Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
Chapter Seven
AGGREGATE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
The production of crushed‐stone aggregate involves many operations such as drilling,
blasting, loading, transporting, crushing, screening, handling and storing the aggregate.
However, the present discussion is limited to the various factors related to the crushing
operation of stones.
Crushers‐ There is no classification of crushers. However, the crushers are represented in
the following manner;
1. Primary crushers [Link] crushers
(a) Jaw crusher (a) Cone crusher
(b) Gyratory crusher (b) Roll crusher
(c) Hammer mill (c) Hammer mill for fine production
3. Tertiary crushers
(a) Roll
(b) Rod mill
(c) Ball mill
Fig 1 Defining crushing ratio or ratio of reduction
When stone passes through a crusher, it undergoes a reduction in size, which is
expressed in term of ratio of reduction. The ratio of reduction is defined as ratio of the
distance between the fixed and moving faces of the top divided by the distance at the
bottom of a crusher. Thus, if the distance between the two faces of a jaw crusher at the top
is 400mm and at the bottom is 100 mm, the ratio of reduction is 4. The ratio of reduction for
a roll crusher is the ratio of the diameter of the largest stone that can be nipped by the rolls
divided by the setting of the rolls, which is the smallest distance between the faces of the
rolls.
Jaw Crushers- It is a primary crusher. These machines operate by allowing the stones
flow into the space between jaws, one of which is stationary, while the other is movable.
The distance between the jaws diminishes as the stone travels downward under the effect
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
of gravity and the movable jaw, until it ultimately passes through the lower opening. The
movable jaw is capable of exerting a pressure sufficiently high to crush the hardest rock.
Fig 2. Double‐toggle Jaw Crusher
Jaw crushers are usually designed with the toggle as the weakest part. The toggle will break
if the machine encounters as uncrushable object or it is subjected to overload. This limits
the damage to the crusher.
Double Toggle Crusher One of the types of jaw crushers is Black type which is a double‐
toggle crusher. The movable jaw is suspended from a shaft mounted on bearings on the
crusher frame. The crushing operation is effected by rotating an eccentric shaft, which
raises and lowers the pitman, and actuates the two toggles and these produce the crushing
action. As the two toggles are raised by the pitman, a high pressure is exerted near the
bottom of the swing jaw that partially closes the opening between the bottoms of the two
jaws. This operation is repeated as the eccentric shaft is rotated.
The jaw plates that are made of manganese steel may be removed, replaced, or, in some
cases, reversed. The jaws may be smooth, or in the event the stone tends to break into slabs,
corrugated jaws may be used to reduce the slabbing. The swing jaw may be straight, or it
may be curved to reduce the danger of chocking.
Single Toggle Crusher When the eccentric shaft of the single‐ toggle crusher, is rotated, it
gives a movable jaw a vertical and horizontal motion. This type of crusher is used quite
frequently in portable rock‐ crushing plants because of its compact size, light weight, and
reasonable sturdy construction. The capacity of the single‐ toggle crusher is usually less
than of the Blake‐ type unit.
If a jaw crusher is used as a primary, its size is determined by the capacity of the shovel
dipper. A jaw crusher should have a top opening at last 5 cm wider than the largest stones
that will be fed to it.
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
Fig 3. Gyratory crusher
Gyratory Crushers – This crusher unit consists of a heavy cast‐ iron or steel frame, with
an eccentric shaft setting and driving gears in the lower part of the unit. In the upper part
there is a cone‐ shaped crushing chamber, lined with hard‐ steel or manganese‐ steel plates
called the concaves. The crushing member includes a hard‐ steel crushing head mounted on
a vertical steel shaft. This shaft and head are suspended from the spider at the top of the
frame, which is so constructed that some vertical adjustment of the shaft is possible. The
eccentric support at the bottom causes the shaft and the crushing head to gyrate as the shaft
rotates, thereby varying the width of the space between the concaves and the head. As the
rock which is fed in at the top of the crushing chamber moves downward, it undergoes a
reduction in size until it finally passes through the opening at the bottom of the chamber.
The size of the gyratory crusher is the width of the receiving opening, measured between
the concaves and the crusher head. The setting is the width of the bottom opening and may
be the open or closed dimension, when a setting is given, it should be specified if it is the
open or closed dimension.
The ratio of reduction for gyratory crusher usually ranges from about 3:1 to 10:1, with an
average value around 8:1.
If the gyratory crusher is used as a primary crusher, the size selected may be dictated by a
size of the rock from the quarry or it may be dictated by a desired capacity. When this
machine is used as a secondary crusher, the capacity of a gyratory crusher may be increased
by increasing the speed of the machine within reasonable limits.
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
Fig4 Cone Crusher
Cone Crusher-Cone, or reduction, crusher is used as secondary or tertiary crushers. They
are capable of producing large quantities of uniformly fine crushed stone. A cone crusher
differs from the gyratory crusher in the following respects;
It has a shorter cone
It has a small receiving opening
It rotates at a higher speed, from 430 to 580rpm
It produces a more uniformly sized stone with the maximum size to the width of the closed‐
side setting.
The cone head, made usually of manganese steel and mounted on the vertical shaft, serves
as one of the crushing surfaces. The other surface is the concave, which is attached to the
upper part of the crushed frame. The bottom of the shaft is set in an eccentric bushing to
produce the gyratory effect as the shaft rotates.
While the maximum diameter of the crusher head may be used to designate the size of the
cone crusher, the size of the feed opening, which limits the size of rocks that may be feed to
the crusher, is the width of the size of the opening at the entrance to the crushing chamber.
The magnitude of the eccentric throw and the setting of the discharge opening may be
varied within reasonable limits. Because of the high speed of rotation all particles passing
through a crusher will be reduced to sizes not larger than the close‐ size setting, which
should be used to designate the size of the discharge.
Fig 5. Hammer mill
Hammer Mill‐ The hammer mill is the most widely used impact crusher for primary and
secondary crushing. Its basic parts include a housing frame, a number of arms and hammers
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
attached to a spool which is mounted on the shaft, one or more manganese‐ steel or other
hard steel breaker plates, and a series of grate bars whose spacing may be adjusted to
regulate the width of opening through the crushed stone flows.
As the stone to be crushed is fed to the mill, the hammer, which travel at a high speed, strike
the particles, breaking them and driving them against the breaker plates, which further
reduces their sizes.
The size of the hammer mill may be designated by the size of the feed opening. The capacity
will vary with the size of the unit, the kind of the stone crushed, the size of the material fed
to the mill, and the speed of the shaft.
Fig 6. Roll Crusher
Roll Crushers‐ Roll crushers are used for producing additional reductions in the sizes of
stones after the out‐put of quarry has been subjected to one or more stages of prior
crushing. A roll crusher consists of a heavy cast‐ iron frame equipped with two hard‐ steel
rolls, each mounted on a separate horizontal shaft. Most crushers are so constructed that
each roll is divided independently by a flat‐ belt pulley or a V‐ belt sheave. One of the rolls is
mounted on a slide frame, to permit an adjustment in the width of the discharge opening
between the two rolls. The movable roll is a spring‐ loaded to provide safety against damage
to the rolls when trap iron or other non‐crushable material passes through the machine.
The maximum size of material that may be fed to a crusher is directly proportional to
the diameter of the rolls. If the feed contains stones that are too large, the rolls will not grip
them and pull them through the crusher. The angle of nip in the figure given below, which is
constant for smooth rolls, has been found to be 160 54/ . The maximum size particles that
can be crushed is determined as follows.
If, R = radius of rolls
B = angle of nip (160 54/ )
D = R cos B = 0.9575 R
A = maximum‐ size feed
C = roll setting = size of finished product
Then X = R‐ D
= R‐ 0.9575 R = 0.0425 R
A = 2X + C
= 2 * 0.0425 R + C = 0.085 R + C
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
Fig 7. Roll Crusher with various details
The capacity of a roll crusher varies with the kind of stone, size of feed, size of the finished
product, width of rolls, speed at which the rolls rotate, and extent to which the stone is fed
uniformly into the crusher. The theoretical volume of a solid ribbon of material passing
between the two rolls in 1 minute is the product of the width of the opening times the width
of the rolls times the speed of the surface of the roll. The volume may be expressed in cum
per minute. In actual practice the ribbon of crushed stone will never be solid. A more
realistic volume is approximately one‐ third to one‐ fourth of the theoretical volume.
Ex. Determine the maximum – size stone that may be fed to a smooth‐ roll crusher whose
rolls are 1016 mm diameter, when the roller setting is 25.4 mm.
Solution: A = 2. X + C
= 2 * 0. 0425 * 1016 / 2 + 25.4
= 68.58 = 69 mm
If a roll crusher is producing a finished aggregate, the reduction ratio should not be greater
than 4: 1. However, if a roll crusher is used to prepare feed for a fine grinder, the reduction
may be as high as 7: 1.
Rod and Ball Mill‐ These mills are used to produce fine aggregate, such as sand, from
stone that has been crushed to suitable sizes by other crushing equipment. It is not
uncommon for specifications for concrete to require the use of a homogeneous aggregate,
regardless of size. If crushed stone is used for the course aggregate, sand manufactured
from the same stone will satisfy the specifications.
A rod mill is a circular steel sheet, lined on the inside with a hard mineral wearing surface,
equipped with a suitable support or trunnion arrangement at each end, with a driving gear
at one end. It is operated with its axes in a horizontal position. It is charged with steel rods,
whose lengths are slightly less than the length of the mill. Crushed stone, this is fed through
the trunnion at one of the mill, flows to the discharge at the other end. As the mill rotates
slowly, the stone is constantly subjected to the impact of the tumbling rods, which produce
the desired grinding. A mill may be operated wet or dry, with or without water added. The
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
size of a rod mill is specified by the diameter and the length of the shell, such as 2.4 to 3.6 m
respectively.
A ball mill which uses steel balls instead of rods to supply the impact necessary to
grind the stone, will produce fines with smaller grain sizes than those produced by a rod
mill.
Fig 8. Rod Mill or Ball Mill
Sizes of Stone Produced by Jaw and Roll Crushers- The setting of the discharge opening
of a crusher determines the maximum size of the stone produced. However, the aggregate
size ranges from slightly greater than the crusher setting to fine dust. For any given setting
for a jaw or roll crusher approximately 15 percent of the total amount of stone passing
through the crusher is larger than the setting. If the opening of the screen which receives
the output from the crusher are the same size as the crusher setting, 15 percent of the
output will not pass through the screen.
Log Washers‐ It is necessary to remove the delirious materials if the natural deposits of
aggregate, such as sand and gravel, or individual pieces of crushed stone contain such
deleterious material as a part of the matrix or as deposits on the surface of the aggregate.
One method to remove the material is to pass the aggregate through a machine called a log
washer. This unit consists of a steel tank with two electric‐ motor‐ driven shafts, to which
numerous replaceable paddles are attached. When the washer is placed in operation, the
end of tank on which the motor is mounted is raised above the opposite end. The aggregate
to be produced is fed into the unit at the lower end, while a constant supply of water flows
into the upper end. As the shafts are rotated in opposite directions, the paddles move the
aggregate towards the upper end of the tank, while producing a continuing scrubbing action
between the particles. The stream of water removes the undesirable material and
discharges it from the tank at the lower end, while the processed aggregates are discharged
at the upper end.
Sand Preparation and Classification Machines- To meet the size gradations for sand and
other fine aggregates during crushing operation in the machine, it is necessary to provide
these gradations by mechanical equipment. There are several types of equipments available
for this purposes which can classify sand even into eight sizes. Sand and water are fed to the
classifier. As the water flows to the outlet end of the tank, the sand particles settle to the
bottom of the tank, the course ones first and the fine ones last. When the depth of a given
size reaches a predetermined level, a sensing paddle will actuate a discharge valve at the
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
bottom of the compartment to permit that material to flow into the splitter box, from which
it can be removed and used. There are machines which can separate the sand into different
piles according to size of the grains. There is a screw‐ type‐ classifier which may be used to
produce specification sand. When this machine is placed in operation, the discharge end,
where the electric motor is mounted, is elevated above the opposite end. Sand and water
are fed into the hopper. As the spiral screw rotates, the sand is moved up to the tank to the
discharge outlet under the motor. Undesirable material is flushed out of the tank by the
overflowing water.
Selecting Crushing Equipment‐ While selecting crushing and screening equipment,
following information should be known;
• Kind of stone to be crushed
• Maximum size and size ranges of the feed to the plant
• Method of feeding the crushers
• Required capacity of the plant
• Percent of material falling within specified size ranges
Let us understand how to select crushing equipment by the following example;
EX. We have to select a primary and a secondary crusher to produce 10 Ton ph of crushed
limestone. The maximum size stone available from the quarry is 400mm. The quarry stone
is hauled by truck, dumped into a surge bin, and fed to the primary crusher by an apron
feeder, which maintains a uniform rate of feed. Following specifications are required for
size distribution;
Size screen opening, mm
Passing Retained on Percent
38 ‐‐‐ 100
38 19 42‐48
19 6 30‐36
6 0 20‐26
Consider a jaw crusher for the primary and a roll crusher for the secondary crushing. The
output of the jaw crusher will be screened to remove specification sizes before the oversize
material is fed to the roll crusher.
Let us assume a setting of 75 mm for the jaw crusher. This gives a ratio of reduction of
approximately 5:1, which is satisfactory. From the table, a size 600 – by 750 mm with a
probable capacity of 1150 kN per hour is suitable.
Scalping Crushed Stone‐ The term scalping here refers to remove from the main mass of
stone to be processed that stone which is too large for the crusher opening or is small
enough to be used without further crushing. Scaling is performed ahead of a primary
crusher, and it represents good crushing practice to scalp all crushed stone following each
successive stage of reduction.
Scalping ahead of a primary crusher serves two purposes. The use of a grizzly, which
consists of a number of widely spaced parallel bars, will prevent over size stone from
entering the crusher and blocking the opening. If the product of the quarry contains such
stones, it is desirable to remove them ahead of the crusher.
The product of the quarry may contain dirt, mud or other debris which is not acceptable
in the finished product and therefore must be removed from the stone. Scalping should
accomplish this removal. Also, the product of the quarry may contain an appreciable
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Construction Equipment and Methods Instructor: Abdulaziz A.
amount of stone which was reduced by the blasting operation to specification sizes. In such
situation, it is economical to remove these stones ahead of the primary crusher, hereby
reducing the total load on the crusher and increasing the overall capacity of the plant.
It is a good practice and economical to install a scalper after each stage of reduction to
remove specification sizes. This stone may be transported to grading screen, where it can be
sized and placed in appropriate storage. Any stone removed ahead of a crusher will reduce
the total load on the crusher, which will permit the use of a smaller crusher or an increase
in the output of the plant.
Feeders‐ The capacity of a crusher will be increased if the stone is fed at a uniform rate.
Surge feeding tends to overload a crusher, and then the surge is followed by an insufficient
supply of stone. This type of feeding, which reduces the capacity of a crusher, may be
eliminated by using a mechanical feeder ahead of a crusher. The installation of such a feeder
may increase the capacity of a jaw crusher as much as 15 percent. An apron‐ type feeder is
suitable for use ahead of a primary crusher.
Surge Piles- A stationary stone‐ crushing plant may include several types and sizes of
crushers, each probably followed with a set of screen and a belt conveyor to transport the
stone to the next crushing operation or to storage. A plant may be designed to provide
temporary storage for stone between the successive stages of crushing. This plan has the
advantage of eliminating or reducing the surge effect that frequently exists when the
crushing, screening, and handling operations are conducted on a straight‐ line basis. The
stone in temporary storage, which is referred to a surge pile, ahead of a crusher may be
used to keep at least a portion of a plant in operation. Within reasonable limits the use of a
surge pile ahead of a crusher permits the crusher to be fed uniformly at the most
satisfactory rate, regardless of variations in the output of other equipment ahead of the
crusher. The use of surge piles has enabled some plants to increase the production by as
much as 10 to 20 percent.
Disadvantages of surge piles;
They require additional area for storage
They require the construction of storage bins or reclaiming tunnels
They increase the amount of handling of stone
Weather to use or not to use surge piles is based on the advantages and disadvantages
for each plant.
Screening Aggregate- Screening of crushed stone is necessary in order that the
aggregate may be separated by size ranges. The specifications covering the use of aggregate
stipulate that the different sizes should be combined to produce a blend having a given size
distribution. However, crushing and screening cannot be done with complete precision, and,
accordingly, some toleration allowance is permitted in size distribution. The extent of
tolerance is defined in different ways i.e. quantity of aggregate passing a particular screen
(say 25mm screen ) and retained on other finer screen ( say 6mm screen ) shall be less than
35 percent or more than 45 percent of the total quantity of aggregate.
Revolving Screens- There are several advantages of revolving screens over other type of
screens, especially when they are used to wash and screen sand and gravel. The operating
action is slow and simple, and the maintenance and repair costs are low. If the aggregate to
be washed contains silt and clay, a scrubber can be installed near the entrance end of a
screen in order that the material may be agitated in water. At the same time streams of
water may be sprayed on the aggregate as it moves through the screen. The aggregate,
which is separated by sizes, is stored temporarily in the below the screen.
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Vibrating Screens‐ It is the most widely used screen for aggregate production. There are
some multiple‐ deck screen units of this type. The steel frame may be designed to permit the
installation of one or more screens, one above other. Each screen is referred to as a deck.
The vibration is obtained by means of an eccentric shaft, a counterweighted shaft, or
electromagnets attached to the frame or to the screens.
A unit is installed with a slight slope from the receiving to the discharge end, which,
combined with the vibrations, causes the aggregate to flow over the surface of the screen.
Most of the particles that are smaller than the openings in a screen will drop through the
screen, while the oversize particles will flow off the screen at the discharge end. For a
multiple‐ deck unit the sizes of the openings will be progressively smaller for each lower
deck.
A screen will not pass all material whose sizes are equal or less than the dimensions
of the openings in the screen. Some of this material may be retained on and carried over the
discharge end of the screen. The efficiency of a screen may be defined as the ratio of the
quantity of material passing through a screen divided by the total amount that is small
enough to pass through, with the ratio expressed as a percent. The highest efficiency is
obtained with a single‐ deck screen, usually amounting to 90 to 95 percent. As additional
decks are installed, the efficiency of these decks will decrease, being about 85 percent for
the second deck and 75 percent for the third deck.
The capacity of a screen is the quantity of material that passes through unit area of
screen per hour. The capacity varies with the size of the openings, kind of material
screened, moisture content, and other factors. Because of the factors that affect the capacity
of a screen it is seldom if ever possible to calculate in advance the exact capacity of a screen
.Thus it is advisable to select a screen whose total capacity is 10 to 15 percent greater than
the quantity to be screened.
The charts given in the figure below gives capacities for dry screening which may
be used as a guide in selecting the correct size screen for a given flow of material. The
capacities given in the chart should be modified by the application of appropriate correction
factors. Representative values of these factors are given hereafter.
Efficiency Factors- If a low screening efficiency is permissible; the capacity of a screen
may be higher than the values given in the above figure. Table given below gives factores by
which the chart values of capacities may be multiplied to obtain corrected capacities for
given efficiencies.
Permissible screen Efficiency
Efficiency Factor
95 1.00
90 1.25
85 1.50
80 1.75
75 2.00
Deck Factor‐ This is a factor whose value will vary with the particular deck position for
multiple‐ deck screens. The values are given in the following table.
For deck Deck
no. factor
1 1.00
2 0.90
3 0.75
4 0.60
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Aggregate‐size factors- The capacities of screens given in the above figure are based on
screening dry material which contains particle sizes such as would be found in the output of
a representative crusher. If the material to be screened contains a surplus of small sizes, the
capacity of the screen will be increased, where as if the material contains a surplus of large
sizes, the capacity of the screen will be reduced. Table given below gives representative
factors which may be applied to the capacity of a screen to correct the effect of fine or
course particles.
Aggregate‐ Size Factors
%age aggregate less than half the Size of screen Aggregate
opening size
10 0.55
20 0.70
30 0.80
40 1.00
50 1.20
60 1.40
70 1.80
80 2.20
90 3.00
Determining the size screen required‐ The figure above gives the theoretical capacity of a
screen in tones per square metre based on material weighing 16 kN per cum when crushed.
The corrected capacity of a screen is given by the formula
Q = A.C.E.D.G.
Where Q = Capacity of screen, tones per hour
A = area of screen, sq. m.
C = theoretical capacity of screen, tons per sq. m.
E = Efficiency factor
D = deck factor
G = aggregate‐ size factor
The minimum area of a screen to provide a given capacity is determined from the formula
A = Q / C.E. D.G.
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