700 °C. Then it should be placed in dry sand or
 Special Features of Forging Carbon Tool Steels 363

Table 11
Forging Temperatures for Carbon Tool Steels

in itia l forging Final forging

Grade of ntcel temperature, °C temperature, °C

Y7 and Y 7 A ........................... 1130— 1150 800—840

yy-yi3 and yoA-yi3A . . . 1100— 1120 820—870

slag and kept there until it completely cools. Carbon tool steel forg­
ings must be cooled in sand or slag to prevent the development of
cracks.
Before proceeding to forge the stock, it must be carefully exam­
ined for cracks, blebs and other surfaco defects. Shallow surface de­
fects must be chipped out before forging. In addition it is necessary
to make sure that the stock is made of the required grade of steel.
When producing carbon tool forgings on a mass scale, the quality
of the steel should be checked by taking a fracture test once or twice
during each shift. For this purpose, a test bar 10 X10 mm in section
is forged, notched, hardened and broken. The fracture should be a
dull gray (matt).
The following defects may be met with when forging carbon tool
steels:
Transverse cracks. This defect may be due to:
a) Rapid heating of the stock for forging, especially up to 800-
900° C, when the surface of the stock reaches the furnace tempera­
ture while its core is still cold; the surface of the steel will expand
to a greater extent than the core, resulting in considerable internal
stresses at *the core, and, consequently, cracks;
b) Incomplete heating of the stock throughout its cross-section,
as a result of which the metal in the core will be less ductile than at
the surface; such a piece of stock will crack on being forged.
Surface cracks. Cracks develop on the surface of a piece of stock
when the metal cools rapidly during the process of forging; to pre­
vent the formation of surface cracks, it is necessary to:
a) Forge the work with rapid, energetic blows, turning it after
every 2-3 blows;
b) Conduct the forging so as to avoid the formation of sharp cor­
ners and edges which cool rapidly and lead to cracks. All sharp cor­
ners should be rounded off immediately they are made.
All cracks must be chiselled out during forging immediately they
occur. If the surface of the forging becomes cold (darkens), forging
should be ceased immediately and the stock reheated.
Spalling. The stock splits into several pieces under the blows of
the hammer if the metal is burnt.
364 Special Features of Forging Non-Ferrous Metalls, Tool and Alloy Steels

SPECIAL FEATURES OF FORGING ALLOY STEELS

As is known, steels containing special useful alloying elements

In addition to carbon are called alloy steels. Each of these alloying
elements affects the properties of the steel to a greater or lesser ex­
tent. These alloying elements are: chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
tungsten, aluminium, cobalt, and also silicon and manganese if they
are added in quantities which exceed their normal content in ordi­
nary steels.
The thermal conductivity of a steel is of decisive importance in
selecting its heating conditions. As a rule, the thermal conductivity
of alloy steels is lower than that of carbon steels. Alloy steels are not
so plastic as carbon steels, and are also more liable to form cracks.
Moreover, they are more susceptible to overheating and burning than
are carbon steels.
The plasticity of a steel increases with its temperature. For this
reason, alloy steels may be heated at increased rates at high tempera­
tures without fear of cracking. At low temperatures, however, when
the plasticity and the thermal conductivity of the steels are low, they
must be heated at a slower rate and with more caution.
From the foregoing the following conclusions can be drawn as re­
gards the special features of heating alloy steels.
1. Ingots should be charged into furnaces at as low a temperature
as possible. There are several methods of heating ingots of alloy
steels: a) charging the steel into a cold furnace and heating it together
with the furnace; h) heating the ingot first in a furnace at a low tem­
perature and then transferring it to a second furnace at a higher
temperature; c) heating the ingot in a double-chamber furnace, in
which one chamber, heated to a lower temperature than the second,
serves as a preheating chamber; d) heating the ingot in a continuous
furnace, in which the steel is gradually heated as it travels from the
charging to the discharging end of the furnace.
2. The heating cycle for alloy steel ingots must consist of three
periods: a) a period of slow heating in the low plasticity and low ther­
mal conductivity range of the steel, i. e., up to 550-600°C and for
certain very brittle steels, up to 700-800°C; b) a second period, of
more rapid heating, up to the forging temperature; c) a third period,
during which the metal is held at a constant temperature in order to
bring the ingot to a uniform temperature throughout its cross-sec­
tion.
3. Rolled alloy steel stock with a cross-section of approximately
100 X100 mm can be rapidly heated in the same way as ordinary car­
bon steel.
4. The total duration of heating alloy steels is longer than that
of heating simple carbon steels.
 Special Features of Forging Alloy Steels 365

5. The duration of heating alloy steels varies with their grade.

Table 12 gives the heating conditions for forging certain grades
of alloy steels.
Table 12
Forging T em peratures of A lloy S teels

F in a l forging tem p eratu re, °C

M axim um
M axim um tem peratu re
Grade tem p eratu re o f furnace, for p relim inary for fin al
of m eta l, °C °C operations operations

15X ; 20X ; 35X ; 40X ;

30H ; 4 0H ;
2X G M A ; 34X M 1220 1270 800 700

18X H M A ; 5X H M ;
75X rM ; 6X IIM ;
4 5 X 1 1 ........................ 1200 1250 800 700

X 3; 9 X ; 9 X 2 . . . 1150 1200 850 800

Before proceeding to forge alloy steel, all cracks, laps, etc., and
in general all defects resulting from the pouring of the steel in the
moulds or the rolling process must be removed from the surface of
the stock or ingot.
This is done either with a pneumatic chisel or with an emery grind­
ing wheel. Sometimes the entire surfaco for alloy steel ingots is
rough machined on special machine tools. After the defects have
been removed, the ingot is charged into the furnace and heated for
hammer or press forging. The temperature of the furnace, as well as
the initial and final forging temperatures, must be carefully con­
trolled.
Each grade of alloy steel has its own forging temperature inter­
val, which must be always adhered to.
The ingot should be reduced gradually, beginning with slight
(20-30 mm) reductions; it is only after the first and, preferably,
after the second reduction, that the amount of reduction may be in­
creased. This method will prevent surface cracking. If, however, sur­
face cracks do appear during the forging of the ingot, they must be
immediately chipped out. After chipping, the ingot must be reheat'
ed and forging continued.
The following rules must be observed to ensure high-quality alloy
steel forgings:
1) Work on hammers or presses of high capacities;
366 Special Features of Forging Non-Ferrous Metals, Tool and Alloy Steels

2) Always upset the work two or three times, depending on the na­
ture of the forging;
3) After each upsetting and subsequent drawing (reducing), anneal
the forging;
4) As the forging temperature interval for alloy and carbon tool
steels is comparatively narrow, the dies, inserted tools, such as rings,
plates, etc., should be heated to 400-500° C before beginning to
forge such steels, in order to minimise the cooling effect of the cold
dies on the steel;
5) The working surfaces of the tools (dies, plates, etc.) must al­
ways be maintained in good condition and kept free from dents*
scratches, etc.

FORGING NON-FERROUS METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS

Hot and cold stamping of non-ferrous metals and their alloys is

widely practised in industry, particularly in the aviation and en­
gine-building industries. Non-ferrous metals and their alloys are
seldom forged by the hammer forging process.
Non-ferrous metals and their alloys are forged in machines of the
same types as those used for forging ferrous metals, and with simi­
lar tools. The forging and stamping of non-ferrous metals and their
alloys are based on the same principles as those used for ferrous met­
als. However, mention must be made of certain specific features
which must be taken into cosideration when forging and stamping
non-ferrous metals and their alloys.
Non-ferrous metals and their alloys intended for forging can be
classified into two groups: heavy and light metals and alloys. The
first group includes copper, bronze, nickel, nichrome and brass.
The second group covers light metals and their alloys—aluminium,
duralumin, and magnesium alloys. The chief conditions for forging
some of these alloys arc as follows.
Copper is used mainly in the electrical industry for manufactur­
ing parts of electrical apparatus, busbars, wires, etc. Copper is not
very ductile at temperatures from 250 to 600°C, and cannot bo forged
or stamped at temperatures above 800° C, due to its high brit­
tleness. Pure copper is very seldom forged or stamped, and usually on­
ly its alloys—bronze and brass—are subjected to forging and pressing.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. So-called malleable brass,
consisting of 59 per cent of copper, 45 per cent zinc and from 1 to-
0.5 per cent lead, is most frequently subjected to forging and stamp­
ing. Sometimes brass containing no lead is used for stampings.
Brass is stamped on the same kind of equipment and by the same
methods as those employed for stamping steel. Brass can be heated
in ordinary forge furnaces which ensuro a uniform temperature.
 Forging Non-Ferrous Metals and Their Alloys 367

When stamping brass, its following characteristics should be borne

in mind. In the first place, the forging temperature range of
brass is very narrow—from 730 to 750° C, and its optimal forging
temperature interval ranges from 730 to 720° C. Therefore brass
must be stamped very rapidly, preferably at one blow. Second­
ly, trimming must be effected at the forging temperature interval,
i. e., between 730 and 720° C, or after the forging has cooled to room
temperature.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and aluminium, tin and other ele­
ments. Aluminium bronze is very easily forged and stamped in
presses and hammers. Its forging temperature interval ranges from
900 to 750° C. Bronze can be heated in the furnaces employed for
heating steels.
Aluminium and duralumin arc metals silver in colour, highly
plastic and easily stamped.
Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium and copper (up to 4.5 per
cent), manganese and magnesium (about 0.5 per cent each). Forging
temperature intervals for aluminium: 475-425° C; and for duralu­
min: 470-380° C.
Aluminium alloys arc particularly widely employed in the avia­
tion industry, because of their light weight and high strength. Alu­
minium and its alloys are usually heated in electric furnaces, the
rate of heating being far slower than that of steel.
When forging and stamping aluminium and its alloys, which can
be carried out on both hammers and presses, the following features
must be borne in mind:
1) All the forging tools (stamps, dies, etc.) must be heated to 200-
250° C before commencing operations;
2) Experience shows that rectangular ingots and stock can be forged
more easily than round ones, which frequently display cracks on
forging. For this reason, round ingots and stock should not be used;
3) Aluminium alloys have a tendency to stick to the surface of
the dies, thereby resulting in forgings with rough surfaces. For
this reason the surfaces of the dies and their impressions must be very
carefully polished. During stamping and forging these surfaces must
be lubricated, and the dies heated to 200-250° C before starting
work. They may be lubricated with a mixture of graphite and vege­
table oil or masout;
4) Mixtures of aluminium powder and iron scale are highly explo­
sive, yet both aluminium and steel forgings are frequently produced
in the same forge shop. Precautions should therefore be taken in or­
der to exclude all possibility of mixing aluminium dust and iron
scale and, thus, the possibility of explosions.
 CHAPTER XV

HEAT TREATMENT, DEFECTS AND INSPECTION

OF FORGINGS

COOLING FORGINGS

Steel forgings are heat treated for the following purposes: 1) to

remove stresses arising in the steel during forging and cooling; 2) to
equalise the structure of the metal of the forging; 3) to give the steel
that degree of hardness which makes it most easy to machine; and
4) to improve the mechanical properties of the steel.
As has already been said, the forging of steel is completed at a
fairly high temperaturo (800-900°C). When forgings cool, defor­
mations (stresses) arise in the steel; and in the process of forging the
magnitude of these stresses may exceed the strength of the steel it­
self. As a result, what are called micro-cracks may occur in the steel;
these are cracks which cannot bo seen with the naked eye, though
sometimes very large cracks also occur. This leads to the rejection
of the forging.
On cooling, the difference in temperature between the surface
and the core of the forging causes internal stresses to arise. As is
known, a forging begins to cool on the surface. Therefore the temper­
ature at its surface will always be lower than at its core, and the
temperature of the metal will increase towards the centre of the forg­
ing. The surface of a forging cools and contracts considerably more
rapidly than the hotter, central, layers. As a result, the surface layers
will strike to compress the internal layers of the forging, and the in­
ternal layers will tend to distend the surface layers.
As the layers of metal continue to grow cooler (i. e., when the sur­
face layers of the forging are almost cold), the contraction of the
surface layers practically ceases; but, as the outside layers of the
metal are cold, the metal itself loses a considerable amount of its
plasticity. At the same time, the temperature of the inner layers of
the metal of the forging will still be high, and these layers will
continue to contract. As a result, the direction of the stresses changes:
 Cooling Forgings 369

compressive stresses are now present in the outer layers, and tensile
stresses in the inner layers.
As has already been mentioned, cracks occur in the forging when
the stresses due to the cooling of the steel exceed its tensile strength.
The occurrence of cooling cracks depends on the quality of the steel.
Heterogeneity of the steel, the presence of bubbles, pipe cavities,
non-metallic inclusions, etc., facilitate the development both of
internal and surface cracks. Thus the conclusion can be drawn that
forgings must be cooled in such a way as to promote the complete
or partial absence of stresses in the steel as it cools.
If a forging is cooled slowly from 800 to 900°C, its temperature
throughout its entire cross-section will gradually become equalised.
This will result in the disappearance of all residual deforming stresses
set up in the steel during its forging; the stresses arising in tho steel
resulting from the difference between the temperatures of the
surface and internal layers of the forging as it cools will be
reduced.
A forging can be cooled by one of the following methods: 1) cooling
in air; 2) cooling in unheated pits; 3) cooling in heated pits or in
the furnace. The cooling method selected depends on the grade of
the steel and the shape and cross-sectional area of the forging. The
method of cooling, and the cooling rate, must be indicated in the
process chart for a given forging.
The quickest cooling method is that of cooling in air. For air cool­
ing, forgings can be packed in throe different ways: 1) in a single
row, without clearances; 2) in a single row, with clearances, and 3) in
stacks. The highest cooling rate is attained by placing the forgings
in a single row, with clearances between each forging; they will
cool rather more slowly when placed in one row without any clearances
between them; while the rate of cooling will be slowest when they
are stacked one on top of another. When cooling forgings in
air, they must always be placed on dry soil. If placed on damp
soil, or on a metal floor, or on cold forgings Ihe cooling will not
be uniform. The locality for air cooling must be protected from
draughts.
Cooling in pits (or wells) is a slower process than air cooling. The
rate of cooling in pits or wells can be controlled by opening and clos­
ing the pit covers, by covering the forgings with poor heat-conduct­
ing materials, such as dry sand, slag wool, coal ashes, etc., of vary­
ing thickness. Forgings should never be charged into cooling pits at
temperatures below 500-550 °C. They should be stacked in the cool­
ing pits not touching^the cold walls. If the forgings in the pits are
to be covered with sand, -slag wool, etc., care should be taken to
leave a clearance of 25-50 mm between each forging; this clearance
must also be packed with a dry, poor heat-conducting material. The
370 Heat Treatment, Defects and Inspection of Forgings

forgings must then be covered with an 80-100 mm layer of the same

material.
Cooling in hot furnaces is employed for more important forgings,
whose cooling must he carefully controlled in accordance with a def­
inite predetermined rate. Before charging the forgings into the fur­
nace, the latter must be heated to 500-700°C, but never less than
500-600 °C. Forgings are generally cooled in car-bottom hearth
furnaces.
If the forging is to be heat-treated, for instance, annealed, the cool­
ing process should he combined with the annealing process. For
this purpose, the forgings are charged into the furnace at tempera­
tures not below 500°C, and then heated to the required annealing tem­
perature, after which they are cooled in the furnace according to
specified conditions. This method will reduce the cooling time and
the fuel consumption, since it eliminates one heat and one cooling.

ANNEALING AND NORMALISING FORGINGS

Annealing is a form of heat-treatment which is applied to remove

stresses, and improve the mechanical properties and machiqeability
of forgings.
The annealing process consists in heating the forgings in a furnace
to a temperature of 750-900° C, depending on the carbon content
of the steel (to a temperaturo 20-50° C above the A c3 point), with
subsequent slow cooling. This annealing will result in: 1) refine­
ment of the grain formed in the steel on the completion of forging
at high temperatures; 2) removal of internal stresses resulting from
the hot working of the metal; 3) comparative softening Qf the steel,
thereby improving its machineability.
Normalising forgings consists in heating them in furnaces as in
annealing, and then removing them from the furnace for subsequent
cooling in the air. The following results are achieved by normalising:
1) a fine-grained structure, the grain being refined to a greater degree
than by annealing; 2) improved mechanical properties—increased
tensile strength and ductility; 3) removal of internal stresses.

DEFECTS IN HAMMER FORGING

Forging defects may result from the following causes: 1) poor qual­
ity of the stock; 2) improper heating; 3) incorrect forging conditions;
4) wrong forging methods; 5) uneven cooling of stock after forging.
The quality of the finished forging always depends on the quality
of the stock; a good forging caunot be made from a piece of stock
 Dejects in Hammer Forging 371

of poor quality. Before starting to forge a piece of metal, it is neces­

sary to ascertain its quality, and for this reason it is first subjected to
chemical analysis and mechanical tests. If the results of the test and
analysis do not meet the required specifications for the given work,
the steel must he rejected or used for some other part for which it is
suitable.
Good quality steel which meets all the specifications for a given
piece of work may be spoiled as a result of uneven heating, incorrect
forging conditions such as, for instance, excessively high or low
final forging temperatures, or by the use of wrong forging
methods.
If a forging is not cooled uniformly, internal stresses will occur in
the metal, resulting in distortion of the forging or in cracks. An exces­
sively oxidising furnace atmosphere will result in the decarburi­
sation of the surface of the steel, and the lowering of its mechanical
properties; this fault is difficult to remedy. If this occurs such alloy
steel forgings should be used for parts not exposed to severe duty
conditions. The chief defects mentioned above may be divided
into two groups', a) irremovable defects and b) defects whose
harmful influence can be partially or completely removed. Irre­
movable defects include: deep cracks, tears, cavities, burnt
metal, and decarburisation. Removable defects include: shallow
cracks, overheating, coarse-grained structure, internal stresses and
distortion.
Defects in hammer forgings or stampings can be remedied as fol­
lows:
1. Shallow cracks and cavities can be removed by chipping out of
the cold forging with pneumatic chisels or with hot sets during the
forging process.
2. Surface cracks and decarburised areas are removed from impor­
tant forgings by grinding on special machines.
3. Distorted forgings are straightened in presses.
4. The mechanical properties of the steel can be improved and
internal stresses removed by annealing or normalising.
The chief defects which are met with in forgings are the
following.
Cracks. Longitudinal and transverse cracks are the most common
forging defects. Their occurrence may be due to: a) bad quality of the
ingot; b) improper heating; c) forging at low temperatures; d) incor­
rect cooling of alloy steel forgings; e) employment of incorrect forg­
ing methods.
Cracks which occur during forging must be removed with hot sets
while the forging is still hot; this is cheaper than chiselling the cracks
out of a cold forging. Cracks are cut out of hot forgings as follows.
The hot set is put on the forging and forced into the metal slightly
372 Heat Treatment, Defects and Inspection of Forgings

above the place where the crack has been discovered; then the forging
is turned round slightly and the crack cut out by striking the hot set
lightly with the hand or sledge-hammer.
Hair Cracks. These are very fine cracks not exceeding a fraction of
a millimetre in width. They can occur due to: a) defects in the metal
(ingot); b) too rapid cooling of the forging.
Slags, Sand and Porosity. Slags, sand and porosity, occurring either
on the surface of, or inside the forging, may be due to defects in the
ingot or to incomplete discard of the ingot head.
Honeycombs and Cavities. Honeycombs and cavities may occur
when forging round work under flat dies if the work was drawn out
to a round section without being previously forged down to a square
section.
Tears. Tears are the result of: a) forging at low temperatures du­
ring the cogging of the ingot; b) bad quality of the ingot; c) burning
as a result of incorrect heating.
Pitting. Pitting is due to the incomplete cleaning of dies from
scale, which is then forced into the surface of the work during its
forging.
Laps. Laps are due either to careless work on the part of the black­
smith (excessive gripping of the work by the dies) or to forging with
dies which are not in proper condition (edges not rounded off).

DEFECTS IN FORGINGS DURING HOT STAMPING

Various defects may occur in the work duringjhot stamping.

Dimensions of Forgings Do Not Correspond to Those Specified
in the Drawing. It should never be supposed that forgings made with
the same set of dies will always be exact copies of each other and that
their dimensions will be strictly in accordance with those specified
in the drawing. Actually, this is not so. Dies work under very severe
conditions (high temperature resulting from their contact with hot
metal, and heavy blows); in the process of their work, they constant­
ly get out of adjustment and rapidly wear out, thereby losing their
original dimensions.
If a forging gets stuck in the finish impression of a die, this is an
indication that the die is worn out. Worn dies result in forgings of
greatly increased dimensions, with machining allowances of double
and even triple the specified values. In order to check the condition
and wear of a die, and also for checking dies after repairs, the work
must be examined, measured and weighed systematically after mak­
ing a definite number of forgings.
Die Shift. In the process of operation, dies very often get out of
adjustment. The bottom die must always be installed so as to be per-
 Defects in Forgings during Hot Stamping 373

fectly rigid; it must bo secured without linings; and the adjustment

will then consist only in matching the top and bottom dies. After
they have been properly matched and suitably adjusted, a trial forg­
ing is made.
After checking the forging, the inspector and foreman must report
as to the fitness of the trial forging, and only after it has been pro­
nounced as being in order and they have given their permission, can
the smith proceed to forge the entiro lot. But, however perfectly the
dies may be installed and secured, they will get out of adjustment
as a result of vibrations duo to impacts during the process of
work.
Forging with shifted, or mismatched, dies will always lead to mis­
alignment of the forging (Fig. 289). This is easy to ascertain before
the work has been trimmed and the flash cut off. If such a forging is
looked at in the direction of the plane of the flash, it can easily be
seen that one half of the forging is displaced (shifted) relative to
the other. A forging with die shift visible to the eye must be reject­
ed as spoilage. For this reason, the drop forge operator must always
chock his work from time to time for die shift, and tighten up the
wedges before they get loose. Should
any die shift be observed, work must
be stopped and the dies readjusted.
Incomplete Filling of Dies. The
dimensions of forgings which do
not completely fill their dies (Fig.
290) will never correspond to those
specified in the drawing; usually
such forgings are rejected as spoil­
age. Incomplete filling of dies is
the result either of an insufficient
number of blows during forging or
of forging the stock at too low a
temperature, when it has partially

Fig. 289. Misalignment of a drop- Fig. 290. Incomplete filling of die

forged gear blank:
/ —a x is of top h alf of gear blank; *—a x is
of bottom h a lf of gear blank; 3 —die par­
tin g line
374 Heat Treatment, Defects and Inspection of Forgings

lost its plasticity, thereby failing to fill the impressions of the

dies.
Cold Shuts, or Laps. Cold shuts result from an improper flow of the
metal, and consequent incorrect filling of the die. The occurrence of
cold shuts on a large scale is due to incorrect die design, when the
preliminary and rough impressions do not conform to the finishing
impression; this, in turn, results in the improper flow of the metal,
leading to the formation of cold shuts. They can also result from the
improper insertion of the rough forging into the finishing impression
of the dies. In this case, cold shuts will be accompanied by excess
flash around the entire contour of the forging.
Pitted Surface. Pits are surface depressions formed on a forging by
scale left on the dies during the forging operations if they are not
properly cleaned. The scale accumulated in the impressions of the
die is forced into the hot, plastic stock, thus forming deep cavities,
or pits. Such pitted forgings must be rejected, as black spots will be
left on the forging after machining. Pitting can be avoided by blow­
ing over the forging and the impressions of the die with hot air
before commencing forging.
Dents. Dents are the result of careless work: 1) when the stock is
incorrectly inserted in the die, before making the final blow; 2) when
the forging sticks in the top die and falls out of it at the moment of
impact; 3) when hot forgings are thrown from place to place; and
4) when forgings are trimmed in badly adjusted trimming dies.

INSPECTION AND ACCEPTANCE OF FORGINGS

All finished forgings are inspected for quality. The aim of quality
inspection is to ascertain whether the strength of the forging meets
the conditions for which it is designed.
Inspection consists of the following operations:
1. Visual examination of the surface of the forging for complete
filling of the dies, cracks, hair seams, tears, cold shuts, blebs,
etc.
2. Checking the dimensions of the finished product. This is done
by checking the dimensions of the forging with measuring instru­
ments and comparing them with those specified in the drawing.
The results of this check will determine if, after machining, the
forging will yield a finished product meeting the customer’s
specifications.
3. Testing the mechanical and physical properties of the forging.
This is done in laboratories on special test specimens. These speci­
mens are cut from special sample allowances provided on the forging,
which are left or cut out at those places where the part will be sub-
 Inspection and Acceptance of Forgings 375

jected to the severest duty, or where the' quality of the metal is known
to he the lowest (for instance, when forging from ingots, the sample
is taken from that part forged from the head discard of the
ingot).
4. Hardness tests are performed on the surface of the work; for this
purpose, the work is cleaned with an emery wheel at the spot where
it is to be tested for hardness. These tests are made on special hard­
ness testing machines, previously described. In addition to the above
quality tests, test specimens of important forgings are subjected to
macro- and micro-structural analysis, for which special micro-sec­
tions are made.
 CHAPTER XVI

ORGANISATION OF WORK AND OF THE WORKING PLACE

RATIONAL UTILISATION OF FORGING EQUIPMENT

Whenever a new order for the production of forgings is received

in a forging shop, the question arises and has to be decided, which
is the best type of hammer, press or forging machine to employ for
the manufacture of the given forgings.
A forging process chart is first drawn up; it specifies the method of
production, and the equipment and tools with which the forging is
to be made. But every blacksmith should understand the reason for
selecting any given method and equipment for the production of a
given forging. This is necessary so that he may be able to improve
the technological process, increase his labour productivity, and to
strive to lower the cost price of the forgings.
The choice of a forging method, and the selection of forging equip­
ment will depend on the quantity of forgings to be made and on their
cross-section. If the quantity is comparatively small, and it is not
expected that the order will be repeated, then it will be most profita­
ble to make them by the hammer, or smith forging, method in a steam
hammer or in a forge press. If, on the other hand, the order calls
for a considerable quantity of duplicate forgings, and it is expected
that order will be repeated at a later date, it. is more advisable to
produce them by stamping in a drop-forging hammer, or press, or
by upsetting in a forging machine.
The required capacity of the forging equipment depends on the
cross-section of a forging. The correct choice of forging equipment
is highly important. If the forging hammer or press is not sufficiently
powerful, the production of the forging will take much time, entail­
ing extra heatings and consumption of fuel and, consequently, in­
creased expense. Moreover, the work produced in such hammers or
presses will never be thoroughly forged throughout its entire cross-
section, and such forgings will have low mechanical prbperties. On
the other hand, forging units of too high a capacity should never be
selected, as they will also increase the cost of the forging.
Increasing the Productivity of Forging Equipment. Every hammer
press and forging machine manufacturing plant always indicates the
productivity (or capacity) of its machines, i. e., the quantity of work,
 Rational Utilisation of Forging Equipment 377

in units of weight or in pieces, which the given equipment can pro­

duce per unit of time—for instance, per hour. Constant maintenance
of equipment (hammers, presses, furnaces, etc.), and timely repairs,
though this cannot completely do away with the need for capital re­
pairs, will nevertheless reduce their frequency, and, therefore, re­
duce idle time.
The quality and dimensions of the stock likewise play a very im­
portant role in increasing productivity. The better the quality of the
stock, the less the spoilage will be. Working with stock the dimen­
sions of which are out of proportion to those of the finished forging
will entail extra operations which might otherwise have been avoid­
ed. For instance, a piece of stock which is disproportionally thick
will entail an extra drawing-out operation. Making forgings from long
billets or blooms will entail cropping’ends, which might be avoided
by using a piece of stock of the proper length. The employment of
various fixtures, devices and tools designed for lightening opera­
tions, and the drafting of rational technological processes, arc also of
paramount importance.
The forging of metals has from ancient times been considered as
an arduous physical labour and, at the same time, as an art. And it
is true that working with material heated to high temperatures and
the necessity of giving this material a high degree of deformation in
the exceedingly short period during which it retains its plasticity,
demand a great effort of physical strength and high skill.
At present, the character and scope of modern forging production
demand, with increasing persistence, the simplification and light­
ening of hand forging methods and, in particular, the transition from
hammer forging production to die-forging. Wherever, for whatever
reason, this Transition is not yet advisable, it is necessary to lighten
hammer forging by mechanising arduous hand operations—by the
use of various devices and by executing at least some of the forging
operations in dies of the simplest design.
Some of the principal measures by which progressive forging oper­
ators simplify and increase the speed of their work, are: 1) making
convenient hand tools; 2) using fixtures and devices which lighten
forging operations on heavy stock; 3) using fixtures which help to
combine several hand forging operations into one; 4) using special
tools for each operation (fullers, spreaders, sets, extensions, etc.)
instead of universal hand forging tools; 5) using simple fixtures and
devices which can be substituted for dies; 6) redesigning tools so as
to make hand forging operations easier; 7) making dies for small
batches of duplicate hand forgings; 8) using fixtures and devices
for mechanising hand operations; 9) reducing auxiliary time by
employing fixtures for the simultaneous production of several
forgings.
378 Organisation of Work and of the Working Place

Increasing the Productivity of Furnaces. In forging practice, con­

siderable time is frequently lost in waiting for the metal to reach the
required temperature. This results in a considerable reduction of the
productivity of the forging hammer or press. Idle time can be par­
tially or completely done away with by: 1) replacing existing furnaces
by new furnaces of higher productivity, or by installing extra fur­
naces; 2) introducing measures for increasing the productivity of the
existing furnaces.
Sometimes local conditions, economic and other considerations
make it inadvisable to install an extra furnace or to remodel
existing furnaces.
Measures for increasing furnace productivity include: 1) utilising
the heat of the flue gases to heat the metal in the pre-heating chamber
of the furnace, thereby speeding up the heating rate and increasing
the efficiency of the furnace; 2) reducing the time required to bring
the stock to forging temperature by locating it on the furnace hearth
so as to ensure the best conditions for exposing its surface to the heat
of the hot furnace gases, and 3) rational charging of the furnaces with
stock.
The best furnace charging method is to charge a cold piece of stock
into the furnace at the same time as an already heated piece of stock
is being discharged from the furnace. This method is recommended
for heating all stock, with the exception of heating stock for small
forgings, when the forging or stamping process is very rapid, and the
furnace operator cannot deliver heated stock to the hammer or press
and, at the same time, charge new stock into the furnace; in such
cases, the hammer or press will be forced to stand idle.
In these cases, the stock should be charged into the furnace in
batches. The quantity of stock per batch will depend on the heating
time and the duration of the hammor or press operation per forging.

THE BLACKSMITH’S WORKING PLACE

The working place of any blacksmith comprises the area of the forge
shop directly adjacent to and surrounding the forging unit (ham­
mer or press) at which he works. Correct organisation of the working
place is of great importance in improving the labour produc­
tivity.
When organising the working place, the following chief rule must
be always strictly observed: there should be nothing in the working
place not needed dining work; on the other hand, everything which
is needed for work must be at hand. The basic equipment (hammer,
furnace) as well as all auxiliary equipment (cranes, table, tool horse,
etc.) must be so located as to obviate all unnecessary movements
on the part of the blacksmith.
 The Blacksmith's Working Place 379

Fig 291 shows the scheme of the organisation of the working place
of G. Kovalenko’s crew at the smith hammer in the forge shop of the
Uralmash Works; this can serve as an example of a correct, well
thought-out organisation of a blacksmith’s working place.
However, it should not be supposed that it is absolutely necessary
to locate the equipment as shown in Fig. 291 in every case. Many
other methods are possible and are practised for laying-out the
working place, depending on the type of equipment and the

i---------- 1
I 5 l

lD ." " " 1 ED

m

1—hammer; 2—bracket crane; 3—furnace; 4—scale box;

6— storage for h eavy tools; e—cabinet Tor lig h t tools;
7 — b ox for croppings; S —water tank; 9 -h a m m e r opera­
tor’s station; 1 0 —blow er fan; i f —table for m easuring
Instruments; 12— Inspector's table; i d —area for cooling
forginrs

kind of forgings to he made. Only the fundamental rule should always

be borne in mind: it is imperative to ensure convenient and safe
working conditions for the blacksmith and his crew.
The working place should always be well illuminated; exhaust
hoods must be installed above each furnace, and all dangerous places
must he protected by wire netting, etc.; in other words, the work­
ing place must meet all the requirements of the accepted safety en­
gineering code.
All working tools and devices must be kept at every working place
in such a way as to ensure their convenient handling and, moreover,
to ensure free access to them at any tim e for examination and inspec­
tion. Tools which are in bad condition should never he kept together
with those in good condition.
380 Organisation oj Work and of the Working Place

Blacksmiths never work without a crew of helpers. The composi­

tion of the crew always depends on the type of the hammer on which
the blacksmith works, and the character of his work. As a rule, the
crew should always consist of the same men. The blacksmith is the
head of the crew, and his duties not only consist in carrying out his
own work—he must also supervise the work of each member of his
crew. He must always remember that ho is entrusted with expensive
and complicated equipment. And on his proper work depends the
good condition of the equipment, the safety of the work, the ful­
filment and overfulfilment of his task and, consequently, the wages
of each member of the crew.
How, then, should a blacksmith work during the entire shift?
On his arrival at the shop, he must, before commencing work, take
over his working place clean and in perfect order from the previous
shift, check the equipment and tools and, in case of any defects, im­
mediately report them to the foreman. This done, he must got the
task and the work sheet from his foreman and explain the work to
be done to each member of his crew. Before commencing work, the
blacksmith must count the pieces of stock and see that they arc in
proper condition for forging. As a rule, the previous shift must deliv­
er the stock to the blacksmith’s working place and charge the fur­
nace with a sufficient number of pieces of stock to ensure that they
are at the correct forging temperature by the time work is begun.
The blacksmith then stations each member of his crew in his proper
working place. And only after this does he give the order to the fur­
nace operator to take out the stock from the furnace and place it on
the anvil.
At the end of his shift, the blacksmith must put his working place
in order and hand it over to the next shift. He may not leave the shop
before the arrival of his relief and beforo handing^his working place
over to him. Should his relief fail to come to work (for*instance, in
case of sickness) the blacksmith may leave the shop only with the
permission of his foreman.

RATE SETTING

So far the technology of forging practice has been discussed, with­

out considering the question of how much time a blacksmith should
take for making a definite forging.
How, then, can the quantity of forgings a blacksmith should pro­
duce per unit of time—say, per hour or per shift—be determined?
This question is solved by what is called rate setting. Rate setting
determines the time needed for a worker to execute a given piece
of work so as to ensure its meeting all the engineering specifica­
tions.
 Rate Setting 381

Rate setting promotes: 1) increasing the productivity of labour;

2) reducing the cost of production, and 3) efficient planning of
production.
Rate setting establishes tim e s ta n d a r d s and p r o d u c t i o n s t a n d a r d s .
By a time standard is understood the amount of working time neces­
sary, under definite production conditions, for a worker of a given
trade and of the proper grade of skill, working under correct condi­
tions of labour organisation, to produce one unit of good-quality prod­
uction. In the forging trade, the time standard is usually set for
an entire crew. The time standard for a blacksmith's crew will be the
sum of the lime standards of all the members of the crow per unit of
production. For instance, suppose that a definite job is to be executed
by a crew of two men—by a blacksmith and a striker; and that this
crew spends 0.5 hour for forging one bolt. According to what has al-
05
ready been said, each man will spend -^ -= 0.25 man-hour in forg­
ing one bolt.
The production standard is that amount of good-quality production
(forgings, in this case) which should be produced per unit of time (per
hour, or per shift) by a worker of the proper skill, with the given
tools, under conditions of correct organisation of work. And it is
necessary to distinguish between the production standard for one
worker (blacksmith, blacksmith’s striker) and the production stand­
ard for the entire crew.
The production standard for a blacksmith’s crewTis the quantity of
production (forgings) which should be produced per unit of time (per
hour, per shift) by the entire crew.
In order to calculate the shift production standard of the entire
blacksmith’s crew from the given time standard, the total working
time of the entire crew must be divided by the time standard. For
instance, suppose that the time standard for forging one shaft is
2 man-hours. The shaft is forged by a crew consisting of one black­
smith and two helpers. First of all, the number of shafts which the
crew should forge in an eight-hour shift in order to fulfil its task by.
100 per cent is calculated. The total working time of a blacksmith’s
crew during one shift will be 3 x 8 = 2 4 man-hours. The time standard
for one shaft has been set at 2 man-hours; consequently, in 24 man­
hours, i. e., d u r i n g one shift, this blacksmith’s crew should forge
^ = 1 2 shafts to ensure the fulfilment of its task by 100 per cent.
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T e c h n o lo g ic a l P ro cess of F o rg in g B a ll-B e a rin g B in g

489
Old method of forging I Complex Technology
 CHART 3 (continued)

2 5 * - 480
 Technological Process

Old method of forging bolt

No Time re­
Description of operations Sketch of pass quired

Stock

1 Draw-out 80 mm au
illM '
I u u u u u2^/l §
::.:::I.
diameter stock to flat ...[Link]..iiilK y
SO
bar 50 x 80 mm; set with
side-set and crop off
surplus metal

2 Rough draw-out
central section of stock
and then swage to
48 mm diameter

3 Draw-out opposite
end of forging; smooth
out entire length of
shank to diameter 48 mm
in swage; swage head

Average total time — 10 minutes

How to ensure exoellent quality How to ensure efficient utilisation of

of produotlon equipment

1. Heat steel to temperature not less 1 . Conduct forging between centre

than 1,180° C; of dies
2. Before starting work, warm bot­ 2. Keep bottom die free from scale
tom swage to 150° C;
3. See that tne head of the cutting
tool is properly cleaned
of Forging Bolt CHART 4
Specifications: Weight of forging — 12.0 kg.
Material — steel grade Ct. 3

No Complex technology

reqnl-
Time
Description of operations Sketch of pass

red
Stock

Draw-out stock to bar °f

50x 80 mm cross-sec­
tion. Marking metal for
forming head, draw-
out centre of bar be­
tween top and bottom
dies

Draw-out opposite end,

swage to 48 mm diam­
eter. Stamp head of
bolt in special bottom
swage
Trim flash in special
bottom trimming die,
employing tapered set
for shaping head
Average total time—6 .5 minutes
Economy due to Introduction of Sketch of new
complex technology Tools and fixtures used fixture

1. Forging by new method elimi­ 1. Flat tongs, round Trimming die

nates operations of rough form­ tongs, 48 mm diam­
ing head, cropping off sur­ eter swage
plus metal and swaging head;
2. Quality of work is considerably 2. Bottom swage;
improved and uniform dimen­ trimming die
sions for all bolts are ensured; Taper set for trim-
3. Productivity of labour in­ 3. Taper set; hot set , boltming flash from
head
creased by 35 per cent;
4. Economy 1 kg of steel per bolt

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C H A R T 5 ( continued)

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 C H A P T E R XVII
SAFETY ENGINEERING

SAFETY ENGINEERING ON THE TERRITORY OF AN ENTERPRISE

In order to ensure safety during work and reduce industrial acci­

dents to a minimum, it is necessary: a) to organise the production proc­
esses properly; b) to organise each working place rationally; and
c) to observe strictly all labour safety laws and all safety engineering
rules and regulations during work.
The most important safety rule is never to begin work on any equip­
ment unless it is known how it operates. Before proceeding to execute
a new operation, or before commencing to work on a'machine or equip­
ment which has not been previously operated, the worker must al­
ways be instructed in the methods of safe operation and in the rules
and regulations for operating the machine or equipment. It must
always be remembered that the chief danger is not in the hammer,
hearth, furnace or other equipment as such, but in its unskilled or
careless handling and operation.
Each forge shop is but one of many production departments of a
plant and, as such, has communications (transport, water and power
supplies, etc.) with other departments and services of the plant. There­
fore, every blacksmith must know the safety rules, not only of his
own department, but also those observed everywhere in the plant in
which he is employed. The chief rules which every worker of every
plant must observe are the following:
1. Never cross a railway track when the barrier is down or when the
approach of a train has been signalled. Barriers are installed where
railway tracks and roads cross to close the road to pedestrians before
the passage of trains, locomotives or automobile traffic. In addition
to barriers, sound or light signals are installed to warn pedestrians
of approaching traffic.
2. The factory area must be level, without any ditches, etc. Many
installations, however, are always laid underground (sewerage lines,
water, steam and power mains, etc.). These installations are regularly
examined, cleaned and repaired; for this purpose it may be necessary
to dig deep pits or trenches, and to prevent the possibility of people
accidentally falling into them; they are generally surrounded by bar­
riers, bearing warnings as, for instanco, “No thoroughfare”. Never
climb over such barriers or even cross places bearing such warnings.
 First Aid in Case of Accidents 399

3. As a rule, the territory of the plant should be illuminated at night.

It does happen, however, that the lights in some sections of the ter­
ritory may be temporarily cut off (due to repairs of the mains, or the
failure of a light, etc.). When walking through darkened sections, be
very careful. It is better to find a path which is illuminated than to
walk along darkened sections.
4. Every plant has certain premises and departments, admittance
to which is strictly forbidden to unauthorised perspns (these include
electric power sub-stations, compressor stations, etc.). Never enter
any premises bearing the sign “No admittance” without special
permission from the plant or department management. A work­
er of the forge department may not enter any other departments
of his plant (such as, for instance,the machine shop) if he has no busi­
ness there, and without the permission of the department or plant
administration. As workers of the forge department are unacquainted
with the features of the work and safety rules of other departments,
they will only be placing themselves in danger by visiting such de­
partments without permission.
5. As a rule, smoking is prohibited on the territory of most enter­
prises; special rooms or areas are allotted for smoking. Non-observance
of smoking regulations may lead to fires, and smoking in places where
highly inflammable substances, such as petrol, are stored may cause
explosions leading]to the death, not only of smokers themselves,
but of many other workers not to mention the considerable damage
which the state may suffer.
6. Loading and unloading operations are carried out in definite
places on the factory territory; they are usually executed with the
aid of cranes and other mechanisms. Special care must be observed in
such places. To avoid accidents, never stand under any suspended load.
These are only a few of the rules which every worker must unfail­
ingly observe whenever he is on the territory of any plant.
Each factory has its own safety rules and regulations which differ to
some extent from those of other factories; for this reason, every work­
er, in addition to observing the above-mentioned six general rules,
must also observe all other safety rules and regulations of the factory
where he works.

FIRST AID IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS.

MEDICAL AND SANITARY SERVICE

In case of accident, the victim must always immediately go to the

first-aid station if the injury is slight or, if it is serious, his fellow-
workers must see that he is taken there. If this cannot be done for
any reason, a doctor or nurse must be immediately called. First aid.
 400 Safety Engineering

however, must be given in any case. Every worker must know how to
help himself or others in case of accident.
Dressings. Every wound, however slight, must be kept particular­
ly clean in order to prevent blood poisoning. If a worker has been
wounded, take one of the individual first-aid packets from the medi­
cine chest in the shop, remove a bandage and dress his wound with­
out the loss of any time. In case of severe bleeding, place an extra
pad above the wound and tightly bandage it with a towel or handker­
chief. Never wash a wound with water.
Bruises. In case of slight external bruises, place a cold-water com­
press on the bruised spot, and give the bruised limb or part of the body
as much rest as possible. If the bruise is severe, and internal organs
of the body are affected, the victim must be carefully placed on a
stretcher or a bed, after loosening or removing all tight clothes, and
the doctor must be sent for as quickly as possible. Place cold com­
presses on the bruise until the doctor arrives.
Fractured Bones. Should a leg be broken, place the victim on a
stretcher or on the ground and bandage the fracture with splints made
of boards, cardboard and the like. Such a dressing will prevent the
ends of fractured bone from shifting and will ease the pain. Broken
arms should be bandaged in the same way, but there is no need to put
the victim on a stretcher.
Injuries to the Eyes. Never rub your eye if a particle of dust, filing,
chip of metal, etc., has fallen into it. If you cannot take it out of
your eye yourself, go to the doctor immediately.
Electric Shocks. The first thing to do when anyone has suffered an
electric shock, is to cut off the current either with the switch, or by
cutting the electric wires with a dry wooden-handled tool, such
as an axe. The person doing this must be well-insulated from the
ground, otherwise he too may suffer an electric shock. For this rea­
son, never stand on bare, and, especially, on wet soil when doing
this. Always put on rubber galoshes and rubber gloves; if these are
not readily available, stand on a stone or on a dry board. Only after
the victim has been released from the current can first aid be applied
to him.
If the victim is unconscious, place him on his back, loosen all his
clothes, open all the doors and windows and send for the doctor im­
mediately. Meanwhile, until ihe doctor arrives, artificial breathing
may be resorted to. Artificial breathing is applied to the victims of
electric shock not only when they display signs of life, but also when
they display no signs of life whatsoever. This is necessary, because, in
the majority of cases, what may appear as death from electric shock
is only a deep faint.
Burns. Place a sodium bicarbonate conipress (one table spoon full
of soda per glass of water) on the burn or bathe it with a lead lotion.
 First Aid in Case of Accidents 401

If neither sodium bicarbonate nor lead lotion are available, dress

the burn with a clean bandage and apply immediately to the first-aid
station.
Heat Stroke. Heat strokes may occur if the body is severely over­
heated. The victim shows signs of fainting, his pulse weakens and,
in some cases, convulsions appear.
In cases of heat stroke, remove the victim to a cool place, loosen
his clothes, sprinkle his chest and face with cold water and place cold
compresses on his body. If he does not breathe, resort to artificial
breathing and send to the first-aid station immediately for a doctor
or a nurse.
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 Difference between m axi­
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41-80
m eters Dlf Da, D „ and D4
of section (step) under con­
sideration D0-D ,; D,; D ,
and D4

1
Additional allowances

Stepped Forgings of Round and Square Cross-Section (all dim ensions in mm)
oo S „ S a, St, St

over 250
over 250

See Appendix 3 for Explanation of Symbols of Sketch of Forging

up to 50

up to 50
181-250
121-180
181-250
121-180

81-120
51-80
81-120
51-80

D iam eters under consid­

eration D ,, Dlt D s, D4

When ratio l "

to
Is equal to or less than
value specified In th is col­
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wances St, S „ S s and St
to to rfs os eo »N M. tOtfc«Q for diam eters D ,, D „ D s,
o o o o o o OOUlW OO and D A respectively; If this
ratio Is greater th an value
specified In this column —
add additional allowance
to diam eter D0

Difference between m axi­

121-180

00 00 mum diam eter D„ and d ia­

1 m eters D t , Da, D „ and D,
to of section (step) under con-,
o sideratlon D 0-D, ; Da; D,
and Dt

o 00 05 A dditional allowances
S 4, &a, Sg, St
over 250
over 180

up to 80
over 1 2 0
up to 80

up to 50
181-250
121-180

121-180
81-120
81-120

81-120
51-80

Diameters under consid­

eration D |, DJt Dg, D t

When ratio
to
is equal to or less than
value specified in th is col­
um n, add additional allow­
2.50
3.25
4.00

ances S lt S a, S s and S4
1.75

1.70
3.40
2.55

1.50

2 .0 0

3.50
2 .0 0

1.40

2.60

for diam eters D „ Da, D .,

and D 4 respectively; If this
ratio is greater th an value
specified In th is column —
add additional allowance
to diam eter D0
I
 " ; for length I, take
^i ©
50 Nj ©
0C0400 c 8 oo 8 8
0)
oca
1 •"*
00 "0 m 9
Ol TO 8 r*» 8 - 8 co
jq
A, c
o
*O

Notea: i. The dimensions D 0, Dt , i,, Zf , Z#, i4 are given with allowances specified In Appendices 3 and 4.
~«\n ".3
u 19 i0
a oM 00 8 8 o
s 3"
o

0
0 c c

d
o
0a0 LO m

4. For square section forgings, take lengths of opposite sides of squares Instead of diameter
*0 8 8 .a
o C csj o
O a "Ho
oao -4C-Q
» & 9
4) fa io o O .5 8
0
« s00°oj S |0 ho 8 a4A
203 fa ^
9 o •*■1
C
oo (S
10 o

d on
^ oo

! 45
A fa bE 10 8 I'- p
o .2 pp
•a 'be HJ
8. c In -2
? o _ a
4G4 "•*50 «*1 c 8 10 bo0)
cn *4 «N §N 8 CD fa +* ca
G c .2 o n
-a
«
C 0 M Pi
W • S I 10 £ .2« o> pp
h> J«© 10 fa
o <N^ a ~ 4 * CO •40 g 10 CO (M

3. Appendix 5 refers to forgings with square or round steps.

c 5 «
fa CJ o >■*■44 o
cGs «NN cC
o
■®
** u '-N^
01
*■ O IN 10
C v 3 M• - 8 8 ' -* In
co
*s *0 N P<
tfi c_,
* M
2. Appendix 5 refers only to drawn-out forgings.
o> fa
o ^ o
Io n9 —10 o
«*
a 004* .2 0 CO 8 i~ m 8
•■*4
-0
to V
_rt n—
% ~ 3 CO «
•a
s fa On ® o m NbNe-g
«
■—
0 «
44 ©
I'- 00 <0 CO S3 f 'w o
CJI CO 9
« 9‘
& o
length of opposite side of square.
E
a n o 4o^
fa
—I O
CDt- « 10 CM ° 9 § 8 •CNO
o >0
N •pa4 o
K a .
I C9 s
-THO 00
CM
mco 8 a s 8

bo
in o 10 •9p4
•«tA 8 CM >
1* CO
a c pd
K 0)
0 m o oM
C
as p«* a 8 ua
0 9 2
a 5 o
IN *_>
K 0C^O0
oc co 8 *0
0 . 8^
44 s
2 c §8
in CO T3 i s
9-g B "0 fc g
9£ c
fa >2 W.5
 APPEN DIX 6
Maximum Length l'0 of End Shoulder (Flange) and Width l Qof Collar Formed on Forgings (all dimensions in mm

Notes: 1. Appendix 8 refers to drawn-out forgings only.

2. Jf the length of the end shoulder (flange) or of the width of the collar is less than that lndloated In Appendix 6 ,
It is to be increased by an additional allowance in the direction of the adjacent section until it reaohes the
corresponding length specified in the appendix.
3. Appendix 6 also refers to square section forgings; in this case, take lengths of opposite sides of square instead
K 01 O P lA o O 1 fa •?
4) O C
^ -o O^t^tA^CM e
00CD C o T3
ci™ cO4> a
— fa 4>

1
§ a) <a c
O O O J5(flO

1 251-
J=- P

| 2S0
iA«9C0w«O0) —1*»
o - £
Oi “ S s
ft. *0 T3 3
c iA O O O O O O « er
■a— «

221 -
co ooesi ^ cs oo

25 0
^ 6 •a j _
eo « n ^
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iA O O O O O O **5 S

20 1 -
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220
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a 04
a B ZSS
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a O O O 'f i 'f l O O O g a 4) a
181-

W ^ooaooci-cD g ^^3 a
200
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o a> O pO O iniA O O iA
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aD to i o C O O iA O O iA O O A
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fa 4) „ OQ)Cj
fa CO
hAOtAiAOcAOOO^AO
bo HO
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be
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to 9) 0) - O
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 A P P E N D IX 8
Allowances and Tolerances for Forgings — Cylinders, Discs, Bars,
Plates — Solid or w ith Holes (aU dimensions in' mm)

Allowances a, b, and c and tolerances

On diameter of hole d
Height of Diameter D
forging, H or dimension On height On dimen­ For difference D-d or A-d
A H sions, D,
A and B
50-120 121-300 3 01 and over;

Up to 50 7± 2 7±2
51-80 7±2 8 ± 2
81-120 7± 2 0± 2 14±2
121-180 7± 2 10±2 15±2
Up to 50 181-250 o+2 1611 17±3
0—3 “ -I
251-360 Q+ 2 13±4 19±4
—3
360-500 10±3 15±5 21 ± 5 22±5

Up to 50 7± 2 7± 2
51-30 8 £ 2 8 ± 2
51-80 81-120 8 ± 2 10±2 15±2
121-180 8 ± 2 m i 161!

181-250 q+ 2 12l? 17+1 18+!

—3
251-360 11±3 14 ± 4 20±4
361-500 12±4 16±5 22±5 23 ± 5
501-630 14±5 19±7 25±7 26±7

9±2 9±2 - —
Up to 80
81-120 11±3 11±3 16±3 — —
121-180 U ±3 12±3 17±3 — —
80-120 181-250 12U 14+2 2015 —
251-360 •13±4 16±4 — 20±4 —

361-500 13±4 18±5 — 24 ± 5 25±5

501-630 16±6 20±7 26±7 27 ± 7
 A P P E N D I X 8 (c o n tin u e d )

Allowances a, b and e and tolerances

D iam eter D On d lam eter4 o f hole d
H e ig h t of
forging, B or dim ension On h eig h t On dim en­
A sions D, A, •< F or difference D-d or A-d
B
and B
50-120 121-300 301 and over

Up to 120 12+3 12 ±3 17+3

121-180 13+4 13+4 18+4 — —

181-250 14+5 16+5 21 ± 5 22+5 — ^ *

121-180 251-360 15±5 18+5 — 24±5 —

631-500 15±5 20+6 — 26+6 27 ± 6

501-360 17+6 22±8 — 28±8 29+8

Up to 180 14±5 14+5 19±5 _ M M

181-250 17+6 17+6 22 ±6 23 ±6 —

181-250 251-360 18+6 19+6 — 25+6 —
631-500 18+6 21 ± 7 — 27±7 28+7
501-360 *19+7 24+8 30+8 31+8

A P P E N D IX 9

Forging — Hollow Cylinders (all dimensions in mm)

Allowances a, b and c and deviations

On d iam eter of bole, d
H eig h t D iam eter D On height On outer
H diam eter For difference D-d
H n
JJ
u p to 60 | 61-130 | 131-180

60-120 60-120 14+5 14+4 17 + 4

121-180 60-180 17+6 16+5 19+5 20+5
181-250 120-250 19±6 18+6 22+6 22+6 23+6
251-360 180-250 22±8 23+7 26+7 27+8 28+8
251-360 24+10 23+7 26+7 27+8 28+8
361-530 250-360 27+10 25+9 28+9 29+9 30+9