Empathy

Richard D. Chessick, M.D.

 e-Book 2015 International Psychotherapy Institute

from Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism Richard D. Chessick, M.D.

Copyright © 1985 Richard D. Chessick, M.D.

All Rights Reserved

Created in the United States of America

Table of Contents
Approaches to Empathy before Kohut

Kohut on Empathy

Criticism of Self Psychology’s Emphasis on Empathy

Empathy and the Analytic Ambience

References
 Empathy
Does empathy have a healing power or is it simply a mode of
observation? If a person feels understood empathically by another

person, does this exert a healing effect? If so, how are we to describe

this healing effect metapsychologically?

Approaches to Empathy before Kohut

In a preliminary and experimental approach I (1965) likened

empathy to what Nacht (1962) called “a certain deep inner attitude” in

the therapist. When we take the position of another person, our

imagination moves from ourselves into the other person. We may

experience certain changes in our own muscles and actual physical

posture. To empathize does not mean that the individual must

experience physical sensations; empathy can be physical, imaginative,

or both. Fenichel (1945), quotes Reik, who maintained that empathy

consists of two acts, “a) an identification with the other person, and b)
an awareness of one’s own feelings after the identification, and in this

way an awareness of the object’s feelings” (p. 511).

Regardless of identifiable organic sensations, empathy connotes a

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 5

form of personal involvement and an evocation of feeling. Our
empathy is no less real if our bodies undergo no physical change and if
we move into the situation of the other person only in our fantasies.

I (1965) refer to the work of Katz (1963) who, along with Reik

(1949), presented some metapsychologically imprecise and intuitive

definitions and discussions of empathy. Katz discusses the fielding of

signals through a “kind of inner radar” which works from cues in the

conversation or impressions we receive. Reik (1949) explains that “in

order to comprehend the unconscious of another person, we must, at

least for a moment, change ourselves into and become that person. We

only comprehend the spirit whom we resemble” (p. 361).

Perhaps no other author before Kohut emphasized the

importance of empathy as much as Harry Stack Sullivan. He never

really defined the term but spoke of empathy developing through

“induction” and postulated that the tension of anxiety present in the

mothering one “induces” anxiety in the infant. The process by which

this induction takes place is referred to as a manifestation of an

interpersonal process that Sullivan called empathy. He (1953) also

introduced the term “empathic linkage,” meaning a situation in which

[Link] 6
two people are linked in such a way that one induces a feeling in the
other. Anticipating the objections to the concept of empathy, Sullivan

wrote:

I have had a good deal of trouble at times with people of a

certain type of educational history; since they cannot refer
empathy to vision, hearing, or some other special sensory
receptor, and since they do not know whether it is
transmitted by the ether waves or air waves or whatnot,
they find it hard to accept the idea of empathy, (p. 41)

Later, in a passage characteristic of his famous incisive irony, he

continues, “So although empathy may sound mysterious, remember

that there is much that sounds mysterious in the universe, only you

have gotten used to it; and perhaps you will get used to empathy” (pp.
41-42).

Fromm-Reichmann (1950) offered a dramatic clinical example of

the empathic process. She explained how “some empathic notion for

which I cannot give any account” made her turn back toward a patient

with consequences that later marked the beginning of successful

therapy of that patient. This example, like Sullivan’s definition, leaves

empathy as a rather mysterious intuitive process and demonstrates

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 7

empathy by the presence of a response in the therapist that can be
observed by the patient or by an observer. Fromm-

Reichmann (1950) insisted that empathy between the patient

and therapist is crucial to psychotherapy. Therapy, she says, should be

offered in the spirit of collaborative guidance, aimed at the solution of

difficulties in living and the cure of symptoms. She concludes, “The

success or failure of psychoanalytic psychotherapy is, in addition,

greatly dependent upon the question of whether or not there is

actually an empathic quality between the psychiatrist and the patient”

(p. 62).

All seem to agree that the use of empathy in psychotherapy calls

for a pendulum-like action alternating between subjective

involvement and objective detachment. Traditional analysts refer to

this as a regression in the service of the ego when it is used toward

specific goals. When the good empathizer regresses in the service of

the ego, that person engages in a playful kind of activity, inwardly

imitating events in the life of the patient. The activity is regressive only

in the sense that it calls for a relaxed and unstructured experience

associated with the fantasy of the child or the poetic license of the

[Link] 8
artist. The therapist must then be able to swing back to an objective
and detached relationship in order to make clinical use of the

information gained through the empathic process.

Long before Kohut, Fliess (1942) explained that the skill of the
therapist depends on the ability “to step into [the patient’s] shoes, and

to obtain in this way an inside knowledge that is almost first-hand. The

common name for such a procedure is empathy” (pp. 212-213). Levine

(1961) claimed that empathy, if handled correctly, leads to a type of
immediate comprehension of the patient’s problems, a comprehension

superior to the intellectual variety of understanding.

French and Fromm (1964) discussed “empathic thinking” in

dream interpretation, stressing “empathic understanding” as a direct

intuitive communication between the unconscious of the patient and

that of the therapist. The patient evokes in the therapist “an empathic

sense of what is going on” in the unconscious of the patient. Freud

(1912), in his comparison of the therapist’s unconscious as a

telephone receiver adjusted to the patient’s “transmitting

unconscious” implied a sort of resonance between the therapist’s

unconscious and that of the patient. This resonance enables the

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 9

 therapist to understand the language of the patient’s unconscious:

Just as the receiver converts back into sound-waves the

electric oscillations in the telephone line which were set up
by the sound waves, so the doctor’s unconscious is able,
from the derivatives of the unconscious which are
communicated to him, to reconstruct that unconscious,
which has determined the patient’s free associations, (p.
116)

French and Fromm (1964) point out that there must then occur a

translation from this empathic understanding into a language suitable

for scientific analysis. This translation is called “conceptual analysis”

by these authors, and thus we have again the pendulum-like action

described above.

FACTORS INTERFERING WITH EMPATHY

Empathy calls for flexibility and willingness to enter into new,

unprotected, and unexplored areas. Each patient has some unique

quality which calls for a personal and unprecedented appreciation.

The therapist must venture alone into the inner experience of another

person and can neither apply a label nor feel complacent about this
new understanding.

[Link] 10
 On a clinical basis it is the anxiety of the individual therapist, so

often disguised and unrecognized, which interferes with empathy

most of all. Greenson (I960) discusses the pathology that interferes

with empathy and the metapsychology of empathy. As Kohut (1971)

pointed out, an especially great characterological barrier to empathy is

formed by unanalyzed narcissism in the therapist, since the tendency

to experience others as self-objects precludes the recognition of their

individual personalities and points of view.

This interference may manifest itself in subtle forms, as in the

tendency of therapists to identify themselves with the fixed routines

and traditions of their profession. I have noted in consultations with

colleagues in practice years after their residency training a tendency to

become inflexible in their clinical approaches and procedures. The

therapist can become so absorbed in professional skills and

techniques that relationships with patients become depersonalized.

Often, the gestures of empathic communication are made, but the

reality and the freshness of the meeting are lost and in their place an
almost inevitable artificiality intrudes. When this occurs, it reflects a

lack of vigilance on the part of the therapist; he slips into a

comfortable and apparently efficient routine (Chessick 1985c).

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 11

ANTICIPATION OF KOHUT’S VIEWS

In my (1965, Chessick and Bassan 1968) early experimental work

on empathy it was already demonstrably clear that empathy had a

crucial role in understanding the patient. Those therapists who stress

insight use empathy primarily as a means of gaining knowledge of the

inner experiences and the unconscious processes of the patient. For

them, empathy involves an internal imaginative activity necessary in

interpreting the dynamics of the patient. Although such therapists

participate in the patient’s experience, what they share with the

patient is only the result of their own empathic activity translated into

interpretations. They believe that the patient’s self-insight cures the

patient.

Positive emotions spontaneously develop in the patient as a

response to empathy of the therapist, a universal and well-known

human phenomenon. Empathy is communicated to the patient either

by an intuitive behavior on the part of the therapist or by the

communication of insight which has been gained through the empathic

process. This is consistent with Kohut’s (1971) view that many

therapists in the past practiced as effectively as self-psychologists

[Link] 12
because they utilized their intuitive empathic skills. The purpose of

self-psychology is to specify these techniques and make them

teachable as a craft to all therapists. For example, Greenberg and

Mitchell (1983), in reviewing some case presentations by Jacobson,

point out that in spite of her different theoretical orientation, “some of

her technical procedures in fact sound remarkably like Kohut’s” (p.

324).

When the therapist engages in an empathic process with the

patient, a certain gratification is felt by the patient as she or he

becomes aware of the active empathizing going on in the therapist.

This is an especially important aspect in the therapy of borderline

patients since the empathic relationship can be a new experience in

the patient’s life, particularly in treating patients who have

experienced a great deal of emotional coldness in childhood.

Menninger (1958), anticipating Kohut’s later advocacy of

accepting the idealization of the patient, said that when there is

consistent empathy coming from the therapist it sometimes calls forth

in the patient a natural and realistic feeling of love or affection for the

therapist. He implied that acceptance of this love by the therapist,

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 13

 without trying to defend by ascribing it all to transference, may be an
important experience in the patient’s life.

A common clinical experience shows itself in patients who as

babies had a mother who tended to respond with panic to their

anxiety rather than with empathic calming. This sets off a “deleterious

chain of events” (Kohut 1984, p. 83) in which the mother may

chronically wall herself off from the baby, depriving the baby of the
beneficial effect of merging with her as she returns from experiencing
mild anxiety to calmness. She may continue to respond with panic

which causes either “a lifelong propensity toward the uncurbed

spreading of anxiety or other emotions” or forces the child to wall

itself off “from such an overly intense and thus traumatizing”

response, leading to an impoverished psyche and an inability to be

fully human.

Kohut on Empathy

Kohut (1984) posits three functions for empathy: it is the

indispensable tool of psychoanalytic fact finding; it expands the self to

include the other, constituting a powerful psychological bond between

[Link] 14
individuals in order to counteract man’s destructiveness against his
fellows; and it arises out of the self-object matrix, becoming the

accepting, confirming, and understanding human echo evoked by and

needed by the self as a psychological nutriment without which human

life could not be sustained. In this shift from his primary definition of
empathy as a mode of observation or psychoanalytic fact-finding to the
other functions of empathy Kohut caused the greatest controversy.

Kohut (1971) presents a discussion of the misuse of empathy.

The use of empathy in the observation of a nonpsychological field

“leads to a faulty, prerational, animistic perception of reality and is, in

general, the manifestation of a perceptual and cognitive infantilism”

(p. 300). Kohut distinguishes between empathy and intuition. He

defines intuitions as simply the same as any other reactions and

judgments of a rational sort except that they occur much faster. What

appears to be an intuitive grasp of a situation is really a speeded-up

series of rational decisions such as those one may observe when a

master chess player glances at the board and quickly sees the right
move. This process fundamentally differs from vicarious introspection

as a mode of observation.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 15

 Kohut (1971) claims that potential for empathic perception is

acquired early in life; empathic talent may arise paradoxially in the

same situation that can present a danger to the formation of the

nuclear self due to fear of archaic enmeshment with the parent. For
example, if the narcissistic parent considers the child as an extension

of the parent beyond the period in which such an attitude is

appropriate “or more intensively than is optimal, or with a distorted

selectivity of her relevant responses, then the child’s immature psychic

organization will become excessively attuned to the mother’s (or

father’s) psychological organization” (pp. 277-278). This may lead to a

sensitive psychological apparatus with unusually great ability for the

perception and elaboration of others’ psychological processes. This

skill may be employed later in a psychotherapeutic career, especially if

it is combined with a need to master “the threatening influx of stimuli

with an unusual growth of secondary processes aimed at

understanding the psychological data and bringing order to the

psychological material” (p. 280).

In his first book Kohut is aware that he will be compared with the

philosopher Dilthey (1833-1911). He objects to Dilthey’s view because

he claims that Dilthey changed empathy from limiting its role to a data

[Link] 16
 collecting process to using it to replace the explanatory phases of

scientific psychology. Kohut condemns this as “a deterioration of

scientific standards and a sentimentalizing regression to subjectivity,

i.e., a cognitive infantilism in the realm of man’s scientific activities”

(1971, p. 301).

EMPATHY AND SCIENCE

However, Dilthey’s name arises frequently in discussions of

Kohut. The project of formulating a methodology appropriate to the

human sciences was seen by Dilthey “in the context of a need to get

away from the reductionist and mechanistic perspective of the natural

sciences and to find an approach adequate to the fullness of the

phenomena,” writes Palmer (1969, p. 100). Philosophers such as

Nietzsche, Dilthey, and Bergson, according to Palmer (and I would add

the psychiatrist-philosopher Jaspers), were attempting to reach “the

experiential fullness of human existence in the world” (p. 101). Dilthey

saw a fundamental distinction between all human studies and the

natural sciences. This does not mean he attempted a return to some

mystical ground or source for all life, but he hoped to achieve fullness

of life through empathy, getting in touch with another’s human

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 17

experience from within ourselves. This constituted a methodology for

Dilthey fairly similar to Kohut’s insistence that empathy or vicarious

introspection was the indispensable method of psychoanalytic fact

finding. Of course for Dilthey it was described in a more philosophical

and poetic fashion. Subsequent philosophers have pointed out that his

sharp distinction between the natural and the human sciences is a

nineteenth-century notion that can no longer be defended, because the

basic premises of the natural sciences also rest on human foundations

that can only be grasped empathically (Chessick 1980b).

A brief discussion of the current scientific status of empathy is

presented by Goldberg (1983a). He points out that there is a division

in the psychoanalytic literature on the role of empathy in

psychoanalysis. One view, although agreeing that empathy may be

desirable, sees it as a relatively rare and unreliable phenomenon,

fraught with the dangers of error due to countertransference. The

other sharply contrasting view sees empathy as a common and

universal mode of communication between people. It distinguishes

between two ways of knowing: “direct, outward, public observation or

extraception, and inward, private observation or introspection. The

combination of introspection and putting oneself in another’s place is

[Link] 18
empathy” (p. 156). Even in this brief review Goldberg mentions

Dilthey and his concept of a sympathetic insight into another person,

allowing one to build up a picture of that person’s life and to

understand that individual’s experience.

Hartmann (1927) at an early date objected strongly to this

approach in psychoanalytic work and claimed that it was unscientific

and unreliable. The situation was improved by Kohut’s (1978)

definition in 1959 of empathy as vicarious introspection, which gave

us a working definition for empathy as a method for finding out about

another person’s inner life and made it possible to guard against the

abuse of empathy. Like any scientific investigation, vicarious

introspection must not be unnecessarily biased, and it must be subject

to verifiability by further uses of the method, remaining alert to the

effects of our own observations and interventions. Goldberg (1983a)

concludes that “empathy seems to have a therapeutic effect when it is

sustained” (p. 168) and he concurs with Kohut’s placing of empathy

into a central position in psychoanalysis.

The entire subject of the role of empathy within the

psychoanalytic situation as conceived by various authors is reviewed

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 19

 by Levy (1985). He complains of the “multiple and different meanings”
(p. 369) Kohut gave to empathy. He warns of the transference

gratifications involved in Kohut’s positing a therapeutic factor of major

import besides the analyst’s interpretations, as was also suggested in

Loewald’s (1980, chap. 14) paper, part of which was published in

1960, describing the analyst as a potentially new object for the patient
in addition to his or her interpretive function. Loewald’s paper also

bears a remarkable resemblance to some of Kohut’s concepts but is in

the language of traditional psychoanalysis.

Criticism of Self Psychology’s Emphasis on Empathy

The increasing emphasis by self-psychologists on empathy has

been subject to stormy criticism from traditional psychoanalysts.

Shapiro (1974, 1981, Leider 1984) claims that he does not even know

what empathy is and views it as a form of animism which would

destroy psychoanalysis as a science. Lichtenberg, Bornstein, and Silver

(1984, 1984a) have collected two volumes of reprints and some new

papers on the subject of empathy, indicating its difficulty and

controversially. Their collection offers Buie’s (ibid. 1984, pp. 129-136)

support of Shapiro’s attack, in which both authors criticize the

[Link] 20
vagueness and unreliability of the concept. They note the “confusion”

among self-psychologists, who began by defining empathy as a mode

of observation that implies only “in-tuneness” (Kohut 1977, pp. 115,

304; Goldberg 1980, p. 458), which they contrast with Goldberg’s

(1978) summary of Kohut’s later work. Here, the emphasis shifts from

the analyst as observer to the analyst as a person who responds in an

empathic fashion, now defining empathy as “the proper feeling for and

fitting together of the patient’s needs and the analyst’s response”

(Goldberg 1978, p. 8). Shapiro and Buie both prefer Kohut’s early

version of empathy as strictly a mode of observation. They sharply

disagree with self-psychologists on whether empathy provides

anything more than what is provided by accurate psychological

understanding. They stress the dangers of mysticism in regarding

empathy as a special psychic function which utilizes, for example,

Reik’s (1949) “third ear.” Buie (1981) explains three limitations in the

accuracy and scope of empathy: “Patients may limit or distort the

expression of behavioral cues about their state of mind; referents

available in the mind of the empathizer may be inadequate; and the

inferential process is inherently uncertain” (p. 305).

The German word Einfühlung was used in the late nineteenth

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 21

century to describe esthetic perception and was translated into

English as “empathy.” It was defined as “a tendency to merge the

activities of the perceiving subject with the qualities of the perceived

object,” as quoted from Paget in 1913 by Reed (Lichtenberg, Bornstein,

and Silver 1984, p. 7). Reed gives seven definitions of empathy (pp. 12-

13) on the basis of carefully cited quotations. Empathy is:

1. Both knowledge and communication.

2. Simultaneously a capacity, a process, and an expression.

3. An ability to sample others’ affects and to be able to respond

in resonance to them.

4. A method of data gathering.

5. An inner experience of sharing in and comprehending the

psychological state of another person.

6. A special method of perceiving.

7. A means of communication and of nonrational

understanding.

Pao (1983) offers still another definition from a Sullivanian

viewpoint:

[Link] 22
 To make use of one’s empathic capacity to understand
another person’s needs and wants is not a solo activity. It is
a process in which the two participants—the one who
desires to understand and the one who desires to be
understood—must both participate actively. Together,
these two participants will gradually set up a more and
more intricate “network” of connected communication, (pp.
152-153)

Olinick (Lichtenberg, Bornstein, and Silver 1984) regards Kohut’s

definition of empathy as vicarious introspection to be “facile and

answers none of our questions” (p. 145). He is especially concerned

about the differentiation between sympathy and empathy since they

are often confused in the literature. An even more important

differentiation must be made between empathy and paranoiac

sensitivity as pointed out by Noy who explains, “We may be impressed

by the keen sensitivity to others that a candidate displays in

supervision or in seminar discussions, only to discover later that it is a

paranoiac sensitivity, grounded in a general attitude that perceives the

patient as a potential enemy” (Lichtenberg, Bornstein, and Silver 1984,

p. 175n).

Post and Miller summarize the various objections to the

emphasis on empathy and pay special attention to those which regard

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 23

empathy as imprecise or minimally accessible to objective
measurement, and to those which maintain that emphasis on empathy

encourages deviations from traditional psychoanalysis, reintroducing

the issue of a corrective emotional experience at the expense of the

curative power of insight. However, they claim that such objections

have been treated by various authors whom they cite, and they ask
why the same objections continue to be made in the literature. Post

and Miller maintain that most of the criticisms of the empathic

approach “do not seem judicious; sometimes they are based on a gross

misreading of the relevant literature; at other times this literature

does not seem to have been read at all; at still others, the empathic

position is accurately represented and then dismissed by fiat, without

argumentation,” and try to explain this on the ground that the

empathic stance “may evoke profound apprehensiveness in some

analysts, leading sooner or later to disavowal” (Lichtenberg, Bornstein,

and Silver 1984, p. 232).

Lichtenberg (Lichtenberg, Bornstein, and Silver 1984a) tries to

answer criticism by quoting from the work of Kohut. There is a highly

personal issue here, involving the character style of the analyst. Can

the therapist accept a central emphasis on the notion of empathy? It is

[Link] 24
 a conception different qualitatively from the usual methods of

scientific observation, and lends itself much more to subjective

interpretation and use, as well as misuse.

Empathy and the Analytic Ambience

The central emphasis on empathy by self-psychologists has

brought with it considerable discussion of the issue of abstinence and

the general ambience of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic

psychotherapy. Self-psychologists such as Wolf (1976) emphasize the

danger of carrying Freud’s rule of abstinence to an extreme, leading to

a cold and unnatural ambience. Freud, as reviewed by Fox (1984),

regarded the frustration of the desires coming from transference love

necessary to the prevention of a transference cure. Wolf (1976) points

out that, carried to an extreme, this distance produces an ambience in

the treatment which was not the ambience provided for his patients

by Freud. He argues that a warm ambience does not interfere with the

development of a negative transference; providing an average,

expectable environment for the patient cannot be seen as a collusion

between the patient and the therapist to avoid the emergence of

patient hostility and criticism. Poland (1984) warns, however, that a

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 25

deliberate attempt to provide “empathic response” could lead to such

collusion, and represents “an excess of therapeutic activity [based] too

often [on a] failure of empathic perceptive accuracy” (pp. 288-290).

Kohut (1984) does not object to claims that the provision of an

empathic ambience for his patients constitutes a corrective emotional

experience for his patients. Myerson (1981) studied Guntrip’s (1975)

report of his analysis with Winnicott, and Kohut’s (1979) two analyses

of Mr. Z., and concluded that a corrective experience is involved in

both Kohut’s and Winnicott’s clinical work. This is probably more

extreme in Winnicott’s analysis of Guntrip, where he tells Guntrip,

“You are good for me,” allegedly drawing Guntrip out of his schizoid

shell to discover that there is no retaliation and that nothing happens

to the analyst.

Fox (1984) writes that through the influence of Eissler’s (1953)

paper on parameters, the principle of abstinence of Freud has become

the misapplied rule of abstinence. Fox concludes that there still seem

to be “deprivers” and “gratifiers” among psychoanalytic therapists,

and he reminds us that too much deprivation can be experienced by

the patient as a narcissistic wounding, while too much gratification (as

[Link] 26
he says Kohut offers) leads to the lack of formation of an oedipal
transference. He would turn Kohut’s theory upside down and claim

that Kohut sees such a dearth of “instinctual” oedipal lust and

aggression because he is offering the patient too much gratification in

his attempt to provide an empathic ambience.

Poland has contributed to a better delineation of the

psychoanalytic ambience. He (1975) distinguishes tact as a

“circumscribed analytic technical function dealing with how a
statement is made, based on an understanding of the patient” (p. 155).

He points out that when tact is working properly, it is invisible and

comes into view mainly at times when it fails or threatens to fail;

“when we notice a mistake on our part or when we become concerned

with how to pose a statement to a patient” (p. 155). Poland (1975)

believes that “highly developed tact is central to the art of analysis”

and that it is related to, but not the same as, empathy. Tact follows
empathy and is founded on a combination of that which is learned

about the patient’s inner workings through both cognitive

understanding and empathy. He claims, “We learn with empathy and

understanding, and we interpret with tact” (p. 156).

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 27

 Poland offers the clinical concept of “pseudo-tact,” which

represents the resistance of a patient who wants to avoid giving

offense. The patient carefully delays mentioning something nasty

about the therapist or avoids provocative comments, especially in

areas felt to be “sensitive” for the analyst, such as race, religion,

physical appearance, and so on, in order to be “tactful and polite.”

Conversely, pseudo-tact may be a countertransference manifestation

in which the analyst avoids making an interpretation because, out of

reaction formation to sadism, the therapist does not wish to impose

pain on the patient.

Poland (1974) tries to view empathic and cognitive sources of

information in the therapy process “as facets of an essential unitary

experience” (p. 292). He (1984) differentiates empathy from tact and

neutrality. He also repeats his earlier (1975) distinction between tact

and empathy and points out that tact is subordinate to the

requirement for neutrality, which is the requirement of impartiality

and the avoidance of imposing oneself or one’s values in trying to

dominate the other person. Gitelson’s (1952) comment is also

valuable: “It is of primary importance for the analyst to conduct

himself so that the analytic process proceeds on the basis of what the

[Link] 28
patient brings to it” (p. 7).

In conclusion, let us review a clinical vignette offered by Poland

(1984). A “young analyst” is treating a young woman who cannot

afford a baby sitter. The patient tells the analyst that each day she

locks her 5-year-old son in a small room, unattended, for the two
hours needed for her analytic sessions. When colleagues responded

with horror, “the analyst explained that his task was not to feel guilty

but rather to analyze the material as it arose. In fact, he had never

questioned or commented to the patient on the peculiar

arrangements” (p. 295). We all would agree with Poland’s comment

that “such dramatic pseudo-neutrality is, one hopes, rare” (p. 295). But

Poland leaves unanswered a crucial question raised by this example.

How could this person become a psychoanalyst? Does this example not
provide support for Kohut’s (1984) argument about the defect

commonly found in the analysis of psychoanalytic candidates? Does it

not tend to send us back to a study of Kohut’s (1977, 1984) discussion

of the whole problem of how a psychoanalyst should be trained and

what sort of a person he or she ought to be, as well as to review his

scattered comments (1978) on the selection of training analysts?

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 29

 The emphasis by self-psychologists on empathy is one of the most

acrimonious issues separating self-psychologists and traditional

analysts. On this issue we have reached an irreconcilable disagreement

between the orientations of self-psychologists and traditional

psychoanalysts. Personal preferences seem to rest on personal factors

and clinical experience. Yet, each camp sometimes suggests that a

faulty training analysis or a misunderstanding of psychoanalysis may

explain or at least influence the choice or orientation of the other

group. Some better method of studying, understanding, and perhaps

resolving these differences must be found.

[Link] 30
References
Abend, S., Porder, M., and Willick, M. (1983). Borderline Patients:
Psychoanalytic Perspectives. New York: International Universities
Press.

Abraham, K. (1919). A particular form of neurotic resistance against the

psychoanalytic method. In Selected Papers on Psychoanalysis.
London: Hogarth Press, 1949.

Adler, G. (1981). The borderline-narcissistic personality disorder continuum.

American Journal of Psychiatry 138:1-50.

Aichorn, A. (1955). Wayward Youth. New York: Meridian Books.

Akhtar, S., and Thomson, J. (1982). Overview: Narcissistic personality

disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 139:1-20.

Alexander, F. (1950). Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: Norton.

Amis, M. (1985). Money: A Suicide Note. New York: Viking.

Appels, A., Pool, J., and vander Does, E. (1979). Psychological prodromata of
myocardial infarction. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 23: 405-
421.

Arlow, J., and Brenner, C. (1984). Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural
Theory. New York: International Universities Press.

Arnold, M. (1869). Culture and Anarchy, ed. R. Super. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1980.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 31

Bach, S. (1975). Narcissism, continuity and the uncanny. International Journal
of Psycho-Analysis 56:77-86.

---- (1977). On the narcissistic state of consciousness. International Journal of

Psycho-Analysis 58:209-233.

---- (1977a). On narcissistic fantasies. International Review of Psycho-Analysis

4:281-293.

Bak, B. (1973). Being in love and object loss. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 54:1-8.

Balint, M. (1953). Primary Love and Psycho-Analytic Technique. New York:

Liveright.

---- (1968). The Basic Fault: Therapeutic Aspects of Regression. London:

Tavistock.

Barnes, H. (1980-1981). Sartre’s concept of the self. Review of Existential

Psychology and Psychiatry 17:41-66.

Basch, M. (1980). Doing Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1981). Self-object disorders and psychoanalytic theory: A historical

perspective. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 29:
337-351.

---- (1983). Empathic understanding: A review of the concept and some

theoretical considerations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association 31:101-126.

[Link] 32
Bettelheim, B. (1982). Freud and Man’s Soul. New York: Knopf.

Bick, E. (1968). The experience of the skin in early object-relations.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 49:484-486.

Bion, W. (1963). Elements of Psycho-Analysis. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1967). Second Thoughts: Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis. London:

Heinemann.

Blanck, G., and Blanck, R. (1973). Ego Psychology. New York: Columbia
University Press.

---- (1979). Ego Psychology, vol. II. New York: Columbia University Press.

Bornstein, M. (1984). Commentaries on Merton Gills’s Analysis of

Transference. Psychoanalytic Inquiry 4:391-392, 446.

Breu, G. (1979). Medics: Heinz Kohut. People Weekly 11:60-63.

Breuer, J., and Freud, S. (1893-1895). Studies on Hysteria. Standard Edition

2:1-305.

Broad, C. (1978). Kant: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Brown, L., and Hausman, A. (1981). Intentionality and the unconscious: A

comparison of Sartre and Freud. In The Philosophy of Jean-Paul
Sartre, ed. P. Schilpp. La Salle, 111.: Open Court.

Bruch, H. (1973). Eating Disorders. New York: Basic Books.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 33

---- (1974). Learning Psychotherapy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

---- (1975). Anorexia nervosa. In American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed.,

vol. IV, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1979). The Golden Cage. New York: Vintage Books.

---- (1982). Anorexia nervosa: Therapy and theory. American Journal of

Psychiatry 139:1531-1538.

Buie, D. (1981). Empathy: Its nature and limitations. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association 29:281-308.

Butler, C. (1984). Commentary. In Hegel: The Letters, trans. C. Butler and C.

Seiler. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Calder, K. (1980). An analyst’s self-analysis. Journal of the American

Psychoanalytic Association 28:5-20.

Calef, V., and Weinshel, E. (1979). The new psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic
revisionism. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 48:470-491.

Cannon, W. (1953). Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Boston:
Branford.

Cantwell, D., Sturzenberger, S., Burroughs, J., Salkin, B., and Breen, J. (1977).
Anorexia nervosa: An affective disorder. Archives of General
Psychiatry 34:1087-1096.

Carruthers, M. (1974). The Western Way of Death. New York: Pantheon Books.

[Link] 34
Casper, R. (1983). On the emergence of bulimia nervosa as a syndrome.
International Journal of Eating Disorders 2:3-16.

---- , and Davis, J. (1977). On the course of anorexia nervosa. American Journal
of Psychiatry 134:974-978.

---- , Halmi, K., Goldberg, S., Eckart, E., and Davis, J. (1979). Disturbances in
body image estimation as related to other characteristics and
outcome in anorexia nervosa. British Journal of Psychiatry 134: 60-
66.

---- , Offer, D., and Ostrov, J. (1981). The self-image of adolescents with acute
anorexia nervosa. Journal of Pediatrics 98:656-661.

Cassimatis, E. (1984). The “false self”: Existential and therapeutic issues.

International Review of Psychoanalysis 11:69-77.

Chessick, R. (1960). The “pharmacogenic orgasm” in the drug addict. Archives

of General Psychiatry 3:545-556.

---- (1965). Empathy and love in psychotherapy. American Journal of

Psychotherapy 19:205-219.

---- (1966). Office psychotherapy of borderline patients. American Journal of

Psychotherapy 20:600-614.

---- (1968). The “crucial dilemma” of the therapist in the psychotherapy of

borderline patients. American Journal of Psychotherapy 22:655-
666.

---- (1969). How Psychotherapy Heals. New York: Science House.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 35

---- (1971). Why Psychotherapists Fail. New York: Science House.

---- (1971a). The use of the couch in psychotherapy of borderline patients.

Archives of General Psychiatry 26:306-313.

---- (1972). The development of angiospastic retinopathy during the intensive

psychotherapy of a borderline patient. Archives of General
Psychiatry 27:241-244.

---- (1972a). Externalization and existential anguish. Archives of General

Psychiatry 27:764-770.

---- (1973). Contributions to ego psychology from the treatment of borderline

patients. Medikon 2:20-21.

---- (1974). The Technique and Practice of Intensive Psychotherapy. New York:
Jason Aronson.

---- (1974a). Defective ego feeling and the quest for Being in the borderline
patient. International Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 3:
73-89.

---- (1974b). The borderline patient. In American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd

ed., vol. 3, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1976). Agonie: Diary of a Twentieth Century Man. Ghent, Belgium:

European Press.

---- (1977). Intensive Psychotherapy of the Borderline Patient. New York: Jason
Aronson.

[Link] 36
---- (1977a). Great Ideas in Psychotherapy. New York: Jason Aronson.

---- (1978). Countertransference crises with borderline patients. Current

Concepts in Psychiatry 4:20-24.

---- (1979). A practical approach to the psychotherapy of the borderline

patient. American Journal of Psychotherapy 33:531-546.

---- (1980). Freud Teaches Psychotherapy. Indianapolis: Hackett.

---- (1980a). The problematical self in Kant and Kohut. Psychoanalytic

Quarterly 49:456-473.

---- (1980b). Some philosophical assumptions of intensive psychotherapy.

American Journal of Psychotherapy 34:496-509.

---- (1982). Intensive psychotherapy of a borderline patient. Archives of

General Psychiatry 39:413-422.

---- (1982a). Psychoanalytic listening: With special reference to the views of

Langs. Contemporary Psychoanalysis 18:613-634.

---- (1983). A Brief Introduction to the Genius of Nietzsche. Washington, D.C.:

University Press of America.

---- (1983a). Problems in the intensive psychotherapy of the borderline

patient. Dynamic Psychotherapy 1:20-32.

---- (1983b). Marilyn Monroe: Psychoanalytic pathography of a preoedipal

disorder. Dynamic Psychotherapy 1:161-176.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 37

---- (1983c). The Ring: Richard Wagner’s dream of preoedipal destruction.
American Journal of Psychoanalysis 43:361-374.

---- (1984). Sartre and Freud. American Journal of Psychotherapy 38: 229-238.

---- (1984a). Was Freud wrong about feminine psychology? American Journal
of Psychoanalysis 44:355-368.

---- (1984b). A failure in psychoanalytic psychotherapy of a schizophrenic

patient. Dynamic Psychotherapy 2:136-156.

---- (1984c). Matthew Arnold, the death instinct, and the future of man. Cogito
2:31-48.

---- (1985). Prolegomena to the study of Paul Ricoeur’s “Freud and

Philosophy.” In press.

---- (1985a). The search for the authentic self in Bergson and Proust. In.
Psychoanalytic Perspectives in Literature and Film, eds. J. Rep-pen
and M. Charney. Madison, N.J.: Farleigh Dickinson University Press.

---- (1985b). Clinical notes towards the understanding and intensive

psychotherapy of adult eating disorders. Annual of Psychoanalysis
13:301-322.

---- (1985c). Psychoanalytic listening II. American Journal of Psychotherapy

39:30-48.

---- (1986). Transference and countertransference revisited. Dynamic

Psychotherapy. In press.

[Link] 38
---- (1986a). Heidegger for psychotherapists. American Journal of
Psychotherapy. In press.

---- (1986b). Kohut and the contemporary continental tradition: A

comparison of Kohut with Lacan and Foucault. Dynamic
Psychotherapy: Theoretical and Clinical Contributions, ed. P.
Buirski. New York: Brunner/Mazel. In press.

---- , and Bassan, M. (1968). Experimental approaches to the concept of

empathy in psychotherapy. In An Evaluation of the Results of
Psychotherapy, ed. S. Lesse. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas.

Clement, C. (1983). The Lives and Legends of Jacques Lacan, trans. A.

Goldhammer, New York: Columbia University Press.

Clements, C. (1982). Misusing psychiatric models: The culture of narcissism.

Psychoanalytic Review 69:283-295.

Collier, A. (1977). R. D. Laing: The Philosophy and Politics of Psychotherapy.

Hassocks, England: Harvester Press.

Crease, R., and Mann, C. (1984). How the universe works. Atlantic Monthly,
254:66-93.

Crews, F. (1980). Analysis terminable. Commentary 70:25-34.

Dally, P. (1969). Anorexia Nervosa. New York: Grune & Stratton.

Darwin, C. (1965). The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 39

Davis, G. (1976). Depression: Some updated thoughts. Journal of the Academy
of Psychoanalysis 4:411-424.

De Beauvoir, S. (1984). Adieux: A Farewell to Sartre. New York: Pantheon

Books.

Dembroski, T., MacDougall, J., Williams, R., Haney, T., and Blumenthal, J.
(1985). Components of Type A, hostility, and anger-in:
Relationship to angiographic findings. Psychosomatic Medicine
47:219-233.

De Wald, P. (1964). Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Dorpat, T. (1974). Internalization of the patient-analyst relationship in

patients with narcissistic disorders. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 55:183-188.

Dreyfus, H., and Rabinow, P. (1982). Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism

and Hermeneutics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dryud, J. (1984). Sartre and psychoanalysis: What can we learn from a lover’s
quarrel?. Contemporary Psychoanalysis 20:230-244.

Eagle, M. (1984). Recent Developments in Psychoanalysis. New York: McGraw-

Hill.

Edel, L. (1969). Henry James: The Treacherous Years: 1895-1901. Philadelphia:

Lippincott.

Edelson, M. (1984). Hypothesis and Evidence in Psychoanalysis. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

[Link] 40
Eissler, K. (1953). The effect of the structure of the ego on psychoanalytic
technique. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
1:104-143.

---- (1971). Death drive, ambivalence, and narcissism. Psychoanalytic Study of

the Child 26:25-78.

---- (1975). The fall of man. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 30:589-646.

Ellenberger, H. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and

Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books.

Ellis, H. (1898). Auto-erotism: A psychological study. Alienist and Neurologist

19:260-299.

Ewing, A. (1967). A Short Commentary on Kant’s “Critique of Pure Reason.”

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Fairbairn, W. (1963). Synopsis of an object-relations theory of the personality.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 44:224-225.

Fairlie, H. (1977). Sloth or acedia. New Republic, October 29, 1977, pp. 20-33.

Federn, P. (1947). Principles of psychotherapy in latent schizophrenia.

American Journal of Psychotherapy 2:129-147.

Fenichel, O. (1945). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. New York: Norton.

Ferenczi, S. (1955). Selected Papers. Volume III: Final Contributions to the

Problems and Methods of Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 41

Ferguson, M. (1981). Progress and theory change: The two analyses of Mr. Z.
Annual of Psychoanalysis 9:133-160.

Finlay-Jones, R. (1983). Disgust with life in general. Australian New Zealand

Journal of Psychiatry 17:149-162.

Fliess, R. (1942). The metapsychology of the analyst. Psychoanalytic Quarterly

2:211-227.

Foucault, M. (1972). The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. A. Smith. New York:

Pantheon Books.

---- (1973). Madness and Civilization, trans. A. Smith. New York: Vintage.

---- (1973a). The Order of Things. New York: Vintage.

---- (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, ed. C.

Gordon. New York: Pantheon Books.

---- (1980a). The History of Sexuality, vol. I, trans. R. Hurley. New York:
Vintage.

Fox, R. (1984). The principle of abstinence reconsidered. International Review

of Psychoanalysis 11:227-236.

French, T., and Fromm, E. (1964). Dream Interpretation. New York: Basic
Books.

Freud, A. (1971). Difficulties in the path of psychoanalysis: A confrontation of

past with present viewpoints. In The Writings of Anna Freud, vol.
VII. New York: International Universities Press.

[Link] 42
Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Standard Edition
7:125-248.

---- (1905a). Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria. Standard Edition

7:3-124.

---- (1911). Psycho-analytic notes on an autobiographical account of a case of

paranoia (dementia paranoides). Standard Edition 12:3-84.

---- (1912). Recommendations to physicians practicing psycho-analysis.

Standard Edition 12:109-120.

---- (1914). On narcissism: An introduction. Standard Edition 14:67-104.

---- (1914a). On the history of the psycho-analytic movement. Standard

Edition 14:1-66.

---- (1917). Mourning and melancholia. Standard Edition 14:237-258.

---- (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. Standard Edition 18:3-66.

---- (1921). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. Standard Edition
18:67-144.

---- (1923). The ego and the id. Standard Edition 19:3-68.

---- (1926). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. Standard Edition 20: 77-178.

---- (1930). Civilization and its discontents. Standard Edition 21:59-148.

---- (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. Standard Edition

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 43

 22:3-184.

---- (1937). Analysis terminable and interminable. Standard Edition 23:209-

254.

---- (1940). Splitting of the ego in the process of defense. Standard Edition
23:273-278.

---- (1940a). An outline of psycho-analysis. Standard Edition 23:141-208.

Friedman, E., and Hellerstein, H. (1973). Influence of psychosocial factors on

coronary risk and adaptation to a physical fitness evaluation
program. In Exercise Testing and Exercise Training in Coronary
Heart Disease, ed. J. Naughton and H. Hellerstein. New York:
Academic Press.

Friedman, L. (1978). Trends in the psychoanalytic theory of treatment.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 47:524-567.

---- (1980). Kohut: A book review essay. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 49: 393-
422.

Friedman, M. (1969). Pathogenesis of Coronary Artery Disease. New York:

McGraw-Hill.

---- , and Rosenman, R. (1974). Type-A Behavior and Your Heart. New York:
Knopf.

---- , and Ulmer, D. (1984). Treating Type-A Behavior and Your Heart. New
York: Knopf.

[Link] 44
Fromm-Reichmann, F. (1950). Principles of Intensive Psychotherapy. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Frosch, J. (1977). The relation between acting out and disorders of impulse
control. Psychiatry 40:295-314.

Garner, D., Garfinkel, P., Stancer, H., and Moldofsky, H. (1976). Body image
disturbances in anorexia nervosa and obesity. Psychosomatic
Medicine 38:327-336.

Gediman, H. (1975). Reflection on romanticism, narcissism, and creativity.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 23:407-423.

Gedo, J. (1977). Notes on the psychoanalytic management of archaic

transferences. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
25:787-803.

---- (1979). Theories of object relations: A metapsychological assessment.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 27:361-374.

---- (1980). Reflections on some current controversies in psychoanalysis.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 28:363-384.

---- (1984). Psychoanalysis And Its Discontents. New York: Guilford Press.

---- , and Goldberg, A. (1973). Models of the Mind: A Psychoanalytic Theory.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gill, M. (1982). Analysis of Transference, vol. I. New York: International

Universities Press.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 45

Giovacchini, P. (1977). A critique of Kohut’s theory of narcissism. Adolescent
Psychiatry 5:213-239.

---- (1978). Discussion in symposium on Kohut’s “Restoration of the Self.”

Psychoanalytic Review 65:617-620.

---- (1979). Treatment of Primitive Mental States. New York: Jason Aronson.

---- (1982). A Clinician’s Guide to Reading Freud. New York: Jason Aronson.

Gitelson, M. (1952). The emotional position of the analyst in the

psychoanalytic situation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis
33:1-10.

Glenn, J. (1984). Review of “Practice And Precept In Psychoanalytic

Technique: Selected Papers of Rudolph M. Loewenstein.”
Psychoanalytic Quarterly 53:315-322.

Glover, E. (1956). On the Early Development of Mind. New York: International

Universities Press.

Goethe, J. von (1774). The Sufferings of Young Werther, trans. B. Morgan. New
York: Ungar, 1954.

Goldberg, A. (1975). The evolution of psychoanalytic concepts of depression.

In Depression and Human Existence, ed. E. Anthony and T. Benedek.
Boston: Little, Brown.

---- (1976). A discussion of the paper by C. Hanly and J. Masson. International

Journal of Psycho-Analysis 57:67-70.

[Link] 46
---- (ed.) (1978). The Psychology of the Self: A Casebook. New York:
International Universities Press.

---- (ed.) (1980). Advances in Self Psychology. New York: International

Universities Press.

---- (1980a). Letter to the editor. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis

61:91-92.

---- (1982). Obituary: Heinz Kohut. International Journal of Psycho- Analysis

63:257-258.

---- (ed.) (1983). The Future of Psychoanalysis. New York: International

Universities Press.

---- (1983a). On the scientific status of empathy. Annual of Psychoanalysis

11:155-159.

Goldberg, D. (1985). Panel: On the concept “object” in psychoanalysis. Journal

of the American Psychoanalytic Association 33:167-186.

Goodsitt, A. (1985). Self-psychology and the treatment of anorexia nervosa. In

Handbook of Psychotherapy for Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia, ed.
D. Garner and P. Garfinkel. New York: Guilford Press.

Graves, R. (1955). The Greek Myths, vol. I. Baltimore: Penguin.

Greenberg, ]., and Mitchell, S. (1983). Object Relations in Psychoanalytic

Theory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Greene, M. (1984). The self-psychology of Heinz Kohut. Bulletin of the

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 47

 Menninger Clinic 48:37-53.

Greenson, R. (1960). Empathy and its vicissitudes. International Journal of

Psychoanalysis 41:418-424.

Grinker, R., and Werble, B. (1975). The Borderline Patient. New York: Jason
Aronson.

Grünbaum, A. (1983). Freud’s theory: the perspective of a philosopher of

science. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Association
57:5-31.

---- (1984). The Foundations of Psychoanalysis. Berkeley: University of

California Press.

Gunther, M. (1976). The endangered self: A contribution to the understanding

of narcissistic determinants of countertransference. Annual of
Psychoanalysis 4:201-224.

Guntrip, H. (1974). Psychoanalytic object relations theory: The Fairbairn-

Guntrip approach. In American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed.,
vol. 1, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1975). My experience of analysis with Fairbairn and Winnicott.

International Review of Psychoanalysis 2:145-156.

Hamburger, W. (1951). Emotional aspects of obesity. Medical Clinics of North

America 35:483-499.

Hanly, C. (1979). Existentialism and Psychoanalysis. New York: International

Universities Press.

[Link] 48
----, and Masson, J. (1976). A critical examination of the new narcissism.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 57:49-66.

Hartmann, H. (1927). Understanding and explanation. In Essays on Ego

Psychology. New York: International Universities Press, 1964.

---- (1950). Comments on the psychoanalytic theory of the ego. In Essays on

Ego Psychology. New York: International Universities Press, 1964.

Heimann, P. (1966). Comment on Dr. Kernberg’s paper. International Journal

of Psycho-Analysis 47:254-260.

Hoffman, N. (1984). Meyer Friedman: Type A behavior cardiovascular

research continues. Journal of the American Medical Association
252:1385-1393.

Holzman, P. (1976). The future of psychoanalysis and its institutes.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 45:250-273.

Hunter, P. (1977). Sartre’s existential humanism and Freud’s existential

naturalism. Psychoanalytic Review 64:289-298.

Hurst, J., Logue, R., Schlant, R., and Wenger, N., eds. (1974). The Heart: Arteries
and Veins. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Husserl, E. (1913). Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, trans.

W. Gibson. New York: Macmillan, 1952.

Imber, R. (1984). Reflections on Kohut and Sullivan. Contemporary

Psychoanalysis 20:363-380.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 49

Ingram, D. (1976). Psychoanalytic treatment of the obese person. American
Journal of Psychoanalysis 36:227-235.

Innaurato, A. (1977). The Transfiguration of Benno Blimpie. London: T. Q.

Publications.

Jacobson, E. (1964). The Self and the Object World. New York: International
Universities Press.

James, M. (1973). Review of The Analysis of the Self. International Journal of

Psycho-Analysis 54:363-368.

Janik, A., and Toulmin, S. (1973). Wittgenstein’s Vienna. New York: Simon and
Schuster.

Jaspers, K. (1972). General Psychopathology. Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.

Jenkins, C. (1971). Psychological and social precursors of coronary disease.

New England Journal of Medicine 28:244-255, 307-317.

---- (1976). Recent evidence supporting psychological and social risk factors
for coronary disease. New England Journal of Medicine 294:987-
994, 1033-1038.

Jones, E. (1955). The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, vol. 2. New York: Basic
Books.

Joseph, E., and Wallerstein, R., eds. (1982). Psychotherapy: Impact on

Psychoanalytic Training. New York: International Universities
Press.

[Link] 50
Jung, C. (1933). Modern Man in Search of a Soul. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Kainer, R. (1984). From “evenly-hovering attention” to “vicarious

introspection”: Issues of listening in Freud and Kohut. American
Journal of Psychoanalysis 44:103-114.

Kant, E. (1781). Critique of Pure Reason, trans. N. Smith. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1965.

Kaplan, H., Freedman, A., and Sadock, B. (1980). Comprehensive Textbook of

Psychiatry, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

Katz, R. (1963). Empathy, Its Nature and Uses. New York: Glencoe Free Press.

Kaufmann, W. (1980). Discovering the Mind. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kernberg, O. (1972). Critique of the Kleinian school. In Tactics and Techniques

in Psychoanalytic Therapy, ed. P. Giovacchini. New York: Science
House.

---- (1974). Contrasting viewpoints regarding the nature and psychoanalytic

treatment of narcissistic personalities: a preliminary
communication. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
22:255-267.

---- (1974a). Further contributions to the treatment of narcissistic

personalities. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 55:215-240.

---- (1975). Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. New York:

Jason Aronson.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 51

---- (1975a). Further contributions to the treatment of narcissistic
personalities: A reply to the discussion by Paul H. Ornstein.
International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 56:245-248.

---- (1976). Object Relations Theory and Clinical Psychoanalysis. New York:
Jason Aronson.

---- (1980). Internal World and External Reality. New York: Jason Aronson.

---- (1980a). Melanie Klein. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 3rd ed.,

ed. H. Kaplan, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock. Baltimore: Williams
and Wilkins.

---- (1982). Self, ego, affects and drives. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association 30:893-917.

---- (1982a). Review of Advances In Self Psychology. American Journal of

Psychiatry 139:374-375.

Kierkegaard, S. (1859). The Point of View for My Work as an Author: A Report

to History, trans. W. Lowrie. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.

Klein, M. (1975). Envy and Gratitude and Other Works 1946-1963. New York:
Delta.

Klein, M., and Tribich, D. (1981). Kernberg’s object-relations theory: A critical

evaluation. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 62:27-43.

Kleist, H. (1976). The Marquise of O—and Other Stories, trans. M. Greenberg.

New York; Ungar.

[Link] 52
Kohut, H. (1966). Forms and transformations of narcissism. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association 14:243-272.

---- (1968). The psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personality

disorders. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child 23:86-113.

---- (1971). The Analysis of the Self. New York: International Universities
Press.

---- (1977). The Restoration of the Self. New York: International Universities
Press.

---- (1978). The Search for the Self, ed., P. Ornstein. New York: International
Universities Press.

---- (1979). The two analyses of Mr. Z. International Journal of Psycho- Analysis
60:3-27.

---- (1982). Introspection, empathy, and the semi-circle of mental health.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 63:395-407.

---- (1984). How Does Analysis Cure? Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

---- , and Wolf, E. (1978) The disorders of the self and their treatment: An
outline. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 59:413-425.

Kolb, L., and Brodie, H. (1982). Modem Clinical Psychiatry. Philadelphia:

Saunders.

Krystal, H. (1982). Adolescence and the tendencies to develop substance

dependence. Psychoanalytic Inquiry 2:581-618.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 53

---- , and Raskin, H. (1970). Drug Dependence: Aspects of Ego Function. Detroit:
Wayne State University Press.

Kuhn, T. (1962). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press.

---- (1977). The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and
Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lacan, J. (1968). Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis, trans. A. Wilden.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

---- (1977). Écrits: A Selection, trans. A. Sheridan. New York: Norton.

---- (1978). The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psycho-Analysis, trans. A.

Sheridan. New York: Norton.

Laing, R. (1960). The Divided Self. New York: Pantheon Books.

Langs, R. (1981). Resistances and Interventions. New York. Jason Aronson.

---- (1982). Psychotherapy: A Basic Text. New York: Jason Aronson.

Lasch, C. (1978). The Culture of Narcissism. New York: Norton.

Leavy, S. (1980). The Psychoanalytic Dialogue. New Haven: Yale University

Press.

Leider, R. (1983). Analytic neutrality: A historical review. Psychoanalytic

Inquiry 3:655-674.

[Link] 54
---- (1984). Panel report on the neutrality of the analyst in the analytic
situation. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
32:573-586.

Lemaire, A. (1981). Jacques Lacan. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Leon, G. (1982). Personality and behavioral correlates of obesity. In

Psychological Aspects of Obesity, ed. B. Wolman. New York: Van
Nostrand and Reinhold.

Levine, M. (1961). Principles of psychiatric treatment. In The Impact of

Freudian Psychiatry, ed. F. Alexander and H. Ross. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Levy, S. (1985). Empathy and psychoanalytic technique. Journal of the

American Psychoanalytic Association 33:353-378.

Lichtenberg, J. (1973). Review of The Analysis of the Self. Bulletin of the

Philadelphia Association of Psychoanalysis 23:58-66.

---- (1978). Is there a line of development of narcissism?. International Review

of Psychoanalysis 5:435-447.

---- , and Kaplan, S., eds. (1983). Reflections on Self Psychology. Hillsdale, N.J.:
Analytic Press.

---- , Bornstein, M., and Silver, D. (1984). Empathy, vol. I. Hillsdale, N.J.: The
Analytic Press.

---- , Bornstein, M., and Silver D. (1984a). Empathy, vol. II. Hillsdale, N.J.: The
Analytic Press.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 55

Lipton, S. (1977). The advantages of Freud’s technique as shown in his
analysis of the Rat Man. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis
58: 255-273.

---- (1979). An addendum to “The advantages of Freud’s technique as shown

in his analysis of the Rat Man.” International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 60:215-216.

Little, M. (1981). Transference Neurosis and Transference Psychosis. New York:

Jason Aronson.

Loewald, H. (1962). Internalization, separation, mourning, and the superego.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 31:483-504.

---- (1973). Review of The Analysis of the Self. Psychoanalytic Quarterly

42:441-451.

---- (1980). Papers on Psychoanalysis. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Loewenstein, R., Newman, L., Schur, M., and Solnit, A., eds. (1966).
Psychoanalysis—A General Psychology. New York: International
Universities Press.

London, N. (1985). An appraisal of self-psychology. International Journal of

Psycho-Analysis 66:95-108.

Maass, J. (1983). Kleist: A Biography. Trans. A. Manheim. New York: Farrar,

Straus and Giroux.

Maccoby, M. (1976). The Gamesman: The New Corporate Leader. New York:
Simon and Schuster.

[Link] 56
Mahler, M., Pine, F., and Bergman, A. (1975). The Psychological Birth of the
Human Infant. New York: Basic Books.

Malcolm, J. (1981). Psychoanalysis: The Impossible Profession. New York:

Knopf.

Masson, J. ed. (1985). The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess:
1877-1904. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Masterson, J. (1976). Psychotherapy of the Borderline Adult: A Developmental

Approach. New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Mead, G. (1962). Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Meissner, W. (1978). Notes on some conceptual aspects of borderline

personality organization. International Review of Psychoanalysis
5:297-311.

---- (1978a). Theoretical assumptions of concepts of the borderline

personality. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
26:559-598.

---- (1978b). The Paranoid Process. New York: Jason Aronson.

---- (1980). Classical psychoanalysis. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry,

3rd ed., ed. H. Kaplan, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock. Baltimore:
Williams and Wilkins.

---- (1980a). The problem of internalization and structure formation.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 61:237-248.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 57

---- (1984). The Borderline Spectrum. New York: Jason Aronson.

Menninger, B. (1958). Theory of Psychoanalytic Technique. New York: Basic

Books.

Meyers, S. (1981). Panel on the bipolar self. Journal of the American

Psychoanalytic Association 29:143-160.

Mischel, T. (1977). The Self: Psychological and Philosophical Issues. Oxford:

Blackwell.

Mitchell, S. (1981). Heinz Kohut’s theory of narcissism. American Journal of

Psychoanalysis 41:317-326.

---- (1984). The problem of the will. Contemporary Psychoanalysis 20: 257-
265.

Modell, A. (1963). Primitive object relations and the predisposition to

schizophrenia. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 44:282-
292.

---- (1968). Object Love and Reality. New York: International Universities
Press.

---- (1976). The holding environment and the therapeutic action of

psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
24:255-307.

Moldofsky, H. (1984). Clinical research at the interface of medicine and

psychiatry. In Psychiatry Update, vol. Ill, ed. L. Grinspoon.
Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press.

[Link] 58
Money-Kryle, B. (1974). The Kleinian school. In American Handbook of
Psychiatry, 2nd ed., vol. I, ed. S. Arieti. New York: Basic Books.

Montgomery, P. (1981). Obituary—Heinz Kohut. New York Times, October 10,

1981, p. 17.

Moore, B., and Fine, D., eds. (1967). A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and
Concepts. New York: American Psychoanalytic Association.

Muller, J., and Richardson, W. (1982). Lacan and Language: A Reader’s Guide
to Écrits. New York: International Universities Press.

Murdoch, I. (1980). Sartre: Romantic Realist. New York: Barnes and Nobel.

Murphy, W. (1973). Narcissistic problems in patients and therapists.

International Journal of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 2:113-124.

Myerson, P. (1981). The nature of the transactions that occur in other than
classical analysis. International Review of Psychoanalysis 8:173-
189.

Nacht, S. (1962). The curative factors in psychoanalysis. International Journal

of Psychoanalysis 43:206-211.

Odier, C. (1956). Anxiety and Magic Thinking. New York: International

Universities Press.

Offenkrantz, W., and Tobin, A. (1974). Psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Archives

of General Psychiatry 30:593-606.

Ornstein, P. (1974). A discussion of the paper by Otto F. Kernberg on “Further

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 59

 contributions to the treatment of narcissistic personalities.”
International Journal of Psychoanalysis 55:241-247.

---- (1981). The bipolar self in the psychoanalytic treatment process: Clinical-
theoretical considerations. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association 29:353-376.

---- , and Ornstein, A. (1980). Formulating interpretations in clinical

psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 61:203-
212.

Ornston, D. (1985). Freud’s conception is different from Strachey’s. Journal of

the American Psychoanalytic Association 33:379-412.

Ostow, M. (1979). Letter to the editor. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis

60:531-532.

Oxford (1970). English Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Palmer, R. (1969). Hermeneutics: Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher,

Dilthey, Heidegger, and Gadamer. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern
University Press.

Pao, P. (1983). Therapeutic empathy and the treatment of schizophrenics.

Psychoanalytic Inquiry 3:145-167.

Patton, M., and Sullivan, J. (1980). Heinz Kohut and the classical
psychoanalytic tradition: An analysis in terms of levels of
explanation. Psychoanalytic Review 67:365-388.

Peterfreund, E. (1971). Information, Systems, and Psychoanalysis: An

[Link] 60
 Evolutionary Biological Approach to Psychoanalytic Theory. New
York: International Universities Press.

Pflanze, O. (1972). Toward a psychoanalytic interpretation of Bismarck.

American Historical Review 77:419-444.

Poland, W. (1974). On empathy in analytic practice. Journal of the Philadelphia

Association for Psychoanalysis 1:284-297.

---- (1975). Tact as a psychoanalytic function. International Journal of Psycho-

Analysis 56:155-162.

---- (1984). On the analyst’s neutrality. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic

Association 32:283-299.

Pope, H., Hudson, J., Jonas, J., and Yurgelun-Tood, D. (1983). Bulimia treated
with imipramine. American Journal of Psychiatry 140:554-558.

Powers, P. (1980). Obesity: The Regulation of Weight. Baltimore: Williams and

Wilkins.

Proust, M. (1981). Remembrance of Things Past, trans. C. Moncreiff, R.

Kilmartin, and A. Mayor. New York: Random House.

Pruyser, P. (1975). What splits in “splitting”? Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic

39:1-46.

Quinn, S. (1980). Oedipus vs. Narcissus. New York Times Magazine November
9, 1980, pp. 120-131.

Rado, S. (1926). The psychic effects of intoxication. In Psychoanalysis of

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 61

 Behavior: Collected Papers of Sandor Rado. New York: Grune and
Stratton, 1956.

Rangell, L. (1981). From insight to change. Journal of the American

Psychoanalytic Association 29:119-142.

---- (1981a). Psychoanalysis and dynamic psychotherapy: Similarities and

differences twenty-five years later. Psychoanalytic Quarterly
50:665-693.

---- (1985). The object in psychoanalytic theory. Journal of the American

Psychoanalytic Association 33:301-334.

Reich, A. (1960). Pathological forms of self-esteem regulation. Psychoanalytic

Study of the Child 15:215-232.

Reik, T. (1949). Listening with the Third Ear. New York: Farrar, Straus.

Richards, A. (1982). Panel Report on psychoanalytic theories of the self.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 30:717-734.

---- (1982a). The supraordinate self in psychoanalytic theory and in the self-
psychologies. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
30:939-958.

---- (1984). Panel report on the relation between psychoanalytic theory and
psychoanalytic technique. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association 32:587-602.

Ricoeur, P. (1970). Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New

Haven: Yale University Press.

[Link] 62
---- (1974). The Conflict of Interpretations. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern
University Press.

Riesman, D., Glazer, N., and Denney, R. (1950). The Lonely Crowd: A Study of
the Changing American Character. New York: Doubleday.

Rime, E., and Bonami, M. (1979). Overt and covert personality traits
associated with coronary heart disease. British Journal of Medical
Psychology 52:77-84.

Roazen, P. (1975). Freud and His Followers. New York: Knopf.

Robbins, M. (1980). Current controversy in object relations theory as an

outgrowth of a schism between Klein and Fairbairn. International
Journal of Psycho-Analysis 61:477-492.

---- (1982). Narcissistic personality as a symbiotic character disorder.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 63:457-473.

Rosenfeld, H. (1964). On the psychopathology of narcissism: A clinical

approach. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 45:332-337.

---- (1971). A clinical approach to the psychoanalytic theory of the life and
death instincts: An investigation into the aggressive aspects of
narcissism. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 52:169-178.

Rossner, J. (1983). August. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Rotenberg, C. (1983). A contribution to the theory of treatment of personality

disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis
11:227-249.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 63

Rothstein, A. (1980). Toward a critique of the psychology of the self.
Psychoanalytic Quarterly 49:423-455.

---- (1980a). Psychoanalytic paradigms and their narcissistic investment.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 28:385-396.

Sachs, D. (1979). On the relationship between psychoanalysis and

psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Journal of the Philadelphia
Association for Psychoanalysis 6:119-145.

Sadow, L. (1969). Ego axis in psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry

21:15-24.

Sartre, J. (1964). Nausea. New York: New Directions.

---- (1973). Being and Nothingness, trans. H. Barnes. New York: Washington
Square Press.

---- (1976). Critique of Dialectical Reason. London: New Left Books.

---- (1984). War Diaries. New York: Pantheon Books.

Satow, R. (1983). Response to Colleen Clements’s “Misusing psychiatric

models: The culture of narcissism.” Psychoanalytic Review 69:296-
302.

Schafer, R. (1968). Aspects of Internalization. New York: International

Universities Press.

---- (1985). Wild analysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association

33:275-300.

[Link] 64
Schneiderman, S. (1983). Jacques Lacan: The Death of an Intellectual Hero.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Schur, M. (1972). Freud: Living and Dying. New York: International

Universities Press.

Schwaber, E. (1979). On the “self” within the matrix of analytic theory. Some
clinical reflections and reconsiderations. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 60:467-479.

---- (1981). Narcissism, self-psychology, and the listening perspective. Annual

of Psychoanalysis 9:115-131.

---- (1983). Psychoanalytic listening and psychic reality. International Review

of Psychoanalysis 10:379-392.

Schwartz, L. (1973). Panel report on technique and prognosis in the

treatment of narcissistic personality disorders. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association 21:617-632.

---- (1978). Review of The Restoration of the Self. Psychoanalytic Quarterly

47:436-443.

Scruton, R. (1982). Kant. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Searles, H. (1985). Separation and loss in psychoanalytic therapy with

borderline patients: Further remarks. American Journal of
Psychoanalysis 45:9-27.

Segal, H. (1974). Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein. New York: Basic
Books.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 65

---- (1980). Melanie Klein. New York: Viking.

---- (1983). Some clinical implications of Melanie Klein’s work: Emergence

from narcissism. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 64: 269-
276.

Sennett, R. (1984). An Evening of Brahms. New York: Knopf.

Shainess, N. (1979). The swing of the pendulum—from anorexia to obesity.

American Journal of Psychoanalysis 39:225-235.

Shapiro, E. (1978). The psychodynamics and developmental psychology of the

borderline patient: A review of the literature. American Journal of
Psychiatry 135:1305-1315.

Shapiro, T. (1974). The development and distortions of empathy.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 43:4-25.

---- (1981). Empathy: A critical evaluation. Psychoanalytic Inquiry 1: 423-448.

Silverman, M. (1985). Countertransference and the myth of the perfectly

analyzed analyst. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 54:175-199.

Slap, J., and Levine, F. (1978). On hybrid concepts in psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 47:499-523.

Smith, N. (1962). A Commentary to Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason. New York:

Humanities Press.

Solberg, L. (1984). Lassitude: A primary care evaluation. Journal of the

American Medical Association 251:3272-3276.

[Link] 66
Soll, I. (1981). Sartre’s rejection of the Freudian unconscious. In The
Philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre, ed. P. Schilpp. La Salle, 111.: Open
Court.

Speer, A. (1970). Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs. New York: Macmillan.

Spillius, E. (1983). Some developments from the work of Melanie Klein.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 674:321-332.

Spitzer, R., Chairperson (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders, 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric
Association.

Spruiell, V. (1974). Theories of the treatment of narcissistic personalities.

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 22:268-278.

Stein, M. (1979). Review of The Restoration of the Self. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association 27:665-680.

---- (1984). Rational versus anagogic interpretation: Xenophon’s dream and

others. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 32: 529-
556.

Stepansky, P. (1983). Perspectives on dissent: Adler, Kohut, and the idea of a

psychoanalytic research tradition. Annual of Psychoanalysis 9:51—
74.

Stepansky, P., and Goldberg, A., eds. (1984). Kohut’s Legacy: Contributions to
Self-Psychology. Hillsdale, N.J.: Analytic Press.

Sterba, R. (1982). Reminiscences of a Viennese Psychoanalyst. Detroit: Wayne

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 67

 State University Press.

Stone, L. (1961). The Psychoanalytic Situation. New York: International

Universities Press.

---- (1981). Notes on the noninterpretive elements in the psychoanalytic

situation and process. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic
Association 29:89-118.

Strachey, J. (1934). The nature of the therapeutic action of psychoanalysis.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 15:127-159.

Stunkard, A., and Burt, V. (1967). Obesity and the body image II. American
Journal of Psychiatry 123:1443-1447.

---- (1975). Obesity. In American Handbook of Psychiatry, 2nd ed., vol. IV, ed. S.
Arieti. New York: Basic Books.

---- (1980). Obesity. In Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 3rd. ed., vol. II,
ed. H. Kaplan, A. Freedman, and B. Sadock. Baltimore: Williams
and Wilkins.

Sturrock, J., ed. (1979). Structuralism and Since: From Levi Strauss to Derrida.
New York: Oxford University Press.

Sullivan, H. (1953). The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry. New York: Norton.

Tarachow, S. (1963). An Introduction to Psychotherapy. New York:

International Universities Press.

Tartakoff, H. (1966). The normal personality in our culture and the Nobel

[Link] 68
 Prize complex. In Psychoanalysis: A General Psychology, ed. R.
Loewenstein, L. Newman, M. Schur, and A. Solnit. New York:
International Universities Press.

Taylor, C. (1975). Hegel. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Teicholz, J. (1978). A selective review of the psychoanalytic literature on

theoretical conceptualizations of narcissism. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association 26:831-862.

Ticho, E. (1982). The alternate schools and the self. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association 30:849-862.

Tolpin, P. (1983). A change in the self: The development and transformation

of an idealizing transference. International Journal of Psycho-
Analysis 64:461-483.

Treurniet, N. (1983). Psychoanalysis and self-psychology: A

metapsychological essay with a clinical illustration. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association 31:59-100.

Trilling, L. (1971). Sincerity and Authenticity: Six Lectures. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press.

Tuchman, B. (1984). The March of Folly. New York: Knopf.

Turkle, S. (1978). Psychoanalytic Politics. New York: Basic Books.

Tuttman, S. (1978). Discussion in symposium on Kohut’s Restoration of the

Self. Psychoanalytic Review 65:624-629.

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 69

Volkan, V. (1976). Primitive Internalized Object Relations. New York:
International Universities Press.

Waelder, R. (1930). The principle of multiple function: Observations on over-

determination. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 5:45-62.

Waldron, S. (1983). Review of Doing Psychotherapy by Michael Franz Basch.

Psychoanalytic Quarterly 52:624-629.

Wallerstein, R. (1981). The bipolar self: Discussion of alternative

perspectives. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
29:377-394.

Webster (1961). New International Dictionary of the English Language.

Springfield: Merriam.

Weiss, E., and English, O. (1957). Psychosomatic Medicine: A Clinical Study of

Psycho-physiologic Reactions. Philadelphia: Saunders.

Williams, R., Haney, T., Lee, K., Kong, Y., Blumenthal, J., and Whalen, R. (1980).
Type-A behavior, hostility, and coronary atherosclerosis.
Psychosomatic Medicine 42:539-549.

Williamson, A. (1984). Introspection and Contemporary Poetry. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press.

Wilson, C., ed. (1983). Fear of Being Fat. New York: Jason Aronson.

Winnicott, D. (1953). Transitional objects and transitional phenomena: A

study of the first not-me possession. International Journal of
Psycho-Analysis 34:89-97.

[Link] 70
---- (1958). Collected Papers: Through Pediatrics to Psycho-Analysis. New York:
Basic Books.

---- (1965). The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment. New
York: International Universities Press.

---- (1969). The use of an object. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis

50:711-716.

---- (1971). Letter to Mme. Jeannine Kalmanovitch. Nouvelle Revue de

Psychoanalyse, vol. 3. Quoted by M. Kahn in the Introduction to
Winnicott’s Collected Papers, 2nd ed. Toronto: Clarke, Irwin, 1975.

Wolf, E. (1976). Ambience and abstinence. Annual of Psychoanalysis 4: 101-

115.

---- (1979). Transference and countertransference in analysis of disorders of

the self. Contemporary Psychoanalysis 15:577-594.

---- (1980). Tomorrow’s self: Heinz Kohut’s contribution to adolescent

psychiatry. Adolescent Psychiatry 8:41-50.

---- , Gedo, J., and Terman, D. (1972). On the adolescent process as a

transformation of the self. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 1:257-
272.

Wollheim, R. (1984). The Thread of Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Wood, A. (1981). Karl Marx. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Woolcott, P. (1981). Addiction: Clinical and theoretical considerations. Annual

Psychology of the Self and the Treatment of Narcissism 71

 of Psychoanalysis 9:189-206.

Wooley, S., and Wooley, O. (1980). Eating disorders: Obesity and anorexia. In
Women and Psychotherapy, ed. A. Brodsky and R. Hare-Muslin.
New York: Guilford Press.

Zeigarnik, R. (1927). Über das Behalten von erledigten und unerlodigten

Handlungen. Psychologische Forschung 9:1-85.

[Link] 72