Unit-1: THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

EVS AS A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SUBJECT

Multidisciplinary- To understand the multidisciplinary nature of environmental

studies, we must first comprehend the literal definition of the term
multidisciplinary. The phrase is made up of two words: multi and disciplinary. To
begin, we define the term disciplinary. Disciplined research in a certain subject is
what the term “disciplinary” refers to. Multidisciplinary, on the other hand, refers
to the combination of more than one discipline or topic of study

Environment- The word environment is derived from the French word

‘environner’ which means to ‘encircle or surround’. Thus our environment can be
defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence
the survival, growth, and development of
people, animals, and plants”
This broad definition includes the natural world
and the technological environment as well as
the cultural and social contexts that shape
human lives. It includes all factors (living and
nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; a set
of circumstances surrounding a particular
occurrence and all the things that surrounds
us.
Thus most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother Nature’ and most
traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for their
livelihoods.

Why EVS is a multidisciplinary Subject?

EVS is a multidisciplinary academic discipline concerned with the investigation,
research, and extension of knowledge about the living and physical environment.
It also aids in a better knowledge of environmental natural, political, technical,
economic, social, and cultural elements. Environmental Studies, or EVS, can
alternatively be defined as the science of physical phenomena in the
environment.

Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is

essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our
natural world and human impacts on its integrity

Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because the environment is

complex and it comprises various branches of studies like chemistry, physics,
medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering, etc.
It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the
sources, reactions, transport, effect, and the fate of physical and biological
species in the air, water, soil and the effect from human activity upon these.

Environmental Studies are concerned with a variety of issues, including the

protection of natural resources, pollution management, and the influence of a
growing human population on the environment. To solve these complex
environmental issues, a multidisciplinary approach is necessary. These issues
are linked to several sectors such as agriculture, land degradation, economic
loss, pollution of natural resources, forestry, and habitat fragmentation. As a
result, the Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies is required to obtain
information about these challenges.

Its components include biology, geology, chemistry, physics, engineering,

sociology, health, anthropology, economics, statistics, computers, and
philosophy. EVS encompasses a very vast field of study. Not only restricted to
environmental conservation and management of resources, but it also lays
emphasis on understanding:
● Types of pollution and their harmful effects on living organisms
● Biodiversity, its types, and causes of degradation
● Deforestation and methods to increase forest cover
● Desertification
● Waste disposal and sewage treatment

IMPORTANCE

It raises awareness of issues impacting the environment and also teaches people
to explore all the problems related to the environment, and engage in wise ways
of preserving it. Whether we bring nature into the classroom, take students
outside to learn. Environmental Education has many benefits; some of them are
listed below.

1. Sustainability

With the current rate of consumption of natural resources, it will be depleted far
too fast for future generations to survive. Environmental education helps
students understand how their decisions and actions affect the environment. It
builds knowledge and skills necessary to address complex environmental issues
and helps people to build an environment healthy and sustainable future.

2. Awareness

Environmental studies help to educate people regarding their duties towards

environmental protection. It provides basic information on issues like energy
needs, global climate change, toxic emissions, and waste disposal.

3. Health

With the depletion of the environment both physical and mental health gets
affected. Environmental education helps in addressing some of the health issues
which are commonly seen in children today, such as obesity, depression, and
attention deficit disorders. One of the best benefits of environmental education is
that it takes place outside the confines of a classroom. Students can experience
the serenity and the healing powers of nature. By exposing students to nature
and allowing them to learn and play outside, Environmental education fosters
good nutrition, sensitivity, appreciation, and respect for the environment

4. Imagination and enthusiasm are heightened

Environmental education is an interactive learning that sparks imagination and

unlocks creativity. Through environmental education, one would know the rescue
drills for natural calamities better, how to use your greens better, etc.
Environmental education raises student achievement in core academic areas as
students are more enthusiastic and engaged in learning.

5. The productive value of nature:

Thus the urgent need to protect all living species is a concept that we need to
understand and act upon. While individually, we perhaps cannot directly prevent
the extinction of a species, creating a strong public opinion to protect the National
Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which wild species live is an important aspect
of sustainable living. There is a close link between agriculture and the forest,
which illustrates its productive value.

6. Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature:

The aesthetic and recreational values that nature possesses enlivens our
existence on earth. This is created by developing National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed areas. A wilderness experience has
exceptional recreational value. This has been described as nature tourism, or
wildlife tourism, and is also one aspect of adventure tourism.

7. The option values of nature:

While we utilize several goods and services of nature and enjoy its benefits, we
must recognize that every activity that we do in our daily lives has an adverse
impact on nature’s integrity.

However, nature provides us with various options on how we utilize its goods and
services. This is its option value. We can use up goods and services greedily and
destroy its integrity and long-term values, or we can use their resources
sustainably and reduce our impacts on the environment.

Environmental studies are important because they help us comprehend our

surroundings and natural occurrences. Several factors highlight the significance
of the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies. They are as follows:

1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance: It has been well

recognized that environmental issues like global warming, ozone depletion, acid
rain, marine pollution, and loss of biodiversity are not merely national issues but
are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction: It is incumbent upon us to save
humanity from extinction. Consequences to our activities cause destructing the
environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.

3. Need for Wise Planning of Development: Our survival and sustenance

depend. Resources withdrew; processing and use of the product have all to be
synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.

Web of Life/ Scope

The idea of the web of life is shown by the interdependence within an ecosystem.
Animals and plants depend on a complex system of food for survival. Our
dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without
protecting the earth’s environmental resources. Connecting the many plants and
animals with lines representing their functions and food chains within this web
would create a tangled maze. It is obvious that all forms of life in the ecosystem
are dependent on all other living and non-living things for food, nutrients, and
energy.

Thus the scope of environmental studies is extremely wide and covers some
aspects of nearly every major discipline.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being
increasingly degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to
be done. We often feel it’s the government's job but if we endanger our
environment there is no way on which the government can perform all these
clean-up functions. Public awareness is thus a critical need to further
environmental protection.

Institutions

A few well-known organizations for environment protection include government

organizations such as the BSI (British Standards Institution) and ZSI (Zoological
Survey of India), and NGOs such as BNHS (Bombay Natural History Society),
WWF-I (World Wide Fund for Nature).
 1. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai:

the BNHS began as a small society of six members in 1883. It grew from a group
of shikaris and people from all walks of life into a major research organization
that substantially influenced conservation policy in the country. Undoubtedly its
major contribution has been in the field of wildlife research. It is India’s oldest
conservation research-based NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of the
battle for species and ecosystems.

2. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New Delhi:

The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in Mumbai after which the headquarters were
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all over India. The early years focused
attention on wildlife education and awareness. It runs several programs including
the Nature Clubs of India program for school children and works as a think tank
and lobby force for environment and development issues.

3. Center for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi:

Activities of this Center include organizing campaigns, holding workshops and

conferences, and producing environment-related publications. The CSE also
publishes a popular magazine, ‘Down to Earth’,

4. CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras

The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It conducts a variety of programs to spread
environmental awareness and creates interest in conservation among the
general public.

5. Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education and Research

(BVIEER), Pune:
6. Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora:

The Organisation is a Nodal Agency that supports NGOs in need of funds for
their environment-related activities. The main targets are linked with sustainable
resource use at the village level through training school children.

7. Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun:

This Institution was established in 1982, as a major training establishment for
Forest Officials and Research in Wildlife Management. It trains personnel in
ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat management, and Nature interpretation.

8. Botanical Survey of India (BSI):

BSI was established in 1890 at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. The BSI
currently has nine regional centers. It carries out surveys of plant resources in
different regions.

9. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI):

The ZSI was established in1916. Its mandate was to do a systematic survey of
fauna in India.

People

1. Charles Darwin wrote the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light the
close relationship between habitats and species. It brought about new
thinking of man’s relationship with other species that was based on
evolution.
2. Alfred Wallace came to the same conclusions during his work.
3. Ralph Emerson spoke of the dangers of commerce to our environment way
back in the 1840s.
4. Henry Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilderness should be preserved
after he lived in the wild for a year. He felt that most people did not care for
nature and would sell it off for a small sum of money.
5. John Muir is remembered as having saved the great ancient sequoia trees
in California's forests. In the 1890s he formed the Sierra Club, which is a
major conservation NGO in the USA.
6. Aldo Leopald was a forest official in the US in the 1920s. He designed the
early policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife management. In the
1960s
7. Rachel Carson published several articles that caused immediate worldwide
concern on the effects of pesticides on nature and mankind. She wrote a
well-known book called ‘Silent Spring’ which eventually led to a change in
Government policy and public awareness.
8. EO Wilson is an entomologist who envisioned that biological diversity was
a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Diversity of Life’ in 1993, which
 was awarded a prize for the best book published on environmental issues.
His writings brought home to the world the risks to mankind due to
man-made disturbances in natural ecosystems that are leading to the rapid
extinction of species at the global level.
9. Salim Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in India and with the
Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). He also wrote several great
books including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His autobiography, ‘Fall
of a Sparrow’ should be read by every nature enthusiast. He was our
country’s leading conservation scientist and influenced environmental
policies in our country for over 50 years.
10. Indira Gandhi as PM has played a highly significant role in the
preservation of India’s wildlife. It was during her period as PM, that the
network of PAs grew from 65 to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was
formulated during the period when she was PM and the Indian Board for
Wildlife was extremely active as she personally chaired all its meetings.
India gained a name for itself by being a major player in CITES and other
International Environmental Treaties
11.S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest supporters of wildlife conservation
and nature awareness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP Godrej
received 10 awards for his conservation activities. He was awarded the
Padma Bhushan in 1999
12. M S Swaminathan is one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and
has also been concerned with various aspects of biodiversity conservation
both of cultivars and wild biodiversity.
13. Medha Patkar is known as one of India’s champions who has supported
the cause of downtrodden tribal people whose environment is being
affected by the dams on the Narmada river.
14. Sunderlal Bahugna’s Chipko Movement has become an internationally
well-known example of a highly successful conservation action program
through the efforts of local people for guarding their forest resources. His
fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri Dam in a fragile
earthquake-prone setting is a battle that he continues to wage.

1. natural resources
2. Nonrenewable resources,
3. renewable resources
4. Sustainable utilization or development
5. Man and the web of life
6. What happens to pollutants in the atmosphere?
7. Fukushima Power Plant
8. How can desert ecosystems be conserved?
9. Natural resources and associated problems (most probably same as book
pg 48)
Unit-2: NATURAL RESOURCES

History of the global environment

What is environmental history?

Environmental history is always about human interaction with the natural world
or, to put it in another way, it studies the interaction between culture and nature.
The principal goal of environmental history is to deepen our understanding of
how humans have been affected by the natural environment in the past and also
how they have affected that environment and with what results.

Environmental history is a rather new discipline that came into being during the
1960s and 1970s. It was a direct consequence of the growing awareness of
worldwide environmental problems such as pollution of water and air by
pesticides, depletion of the ozone layer, and the enhanced greenhouse effect
caused by human activity. In this development historians started to look for the
origins of the contemporary problems, drawing upon the knowledge of a whole
field of scientific disciplines.

Environmental History Today/Changes in Land and Resource use- As our ability

to grow food and use domestic animals grew, these ‘natural’ ecosystems were
developed into agricultural land. Most traditional agriculturists depended
extensively on rain, streams, and rivers for water. Later they began to use wells
to tap underground water sources and to impound water and created irrigated
land by building dams.

Mankind has been overusing and depleting natural resources. The over-intensive
use of land has been found to exhaust the capability of the ecosystem to support
the growing demands of more and more people, all requiring more intensive use
of resources. Industrial growth, urbanization, population growth, and the
enormous increase in the use of consumer goods, have all put further stresses
on the environment. They create great quantities of solid waste. Pollution of air,
water, and soil has begun to seriously affect human health.
Industrial Development- Industrial development is aimed at meeting growing
demands for all consumer items. However, these consumer goods also generate
waste in ever larger quantities. The growth of industrial complexes has led to a
shift of people from their traditional, sustainable, rural way of life to urban centers
that developed around the industry. During the last few decades, several small
urban centers have become large cities, some have even become giant
mega-cities. This has increased the disparity between what the surrounding land
can produce and what a large number of increasingly consumer-oriented people
in these areas of high population density consume.

Earth's Resources and Man/spheres-

Atmosphere- An atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelopes

Earth and is held in place by the gravity of the earth.

The atmosphere forms a protective shell over the earth. The lowest layer, the
troposphere, the only part warm enough for us to survive in, is only 12 kilometers
thick. The stratosphere is 50 kilometers thick and contains a layer of sulfates
which is important for the formation of rain. It also contains a layer of ozone,
which absorbs ultra-violet light known to cause cancer and without which, no life
could exist on earth. The atmosphere is not uniformly warmed by the sun. This
leads to air flows and variations in climate, temperature, and rainfall in different
parts of the earth. It is a complex dynamic system. If its nature is disrupted it
affects all mankind.

What Humans do wrong - To continue to support life, air must be kept clean.
Major pollutants of air are created by industrial units that release various gases
such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and toxic fumes into the air. Air is also
polluted by burning fossil fuels. The buildup of carbon dioxide which is known as
the ‘greenhouse effect’ in the atmosphere is leading to current global warming.
The growing number of scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses, and trucks which run
on fossil fuel (petrol and diesel) is a major cause of air pollution in cities and
along highways.

Functions-

• Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic requirements)

.• Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems and domestic animals used by
man as food.

• Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used for the growth of plants (in turn are
used by man).

Hydrosphere- A hydrosphere is the total amount of water on a [Link]

hydrosphere covers three quarters of the earth’s surface. A major part of the
hydrosphere is the marine ecosystem in the ocean, while only a small part occurs
in fresh water. Fresh water in rivers, lakes and glaciers, is perpetually being
renewed by a process of evaporation and rainfall. Some of this fresh water lies in
underground aquifers.

Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it
continues to change in shape. This is caused by seafloor spreading and
continental drift, which rearranges the land and ocean.

What Humans do wrong- . Human activities such as deforestation create serious

changes in the hydrosphere. Once land is denuded of vegetation, the rain erodes
the soil which is washed into the [Link] from industry and sewage find
their way into rivers and into the sea. Water pollution thus threatens the health of
communities as all our lives depend on the availability of clean water. This once
plentiful resource is now becoming rare and expensive due to pollution.

Provides-

• Clean water for drinking (a metabolic requirement for living processes).

• Water for washing and cooking.

• Water used in agriculture and industry.

• Food resources from the sea, including fish,

crustacea, sea weed, etc.

• Food from fresh water sources, including

fish, crustacea and aquatic plants.

• Water flowing down from mountain ranges

harnessed to generate electricity in hydroelectric projects.

Lithosphere- The lithosphere is the outer solid shell of the Earth. ... The
lithosphere includes the crust and, below, the uppermost layer of the mantle; it
floats on the weaker asthenosphere. There are two types of lithosphere: Oceanic
lithosphere, which is associated with Oceanic crust.

The lithosphere began as a hot ball of matter which formed the earth about 4.6
billion years ago. About 3.2 billion years ago, the earth cooled down considerably
and a very special event took place - life began on our planet. The crust of the
earth is 6 or 7 kilometers thick and lies under the continents. Of the 92 elements
in the lithosphere only eight are common constituents of crustal rocks. Of these
constituents, 47% is oxygen, 28% is silicon, 8% is aluminium, 5% is iron, while
sodium, magnesium, potassium and calcium constitute 4% each. Together, these
elements form about 200 common mineral compounds.

Biosphere- The biosphere, also known as the ecosphere, is the worldwide sum of
all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on Earth. The biosphere is
virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs.
This is the relatively thin layer on the earth in which life can exist. Within it the air,
water, rocks and soil and the living creatures, form structural and functional
ecological units, which together can be considered as one giant global living
system, that of our Earth itself. Within this framework, those characterised by
broadly similar geography and climate, as well as communities of plant and
animal life can be divided for convenience into different biogeographical realms.

Provides-

• Food, from crops and domestic animals,

providing human metabolic requirements.

• Food, for all forms of life which live as interdependent species in a community
and

form food chains in nature on which man is

dependent.

• Energy needs: Biomass fuel wood collected

from forests and plantations, along with

other forms of organic matter, used as a

source of energy.

• Timber and other construction materials.

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES-

Non-renewable resources-

These are minerals that have been formed in the lithosphere over millions of
years and constitute a closed system. These non-renewable resources, once
used, remain on earth in a different form and, unless recycled, become waste
material. Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels such as oil and coal,
which if extracted at the present rate, will soon be totally used up. The end
products of fossil fuels are in the form of heat and mechanical energy and
chemical compounds, which cannot be reconstituted as a resource.

Renewable resources-

A renewable resource, also known as a flow resource, is a natural resource

which will replenish to replace the portion depleted by usage and consumption,
either through natural reproduction or other recurring processes in a finite
amount of time in a human time scale.

a) Forest Resources

Forests provide an array of benefits to human societies above and beyond their
pivotal roles as habitat and environmental regulators in natural ecosystems.
These benefits are often described as resources that people can draw upon for
fuel, lumber, and recreational or commercial purposes. The perception that
forests provide resources for people has been a prominent factor in spurring
efforts to preserve forests

Reasons of Forest Resources Depletion-

Use and overexploitation- People who live in or near forests know the value of
forest resources first hand because their lives and livelihoods depend directly on
these resources. However, the rest of us also derive great benefits from the
forests which we are rarely aware of. The water we use depends on the
existence of forests on the watersheds around river valleys. Our homes, furniture
and paper are made from wood from the forest. We use many medicines that are
based on forest produce. And we depend on the oxygen that plants give out and
the removal of carbon dioxide we breathe out from the air.

Scientists estimate that India should ideally have 33 percent of its land under
forests. Today we have only about 12 percent. Forests once extended over large
tracts of our country. People have used forests in our country for thousands of
years. As agriculture spread the forests were left in patches which were
controlled mostly by tribal people. They hunted animals and gathered plants and
lived entirely on forest resources. Deforestation became a major concern in
British times when a large amount of timber was extracted for building their ships.
This led the British to develop scientific forestry in India. They however alienated
local people by creating Reserved and Protected Forests which curtailed access
to the resources. This led to a loss of stake in the conservation of the forests
which led to a gradual degradation and fragmentation of forests across the length
and breadth of the country.

Thus we need not only to protect existing forests but also to increase our forest
cover.

Deforestation- Where civilizations have looked after forests by using forest

resources cautiously, they have prospered, where forests were destroyed, the
people were gradually impoverished. Today logging and mining are serious
causes of loss of forests in our country and all over the world. Dams built for
hydroelectric power or irrigation have submerged forests and have displaced
tribal people whose lives are closely knit to the forest. This has become a serious
cause of concern in India. One of India’s serious environmental problems is
forest degradation due to timber extraction and our dependence on fuelwood. A
large number of poor rural people are still highly dependent on wood to cook their
meals and heat their homes. We have not been able to plant enough trees to
support the need for timber and fuelwood.

The National Forest Policy of 1988 now gives an added importance to JFM.
Another resolution in 1990 provided a formal structure for community
participation though the formation of Village Forest Committees. The States have
tried a variety of approaches to JFM. The share for village forest committees
ranges from 25 per cent in Kerala to 100 per cent in Andhra Pradesh, 50 per cent
in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tripura. In many States 25 per cent of the
revenue is used for village development. In many States non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) are available for people free of cost.

Timber extraction, mining and dams- Timber extraction, mining and dams are
invariably parts of the needs of a developing country. If timber is overharvested
the ecological functions of the forest are lost. Unfortunately forests are located in
areas where there are rich mineral resources. Forests also cover the steep
embankments of river valleys, which are ideally suited to develop hydel and
irrigation projects. Thus there is a constant conflict of interests between the
conservation interests of environmental scientists and the Mining and Irrigation
Departments. What needs to be understood is that long-term ecological gains
cannot be sacrificed for short-term economic gains that unfortunately lead to
deforestation. These forests where development projects are planned, can
displace thousands of tribal people who lose their homes when these plans are
executed. This leads to high levels of suffering for which there is rarely a
satisfactory answer.

b) Water resources

Introduction-

Water is a very important natural resource. The water cycle, through evaporation
and precipitation, maintains hydrological systems which form rivers and lakes
and supports a variety of aquatic ecosystems. Water covers 70% of the Earth’s
surface, but only 3% of this is fresh water. Of this, 2% is present as polar ice
caps and only 1% is usable water in rivers, lakes and subsoil aquifers. At a global
level, 70% of the water is used for agriculture, about 25% for industry, and only
5% for domestic use. India uses 90% of its water for agriculture, 7% for industry,
and 3% for domestic use. March 22nd is World water Day.

Uses of water

● Water is the raw material in the process of photosynthesis of green plants.

● It protects from dehydration of all terrestrial life.
● It influences global ecology, i.e., weather, global climate; flora and fauna.
● Water is linked with social, economic, political and ecological intricacies.
● Water is required for several purposes such as drinking, bathing, washing,
agricultural production, and industrial production, generation of
hydro-power, and abatement of pollution, navigation, recreation and
maintenance of ecosystems

Sources Of Water-

Rainfall: India can be broadly divided into 15 ecological regions. The vast
ecological diversity of this country is reflected in the diversity in available water
resources. With an average annual rainfall of 1170 mm, India is one of the
wettest countries in the world. However, there are large variations in the seasonal
and geographical distribution of rainfall over the country. At one extreme are
areas like Cherrapunji, in the northeast, which is drenched each year with 11,000
mm of rainfall, and at the other extreme are places like Jaisalmer, in the west,
which receives barely 200 mm of annual rainfall. Though the average rainfall is
adequate, nearly three-quarters of the rain pours down in less than 120 days,
from June to September.
Groundwater: India's groundwater resources are almost ten times its annual
rainfall. According to the Central Groundwater Board of the Government of India,
the country has an annual exploitable groundwater potential of 26.5 million
hectare-metres. Nearly 85% of currently exploited groundwater is used only for
irrigation. Groundwater accounts for as much as 70-80% of the value of farm
produce attributable to irrigation. Besides, groundwater is now the source of
four-fifths of the domestic water supply in rural areas, and around half that of
urban and industrial areas. However, according to the International Irrigation
Management Institute (IIMI), the water table almost everywhere in India is falling
at between one to three metres every year.

Surface water: There are 14 major, 44 medium and 55 minor river basins in the
country. The major river basins constitute about 83-84% of the total drainage
area. This, along with the medium river basins, accounts for 91% of the country's
total drainage. India has the largest irrigation infrastructure in the world, but the
irrigation efficiencies are low, at around 35%.

Overutilization and pollution of surface and groundwater-

With the growth of the human population there is an increasing need for larger
amounts of water to fulfil a variety of basic needs. Today in many areas this
requirement cannot be met. Overutilization of water occurs at various levels.
Most people use more water than they really need. Most of us waste water
during a bath by using a shower or during washing of clothes. Many agriculturists
use more water than necessary to grow crops. There are many ways in which
farmers can use less water without reducing yields such as the use of drip
irrigation systems.

Agriculture- Agriculture pollutes surface water and underground water stores by

the excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Methods such as the use
of biomass as fertilizer and non toxic pesticides such as neem products and
using integrated pest management systems reduces the agricultural pollution of
surface and ground water.
Industry- Industry tends to maximise short-term economic gains by not bothering
about its liquid waste and releasing it into streams, rivers and the sea. In the
longer term, as people become more conscious of using ‘green products’ made
by ecosensitive industries, the polluter’s products may not be used. The polluting
industry that does not care for the environment and pays off bribes to get away
from the cost needed to use effluent treatment plants may eventually be caught,
punished and even closed down. Public awareness may increasingly put
pressures on industry to produce only eco-friendly products which are already
gaining in popularity.

Floods-Floods occur most commonly when water from heavy rainfall, melting ice
or snow or combination of these, exceeds the carrying capacity of the receiving
river system. During floods, the river carries fertile sediment and deposits it on
the level land called as flood plains which are fertile. Often these become areas
for human settlement.

In India floods bring much havoc causing loss of life and property each year. Due
to floods, the plains have become silted with mud and sand, thus affecting the
cultivable land areas. Extinction of civilization in some coastal areas is mainly
due to floods. In Orissa, soon after the Super cyclone of 2001, the entire sea
coast was adversely affected by high sea tides, flooding the cropped area and
depositing salts on good fertile soil. Flooding can be controlled by building dams
upstream.

Drought- It is defined as an extended period – season, a year, several years – of

deficient rainfall relative to the statistical multi-year average for the region. Lack
of rainfall leads to inadequate water required by plants, animals and human
beings. A drought leads to other diseases, namely food insecurity, famine,
malnutrition, epidemics and displacement of populations from one area to
another.

Sustainable water management-

DAM- Rainwater is conserved through walls and reservoirs, bunding of streams
and canal systems. Constructing large dams and reservoirs have benefits and
drawbacks.

Benefits-

● Water from rain and melting snow can be captured and stored.
● This stored can be released to produce hydro electric power; irrigate land
below the dam; control flooding land below the reservoir; provide water
carried to towns and cities by aqueducts.
● Reservoirs are used for recreation activities such as swimming, fishing and
boating.

Disadvantages/ environmental impacts-

1. Impacts within and around the area covered by the dam and reservoir

2. Downstream effects caused by alteration in hydraulic regime

3. Regional effects in terms of overall aspects including resource use and

socio-economic aspects.

The impacts caused by construction of dams and reservoirs include changes in

the microclimate, loss of vegetable cover, soil erosion, variation in water table
and enhanced seismic activities due to pressure of water. In hilly tracts, blasting
operations, for road construction can cause considerable damage to the
environment through loosening of hillsides and resultant landslides,
sedimentation of reservoirs, drying up of spring and flash floods. Creation of new
settlements for the workmen and rehabilitation of project oustees in the
watershed areas are becoming major problems.

c) Mineral Resources

A mineral is a naturally occurring substance of definite chemical composition and

identifiable physical properties. An ore is a mineral or combination of minerals
from which a useful substance, such as a metal, can be extracted and used to
manufacture various useful goods. Minerals are formed over a period of millions
of years in the earth’s crust. These are nonrenewable resources important for
modern civilization. The minerals of India are unevenly distributed and are
localized in few areas. More than 90% of our mineral wealth is concentrated in
Chotta Nagpur Plateau region. Minerals are obtained from the earth through the
process of mining. Mining operations progress through four stage.

Process of mining-

Minerals and their ores need to be extracted from the earth’s interior so that they
can be used. This process is known as mining. Mining operations generally
progress through four stages:

Prospecting: Searching for minerals

Exploration: assessing the size, shape, location, and economic value of the
deposit.

Development: the work of preparing access to the deposit so that the minerals
can be extracted from it.

Exploitation: Extracting the minerals from the mines.

In the past, mineral deposits were discovered by prospectors in areas where

mineral deposits in the form of veins were exposed on the surface. Today,
however, prospecting and exploration is done by teams of geologists, mining
engineers, geophysicists, and geochemists who work together to discover new
deposits. Modern prospecting methods include the use of sophisticated
instruments like GIS to survey and study the geology of the area.

The method of mining has to be determined depending on whether the ore or

mineral deposit is nearer the surface or deep within the earth. The topography of
the region and the physical nature of the ore deposit is studied.
Mines are of two types – surface (open cut or strip mines) or deep or shaft mines.
Coal, metals and non-metalliferous minerals are all mined differently depending
on the above criteria. The method chosen for mining will ultimately depend on
how maximum yield may be obtained under existing conditions at a minimum
cost, with the least danger to the mining personnel.

Mine safety: Mining is a hazardous occupation, and the safety of mine workers is
an important environmental consideration of the industry. Surface mining is less
hazardous than underground mining. Metal mining is less hazardous than coal
mining. In all underground mines, rock and roof falls, flooding, and inadequate
ventilation are the greatest hazards. Large explosions have occured in coal
mines, killing many miners. More miners have suffered from disasters due to the
use of explosives in metal mines.

Environmental problems: Mining operations are considered one of the main

sources of environmental degradation. The extraction of all these products from
the lithosphere has a variety of side effects. Depletion of available land due to
mining, waste from industries, conversion of land to industry and pollution of
land, water and air by industrial wastes, are environmental side effects of the use
of these non-renewable resources. Public awareness of this problem is of a
global nature and government actions to stem the damage to the natural
environment have led to numerous international agreements and laws directed
toward the prevention of activities and events that may adversely affect the
environment.

d) Food Resources

Food is the basic necessity of human life without which one cannot survive. Our
food mainly comes from agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing. Modern
patterns of agriculture are unsustainable and polluting the environment with
excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides. 16th October is declared as World
Food Day.

World Food Problems- In many developing countries where populations are

expanding rapidly, the production of food is unable to keep pace with the growing
demand. Food production in 64 of the 105 developing countries is lagging behind
their population growth levels. These countries are unable to produce more food,
or do not have the financial means to import it. India is one of the countries that
have been able to produce enough food by cultivating a large proportion of its
arable land through irrigation. The Green Revolution of the 60’s reduced
starvation in the country. However many of the technologies we have used to
achieve this are now being questioned.

Some listed problems are-

● Production of food is not keeping pace with the growing demand.

● There are great disparities in the availability of nutritious food. Some tribes
still face serious food problems leading to malnutrition especially among
women and children.
● Our fertile soils are being exploited faster than they can recuperate.
● Forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted to agricultural use,
which has led to serious ecological problems.
● Our fish resources, both marine and inland, show evidence of exhaustion.
● Global food production has increased by using more soil, water, plant,
animal and energy resources and causing more pollution and
environmental damage.
● 40% of people in India suffer from malnutrition because they are poor to
buy or to grow enough food to meet their basic needs.

● 2/3rd of India’s land is threatened by erosion, water shortages and

salinization.

● Women and children are mostly underfed and malnourished compared to

men.

Food Security-

It is estimated that 18 million people worldwide, most of whom are children, die
each year due to starvation or malnutrition, and many others suffer a variety of
dietary deficiencies. The earth can only supply a limited amount of food. If the
world’s carrying capacity to produce food cannot meet the needs of a growing
population, anarchy and conflict will follow. Thus food security is closely linked
with population control through the family welfare program. It is also linked to the
availability of water for farming. Food security is only possible if food is equitably
distributed to all. Many of us waste a large amount of food carelessly. This
eventually places great stress on our environmental resources. A major concern
is the support needed for small farmers so that they remain farmers rather than
shifting to urban centers as unskilled industrial workers. International trade
policies in regard to an improved flow of food across national borders from those
who have surplus to those who have a deficit in the developing world is another
issue that is a concern for planners who deal with International trade concerns.
‘Dumping’ of underpriced foodstuffs produced in the developed world, onto
markets in undeveloped countries undermines prices and forces farmers there to
adopt unsustainable practices to compete.

Extra stuff from website (Topic 5).

e.) Energy Resource

Meaning-

f.) Land resources:

The term “land resources” encompasses the physical, biotic, environmental,

infrastructural, and socio-economic components of a natural land unit, including
surface and near-surface freshwater resources important for management. The
interaction between the components of land resources is vital for determining the
productivity and sustainability of the agroecosystems.

Land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of
humanity and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. Landforms such
as hills, valleys, plains, river basins, and wetlands include different resource
generating areas that the people living in them depend on.

If the land is utilized carefully it can be considered a renewable resource.

Land, as a resource, can be converted into a non-renewable resource when

highly toxic industrial and nuclear wastes are dumped on it. If forests are
depleted, or grasslands are overgrazed, the land becomes unproductive and
wasteland is formed.

Thus a rational use of land needs careful planning.

Land Degradation

Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment

is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It
is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious or
undesirable. Every year, between 5 to 7 million hectares of land worldwide is
added to the existing degraded farmland.

Over irrigating farmland leads to salinization, as evaporation of water brings the

salts to the surface of the soil on which crops cannot grow. Over irrigation also
creates waterlogging of the topsoil so that crop roots are affected and the crop
deteriorates.
To address these challenges, Sustainable Land Management offers a range of
interventions to prevent or reduce land degradation.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil; it is a form of soil
degradation. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive
agents, that is, water, ice, snow, air, plants, and animals. Soil erosion is a
continuous process that occurs either slowly or at an alarming rate. It results in a
continuous loss of topsoil, ecological degradation, soil collapse, etc.

It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders
the ground dry. Farming, grazing, mining, construction, and recreational activities
are some of the causes of soil erosion. Degraded lands lose the water holding
capacity resulting in floods.

The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic
increase in pollution and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies
resulting in a decline in the population of aquatic organisms.

ESA’s (ecologically sensitive areas) - Ecologically Sensitive Areas refer to those

areas which have been notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and
Climate Change as areas around the Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks and
Protected Areas as requiring more protection due to their sensitiveness. An
ecologically sensitive area is one that is protected by the government given the
sheer number of species, plants and animals endemic to the region

ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Until fairly recently mankind acted as if he could go on forever exploiting the

ecosystems. But, in the last few decades, it has become increasingly evident that
the global ecosystem has the capacity to sustain only a limited level of utilization.
Biological systems cannot go on replenishing resources if they are overused or
misused.
Even biological resources traditionally classified as ‘renewable’ (oceans, forests,
grasslands, and wetlands) are being degraded by overuse and may be
permanently destroyed. ‘Non-renewable’ resources will be rapidly exhausted if
we continue to use them as intensively as at present.

The two most damaging factors leading to the current rapid depletion of all forms
of natural resources are increasing ‘consumerism’ on the part of the affluent
sections of society, and rapid population growth.

As an individual we need to decide, 1. What will we leave to our children? 2. Is

my material gain someone else’s loss?

We must ask ourselves if we have perhaps reached a critical flashpoint, at which

economic ‘development’ affects the lives of people more adversely than the
benefits it provides.

How can we save electricity?

1. Turn off lights and fans as soon as you leave the room.
2. Keep the bulbs and tubes clean. Dust on tubes and bulbs decreases
lighting levels by 20 to 30 percent.
3. A pressure cooker can save up to 75 percent of the energy required for
cooking. It is also faster.

EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES

Reduction of the unsustainable and unequal use of resources, and control of our
population growth are essential for the survival of our nation and indeed of
humankind everywhere. Our environment provides us with a variety of goods and
services necessary for our day-to-day lives, but the soil, water, climate, and solar
energy which form the ‘abiotic’ support that we derive from nature, are in
themselves not distributed evenly throughout the world or within countries.

A new economic order nationally and globally should be created with the ability to
distribute benefits of natural resources by sharing them more equally among
countries and communities. Sustainable utilization of natural resources should be
done, meaning proper management of natural resources for achieving total
benefits for the entire human community.
It is at the local level where people subsist by the sale of locally collected
resources, that the disparity is greatest. ‘Development’ has not reached them and
they are often unjustly accused of ‘exploiting’ natural resources. They must be
adequately compensated for the removal of the sources to distant regions and
thus develop a greater stake in protecting natural resources.

If we respect this we cannot commit acts that will deplete our life-supporting
systems.
Unit-3: ECOSYSTEM

An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form such

as forest, grassland, desert, wetland, or coastal area. The nature of the
ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills, mountains, plains,
rivers, lakes, coastal areas, or islands. The simplest definition of an ecosystem is
that it is a community or group of living organisms that live in and interact with
each other in a specific environment.

Ecosystem: The living community of plants and animals in any area together with
the non-living components of the environment such as soil, air, and water,
constitute the ecosystem.

It is also controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the

temperature, and the rainfall in the region. The geographical, climatic and soil
characteristics form its non-living (abiotic) component. These features create
conditions that support a community of plants and animals that evolution has
produced to live in these specific conditions.

An ecosystem is the basic unit of the field of the scientific study of nature.
According to this discipline, an ecosystem is a physically defined environment,
made up of two inseparable components:

● The biotope (abiotic): a particular physical environment with specific

physical characteristics such as the climate, temperature, humidity,
concentration of nutrients, or pH.
● The biocenosis (biotic): a set of living organisms such as animals, plants,
or micro-organisms, that are in constant interaction and are, therefore, in a
situation of interdependence.

All the living organisms in an area live in communities of plants and animals.
They interact with their non-living environment, and with each other at different
points in time for a large number of reasons. Life can exist only in a small
proportion of the earth’s land, water, and atmosphere.
 ➔ At the global level, the thin skin on earth containing water and land is
called the biosphere
➔ At a sub-global level, this is divided into biogeographical realms, Eg. South
and South-East Asia is the Oriental realm; North America is the Nearctic
realm; Australia the Australian realm.
➔ At a national or state level, this forms biogeographic regions. Eg. There are
several distinct geographical regions in India- the Himalayas, the Gangetic
Plains, the Highlands of Central India, the Western and Eastern Ghats.
➔ At an even more local level, each area has several structurally and
functionally identifiable ecosystems. Eg. different types of forests,
grasslands, river catchments, mangrove swamps in deltas, seashores,
islands, etc.

ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through

depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of
ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is
defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be
deleterious or undesirable.

Simply, The degradation of ecosystems is an environmental problem that

diminishes the capacity of species to survive. This degradation occurs in different
ways and is manifested in a reduction in the richness of the ecosystems as well
as their biological diversity, and in the goods and services they can offer, thereby
affecting indigenous and/or migratory species.

The reason for the depletion of natural resources is twofold – our rapidly
exploding population that needs to sustain itself on resources, and the growth of
affluent societies, which consume and waste a very large proportion of resources
and energy.

The degradation of ecosystems due to overexploitation of their resources, though

serving a short-term economic goal, has had direct negative effects on social
welfare in the medium and long terms. As long as the ecosystem is not
degraded, it represents a source of wealth for society, hence the importance of
keeping it in good condition.
Ecosystems and man: Every region of our earth has different ecosystems based
on its climatic conditions and geographical feature. There are terrestrial
ecosystems on land and aquatic ecosystems in water.

The human processes of farming, industrial production and consumption (or use)
of commodities are carried out by similar rules as those of the matter and energy
flows of the natural ecosystems. Also in the production and consumption of
commodities, matter and energy are derived from nature, pass through the
productive processes and get to the consumption stage. Waste and scrap are
generated and disposed of in the environment during the production and
consumption of commodities. The main differences in the matter and energy
flows of natural and human artificial ecosystems are:

● the speed at which resources are taken from nature and waste is given
back to nature (excessive exploitation of exhaustible and renewable
natural resources);
● quality of materials involved in this flow (pollution).

Both factors often prevent the artificial ecosystems from expanding, and, lacking
control and corrective measures, they risk destroying their life and perhaps that
of many other natural ecosystems. The speed at which natural resources are
taken away is actually so high as to cause these resources to quickly disappear,
so that no new productive processes can be fed. The amount and speed at which
waste is produced often largely exceed the depuration and assimilation ability of
the environment, also because much of this waste is non-biodegradable in the
short term.

Resource utilisation: In recent times the proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent

societies, grew rapidly. Inequality thus became a serious problem. Whereas in
the past many resources such as timber and fuel wood from the forest were
extracted sustainably, this pattern has drastically changed during the last century.
The economically better off sections began to use greater amounts of forest
products, while those people who lived in the forest became increasingly poor.

The key to this issue is the need for an ‘equitable’ distribution of all types of
natural resources. A more even sharing of resources within the community can
reduce these pressures on the natural ecosystems.

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

Components that make up the structural aspects of an ecosystem include:

1) Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.

2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic

aspects.

3) Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.

4) Producers – Plants.

5) Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large animals.

6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers – fungi.

Functional aspects include:

1) Energy cycles.

2) Food chains.

3) Diversity-interlinkages between organisms.

4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles.

5) Evolution.

The non-living components of an ecosystem are the amount of water, the various
inorganic substances and organic compounds, and climatic conditions such as
rainfall and temperature, which depend on geographical conditions and location
which is also related to the amount of sunlight. The living organisms in an
ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat.

The living component of plant life ranges from extremely small bacteria, which
live in the air, water, and soil, algae which live in fresh and saltwater, to the
terrestrial plants which range from grasses and herbs that grow after the
monsoon every year, to the giant long-lived trees of the forest.

Every living organism is in some way dependent on other organisms. Plants are
food for herbivorous animals which are in turn food for carnivorous animals. Thus
there are different trophic levels in the ecosystem.
Plants are the ‘producers’ in the ecosystem as they manufacture their food by
using energy from the sun. The herbivorous animals are primary consumers as
they live on the producers. The herbivorous animals include for example hare,
deer, and elephants that live on plant life. They graze on grass or feed on the
foliage from trees. At a higher trophic level, there are carnivorous animals, or
secondary consumers, which live on herbivorous animals. In our forests, the
carnivorous animals are tigers, leopards, jackals, foxes, and small wild cats.
Decomposers or detrivores are a group of organisms consisting of small animals
like worms, insects, bacteria, and fungi, which break down dead organic material
into smaller particles and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants
as nutrition.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life.
These are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle
and the energy cycle.

All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and
regeneration of its plant and animal species.

THE WATER CYCLE

The water cycle, also called the hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many
processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff.

When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls
directly into the sea. A part of the rainwater that falls on land percolates into the
ground. This is stored underground throughout the rest of the year. Water is
drawn up from the ground by plants along with the nutrients from the soil. The
water is transpired from the leaves as water vapor and returned to the
atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, water vapor rises and forms clouds. Winds
blow the clouds for long distances and when the clouds rise higher, the vapor
condenses and changes into droplets, which fall on the land as rain.

Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant,
its distribution among the various processes is continually changing.
Water influences the intensity of climate variability and change. It is the key part
of extreme events such as drought and floods. Its abundance and timely delivery
are critical for meeting the needs of society and ecosystems. Though this is an
endless cycle on which life depends, man’s activities are making drastic changes
in the atmosphere through the pollution which is altering rainfall patterns. This is
leading to prolonged drought periods extending over years in countries such as
Africa while causing floods in countries such as the US. El Nino storms due to
these effects have devastated many places in the last few years.

THE CARBON CYCLE

The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic
and biotic parts of the ecosystem. Carbon is a building block of both plant and
animal tissues. In the atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2). The
carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from
the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere.

Simply, It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused

throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon
sequestration to and release from carbon sinks.

(In the presence of sunlight, plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
through their leaves. The plants combine carbon dioxide with water, which is
absorbed by their roots from the soil. In the presence of sunlight, they are able to
form carbohydrates that contain carbon. This process is known as
photosynthesis.)

Plants use this complex mechanism for their growth and development. In this
process, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals depend for
their respiration. Plants, therefore, help in regulating and monitoring the
percentage of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. All of
mankind thus depends on the oxygen generated through this cycle. It also keeps
the CO2 at acceptable levels.

Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, which is used by them for energy
and for their growth. Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during
respiration. They also return fixed carbon to the soil in the waste they excrete.
When plants and animals die they return their carbon to the soil. These
processes complete the carbon cycle.
Since our planet and its atmosphere form a closed environment, the amount of
carbon in this system does not change.

THE OXYGEN CYCLE

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen atoms between different
oxidation states in ions, oxides, and molecules through redox reactions within
and between the spheres/reservoirs of the planet Earth.

The oxygen cycle, along with the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle plays an
essential role in the existence of life on the earth. The oxygen cycle is a
biological process that helps in maintaining the oxygen level by moving through
three main spheres of the earth which are: Atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere.

This biogeochemical cycle explains the movement of oxygen gas within the
atmosphere, the ecosystem, biosphere, and lithosphere. The oxygen cycle is
interconnected with the carbon cycle. The atmosphere is the layer of gases
present above the earth’s surface. The sum of Earth’s ecosystems makes a
biosphere. The lithosphere is the solid outer section along with the earth’s crust
and it is the largest reservoir of oxygen.

Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The
plants return oxygen to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This links the
Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon Cycle. Deforestation is likely to gradually reduce the
oxygen levels in our atmosphere. Thus plant life plays an important role in our
lives which we frequently do not appreciate. This is an important reason to
participate in afforestation programs.

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted

into multiple chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere, terrestrial,
and marine ecosystems. The conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through
both biological and physical processes. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle
include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and denitrification.

Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous animals that live on plants. When

animals defecate, this waste material is broken down by worms and insects
mostly beetles and ants. These small ‘soil animals’ break the waste material into
smaller bits on which microscopic bacteria and fungi can act. This material is
thus broken down further into nutrients that plants can absorb and use for their
growth. Thus nutrients are recycled back from animals to plants. Similarly, the
bodies of dead animals are also broken down into nutrients that are used by the
plants for their growth. Thus the nitrogen cycle on which life is dependent is
completed.

The conversion of nitrogen gas (N2) into nitrates and nitrites through
atmospheric, industrial, and biological processes is called nitrogen fixation. When
a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is
organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back
into ammonium, a process called ammonification. The conversion of ammonium
to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria.
This is called nitrification

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and fungi in the soil give this important element to plants,
which absorb it as nitrates. Nitrates are a part of the plant’s metabolism, which
helps in forming new plant proteins. This is used by animals that feed on plants.
The nitrogen is then transferred to carnivorous animals when they feed on the
herbivores. Thus our own lives are closely interlinked to soil animals, fungi, and
even bacteria in the soil.

THE ENERGY CYCLE

The chemical energy of food is the main source of energy required by all living
organisms. This energy is transmitted to different trophic levels along the food
chain. The energy flow in the ecosystem is one of the major factors that support
the survival of such a great number of organisms.

Energy from sunlight is converted by plants themselves into growing new plant
material which includes leaves, flowers, fruit, branches, trunks, and roots of
plants. Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly into their
tissues in the process of photosynthesis, they are known as producers in the
ecosystem. The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives
them energy. A large part of this energy is used up for day-to-day functions of
these animals such as breathing, digesting food. The carnivores in turn depend
on herbivorous animals on which they feed.

Thus the different plant and animal species are linked to one another through
food chains. Each food chain has three or four links. However as each plant or
animal can be linked to several other plants or animals through many different
linkages, these inter-linked chains can be depicted as a complex food web.

The energy in the ecosystem can be depicted in the form of a food pyramid or
energy pyramid. The food pyramid has a large base of plants called ‘producers’.
The pyramid has a narrower middle section that depicts the number and biomass
of herbivorous animals, which are called ‘first-order consumers’. The apex
depicts the small biomass of carnivorous animals called ‘second-order
consumers’.

Man is one of the animals at the apex of the pyramid. Thus to support mankind,
there must be a large base of herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity
of plant material.

When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being
broken down into simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms,
bacteria, and fungi so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots.
Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes back to the soil.
This links the energy cycle to the Nitrogen cycle.

INTEGRATION OF CYCLES IN NATURE

These cycles are a part of global life processes. These biogeochemical cycles
have specific features in each of the ecosystems. These cycles are however
linked to those of adjacent ecosystems. Together the cycles are responsible for
maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs these cycles beyond the limits that
nature can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to degraded earth
on which man will not be able to survive.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological succession is the process of change in the species structure of an

ecological community over time.

Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend to change

over a period of time. Succession can be related to seasonal environmental
changes, which create changes in the community of plants and animals living in
the ecosystem. Other successional events may take much longer periods of time
extending to several decades.
It is a process by which an ecological community undergoes more or less orderly
and predictable changes following a disturbance or the initial colonization of a
new habitat.

Ecological succession is the process by which the structure of a biological

community evolves over time. Two different types of succession—primary and
secondary—have been distinguished.

Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas—regions in which the soil

is incapable of sustaining life as a result of such factors as lava flows, newly
formed sand dunes or rocks left from a retreating glacier. Secondary succession
occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed; it
is typified by smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients
from the environment.

FOOD CHAINS and FOOD WEBS-

Food chains were first introduced by the Arab scientist and philosopher Al-Jahiz
in the 10th century and later popularised in a book published in 1927 by Charles
Elton, which also introduced the food web concept.

Food chain in ecology is the sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the
form of food from organism to organism. Food chains intertwine locally into a
food web because most organisms consume more than one type of animal or
plant. Plants, which convert solar energy to food by photosynthesis, are the
primary food source. In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is eaten by a
flesh-eating animal.

Because energy, in the form of heat, is lost at each step, or trophic level, chains
do not normally encompass more than four or five trophic levels. People can
increase the total food supply by cutting out one step in the food chain: instead of
consuming animals that eat cereal grains, the people themselves consume the
grains. Because the food chain is made shorter, the total amount of energy
available to the final consumers is increased.

A common metric used to quantify food web trophic structure is food chain
length. In its simplest form, the length of a chain is the number of links between a
trophic consumer and the base of the web. The mean chain length of an entire
web is the arithmetic average of the lengths of all chains in the food web.[1][2]
The food chain is an energy source diagram. The food chain begins with a
producer, which is eaten by a primary consumer. The primary consumer may be
eaten by a secondary consumer, which in turn may be consumed by a tertiary
consumer. For example, a food chain might start with a green plant as the
producer, which is eaten by a snail, the primary consumer. The snail might then
be the prey of a secondary consumer such as a frog, which itself may be eaten
by a tertiary consumer such as a snake.

Food chains are very important for the survival of most species. When only one
element is removed from the food chain it can result in extinction of a species in
some cases.

Charles Elton pioneered the concept of food cycles, food chains, and food size in
his classical 1927 book "Animal Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by
'food web' in a subsequent ecological text.

Food web is an important ecological concept. Basically, food web represents

feeding relationships within a community . It also implies the transfer of food
energy from its source in plants through herbivores to carnivores . Normally, food
webs consist of a number of food chains meshed together. Each food chain is a
descriptive diagram including a series of arrows, each pointing from one species
to another, representing the flow of food energy from one feeding group of
organisms to another.

There are two types of food chains: the grazing food chain, beginning with
autotrophs, and the detrital food chain, beginning with dead organic matter . In a
grazing food chain, energy and nutrients move from plants to the herbivores
consuming them, and to the carnivores or omnivores preying upon the
herbivores. In a detrital food chain, dead organic matter of plants and animals is
broken down by decomposers, e.g., bacteria and fungi, and moves to detritivores
and then carnivores.

Food web offers an important tool for investigating the ecological interactions that
define energy flows and predator-prey relationship . Figure 1 shows a simplified
food web in a desert ecosystem. In this food web, grasshoppers feed on plants;
scorpions prey on grasshoppers; kit foxes prey on scorpions. While the food web
showed here is a simple one, most feed webs are complex and involve many
species with both strong and weak interactions among them . For example, the
predators of a scorpion in a desert ecosystem might be a golden eagle, an owl, a
roadrunner, or a fox.

ecological pyramids
The graphical representation of the relationship between various living beings at
various trophic levels within a food chain is called an ecological pyramid. The
pyramid is formed on the basis of the number of organisms, energy and biomass,
and just like the name suggests, these are shaped in the form of a pyramid.

Simply, an ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship

between the different living organisms at different trophic levels. It was given by
[Link] Hutchinson and Raymond Lindeman. The ecological pyramid is also
often known as the energy pyramid.

Three types of ecological pyramid exist. They are as follows:

1. Pyramid of Numbers
In this type of ecological pyramid, the number of organisms in each trophic level
is considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of numbers is usually
upright except for some situations like that of the detritus food chain, where many
organisms feed on one dead plant or animal.

So, this ecological pyramid takes into account the number of organisms present
at each trophic level, making up that level for the pyramid. The number of
organisms decreases while going higher up the pyramid. The ones at the bottom
are the producers who are present in the largest number and hence form the
base of the ecological pyramid.
 2. Pyramid of Biomass
In this particular type of ecological pyramid, each level takes into account the
amount of biomass produced by each trophic level. The pyramid of biomass is
also upright except for that observed in oceans where large numbers of
zooplanktons depend on a relatively smaller number of phytoplanktons.

Moreover, this ecological pyramid takes into consideration the amount of

biomass that is produced at each trophic level as it adds to the pyramid. This
pyramid is usually upright except for exceptional cases like the marine
ecosystem where the number of phytoplanktons is lesser than the number of
zooplanktons that depend on them.

The producers or the autotrophs have the highest level of biomass in this
pyramid. The next level of primary consumers have lesser biomass than the
producers and similarly, the secondary consumers have lesser biomass than the
primary consumers. As a result, the level of the pyramid that has the least
biomass is at the top of the pyramid.

3. Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of energy is the only type of ecological pyramid, which is always upright
as the energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional. Also, with every
increasing trophic level, some energy is lost into the environment.
This pyramid shows the flow of energy that is in the direction of the consumers
and comes from the producers. This pyramid is always in an upright form since it
signifies the flow of energy within a food chain, something that is always
unidirectional. The typical energy pyramid has three levels: the producer level,
the consumer level, and the decomposer level. The flow of energy in an
ecological pyramid is from bottom to top, which means energy from the
autotrophs, who are also the primary producers, goes to the primary consumers,
meaning those who consume these plants.

At the next step, the energy goes to the secondary consumers who eat the
primary consumers. The producer level is the bottom of the pyramid and contains
the green plants that use photosynthesis to create their own food. The consumer
level is made up of animals that eat the plants at the producer level. The
decomposer level is the top of the pyramid and contains organisms that are
responsible for breaking down dead matter.

The energy pyramid represents the energy flowing through each trophic level
while also showing the amount of energy at each level and the energy that is lost
during the transfer to another trophic level. In simpler terms, this pyramid helps to
quantify the energy transfer within the food chain as it goes from one organism to
another. The energy pyramid is always upright because the energy level only
decreases as it moves in the upward direction, from one level to the next one.

Each trophic level contains about ten times less energy than the previous level
because some of the energy is lost as heat. The 10% law was also given by
Raymond Lindeman. This law states that when energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the other, only 10% energy from the organic matter is passed on.
The grass in the food pyramid is the Producer.

The grasshopper in the food pyramid is a Primary Consumer.

The frog in the food pyramid is a Secondary Consumer, because it eats the
Primary Consumer (the grasshopper).

The snake in the food pyramid is the Tertiary Consumer, because it eats the
Secondary Consumer (the frog).

Lastly, the hawk in the food pyramid is a Quaternary Consumer, because it eats
the Tertiary Consumer (the snake).

ECOSYSTEMS-TYPES,CHARACTERISTICS,STRUCTURES FUNCTIONS:-

Terrestrial Ecosystem

A terrestrial ecosystem is a land-based community of organisms and the

interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area. Examples of
terrestrial ecosystems include the tundra, taigas, temperate deciduous forests,
tropical rainforests, grasslands, and deserts.

TYPES

1. Forest ecosystem

Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantly structurally

defined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetation looks
vastly different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly rows. The most
‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly in our National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries. The landscapes that make up various types of forests look very
different from each other. Their distinctive appearance is a fascinating aspect of
nature. Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that
are adapted to live in it.
The forest ecosystem has two parts:

1. Abiotic Aspects- Abiotic factors include sunlight, temperature, moisture,

wind or water currents, soil type, and nutrient [Link] type of forest
depends upon the : abiotic conditions at the site. Forests on mountains
and hills differ from those along river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the
amount of rainfall and the local temperature which varies according to
latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in their plant communities in
response to the type of soil.
2. Biotic Aspects-The plants and animals form communities that are specific
to each forest type. For instance coniferous trees occur in the Himalayas.
Mangrove trees occur in river deltas. Thorn trees grow in arid areas. The
snow leopard lives in the Himalayas while the leopard and tiger live in the
forests of the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live high up in the
Himalayas. Many of the birds of the Himalayan forests are different from
the rest of India. Evergreen forests of the Western Ghats and North East
India are most rich in plant and animal species.

Q) What are the forest types in India?

The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soil
characteristics of a region. Forests in India can be broadly divided into
Coniferous forests and Broadleaved forests. They can also be classified
according to the nature of their tree species – evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic
or thorn trees, mangroves, etc. They can also be classified according to the most
abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak forests. In many cases a forest is
named after the first three or four most abundant tree species.

i) Coniferous forests- Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain

region, where the temperatures are low. These forests have tall stately
trees with needlelike leaves and downward sloping branches so that the
snow can slip off the branches. They have cones instead of seeds and are
called gymnosperms.

ii) Broadleaved forests- Broadleaved forests have several types, such as

evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests, and mangrove forests.
Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes.
 1. Evergreen forests- Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas
of the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the monsoon
lasts for several months. Some even get two monsoons, such as in
Southern India. Evergreen plants shed a few of their leaves
throughout the year. There is no dry leafless phase as in a
evergreen forest. An evergreen forest thus looks green throughout
the year. The trees overlap with each other to form a continuous
canopy. Thus very little light penetrates down to the forest floor. Only
a few shade loving plants can grow in the ground layer in areas
where some light filters down from the closed canopy.
2. Deciduous forests - Deciduous forests are found in regions with a
moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few
months. Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type.
The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot
summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh leaves just
before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in response to the
rains. Thus there are periods of leaf fall and canopy regrowth. The
forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can penetrate
easily onto the forest floor.
3. Thorn forests- Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of
India. The trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded by
open grassy areas. Thorny plants are called xerophytic species and
are able to conserve water. Some of these trees have small leaves,
while other species have thick, waxy leaves to reduce water losses
during transpiration. Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous roots to
reach water at great depths. Many of these plants have thorns,
which reduce water loss and protect them from herbivores.
4. Mangrove forests- Mangrove forests grow along the coast especially
in the river deltas. These plants are able to grow in a mix of saline
and fresh water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with
silt that the rivers have brought down. The mangrove trees have
breathing roots that emerge from the mudbanks.

What are the threats to the forest ecosystem?

As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use more resources than they can
produce during a growing season. If timber is felled beyond a certain limit the
forest cannot regenerate. The gaps in the forest change the habitat quality for its
animals. The more sensitive species cannot survive under these changed
conditions. Overutilizing forest resources is an unsustainable way of misusing our
limited forest resources.

Some of the threats to forests in India include deforestation, overexploitation of

forest resources, barren quality of forests, construction of roads and projects
inside the forests, forest fires, etc.

Deforestation-

Deforestation can result in serious negative impacts for forest biodiversity. The
UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that 13 million hectares
of forest are lost each year to deforestation. While it would take 1000 years for
some tropical forests to recreate their biodiversity, others have been irreversibly
damaged, as species become extinct after the destruction of their habitat.
Agriculture is generally acknowledged as the main driver of deforestation, as
forests are cleared to make space for crops or cattle farms. In comparison, only a
small proportion of global deforestation is caused directly from the forest sector
through the establishment of plantations and overexploitation of timber.

Natural disasters and disturbances

Natural disturbances are interacting with climate change to further increase forest
degradation. Climate change is enabling invasive plant and insect species to gain
advantage over native species. Until now, winter freezes have limited most forest
pests, but rising temperatures will increase their negative impacts on forests.
While destructive insects take advantage of forests weakened by drought,
invasive plant species will be able to increase and spread due to their tolerance
of harsh [Link] is a natural part of forest ecosystems and several
species of trees have found ways to protect their seeds from it. However, with
increasing temperatures favouring more intense wildfires, many forests will not
be able to recover. Besides fire, flooding and hurricane-force winds have
intensified and have been responsible for forest degradation.

Shifting Cultivation-

Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated

temporarily, then abandoned while post-disturbance fallow vegetation is allowed
to freely grow while the cultivator moves on to another plot. This is a very
inefficient way of cultivation which also leads to further forest degradation.

Rapid Population Growth/Urbanisation/Indusrialisation

Developmental activities such as rapid population growth together with

urbanisation, industrialisation and the increasing use of consumer goods, leads
to over utilisation of forest produce. Forests are shrinking as our need for
agricultural land increases. It is estimated that India’s forest cover has decreased
from about 33% to 11% in the last century. The increasing use of wood for timber,
wood pulp for paper and the extensive use of fuelwood results in continual forest
loss. Forests are also lost by mining and building dams. As the forest resources
are exploited beyond what they can produce, the forest canopy is opened up, the
ecosystem is degraded, and its wildlife is seriously threatened.

Q)How can forest ecosystems be conserved?

We can conserve forests only if we use its resources carefully. This can be done
by using alternate sources of energy instead of fuelwood. There is a need to
grow more trees than are cut down from forests every year for timber.
Afforestation needs to be done continuously from which fuelwood and timber can
be judiciously used.

Regulated and Planned Cutting of Trees:

One of the main reasons of deforestation is commercial felling of trees.

According to an estimate, about 1,600 million cubic metres of wood have been
used for various purposes in the world. Although trees are considered as
perennial resource, when exploited on a very large scale, their revival cannot be
possible.

Therefore, cutting should be regulated by adopting methods like:

(i) Clear cutting,

(ii) Selective cutting, and

(iii) Shelter wood cutting.

Control over Forest Fire:

Destruction or loss of forest by fire is fairly common; because trees are highly
exposed to fire and once started it becomes difficult to control. Sometimes, the
fire starts by natural process, i.e., by lightning or by friction between trees during
speedy winds, while in most cases it is also by man either intentionally or
uninten­tionally.

In order to save forests from fire, it is necessary to adopt latest techniques of fire
fighting. Some of the fire suppression techniques are to develop three metre wide
fire lanes around the periphery of the fire, back fires, arrangement of water spray,
fire retardant chemicals should be sprayed from the back tank and if possible by
helicopters. There must be trained staff of fire fighters to control the fire.

Reforestation and Afforestation:

The sustained yield concept dictates that whenever timber is removed, either by
block cutting or by selective cutting, the denuded area must be reforested. This
may be done by natural or artificial methods. Similarly, any forested land, which
has been destroyed by fire or mining activities, should be reforested. In rugged
terrain aerial seeding is the method of choice.

Besides all this, fresh afforestation programmes should be started. New

plantations will not only increase the forest cover but also help in making up the
eco-balance. For afforestation, selection of trees should be done according to
local geographical conditions and care must be taken during initial growth of the
trees.

Role of Government in Forest Conservation:

Although the government of every country is very particular about conservation of
its forest resources and has several rules and laws for the protection of forests,
they are not implemented in an effective manner.

2. Grassland ecosystems

Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and
quality is poor. Grassland Ecosystem is an area where the vegetation is
dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. It is also called
transitional landscape because grassland ecosystems are dominated by the
grass with few or no trees in the area where there is not enough for a forest and
too much of a forest.

A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds and mammals
have evolved so that they are adapted to these wide-open grass covered areas.
These animals are able to live in conditions where food is plentiful after the rains,
so that they can store this as fat that they use during the dry period when there is
very little to eat.

Types of grassland in india

Grasslands form a variety of ecosystems that are located in different climatic

conditions ranging from near desert conditions, to patches of shola grasslands
that occur on hillslopes alongside the extremely moist evergreen forests in South
India.

1. Himalayan pasture belt- The Himalayan pasture belt Himalayan pasture

belt extends upto the snowline. The grasslands at a lower level form
patches along with coniferous or broadleaved forests. Himalayan wildlife
require both the forest and the grassland ecosystem as important parts of
 their habitat. The animals migrate up into the high altitude grasslands in
summer and move down into the forest in winter when the snow covers the
grassland. These Himalayan pastures have a large variety of grasses and
herbs. Himalayan hill slopes are covered with thousands of colourful
flowering plants. There are also a large number of medicinal plants.
2. Terai- The Terai consists of patches of tall grasslands interspersed with a
Sal forest ecosystem. The patches of tall elephant grass, which grows to a
height of about five meters, are located in the low-lying waterlogged areas.
The Sal forest patches cover the elevated regions and the Himalayan
foothills. The Terai also includes marshes in low-lying depressions. This
ecosystem extends as a belt south of the Himalayan foothills.
3. Semi-arid plains of Western India, Cen- Semi-arid plains of Western India,
Central India and the Deccan- The Semi-arid plains of Western India, Cen-
Semi-arid plains of Western India, Central India and the Deccan are
covered by grassland tracts with patches of thorn forest. Several mammals
such as the wolf, the blackbuck, the chinkara, and birds such as the
bustards and floricans are adapted to these arid conditions. The
Scrublands of the Deccan Plateau are covered with seasonal grasses and
herbs on which its fauna is dependent. It is teaming with insect life on
which the insectivorous birds feed.
4. Shola grassland- The Shola grasslands consist of patches on hillslopes
along with the Shola forests on the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai
ranges. This forms a patchwork of grassland on the slopes and forest
habitats along the streams and lowlying areas. Grasslands are not
restricted only to low rainfall areas. Certain grassland types form when
clearings are made in different forest types. Some are located on the
higher steep hill slopes with patches of forest that occur along the streams
and in depressions. The grasslands are related to repeated fires that do
not permit the forest to grow.
 (Closing line)

Each grassland ecosystem has a wide variety of species of grasses and herbs.
Some grass and herb species are more sensitive to excessive grazing and are
suppressed if the area is over grazed. Others are destroyed by repeated fires
and cannot regenerate. Thus overused or frequently burnt grasslands are
degraded and are poor in plant species diversity.

How are grasslands used?

What are the threats to grassland ecosystems?

Grasslands are threatened by habitat loss, which can be caused by human

actions, such as unsustainable agricultural practices, overgrazing, and crop
clearing.

● Overgrazing- Degradation of grasslands due to overgrazing by cattle,

sheep and goats occurs if more than a critical number of domestic animals
are present in the grasslands. When animals overgraze the area, the
grasses are converted into flat stubs with very little green matter. Degraded
grasslands have fewer grass species as the nutritious species are entirely
used up by the large number of domestic animals. They are thus unable to
regenerate.
● Habitat Loss- Grasslands are threatened by habitat loss, which can be
caused by human actions, such as unsustainable agricultural practices,
overgrazing, and crop clearing. Almost half of all temperate grasslands and
16 percent of tropical grasslands have been converted to agricultural or
 industrial uses and only one percent of the original tallgrass prairie exists
today.
● Domestic Animals- Grasslands have a limited ability to support domestic
animals and wildlife. Increasing this pressure by increasing the number of
domestic animals reduces the ‘naturalness’ of the grassland ecosystem
leading to its degradation.

How can grassland ecosystems be conserved?

Grasslands should not be overgrazed and areas of the grasslands should be

closed for grazing. It is better to collect grass for stall feeding cattle. A part of the
grassland in an area must be closed every year so that a rotational grazing
pattern is established. Fires must be prevented and rapidly controlled. In hilly
areas soil and water management in each micro-catchment helps grasslands to
return to a natural highly productive ecosystem.

• There is a need to preserve the few natural grassland areas that still survive by
creating National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in all the different types of
grasslands.

• Animals such as the wolf, blackbuck, chinkara and birds such as bustards and
floricans have now become rare all over the country. They must be carefully
protected in the few National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries that have natural
grassland habitats as well as outside these Protected Areas.

• We need to create an awareness among people that grasslands are of great

value. If we are all concerned about our disappearing grasslands and their
wonderful wildlife, the Government will be motivated to protect them.

Keeping grasslands alive is a National priority.

3. Desert ecosystem

Desert ecosystem is the driest ecosystem of the earth and this is the reason it
has less vegetation and less diversity of life. It is one of the parts of the terrestrial
ecosystem. The plants and animals of the desert ecosystem have mastered the
art of survival in harsh conditions. A desert ecosystem is basically devoid of any
rainfall or precipitation.
Desert and semi arid lands are highly specialised and sensitive ecosystems that
are easily destroyed by human activities. The species of these dry areas can live
only in this specialised habitat.

Desert ecosystems in India- Thar Desert (Rajasthan), The Great and Little Rann
of Kutch (Gujrat), Ladakh

Desert and semi arid regions have a number of highly specialized insects and
reptiles. The rare animals include the Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox and birds
such as the Great Indian Bustard and the Florican. Some of the commoner birds
include partridges, quails and sandgrouse.

Q) What are the threats to desert ecosystems?

● Climate Patterns
Natural weather variability can drastically alter the temperatures and amount of
rainfall of any given region. For example, an El Nino pattern in the Pacific can
lead to wet winters, bringing lots of rainfall to the deserts of the South American
continent. La Nina, on the other hand, tends to bring drought during the same
period. As these patterns become extreme or repeat themselves multiple years in
a row, the changes to normal rainfall patterns can cause a disruption in the
ecosystem of the desert, reducing the number of plants and animals able to
thrive away from permanent water sources.

● Climate Change
Climate change affects the desert just as it affects every other biome. Deserts
around the world have been warming at a rate of 0.2-0.8 degrees Celsius every
decade, compared to an average global increase of 0.45 degrees Celsius during
the same period. A rise in desert temperatures can dry out plants, making them
more vulnerable to wildfires, or they might simply die due to a lack of moisture.
Likewise, the animals that make the desert their home may not be able to cope
with the increased temperatures, limiting their range or forcing them to migrate to
cooler regions.

● Human Development
Human habitats represent another major threat to desert areas. Expansion of
cities and towns into desert regions can displace animals and destroy plants,
especially since these developments tend to focus around sources of water
where other living things would naturally thrive. Since human settlements require
large amounts of water to thrive, this reduces the amount available to other living
things, and it may drive species away or cause local extinctions due to a lack of
resources. For instance, Pima County, Arizona is home to 23 threatened or
endangered species, and many are at risk due to the destruction or depletion of
their natural habitats.

How can desert ecosystems be conserved?

Aquatic ecosystems

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in and surrounding a body of water, in

contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain
communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on their
environment.
The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments of the seas and the
fresh water systems in lakes, rivers, ponds and wetlands. These ecosystems
provide human beings with a wealth of natural resources. They provide goods
that people collect for food such as fish and crustaceans.

Aquatic ecosystems may be classified as being stagnant ecosystems, or running

water ecosystems.

The aquatic ecosystems are classified into freshwater,brackish and marine

ecosystems, which are based on the salinity levels.

1. The fresh water ecosystems that have running water are streams and
rivers. Ponds, tanks and lakes are ecosystems where water does not flow.
 Wetlands are special ecosystems in which the water level fluctuates
dramatically in different seasons. They have expanses of shallow water
with aquatic vegetation, which forms an ideal habitat for fish, crustacea and
water birds.
2. Marine ecosystems are highly saline, while brackish areas have less saline
water such as in river deltas. Coral reefs are very rich in species and are
found in only a few shallow tropical seas. The richest coral reefs in India
are around the Andaman and Nicobar islands and in the gulf of Kutch.
3. Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered by mangrove forests
and are among the world’s most productive ecosystems in terms of
biomass production. The largest mangrove swamps are in the Sunderbans
in the delta of the Ganges.

POND ECOSYSTEMS-

A pond ecosystem refers to the freshwater ecosystem where there are

communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and with the
prevailing water environment for their nutrients and survival.
The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem to observe.

There are differences in a pond that is temporary and has water only in the
monsoon, and a larger tank or lake that is an aquatic ecosystem throughout the
year. Most ponds become dry after the rains are over and are covered by
terrestrial plants for the rest of the year.
When a pond begins to fill during the rains, its life forms such as the algae and
microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails, and worms come out of the floor of
the pond where they have remained dormant in the dry phase. Gradually more
complex animals such as crabs frogs and fish return to the pond. The vegetation
in the water consists of floating weeds and rooted vegetation on the periphery
which grow on the muddy floor under water and emerge out of the surface of the
water.

Characteristics of Pond Ecosystem

The following are the main characteristics of the pond ecosystem:

1. The water in the pond ecosystem is stagnant.

 2. The pond ecosystem is surrounded by either natural or artificial
boundaries.
3. The pond ecosystem exhibits three distinct zones, the littoral zone,
limnetic zone, profundal zone, and benthic zone.
4. The biotic components of the pond ecosystem occupy different levels in
the pond ecosystem, therefore, avoid the competition for survival.
Scavengers and decomposers occupy the bottom level, and the middle
level is occupied by fish. The plants enclose the boundaries of the pond
and provide shelter to small animals and insects.
5. Pond ecosystems show a wide range of variety in their size.

Lake ecosystem-

A lake ecosystem functions like a giant permanent pond. A large amount of its
plant material is the algae, which derives energy from the sun. This is transferred
to the microscopic animals, which feed on the algae. There are fish that are
herbivorous and are dependent on algae and aquatic weeds. The small animals
such as snails are used as food by small carnivorous fish, which in turn are eaten
by larger carnivorous fish. Some specialised fish, such as catfish, feed on the
detritus on the muddy bed of the lake.

Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem from the sunlight that penetrates the
water surface to the plants. From plants energy is transferred to herbivorous
animals and carnivores. Animals excrete waste products, which settle on the
bottom of the lake. This is broken down by small animals that live in the mud on
the floor of the lake. This acts as the nutrient material that is used by aquatic
plants for their growth. During this process plants use Carbon from CO2 for their
growth and in the process release Oxygen. This Oxygen is then used by aquatic
animals, which filter water through their respiratory system.

Stream and River ecosystems- Streams and rivers are flowing water ecosystems
in which all the living forms are specially adapted to different rates of flow. Some
plants and animals such as snails and other burrowing animals can withstand the
rapid flow of the hill streams. Other species of plants and animals such as water
beetles and skaters can live only in slower moving water. Some species of fish,
such as Mahseer, go upstream from rivers to hill streams for breeding. They
need crystal clear water to be able to breed. They lay eggs only in clear water so
that their young can grow [Link] community of flora and fauna of
streams and rivers depends on the clarity, flow and oxygen content as well as the
nature of their beds. The stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed,
each type having its own species of plants and animals.

Marine ecosystems- Marine ecosystems are aquatic environments with high

levels of dissolved salt. Marine ecosystems are defined by their unique biotic
(living) and abiotic (nonliving) factors. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and
microbes; important abiotic factors include the amount of sunlight in the
ecosystem, the amount of oxygen and nutrients dissolved in the water, proximity
to land, depth, and temperature.

The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal constitute the marine
ecosystems around peninsular India. In the coastal area the sea is shallow while
further away, it is deep. Both these are different ecosystems. The producers in
this ecosystem vary from microscopic algae to large seaweeds. There are
millions of zooplankton and a large variety of invertebrates on which live fish,
turtles and marine mammals.

What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?

● Overexploitation of species — Overexploitation of species affects the loss

of genetic diversity and the loss in the relative species abundance of both
individual and /or groups of interacting species. The population size gets
reduced because of disturbances in age structure and sex composition.
Efficient gears remove quickly growing larger individuals . Consequently,
the proportion of slow growing ones increases and the average size of
 individuals in a population decreases. Overfishing causes change in the
genetic structure of fish populations due to loss of some alleles. Thus,
genetic diversity gets reduced .
● Habitat modification — Physical modification of habitat may lead to species
extinction. This is mainly caused due to damming, deforestation, diversion
of water for irrigation and conversion of marshy land and small water
bodies for other purposes. Construction of dams on rivers impedes
upstream migration of fishes and displaced populations from their normal
spawning grounds and separates the population in two smaller groups.
Deforestation leads to catchment area degradation due to soil erosion
which results in sedimentation and siltation. This not only affects the
breeding ground of aquatic organisms but causes gill clogging of small
fishes also.
● Pollution load — Four forms of pollutants can be distinguished-

Poisonous pollutants- Agrochemicals, metals , acids and phenol cause mortality,

if present in a high concentration and affect the reproductive functionality of fish
(Kime, 1995).

Suspended solids- it affects the respiratory processes and secretion of protective

mucus making the fish susceptible to infection of various pathogens.

Sewage and organic pollutants- They cause deoxygenation due to eutrophication

causing mortality in fishes.

Thermal pollution- It cause increase in ambient temperature and reduce

dissolved oxygen concentration leading to death of some sensitive species.

How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?

● An aquatic bio- reserve is a defined space within a water body in which
fishing is banned or other restrictions are placed in an effort to protect
plants, animals, and habitats, ultimately conserving biodiversity. These
bio-reserves can also be used for educational purposes, recreation, and
tourism as well as potentially increasing fisheries yields by enhancing the
declining fish populations. These bio-reserves are also very similar to
marine protected areas, fishery reserves, sanctuaries, and parks.
● Bioregional management is a total ecosystem strategy, which regulates
factors affecting aquatic biodiversity by balancing conservation, economic,
and social needs within an area. This consists of both small-scale
biosphere reserves and larger reserves.
● Watershed management is an important approach towards aquatic
diversity conservation. Rivers and streams, regardless of their condition,
often go unprotected since they often pass through more than one political
jurisdiction, making it difficult to enforce conservation and management of
resources. However, in recent years, the protection of lakes and small
portions of watersheds organized by local watershed groups has helped
this situation.
● Plantation of trees in the catchment area of water body prevent soil erosion
and subsequently reduce the problem of slitation in water body resulting in
better survival of aquatic organisms.
● Avoid the establishment of industeries, chemical plants and thermal power
plants near the water resources as their discharge affect the ecology of
water body resulted in loss of biodiversity.
 Unit-4: BIODIVERSITY
Meaning: ‘Biological diversity ‘ or biodiversity is that part of nature which includes
the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and
richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space, locally, in
a region, in the country and the world, and various types of ecosystems, both
terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area.

In other words, Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth,

including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich
that many species have yet to be discovered, many species are being threatened
with extinction due to human activities, putting the Earth’s magnificent
biodiversity at risk.

Biodiversity is the variation among living organisms from different sources

including terrestrial, marine, and desert ecosystems, and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part. Biodiversity describes the richness and
variety of life on earth. It is the most complex and important feature of our planet.
Without biodiversity, life would not sustain. The term biodiversity was coined in
1985 by Walter Rosen.

Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with

nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing, and several other resources. It also extracts
monetary benefits through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a good
knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood.

TYPES

Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem

levels. Accordingly, there are the following three different types of biodiversity:

● Genetic Biodiversity
● Species Biodiversity
● Ecological Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity- Genetic diversity is defined as genetic variability present

within species. Genetic Diversity refers to the range of different inherited traits
within a species. In a species with high genetic diversity, there would be many
individuals with a wide variety of different traits.
Genetic diversity is critical for a population to adapt to changing environments.
Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals
in its genetic makeup because of the large number of combinations possible in
the genes that give every individual-specific characteristic.

Thus, for example, each human being is very different from all others. This
genetic variability is essential for a healthy breeding population of a species. If
the number of breeding individuals is reduced, the dissimilarity of genetic
makeup is reduced and inbreeding occurs. Eventually, this can lead to the
extinction of the species.

The diversity in wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which our crops and
domestic animals have been developed over thousands of years. Today the
variety of nature’s bounty is being further harnessed by using wild relatives of
crop plants to create new varieties of more productive crops and to breed better
domestic animals. Modern biotechnology manipulates genes for developing
better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.

There are three sources of genetic variation: mutation, gene flow, and sexual
reproduction.

Species Diversity- Species Diversity is simply the number and relative

abundance of species found in a given biological organization (population,
ecosystem, Earth). Species are the basic units of biological classification and
hence, this is the measure most commonly associated with the term 'biodiversity'.
Worldwide, about 1.75 million different species have been identified. However,
many environments and groups of organisms are not well studied and estimates
of species numbers range from 3 to 100 million.

This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystems and in agricultural ecosystems.

Some areas are richer in species than others. Natural undisturbed tropical forests
have a much greater species richness than plantations developed by the Forest
Department for timber production.

Forest Ecosystem- A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system that

comprises soil, trees, insects, animals, birds, and man as its interacting units. A
forest is a large and complex ecosystem and hence has greater species diversity.
A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non-wood products that
local people depend on such as fruit, fuelwood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin, and
medicines. Timber plantations do not provide a large variety of goods that are
essential for local consumption. In the long-term, the economic sustainable
returns from non-wood forest products are said to be greater than the returns
from felling a forest for its timber. Thus the value of a natural forest, with all its
species richness is much greater than a plantation.

Agricultural Ecosystem- Agricultural ecosystems are dynamic and complex

systems of climate zones that include various factors such as temperature,
precipitation, surrounding conditions influencing the crop growth by either direct
or indirect interaction with the crop plants and animals from that area, soil
nutrients, and plant growth. Modern intensive agricultural ecosystems have a
relatively lower diversity of crops than traditional agro-pastoral farming systems
where multiple crops were planted.

Ecosystem diversity- Ecosystem diversity deals with the variations in

ecosystems within a geographical location and its overall impact on human
existence and the environment. Ecosystem diversity addresses the combined
characteristics of biotic properties (biodiversity) and abiotic properties
(geodiversity).

. Ecosystem diversity focuses on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Also, it

includes the variation of a biological community such as the number of levels of
ecosystem diversity and different niches or habitat diversity, and other ecological
processes. Ecosystem diversity has a great deal on both genetic and species
diversity, thus it is coined as the “largest scale of biodiversity”.

Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or a

political entity such as a country, a State, or a taluka. Distinctive ecosystems
include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc., as well
as aquatic ecosystems such as rivers, lakes, and the sea. Each region also has
man-modified areas such as farmland or grazing pastures.

Importance- A diverse environment can constantly hold environmental

consequences. When a complex ecosystem is highly affected by the activities of
humans and other environmental problems, there could be still a chance that the
interactions among organisms can continue to exist despite the impact.

(points to expand on the importance of biodiversity)

● Increase ecosystem productivity; each species in an ecosystem has a

specific niche—a role to play.
● Support a larger number of plant species and, therefore, a greater variety
of crops.
● Protect freshwater resources.
● Promote soils formation and protection.
● Provide for nutrient storage and recycling.
● Aid in breaking down pollutants.
● Contribute to climate stability.
● Speed recovery from natural disasters.
● Provide more food resources.
● Provide more medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs.
● Offer environments for recreation and tourism.

Evolution and the Genesis of Biodiversity- The Evolution and Biodiversity

theme deals primarily with the evolutionary processes that generate and
maintain (or limit) organismal and genetic diversity, patterns of species
biodiversity in time and space, and the biology and evolutionary relationships
within the specific organismal groups.

The origins of life on earth some three and a half billion years ago are obscure.
Life was probably initiated as a product of organic reactions in the Earth’s
primordial seas. Alternative possibilities such as life beginning in a muddy ooze,
or of life having been seeded from outer space have also been suggested. Once
life took hold on the planet, it began gradually to diversify. Unicellular
unspecialized forms gradually evolved into complex multi-cellular plants and
animals. Thus the abiotic changes in nature such as climatic and atmospheric
upheavals, repeated glaciations, continental drift, and the formation of
geographical barriers, segregated different communities of plants and animals
and gradually lead to the formation of new species over millions of years.
Their adaptability to gradual changes in their habitat and interactions with newly
formed species produce groups of interlinked organisms that continue to evolve
together. Food chains, prey-predator relationships, parasitism (complete
dependence on another species), commensalism (a partnership beneficial to
both species), etc. are important examples. Behavioral patterns of the different
species comprising a community of species link them to each other through their
breeding biology, feeding patterns, migrations, etc.

This however took millions of years, as evolution is a very slow process. Thus
when a man came on the scene some 2 million years ago, the earth was richer
in species than ever before. During the recent past, however, extinction due to
the activities of modern man has begun to take place so rapidly that nature has
had no time to evolve new species. The earth is losing species more rapidly than
ever before. The diversity of life at all three organizational levels, genetic,
species, and ecosystem, is thus being rapidly modified by modern man. This is a
great loss to future generations who will follow us.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

Our country can be conveniently divided into ten major regions, based on the
geography, climate, and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, insects, and other invertebrates that live in
them. Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests,
grasslands, lakes, rivers, wetlands, mountains, and hills, which have specific
plant and animal species.

1. The cold mountainous snow-covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.

2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Assam, and the other North Eastern States.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains. (can
be included in Gangetic plains)
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6. The semi-arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
7. The Northeast States of India,
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Kerala.
9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests,
and mangroves.

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

Environmental services from species and ecosystems are essential at global,

regional, and local levels. Production of oxygen, reducing carbon dioxide,
maintaining the water cycle, protecting soil are important services.

Biological diversity is also essential for preserving ecological processes, such as

fixing and recycling of nutrients, soil formation, circulation and cleansing of air
and water, global life support (plants absorb CO2, give out O2), maintaining the
water balance within ecosystems, watershed protection, maintaining stream and
river flows throughout the year, erosion control and local flood reduction.

It has become obvious that the preservation of biological resources is essential

for the well-being and long-term survival of mankind. The preservation of
‘biodiversity’ is therefore integral to any strategy that aims at improving the
quality of human life.

1. Consumptive use value

Consumptive use value is usually assigned to goods consumed locally that are
neither bought nor sold and therefore do not contribute to the economy of a
country. People “living off the land” obtain the goods that they need for survival
from the environment. Should the environmental quality decline, for whatever
reason, their standard of living would obviously deteriorate.
Simply, these are direct use values where the biodiversity products can be
harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs, fiber, etc. This
consumptive use-value can also be seen in the use of fuelwood for heating and
cooking.

2. Productive use value

Productive use values are assigned to those goods harvested from the
environment, which are bought and sold locally, nationally, or internationally.

These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and
sold. It may include a number of wild gene resources that can be traded for use
by scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated
animals. These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, musk
from musk deer, silk from the silkworm, wool from sheep, fir of many animals, lac
from lac insects, etc, all of which are traded in the market. Many industries are
dependent upon the productive use values of biodiversity e.g. the paper industry,
plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, silk industry, textile industry,
ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry, etc.

Preservation of biodiversity has now become essential for industrial growth and
economic development. A variety of industries such as pharmaceuticals are
highly dependent on identifying compounds of great economic value from the
wide variety of wild species of plants located in undisturbed natural forests. This
is called biological prospecting.

3. Social values

These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion, and
psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy
and sacred in our country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal, Mango, Lotus, Bael, etc.
The leaves, fruits, or flowers of these plants are used in worship.

Thus social life, songs, dances, and customs are closely woven around the
wildlife. Many animals like cows, snakes, bulls, peacocks, owls, etc. also have a
significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena and thus hold special importance.
Thus, biodiversity has distinct social value, attached to different societies.
The consumptive and productive value of biodiversity is closely linked to social
concerns in traditional communities. ‘Ecosystem people’ value biodiversity as a
part of their livelihood as well as through cultural and religious sentiments.

4. Ethical and moral values

Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are based on the importance of

protecting all forms of life. All forms of life have the right to exist on earth.

It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like “all
life must be preserved”. It is based on the concept of “Live and Let Live”. If we
want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because
biodiversity is valuable.

The ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the
very fact that this species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We all feel sorry
when we learn that “passenger pigeon’ or “dodo” is no more on this earth. We are
not deriving anything directly from kangaroo, zebra, or giraffe, but we all strongly
feel that these species should exist in nature. This means, there is an ethical
value or existence value attached to each species.

5. Aesthetic value

Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. No one of us would like to visit

vast stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and
wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where they can
enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as
eco-tourism.

Knowledge and an appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its own sake is
another reason to preserve it. Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of
nature.

6. Option value

Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value. Thus option
value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on this
biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something
important in the future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any
species may prove to be a miracle species someday.
These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown
and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential
cure of AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of the marine ecosystem or
tropical rainforests.

BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL, AND LOCAL LEVELS

There are at present 1.8 million species known and documented by scientists in
the world. However, scientists have estimated that the number of species of
plants and animals on earth could vary from 1.5 to 20 million! Thus the majority
of species are yet to be discovered.

Most of the world’s bio-rich nations are in the South, which is the developing
nations. In contrast, the majority of the countries capable of exploiting biodiversity
are Northern nations, in the economically developed world. These nations
however have low levels of biodiversity. Thus the developed world has come to
support the concept that biodiversity must be considered to be a ‘global
resource’. However, if biodiversity should form a ‘common property resource’ to
be shared by all nations, there is no reason to exclude oil, uranium, or even
intellectual and technological expertise as global assets.

Throughout the world, the value of biologically rich natural areas is now being
increasingly appreciated as being of unimaginable value. International
agreements such as the World Heritage Convention attempt to protect and
support such areas. India is a signatory to the convention and has included
several protected Areas as World Heritage sites.

India has also signed the Convention in the Trade of Endangered Species
(CITES) which is intended to reduce the utilization of endangered plants and
animals by controlling trade in their products and in the pet trade.

INDIA AS A MEGA DIVERSITY NATION/ HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Geological events in the landmass of India have provided conditions for high
levels of biological diversity.

Formation of India- A split in the single giant continent around 70 million years
ago, led to the formation of northern and southern continents, with India a part of
Gondwanaland - the southern landmass, together with Africa, Australia, and the
Antarctic. Later tectonic movements shifted India northward across the equator to
join the Northern Eurasian continent. As the intervening shallow Tethis Sea
closed down, plants and animals that had evolved both in Europe and in the Far
East migrated into India before the Himalayas had formed. A final influx came
from Africa with Ethiopian species, which, were adapted to the Savannas and
semi-arid regions.

Thus India’s special geographical position between three distinctive centers of

biological evolution and radiation of species is responsible for our rich and varied
biodiversity.

India has 350 different mammals (rated eight highest in the world), 1,200 species
of birds (eighth in the world), 453 species of reptiles (fifth in the world), and
45,000 plant species, of which most are angiosperms, (fifteenth in the world).
These include especially high species diversity of ferns (1022 species) and
orchids (1082 species). India has 50,000 known species of insects, including
13,000 butterflies and moths.

Apart from the high biodiversity of Indian wild plants and animals, there is also a
great diversity of cultivated crops and breeds of domestic livestock. This is a
result of several thousand years during which civilizations have grown and
flourished in the Indian subcontinent. Gene-banks have collected over 34,000
cereals and 22,000 pulses grown in India. India has 27 indigenous breeds of
cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats, and 8 breeds of buffaloes.

The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions.

It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of global
plant life, probably occur in only 18 ‘hotspots’ in the world.

Countries that have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots, like India, of
diversity are referred to as ‘megadiversity nations’.

Our globally accepted national ‘hotspots’ are in the forests of the North-East and
the Western Ghats, which are included in the world’s most bio-rich areas. The
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are extremely rich in species and many
subspecies of different animals and birds have evolved.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems. Due to
this ‘unsustainable’ resource use, once productive forests and grasslands have
been turned into deserts and wastelands have increased all over the world.
Mangroves have been cleared for fuelwood Wetlands have been drained to
increase agricultural land. These changes have grave economic implications in
the longer term.

Unfortunately at the present rate of extinction about 25% of the worlds’ species
will undergo extinction fairly rapidly. This may occur at the rate of 10 to 20
thousand species per year, a thousand to ten thousand times faster than the
expected natural rate!

Island flora and fauna having high endemism in small isolated areas surrounded
by sea have so far been most seriously affected by human activity, which has
already led to the extinction of many island plants and animals (the dodo is a
famous example).

Habitat loss also results from man’s introduction of species from one area into
another, disturbing the balance in existing communities.

Loss of species occurs due to the destruction of natural ecosystems, either for
conversion to agriculture or industry, by over-extraction of their resources, or
through pollution of air, water, and soil.

In India, forests and grasslands are continuously being changed to agricultural

land. Encroachments have been legalized repeatedly. Similarly, natural wetland
systems have been drained to establish croplands resulting in the loss of aquatic
species.

Our natural forests are being deforested for timber and replanted using teak, sal,
or other single species for their timber value.

When excessive firewood is collected from the forest by lopping the branches of
trees, the forest canopy is opened up and this alters local biodiversity.

Increasing human population on the fringes of our Protected Areas degrade

forest ecosystems.
Another factor that disrupts forest biodiversity is the introduction of exotic weeds
which are not a part of the natural vegetation. Common examples in India are
lantana bushes, Eupatorium shrubs, and ‘congress’ grass.

In our country, a variety of traditional farming techniques have evolved over

several centuries. Cultivation by slash and burn in the Himalayas, and ‘rab’ by
lopping of tree branches to act as a wood-ash fertilizer in the Western Ghats, are
two such systems.

Overharvesting of fish, especially by trawling is leading to serious depletion of

fish stocks. Turtles are being massacred off the coast of Orissa.

Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic

benefits. Skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and
the perfume from the must deer are extensively used abroad.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

To appreciate the endemic and endangered species of India it is important to

understand the wide variety of plant and animal species that are found in the
country.

Of the well-known species, there are several which are endangered by human
activity. The endangered species in the country is categorized as Vulnerable,
Rare, Indeterminate, and Threatened.

Several plant and animal species in the country are now found in only one or a
few Protected Areas.

Among the important endangered animals are charismatic species such as the
tiger, the elephant, the rhino, etc.

Many plant species are now increasingly threatened due to changes in their
habitats induced by human activity. Apart from major trees, shrubs, and climbers
that are extremely habitat-specific and thus endangered, there are thousands of
small herbs which are greatly threatened by habitat loss. Many plants are
threatened due to overharvesting as ingredients in medicinal products.
To protect endangered species India has created the Wildlife Protection Act. This
includes lists of plants and animals categorized according to the threat to their
survival.

We know so little about the species diversity of our country. There are several
groups of which we know very little. Most of us are only aware of the plight of a
few glamorous large mammals, but we need to appreciate the threat to the less
known species of plants and animals.

Common Plant species

1. Teak- This tree is from the Southwest parts of peninsular India. It is a

common tree in deciduous forests. It yields a much sought-after timber
used for making excellent furniture. The teak tree is identified by its large
leaves, which grow to more than 40 or 50cms long and 20cms wide. It has
tiny flowers and fruit. In the winter, the trees shed all their leaves. In the
growing season, which begins in April and extends through the monsoon,
teak forests are bright green and shady.
2. Sal: This is a common species of several types of forests of the
Northeastern region of India, extending into Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
It has bright green foliage and its canopy remains green nearly throughout
the year. Sal wood is hard and durable. Sal gets a large number of seeds
that are used in making cosmetics.
3. Mango: This has become one of our most popular horticultural species with
different varieties grown all over the country. The wild mango tree has
small tangy fruit and a big seed in comparison to the large pulpy fruit used
in horticulture. The mango tree is an evergreen species and gets small
flowers that are pollinated by insects.
4. Ficus sp.: Peepal, Banyan, and many other ficus species form a part of this
group of important trees. They are all ecologically of great importance as
many different species of insects, birds and mammals live on ficus berries.
The ficus trees bear berries throughout the year, thus supplying nutritious
food to several animal species when other trees have no fruit. Ficus
species are thus known as ‘keystone’ species in the ecosystem and
support a major part of the food web in several ecosystems. Ficus trees
such as Peepal and Banyan are considered sacred and are protected in
India.
 5. Neem: This species is known as Azadirachta Indica. It has been
traditionally used in indigenous medicine. It has small yellow fruit. The
leaves and fruit are bitter to taste. It is used extensively as an
environmentally friendly insecticide.
6. Others include Tamarind, Babul, Jackfruit, Tendu, Amla, Cycas, Pine,
Coconut, Lotus.

Common Animal species

Mammals: The common deer species found in India include the sambar, chital,
barasingha, and barking deer.

Sambar lives in small family parties, especially in hilly forested areas, and feeds
mainly on shrubs and leaves of low branches.

Chital or spotted deer live in large herds in forest clearings where they graze on
the grass. They have a rust-brown body with white spots which camouflage them
in the forest.

The rare Hangul deer is found only in Kashmir. It has a magnificent spread of
antlers with 6 branches on each antler.

The Barasingha, or swamp deer, has wide hoofs that enable this beautiful animal
to live in boggy areas of the Terai. Each antler has 6 or more branches.

The blackbuck is the only true antelope found in India. It lives in large herds. The
males are black on top and cream below and have beautiful spiral horns that
form a ‘V’ shape.

A very special rare species is the Indian wild ass, endemic to the Little Rann of
Kutch. Himalayan pastures support several species of wild goats and sheep,
many of them restricted to the region, like the goral and the Himalayan tahr

The rhinoceros is now restricted to Assam but was once found throughout the
Gangetic plains. The wild buffalo is now also restricted to the Terai.

The elephant is distributed in the Northeastern and Southern States. It is

threatened by habitat loss and poaching for ivory.
The best-known predator of our forests is the tiger. Its gold and black stripes hide
it perfectly in the forest undergrowth. It preys on herbivores such as sambar or
chital or less frequently on domestic animals.

The wolf, jackal, fox, and the wild dog or ‘dhole’ form a group called canids.

Birds: There are over 1200 bird species found in India in different habitats. Most
of our forest birds are specially adapted to life in certain forest types.

Insectivorous birds of many species live on forest insects. They include various
species of flycatchers, bee-eaters, and others. The male paradise flycatcher is a
small beautiful white bird with a black head and two long white trailing tail
feathers. The female is brown and does not have long tail feathers. There are
several eagles, falcons, and kites many of which are now endangered.

There are several species of aquatic birds such as waders, gulls, and terns,
which live along the seashore and go out fishing many kilometers to the sea.
Many of these birds have lost their coastal habitats due to pollution.

Aquatic birds in freshwater are those with long legs and are known as waders
such as stilts and sandpipers.

The other group forms birds that swim on water such as several species of ducks
and geese.

Reptiles: India has a wide variety of lizards, snakes, and turtles, with a high level
of endemism.

The lizards include the common garden lizard, Fan throated lizard, Chamelion,
Skink, Common Monitor, and Water Monitor. Some of these are threatened due
to trade in reptile skins. Indian snakes include the Rock Python, Russell’s viper,
and the Vine snake. The Olive Ridley and Flapshell turtle are well-known turtles
of India. Many turtles are becoming increasingly rare due to the poaching of
adults and eggs.

Marine Life: Marine ecosystems are most frequently associated with fish and
crustacea like crabs and shrimp, which we use as food. The other species that
are endangered include marine turtles, which are reptiles, and whales that are
mammals.
There are a large number of species of freshwater fish found in our Indian rivers
and lakes that are now threatened by the introduction of fish from abroad as well
as due to being introduced from one river into another. Fish are also now
seriously affected by pollution.

Marine fisheries are being over-harvested in our coastal waters and the fish
catch has decreased seriously over the last few years.

There are many endangered fish such as the Mahseer which once grew to over a
meter in length. Many species of marine animals such as whales, sharks, and
dolphins that live in the Indian Ocean are now threatened by extinction due to
fishing in the deep sea.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

In-situ conservation- In situ conservation means the conservation of

ecosystems and natural habitats and the maintenance and recovery of viable
populations of species in their natural surroundings and, in the case of
domesticated or cultivated species, in the surroundings where they have
developed their distinctive properties.

Biodiversity at all its levels, genetic species, and as intact ecosystems can be
best-preserved in situ by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness
as ‘Protected Areas’.

In the past National Parks and Sanctuaries in India were notified to preserve
major wildlife species such as tigers, lions, elephants, and deer. The objective of
these areas should be expanded to the preservation of relatively intact natural
ecosystems, where biological diversity – from microscopic unicellular plants and
animals to giant trees and major mammals – can all be preserved. However,
species cannot be protected individually as they are all interdependent on each
other. Thus the whole ecosystem must be protected.

Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks of India: There are 589 Protected
Areas in India of which 89 are National Parks and 500 are Wildlife Sanctuaries.
They include a variety of ecosystems and habitats. Some have been created n
order to protect highly endangered species of wild plants and animals found
nowhere else in the world.
The Great Himalayan National Park is the largest sanctuary in this ecosystem
and is one of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard.

Dachigam Sanctuary is the only place where the rare Hangul or Kashmir stag is
found.

There are several Sanctuaries in the Terai region, Kaziranga National Park is the
most famous which has elephants, wild buffalo, gaur, wild boar, swamp deer, and
hog deer, in large numbers, as well as tiger and leopard. Its birdlife is extremely
rich and includes ducks, geese, pelicans, and storks.

The Manas Sanctuary, in addition to the above Terai species, also includes the
rare golden langur and the very rare pygmy hog, the smallest wild boar in the
world. The florican is found only in a few undisturbed grasslands in the Terai
sanctuaries.

In the sal forests of Madhya Pradesh, there are several Protected Areas. Kanha
offers a wonderful opportunity to observe wild tigers from the elephant's back. It
is the only Protected Area in which a subspecies of the Barasingha is found.

Bharatpur is one of the most famous water bird sanctuaries in the world.
Thousands of ducks, geese, herons, and other wading birds can be seen here.
This is the only home of the very rare Siberian crane which migrates to India
every winter.

Ranthambore was the most well-known sanctuary for observing tigers in the wild
till about 3 or 4 years ago. Since then many tigers have been killed by poachers.

In Gujarat, the Gir Sanctuary protects the last population of the majestic Asiatic
lion. This thorn and deciduous forest is also the home of large herds of chital,
sambhar, and nilgai.

In the Nilgiri Hills, the rich forest Sanctuaries protect some of the last pockets of
the Indian elephant in South India. Examples include Bandipur, Madhumalai,
Wynad, and Bhadra. Two important sanctuaries meant for the preservation of
coastal ecosystems are Chilka Lake and Point Calimere.
The need for an Integrated Protected Area System (IPAS): Protected Areas,
to be effective, must be established in every biogeographic region. A relatively
larger representation must be included of highly fragile ecosystems, areas of high
species diversity, or high endemism. Protected Areas must also be integrated
with each other by establishing corridors between adjacent areas wherever
possible so that wildlife can move between them.

there is an urgent need to add to our Protected Areas to preserve our very rich
biological diversity. Much of the natural wilderness has already undergone
extensive changes. The residual areas that have high levels of species richness,
endemism, or endangered plants and animals must be notified as National Parks
and Wildlife Sanctuaries.

In our country, which has a rapidly growing human population, it is not easily
feasible to set aside more and more land to create Protected Areas.

A major strategy to reduce impacts on the biodiversity of the PAs should be to

provide a sustainable source of resources for local people living around them.

Protected Areas can help reduce the pressure on the habitat of wildlife in the
Protected Area. Management must ensure that local people derive a direct
economic benefit from the presence of the PA.

A carefully designed management plan which incorporates an ‘ecodevelopment’

component aimed at providing a source of fuelwood, fodder, and alternate
income generation for local people, is an important aspect of PA management.

Ex-situ conservation- Ex-situ conservation literally means, "off-site

conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species, variety or
breed, of plant or animal outside its natural habitat; for example, by removing part
of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, an
artificial environment which is similar to the natural habitat of the respective
animal and within the care of humans.

These are used when the situations in which an endangered species is so close
to extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be
rapidly driven to extinction.
There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germplasm in a
gene bank so that it can be used if needed in the future. This is even more
expensive.

When an animal is on the brink of extinction, it must be carefully bred so that

inbreeding does not lead to the genetic makeup becoming weak. Breeding from
the same stock can lead to poorly adapted progeny or even the inability to get
enough offspring.

In India, successful ex situ conservation programs have been done for all our
three species of crocodiles. This has been highly successful.

However, the most important step of a successful breeding program is the

reintroduction of a species into its original wild habitat. This requires rehabilitation
of the degraded habitat and removal of the other causes such as poaching

Conservation of cultivars and livestock breeds: Encouraging farmers to

continue to grow several traditional varieties is thus an important concern for the
future of mankind. At present gene bank collections have over 34 thousand
cereals and 22 thousand pulses.

In the past, domestic animals were selected and bred for their ability to adapt to
local conditions. Traditional agropastoralists in India have selectively bred
livestock for 2 to 3 thousand years. India has 27 breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of
sheep, 22 breeds of goats, and 8 breeds of buffaloes. These traditional breeds
must be maintained for their genetic variability.

Some targeted projects

Project Tiger: Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India with the
support of WWF-International in 1973 and was the first such initiative aimed at
protecting this key species and all its habitats. Project Tiger was initiated in nine
Tiger Reserves in different ecosystems of the country covering an area of 16339
sq km. The Project tiger recognized the fact that tigers cannot be protected in
isolation, and that to protect the tiger, its habitat needed to be protected.

Crocodile Conservation: Crocodiles have been threatened as their skin is used

for making leather articles. This led to the near-extinction of crocodiles in the wild
in the 1960s in India. A Crocodile Breeding and Conservation Program was
initiated in 1975 to protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural
habitat and by creating breeding centers. It is perhaps one of the most successful
ex-situ conservation breeding projects in the country. Crocodiles have been
extensively bred in over 30 captive breeding centers, zoos, and other sites where
successful breeding takes place. Thousands of crocodiles of all three species
have been bred and restocked in 20 natural water bodies.

Project Elephant: Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to ensure the

long-term survival of a viable population of elephants in their natural habitats in
north and northeastern India and south India. It is being implemented in 12
States. In spite of this, our elephant herds are at threat as their habitat is
shrinking and their migration routes are disrupted by human activities.