CHAPTER 1 The runner in this photograph is

participating in sports science

research at the National Institute
of Sport and Physical Education
in France. The athlete is being
Chapter Overview filmed by a video camera. The
white reflective patches enable
Section 1  describes the nature of researchers to generate a computer
physics and its related fields and model from the video, similar to
the diagram. Researchers use
activities, introduces the scientific
the model to analyze his technique
method of inquiry, and discusses the and to help him improve
role of models in science. his performance.

Section 2  introduces the basic SI units,

scientific notation, and significant digits
and distinguishes between precision
and accuracy.
Section 3  presents various ways of
summarizing data, including tables,
graphs, and equations; uses dimensional
analysis to check the validity of expres-
sions; and introduces estimation
procedures.

About the Image

The technology shown in this
photograph is known as motion capture.
In addition to sports research, this
technology is used to create synthetic
characters in movies based on the
motion of human actors. Examples
include Jar Jar Binks from Star Wars:
Episode I and Gollum from The Lord of
the Rings trilogy. Advanced motion-

©Philippe Psaila/Photo Researchers, Inc.

capture technology was also used to
film actors in the film Avatar.

Lab Preview
2

The following investigations support the QuickLab

concepts
Untitled-21 2 presented in this chapter. Metric Prefixes 5/9/2011 6:25:54 AM

Labs Demonstrations
The Circumference-Diameter Ratio of a Circle Galileo’s Hypothesis
Physics and Measurement (Core Skill) Measurements
Time and Measurement (Probeware) Standard Units
Graph Matching (Probeware) Accuracy and Precision
Black Box (Open Inquiry) Significant Figures

2  Chapter 1
 CHAPTER 1

The
SECTION 1
What Is Physics?

Focus and Motivate 

SECTION 2
Measurements in

Science of
Experiments
SECTION 3 Activate Prior
The Language of
Physics
Knowledge
Knowledge to Review

Physics
• The scientific method is not a specific
sequence of steps that scientists
Why It Matters follow but a menu of processes from
which a scientist selects those best
Physics develops
powerful models that suited to investigate the problem.
can be used to describe • Scientists use the SI system of mea-
many things in the
physical world, including surements in their work.
the movements of an
athlete in training. Items to Probe
• Ability to work with decimal numbers
and powers of ten, and to draw, read,
and interpret graphs. Ask students to
calculate (3 × 10-5)(5 × 108).

ONLINE Physics
[Link]

ONLINE LABS
The Circumference-Diameter
Ratio of a Circle PREMIUM
CONTENT
Metric Prefixes
Physics
Physics and Measurement [Link]
Graph Matching Scientific Models

Why It Matters 3

Connecting to Chemistry energy to another form of energy in a

Untitled-21 3
Chemistry is about the reactions of chemical chemical system. 5/9/2011 6:25:59 AM

elements and compounds. However, the Challenge students to provide examples of

major principles of physics­—such as motion, energy conversions in chemical systems. For
energy, and force—are widely used in example, burning wood releases chemical
studying chemical phenomena. Integrating energy as heat.
physical principles into chemical systems
and phenomena led to development of a
distinctive branch of science called thermo-
dynamics. Thermodynamics essentially
studies the conversion of one form of

The Science of Physics  3

 SECTION  1 SECTION 1

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
Identify activities and fields that
involve the major areas within
What Is Physics?
Key Terms
Preview Vocabulary physics.

Describe the processes of the

model
system
hypothesis
controlled experiment
Latin Word Origins  Explain that the scientific method.
English word physics comes from the
Describe the role of models and The Topics of Physics
Latin word physica, which means “study diagrams in physics. Many people consider physics to be a difficult science that is far removed
of nature.” Physica is also the basis for from their lives. This may be because many of the world’s most famous
the English word physique, which means physicists study topics such as the structure of the universe or the incredibly
body appearance or body structure. small particles within an atom, often using complicated tools to observe
and measure what they are studying.
But everything around you can be described by using the tools of
physics. The goal of physics is to use a small number of basic concepts,
 Teach equations, and assumptions to describe the physical world. These
physics principles can then be used to make predictions about a broad
range of phenomena. For example, the same physics principles that are

Teaching Tip used to describe the interaction between two planets can be used to
describe the motion of a soccer ball moving toward a goal.
Exposure to science, both formal and Many physicists study the laws of nature simply to satisfy their curiosity
informal, shapes students’ current views about the world we live in. Learning the laws of physics can be rewarding
just for its own sake. Also, many of the inventions, appliances, tools, and
of physics. Students should be encour- FIGURE 1.1
buildings we live with today are made possible by the application of
aged to express their perceptions and The Physics of Cars Without physics principles. Physics discoveries often turn out to have unexpected
attitudes in a brainstorming session. knowledge of many of the areas of physics, practical applications, and advances in technology can in turn lead to new
making cars would be impossible. physics discoveries. Figure 1.1 indicates how the areas of physics apply to
Students need to realize that applied
building and operating a car.
science, which is aimed at creating
Thermodynamics
technology, interacts with basic science, Efficient engines,
use of coolants
which strives to develop fundamental
ideas to explain natural phenomena. Electromagnetism
Battery, starter,
Point out that physics is a very broad headlights
field of study that presents an organized
way of modeling and interpreting nature.
The different areas of basic science
specialize in interpreting different
aspects of nature (living things, materials,
celestial objects, and so forth).
Sometimes, the boundaries between Mechanics Spinning
these areas are not clear, but the Vibrations and mechanical waves
motion of the wheels,
Optics tires that provide enough
fundamental ideas of physics underlie all Headlights, rearview mirrors
Shock absorbers, radio speakers friction for traction
basic and applied sciences.

Differentiated
4 Chapter 1
Instruction
Below LeveL
As students work through the chapter, ask
Untitled-221 4 5/4/2011 2:38:31 PM

them to list terms or words that are used in

physics and in their daily lives. For example,
terms such as mechanics, optics, speed,
vibration, and pendulum could be included in
their lists. Encourage students to list each
word’s scientific meaning, as well as the more
common meaning. Remind students that this
type of list will be helpful as they continue
with their study of physics.

4  Chapter 1
 Physics is everywhere. FIGURE 1.2
We are surrounded by principles of physics in our everyday lives. In fact,
most people know much more about physics than they realize. For
The Physics of Sailboats
Sailboat designers rely on knowledge
Teaching Tip
example, when you buy a carton of ice cream at the store and put it in the from many branches of physics. Ask students to list the careers that they
freezer at home, you do so because from past experience you know
enough about the laws of physics to know that the ice cream will melt if are interested in pursuing. Point out how
you leave it on the counter. a physics background may contribute to
People who design, build, and operate sailboats, such as the ones their effectiveness in those careers.
shown in Figure 1.2, need a working knowledge of the principles of Above all, a good understanding of
physics. Designers figure out the best shape for the boat’s hull so that it
remains stable and floating yet quick-moving and maneuverable. This science makes it possible to critically
design requires knowledge of the physics of fluids. Determining the most examine scientific theories and make
efficient shapes for the sails and how to arrange them requires an educated decisions about science-
understanding of the science of motion and its causes. Balancing loads
in the construction of a sailboat requires knowledge of mechanics. Some related issues facing our society.
of the same physics principles can also explain how the keel keeps the
boat moving in one direction even when the wind is from a slightly
different direction.
Any problem that deals with temperature, size, motion, position,
shape, or color involves physics. Physicists categorize the topics they
study in a number of different ways. Figure 1.3 shows some of the major
areas of physics that will be described in this book.

FIGURE 1.3

AREAS WITHIN PHYSICS

Name Subjects Examples

Mechanics motion and its causes, falling objects, friction,

interactions between weight, spinning objects
objects
Thermodynamics heat and temperature melting and freezing
processes, engines,
refrigerators
Vibrations and wave specific types of repetitive springs, pendulums,
phenomena motions sound
Optics light mirrors, lenses, color,
astronomy
Electromagnetism electricity, magnetism, electrical charge,
and light circuitry, permanent
magnets, electromagnets
Relativity particles moving at any particle collisions,
©Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis

speed, including very particle accelerators,

high speeds nuclear energy
Quantum mechanics behavior of submicroscopic the atom and its parts
particles

The Science of Physics 5

English Learners
Untitled-221 5
Explain that the words mechanic and 5/4/2011 2:38:32 PM

mechanics can have different meanings,

depending on the context. The word
mechanic is used for a skilled person who
repairs and maintains machines. The plural of
mechanic is mechanics. However, the term
mechanics is also used to mean a branch of
physics that deals with objects in motion and
the forces that cause and change motion.

The Science of Physics  5

 The Scientific Method

 Teach continued FIGURE 1.4 When scientists look at the world, they see a network of rules and
relationships that determine what will happen in a given situation.
The Scientific Method Everything you will study in this course was learned because someone
Physics, like all other sciences, is looked out at the world and asked questions about how things work.
Key Models and based on the scientific method.
There is no single procedure that scientists follow in their work.
Analogies Make observations
and collect data that
However, there are certain steps common to all good scientific
investigations. These steps, called the scientific method, are summarized
An investigation provides a good lead to a question. in Figure 1.4. This simple chart is easy to understand; but, in reality, most
analogy to help students see the scientific work is not so easily separated. Sometimes, exploratory
experiments are performed as a part of the first step in order to generate
scientific method at work. Have observations that can lead to a focused question. A revised hypothesis
students link the procedures of an may require more experiments.
investigation of a car accident with Formulate and objectively
test hypotheses
the stages of the scientific method. by experiments. Physics uses models that describe phenomena.
• Observation/collection of data: The Although the physical world is very complex, physicists often use
models to explain the most fundamental features of various phenomena.
investigator examines the crime scene Physics has developed powerful models that have been very successful in
and fills out a report. describing nature. Many of the models currently used in physics are
Interpret results, mathematical models. Simple models are usually developed first. It is
• Hypotheses: The investigator imagines and revise the often easier to study and model parts of a system or phenomenon one
several likely scenarios that might have hypothesis if necessary.
at a time. These simple models can then be synthesized into more-
caused the accident. Maybe the driver comprehensive models.
was intoxicated, fell asleep, or was When developing a model, physicists must decide which parts of the
speeding; maybe the car had mechani- phenomenon are relevant and which parts can be disregarded. For
example, let’s say you wish to study the motion of the ball shown in
cal failure; or maybe weather conditions State conclusions in
Figure 1.5. Many observations can be made about the situation,
a form that can be
affected the car’s traction or the driver’s evaluated by others.
ability to see the road.
• Experiments/tests: The investigator
might order a blood-alcohol-content model a pattern, plan, representation,
or description designed to show the
test, check the car parts, test-drive the structure or workings of an object,
car in different weather conditions, or system, or concept

try to reproduce the skid marks left by

the car.
• Interpret/revise hypothesis: The FIGURE 1.5

investigator must reexamine evidence Analyzing Basketball

and possibly revise his hypothesis. The Motion This basketball game involves
great complexity.
evidence may be inconclusive.
• Conclusions: The investigator goes to
court, reexamines the evidence, and
defends his theory of how the
accident occurred.

Differentiated
6 Chapter 1
Instruction
Pre-AP mathematical). Choose one or two experiment
Students are already familiar with some
Untitled-221 6 designs to discuss as a class. Describe the likely 5/4/2011 2:38:33 PM

principles in physics, such as gravity. Have results of each experiment, so that the
students design a simple experiment that conclusion can be discussed as well.
tests an aspect of gravity and that uses the
scientific method. For example, students could
design an experiment to test whether Earth’s
gravity pulls different objects toward the
ground at the same rate. Experiments should
include the steps of the scientific method
and some type of model (physical or

6  Chapter 1
 including the ball’s surroundings, size, spin, weight, color, time in the air,
speed, and sound when hitting the ground. The first step toward simplify-
ing this complicated situation is to decide what to study, that is, to define TEACH FROM VISUALS
the system. Typically, a single object and the items that immediately system a set of particles or interacting
affect it are the focus of attention. For instance, suppose you decide to components considered to be a distinct FIGURE 1.6  Ask students to compare
physical entity for the purpose of study
study the ball’s motion in the air (before it potentially reaches any of the the photograph in Figure 1.6 with the
other players), as shown in Figure 1.6. To study this situation, you can
eliminate everything except information that affects the ball’s motion.
photograph in Figure 1.5. Point out the
details relevant to the study of the ball’s
FIGURE 1.6
motion: the direction that the ball was
Motion of a Basketball To analyze the basketball’s thrown; the forces on the ball; the ball’s
motion, isolate the objects that will affect its motion.
spin; the ball’s location at every instant;
the ball’s shape, size, and mass; and the
air surrounding the ball.
Ask  Draw a diagram of the ball’s motion.
Which details mentioned above did you
ignore in your diagram for the purpose
of simplification?
Answer: Size, spin, and air resistance
normally affect the ball’s flight. However,
as a first approximation, this study
focuses on the trajectory of a model ball
and assumes that the effects of air
resistance and spin are negligible. Most
diagrams will probably just show the ball
You can disregard characteristics of the ball that have little or no effect
on its motion, such as the ball’s color. In some studies of motion, even the and its path.
ball’s spin and size are disregarded, and the change in the position of the
ball will be the only quantity investigated.
In effect, the physicist studies the motion of a ball by first creating a
simple model of the ball and its motion. Unlike the real ball, the model
object is isolated; it has no color, spin, or size, and it makes no noise on
impact. Frequently, a model can be summarized with a diagram. Another
way to summarize these models is to build a computer simulation or
small-scale replica of the situation.
Without models to simplify matters, situations such as building a car
or sailing a boat would be too complex to study. For instance, analyzing
the motion of a sailboat is made easier by imagining that the push on the
boat from the wind is steady and consistent. The boat is also treated as an
object with a certain mass being pushed through the water. In other
words, the color of the boat, the model of the boat, and the details of its
shape are left out of the analysis. Furthermore, the water the boat moves
through is treated as if it were a perfectly smooth-flowing liquid with no
internal friction. In spite of these simplifications, the analysis can still
make useful predictions of how the sailboat will move.

The Science of Physics 7

Inclusion
ntitled-221 7
Have students choose a simple system and 5/4/2011 2:38:34 PM

construct a model of it. Allow different types of

learners to use different modeling methods. For
example, visual learners could draw a diagram,
while kinesthetic learners could construct a
mechanical model.

The Science of Physics  7

 FIGURE 1.7

 Teach continued Galileo’s Thought

Experiment If heavier objects fell
faster than slower ones, would two
Galileo’s Thought Experiment Galileo’s Hypothesis

bricks of different masses tied together

fall slower (b) or faster (c) than the
Demonstration heavy brick alone (a)? Because of this
contradiction, Galileo hypothesized
instead that all objects fall at the same
Galileo’s Hypothesis rate, as in (d).
Purpose  Illustrate the arguments for
and against Galileo’s thought (a) (b) (c) (d)
experiment.
Materials  pennies; tape; coffee filters;
Models can help build hypotheses.
clear, deep container; water
hypothesis an explanation that is A scientific hypothesis is a reasonable explanation for observations—one
Procedure  Stack 10 pennies and tape based on prior scientific research or that can be tested with additional experiments. The process of simplifying
observations and that can be tested
them together. Hold one penny in one and modeling a situation can help you determine the relevant variables
and identify a hypothesis for testing.
hand and hold the stack of pennies in
Consider the example of Galileo’s “thought experiment,” in which he
the other hand; drop them simultane- modeled the behavior of falling objects in order to develop a hypothesis
ously. Tell students to listen carefully about how objects fell. At the time Galileo published his work on falling
and decide which object hits the ground objects, in 1638, scientists believed that a heavy object would fall faster
than a lighter object.
first. It should be difficult to detect any
Galileo imagined two objects of different masses tied together and
difference in falling time. released at the same time from the same height, such as the two bricks of
Hold one coffee filter in one hand different masses shown in Figure 1.7. Suppose that the heavier brick falls
faster than the lighter brick when they are separate, as in (a). When tied
and a stack of 10 filters in the other together, the heavier brick will speed up the fall of the lighter brick
hand; drop them simultaneously. This somewhat, and the lighter brick will slow the fall of the heavier brick
time, it should be easy to see that 10 somewhat. Thus, the tied bricks should fall at a rate in between that of
either brick alone, as in (b).
filters fall faster than one. How could
However, the two bricks together have a greater mass than the heavier
Galileo defend his hypothesis in the face brick alone. For this reason, the tied bricks should fall faster than the
of such evidence? He identified the role heavier brick, as in (c). Galileo used this logical contradiction to refute the
of air resistance. idea that different masses fall at different rates. He hypothesized instead
that all objects fall at the same rate in the absence of air resistance, as in (d).
Fill the clear container with water and
drop the single penny and the 10-penny
Models help guide experimental design.
stack into the water simultaneously. This Galileo performed many experiments to test his hypothesis. To be certain
time, the single penny will land on the he was observing differences due to weight, he kept all other variables the
bottom last. Have students use these same: the objects he tested had the same size (but different weights) and
were measured falling from the same point.
experiments to defend or criticize the
The measuring devices at that time were not precise enough to
argument that heavy bodies fall faster
measure the motion of objects falling in air. So, Galileo used the motion
than lighter bodies. of a ball rolling down a ramp as a model of the motion of a falling ball.

Differentiated
8 Chapter 1
Instruction
Pre-AP
Have students research and identify scientific
Untitled-221 8 5/4/2011 2:38:36 PM

models that are no longer accepted by

scientists. For example, models of the atom
have been repeatedly revised since the
concept of the atom was introduced by the
Greek scientist Democritus in 460 BCE.

8  Chapter 1
 The steeper the ramp, the closer the model came to representing a falling
object. These ramp experiments provided data that matched the
predictions Galileo made in his hypothesis. Misconception Alert!
Like Galileo’s hypothesis, any hypothesis must be tested in a Point out that even when the results of
controlled experiment. In an experiment to test a hypothesis, you must controlled experiment an experiment
change one variable at a time to determine what influences the that tests only one factor at a time by an inquiry appear convincing, the
using a comparison of a control group
phenomenon you are observing. Galileo performed a series of with an experimental group
conclusions must be formulated
experiments using balls of different weights on one ramp before carefully by specifying the circumstances
determining the time they took to roll down a steeper ramp.
under which the experiment was
performed and the reasoning that led
The best physics models can make predictions in new situations.
to accepting or refuting the evidence.
Until the invention of the air pump, it was not possible to perform direct
tests of Galileo’s model by observing objects falling in the absence of air Did YOU Know? Ask students which variable was
resistance. But even though it was not completely testable, Galileo’s In addition to conducting experiments manipulated when vacuum pumps made
model was used to make reasonably accurate predictions about the to test their hypotheses, scientists also
research the work of other scientists.
it possible to test Galileo’s hypothesis.
motion of many objects, from raindrops to boulders (even though they all
experience air resistance). The steps of this type of research Air resistance.
include
Even if some experiments produce results that support a certain • identifying reliable sources
model, at any time another experiment may produce results that do not • searching the sources to find
support the model. When this occurs, scientists repeat the experiment
until they are sure that the results are not in error. If the unexpected
references
• checking for opposing views
Assess and Reteach 
results are confirmed, the model must be abandoned or revised. That is • documenting sources
why the last step of the scientific method is so important. A conclusion is • presenting findings to other Assess  Use the Formative Assessment
scientists for review and discussion
valid only if it can be verified by other people. on this page to evaluate student
mastery of the section.
Reteach  For students who need
additional instruction, download the
SECTION 1 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Section Study Guide.
1. Name the major areas of physics.
Response to Intervention  To reassess
2. Identify the area of physics that is most relevant to each of the following
situations. Explain your reasoning.
students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
a. a high school football game available to print or to take directly
b. food preparation for the prom online at [Link].
c. playing in the school band
d. lightning in a thunderstorm
e. wearing a pair of sunglasses outside in the sun
3. What are the activities involved in the scientific method?
4. Give two examples of ways that physicists model the physical world.

Critical Thinking
5. Identify the area of physics involved in each of the following tests of a
lightweight metal alloy proposed for use in sailboat hulls:
a. testing the effects of a collision on the alloy
b. testing the effects of extreme heat and cold on the alloy
c. testing whether the alloy can affect a magnetic compass needle

Answers to Section Assessment The Science of Physics 9

1. mechanics, thermodynamics, vibrations e. optics; because the lenses decrease the

ntitled-221 9 and wave phenomena, optics, electromag- light intensity that reaches your5/4/2011
eye2:38:37 PM
netism, relativity, and quantum mechanics 3. observing and collecting data, formulating
2. a. mechanics; because the ball is a moving, and testing hypotheses, interpreting results
spinning object and revising the hypothesis, stating
b. thermodynamics; because cooking conclusions
concerns changes in temperature 4. Answers could include diagrams, equations,
c. vibrations and wave phenomena; and computer simulations.
because music is a type of sound 5. a. mechanics
d. electromagnetism; because lightning is a b. thermodynamics
form of electricity c. electromagnetism

The Science of Physics  9

 SECTION  2 SECTION 2

 Plan and Prepare

Objectives
List basic SI units and the Measurements in
Experiments
quantities they describe.

Preview Vocabulary Convert measurements into

scientific notation.
Scientific Meaning  Explain the differ-
Distinguish between accuracy Key Terms
ence between dimension and unit. Be accuracy
and precision.
sure that students understand that a precision
dimension refers to a physical quantity Use significant figures in significant figures
measurements and calculations.
such as length or mass. A unit represents
the numerical measurement of a Numbers as Measurements
dimension. Then ask students to Physicists perform experiments to test hypotheses about how changing
one variable in a situation affects another variable. An accurate analysis
generate examples that include both a of such experiments requires numerical measurements.
dimension and a unit, such as “a length Numerical measurements are different than the numbers used in a
of 10 meters” or “a mass of mathematics class. In mathematics, a number like 7 can stand alone and
2.5 kilograms.” be used in equations. In science, measurements are more than just a
number. For example, a measurement reported as 7 leads to several
questions. What physical quantity is being measured—length, mass, time,
or something else? If it is length that is being measured, what units were
 Teach used for the measurement—meters, feet, inches, miles, or light-years?
The description of what kind of physical quantity is represented by a
FIGURE 2.1 certain measurement is called dimension. You are probably already
familiar with three basic dimensions: length, mass, and time. Many other
Standard Kilogram The
Demonstration kilogram is currently the only SI unit
measurements can be expressed in terms of these three dimensions. For
example, physical quantities such as force, velocity, energy, volume, and
that is defined by a material object. acceleration can all be described as combinations of length, mass, and
The platinum-iridium cylinder shown time. When we learn about heat and electricity, we will need to add two
Measurements here is the primary kilogram standard
other dimensions to our list, one for temperature and one for electric
Purpose  Give students an overview of for the United States.
current.
measurement concepts. The description of how much of a physical quantity is represented by
a certain numerical measurement and by the unit with which the quan-
Materials  assortment of measuring
tity is measured. Although each dimension is unique, a dimension can be
instruments, including rulers, measured using different units. For example, the dimension of time can
measuring tapes, various clocks, various

Rathe/National Institute of Standards and Technology

be measured in seconds, hours, or years.
metronomes, various bathroom scales,
pan balance with standard masses, SI is the standard measurement system for science.
electronic balance, beam balance, When scientists do research, they must communicate the results of their
experiments with each other and agree on a system of units for their
thermometers of various sizes and measurements. In 1960, an international committee agreed on a system
ranges, ammeters, protractors, graduated of standards, such as the standard shown in Figure 2.1. They also agreed
cylinders, measuring cups on designations for the fundamental quantities needed for measure-
ments. This system of units is called the Système International d’Unités

Image Credits:
Procedure  Display the various (SI). In SI, there are only seven base units. Each base unit describes a

©Robert
instruments. Ask students to describe single dimension, such as length, mass, or time.
what instrument they would use to
measure properties of objects found in Differentiated
10 Chapter 1
Instruction
the classroom. Let students walk around
the exhibit and take notes about the Inclusion in the class who are not as familiar with SI
Students who have grown up in the United units. Provide each team of students with
different methods and units of measure. Untitled-189 10 5/11/2011 6:47:10 AM

States may have difficulty visualizing dimen- some modeling clay and list several measure-
Whenever possible, have students
sions in SI units—for example, estimating the ments on the board. Then have students use
perform measurements and report their
length of an object in centimeters. However, the modeling clay to represent the measure-
results in correct units.
these same students might provide a fairly ment. For example, if a measurement listed is
accurate estimate in inches or feet. In contrast, 15 cm, then the students should stretch a
students who have grown up in countries piece of modeling clay to estimate that length.
where metric or SI units are used may have Have students check results with a ruler.
less difficulty projecting measurements in SI
units. Ask these students to work with those

10  Chapter 1
 FIGURE 2.2

SI STANDARDS

Unit Original standard Current standard

Demonstration
meter (length) _______
1
distance from the distance traveled by light in a
10 000 000 Standard Units
equator to North Pole vacuum in 3.33564095 × 10-9 s
Purpose  Show that standard units of
kilogram mass of 0.001 cubic the mass of a specific platinum- measurement are based on arbitrary
(mass) meters of water iridium alloy cylinder convention.
Materials  ribbon strips about 1 cm wide
second (time)
(__601 ) (__601 ) (__241 ) = 9 192 631 770 times the period
of a radio wave emitted from a but of unequal lengths
0.000 011 574 average cesium-133 atom
solar days Procedure  Explain that the class will
define its own standard unit of length
with a ribbon strip. Have each group
The base units of length, mass, and time are the meter, kilogram, and Did YOU Know? measure the length of the classroom in
second, respectively. In most measurements, these units will be abbreviated
NIST-F1, an atomic clock at the “ribbon units.” Each group will have
as m, kg, and s, respectively. National Institute of Standards and
These units are defined by the standards described in Figure 2.2 Technology in Colorado, is one of the different results (10.5 ribbons, 9.75
and are reproduced so that every meterstick, kilogram mass, and clock most accurate timing devices in the ribbons, etc.). Have the groups compare
in the world is calibrated to give consistent results. We will use SI units world. NIST-F1 is so accurate that it
will not gain or lose a second in nearly their ribbons and discover that the
throughout this book because they are almost universally accepted in
20 million years. As a public service, lengths were not exactly equal. Let
science and industry. the institute broadcasts the time
Not every observation can be described using one of these units, but given by NIST-F1 through the Internet, students decide which ribbon should be
the units can be combined to form derived units. Derived units are radio stations WWV and WWVB, and the standard. Ask them to compare their
formed by combining the seven base units with multiplication or satellite signals.
reasons for selecting a particular ribbon.
division. For example, speeds are typically expressed in units of meters
per second (m/s). There is no particular reason to prefer
In other cases, it may appear that a new unit that is not one of the base any one. Mark two points about 80 cm
units is being introduced, but often these new units merely serve as apart on a ribbon. Tape the ribbon on
shorthand ways to refer to combinations of units. For example, forces and
the chalkboard and tell the class to
weights are typically measured in units of newtons (N), but a newton is
defined as being exactly equivalent to one kilogram multiplied by meters FIGURE 2.3 calibrate their ribbon units against this
per second squared (1 kg•m/s2). Derived units, such as newtons, will be Units with Prefixes The mass new standard. Have them repeat their
explained throughout this book as they are introduced. of this mosquito can be expressed measurements of the classroom. Results
several different ways: 1 × 10-5 kg,
should be about the same number of
0.01 g, or 10 mg.
SI uses prefixes to accommodate extremes. standard ribbon units. Point out that
Physics is a science that describes a broad range of topics and requires a
wide range of measurements, from very large to very small. For example,
inches, meters, and miles were defined
©Stephen Dalton/Photo Researchers, Inc.

distance measurements can range from the distances between stars by similar conventions. Scientific
(about 100 000 000 000 000 000 m) to the distances between atoms in a standards of measure are universally
solid (0.000 000 001 m). Because these numbers can be extremely difficult
established through a similar but more
to read and write, they are often expressed in powers of 10, such as
1 × 1017 m or 1 × 10-9 m. rigorous process.
Another approach commonly used in SI is to combine the units with
prefixes that symbolize certain powers of 10, as illustrated in Figure 2.3.

The Science of Physics 11

The Language of
Physics
Below Level should then have an idea of what these units Derived units describe quantities, such
Untitled-189 11
Encourage students to make a reference list of represent. Discuss why the focus was on these
5/11/2011 6:47:10 AM as density, that are calculated from
units for themselves. Ask them to list meter, particular units and have students describe measurements in base units.
kilogram, and second at the top of a piece of how these units are used in physics.
a paper. Provide them with the tools to
measure each of these values (a meterstick, a
scale, and a stopwatch). Have them find three
things that are a meter in length in the
classroom, three things that have the mass of a
kilogram, and three events that are approxi-
mately one second in duration. Students

The Science of Physics  11

 FIGURE 2.4
SOME PREFIXES FOR POWERS OF 10
 Teach continued MATERIALS
USED WITH METRIC UNITS

• balance (0.01 g precision Power Prefix Abbreviation Power Prefix Abbreviation

Teaching Tip or better)

• 50 sheets of loose-leaf paper
10-18 atto- a 101 deka- da
In order to make the terminology 10-15 femto- f 103 kilo- k
relevant to students, have them propose METRIC PREFIXES
Record the following measure- 10-12 pico- p 106 mega- M
examples of quantities they know to be
ments (with appropriate units
measured in milli-, micro-, kilo-, etc. 10-9 nano- n 109 giga- G
and metric prefixes):
For example, the frequency of their • the mass of a single sheet 10-6 micro- µ (Greek letter mu) 1012 tera- T
favorite radio station could be 94.7 MHz, of paper
10-3 milli- m 1015 peta- P
or the dosage of some vitamins may be • the mass of exactly 10
sheets of paper 10-2 centi- c 1018 exa- E
300 mg. Ask students to restate these
• the mass of exactly 50
quantities in powers of 10. sheets of paper
10-1 deci- d

Use each of these measure-

ments to determine the mass
QuickLab of a single sheet of paper. How
many different ways can you
The most common prefixes and their symbols are shown in Figure 2.4.
For example, the length of a housefly, 5 × 10-3 m, is equivalent to 5
express each of these millimeters (mm), and the distance of a satellite 8.25 × 105 m from
Teacher’s Notes measurements? Use your Earth’s surface can be expressed as 825 kilometers (km). A year, which is
results to estimate the mass of about 3.2 × 107 s, can also be expressed as 32 megaseconds (Ms).
This activity is intended to have one ream (500 sheets) of
Converting a measurement from its prefix form is easy to do. You can
students explore the use of prefixes for paper. How many ways can
build conversion factors from any equivalent relationship, including
you express this mass? Which
powers of 10 with metric units. those in Figure 2.4. Just put the quantity on one side of the equation in the
is the most practical
numerator and the quantity on the other side in the denominator, as
This lab works best when the papers approach? Give reasons for
your answer. shown below for the case of the conversion 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m. Because
are folded to fit on the pan of a balance. these two quantities are equal, the following equations are also true:
Students should record the measure- 1 mm = 1 and _ 10-3 m = 1
_
ments given by the scale and try to 10–3 m 1 mm
convert them to smaller or larger units Thus, any measurement multiplied by either one of these fractions
will be multiplied by 1. The number and the unit will change, but the
using different prefixes listed in Figure quantity described by the measurement will stay the same.
2.4. Let them realize that, in this case, To convert measurements, use the conversion factor that will cancel
the most convenient way to represent with the units you are given to provide the units you need, as shown in
the measurements is to use grams and the example below. Typically, the units to which you are converting
should be placed in the numerator. It is useful to cross out units that
decimal numbers. cancel to help keep track of them. If you have arranged your terms
correctly, the units you are converting from will cancel, leaving you with
the unit that you want. If you use the wrong conversion, you will get units
that don’t cancel.
mm
1 mm = 3.72 × 104 _ 2
Units don’t cancel: 37.2 mm × _ m
10-3 m
-3
10 m = 3.72 × 10-2 m
Units do cancel: 37.2 mm × _
1 mm

Problem
12
Solving
Chapter 1

Take it Further
The prefix kilo- stands for 1000, mega- stands
Untitled-189 12 5/11/2011 6:47:11 AM

for 1 million, and giga- stands for 1 billion.

Practice working with these units. Ask students
to write their computer’s RAM and hard-drive
memory in bytes. Ask how many watts a
20-megawatt power station supplies?
20 million How many watts does a 300
milliwatt bulb use? 0.3 W

12  Chapter 1
 WHY IT MATTERS
Why It Matters
The Mars Climate The Mars Climate Orbiter Mission
Although SI units are widely used in
Orbiter Mission science, they are not universal. Scientists
in different fields often use different

T
he Mars Climate Orbiter was a NASA spacecraft systems of units depending on what is
designed to take pictures of the Martian surface,
generate daily weather maps, and analyze the
most convenient and appropriate to
Martian atmosphere from an orbit about 80 km (50 mi) their areas of study.
above Mars. It was also supposed to relay signals from its The lesson of the failure of the
companion, the Mars Polar Lander, which was scheduled to
land near the edge of the southern polar cap of Mars shortly
Mars Climate Orbiter mission is not
after the orbiter arrived. necessarily that all scientists should use
The orbiter was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, on a single system of units, but that
December 11, 1998. Its thrusters were fired several times The $125 million Mars Orbiter mission failed communication between different
along the way to direct it along its path. The orbiter reached because of a miscommunication about units of groups working on a project is essential.
Mars nine and a half months later, on September 23, 1999. measurement.
Furthermore, any project, especially a
A signal was sent to the orbiter to fire the thrusters a final
time in order to push the spacecraft into orbit around the very large or complex one, should have
failures. A later Mars mission, the Exploration Rover
planet. However, the orbiter did not respond to this final mission, successfully placed two rovers named Spirit and a systematic plan for double-checking all
signal. NASA soon determined that the orbiter had passed Opportunity on the surface of Mars, where they collected a plans and calculations, including the
closer to the planet than intended, as close as 60 km (36 mi). wide range of data. Among other things, the rovers found
The orbiter most likely overheated because of friction in the
consistent use of units.
convincing evidence that liquid water once flowed on the
Martian atmosphere and then passed beyond the planet into surface of Mars. Thus, it is possible that Mars supported life
space, fatally damaged. sometime in the past.
The Mars Climate Orbiter was built by Lockheed Martin in
Denver, Colorado, while the mission was run by a NASA flight
control team at Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena,
California. Review of the failed mission revealed that
engineers at Lockheed Martin sent thrust specifications to
the flight control team in English units of pounds of force,
while the flight control team assumed that the thrust
specifications were in newtons, the SI unit for force. Such a
(tr) Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech; (br) Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

problem normally would be caught by others checking and

double-checking specifications, but somehow the error
escaped notice until it was too late.
Unfortunately, communication with the Mars Polar Lander
was also lost as the lander entered the Martian atmosphere
on December 3, 1999. The failure of these and other space
exploration missions reveals the inherent difficulty in
sending complex technology into the distant, harsh, and
often unknown conditions in space and on other planets. The Spirit and Opportunity rovers have explored the
However, NASA has had many more successes than surface of Mars with a variety of scientific instruments,
including cameras, spectrometers, magnets, and a
rock-grinding tool.

13

ntitled-291 13 5/5/2011 6:06:56 PM

The Science of Physics  13

 FIGURE 2.5
(a)

 Teach continued Choosing Units When determining

area by multiplying measurements of
length and width, be sure the measurements
are expressed in the same units.
TEACH FROM VISUALS

FIGURE 2.5  Point out that all measure-

ments could have been converted to cm.
Ask  What would be the area in cm2?
Answer: (2035 cm)(1250 cm) =
2 540 000 cm2 = 2.54 × 106 cm2 20 35 cm 20 .3 5 m
Ask  This number is much greater than 10 17 .5 1 0. 1 7 5
the number of square meters. Does it 4070 40 .7 0
20 35 20 3. 5
indicate an error? 25 43 7. 5 25 4. 37 5
Answer: No, the same-sized area contains ab ou t ?? ab ou t
a small number of large units (large tiles)
or a large number of small units (small (b) (c)
tiles), just as 20 one-dollar bills have the
same value as 2000 pennies. PHYSICS
Both dimension and units must agree. Spec. Number PH 99 PE C01-002-002-A
Boston Graphics, Inc.
Measurements of physical quantities must be expressed in units that match
617.523.1333
the dimensions of that quantity. For example, measurements of length
cannot be expressed in units of kilograms because units of kilograms
describe the dimension of mass. It is very important to be certain that a
measurement is expressed in units that refer to the correct dimension. One
good technique for avoiding errors in physics is to check the units in an
answer to be certain they are appropriate for the dimension of the physical
quantity that is being sought in a problem or calculation.
In addition to having the correct dimension, measurements used in
calculations should also have the same units. As an example, consider
Figure 2.5(a), which shows two people measuring a room to determine the
room’s area. Suppose one person measures the length in meters and the
other person measures the width in centimeters. When the numbers are
multiplied to find the area, they will give a difficult-to-interpret answer in
units of cm•m, as shown in Figure 2.5(b). On the other hand, if both
measurements are made using the same units, the calculated area is
much easier to interpret because it is expressed in units of m2, as shown
in Figure 2.5(c). Even if the measurements were made in different units, as
in the example above, one unit can be easily converted to the other because
centimeters and meters are both units of length. It is also necessary to
convert one unit to another when working with units from two different
systems, such as meters and feet. In order to avoid confusion, it is better to
make the conversion to the same units before doing any more arithmetic.

Differentiated
14 Chapter 1
Instruction
Below Level
Draw a rectangle and label its length 9 cm and
Untitled-189 14 5/11/2011 6:47:14 AM

its width 4 m. Draw a square and label two

adjoining sides with a length of 6 cm. Ask
students whether both shapes have the same
area. Have students work through the calcula-
tions to find the area of each shape, checking
their units as they work. Students should
conclude that the rectangle does not have an
area of 36 cm2 but the square does.

14  Chapter 1
 Metric Prefixes

Sample Problem A A typical bacterium has a mass of about

Classroom Practice
2.0 fg. Express this measurement in terms of grams and kilograms. Metric Prefixes
If a statue has a mass of 60 000 000 mg,
ANALYZE Given: mass = 2.0 fg what is its mass in grams and kilograms?
Unknown: mass = ? g mass = ? kg
Answer: 60 000 g, 60 kg

PROBLEM guide A
SOLVE Build conversion factors from the relationships given in Figure 2.4. Use this guide to assign problems.
Two possibilities are shown below.
1 × 10-15 g
1 fg SE = Student Edition Textbook
__ and __
1 fg 1 × 10-15 g PW = Sample Problem Set I (online)
PB = Sample Problem Set II (online)
Only the first one will cancel the units of femtograms to give units
of grams. Solving for:
(2.0 fg) ( × 10-15 g
1_
1 fg )= 2.0 × 10-15 g SI
units
SE Sample, 1–5;
Chapter Review 11–14
PW Sample, 1–8
Then, take this answer and use a similar process to cancel the units of
grams to give units of kilograms. PB Sample, 1–10
(2.0 × 10-15 g) _ (
1 kg
1 × 103 g )
= 2.0 × 10-18 kg *Challenging Problem

Answers
Practice A
1. A human hair is approximately 50 µm in diameter. Express this diameter 1. 5 × ​10 ​-5​m
in meters.
2. 1 × ​10 ​-6​s
2. If a radio wave has a period of 1 µs, what is the wave’s period in seconds?
3. A hydrogen atom has a diameter of about 10 nm.
3. a. 1 × ​10 ​-8​m
a. Express this diameter in meters. b. 1 × ​10 ​-5​mm
b. Express this diameter in millimeters. c. 1 × ​10 ​-2​µm
c. Express this diameter in micrometers. 4. 0.15 Tm, 1.5 × 108 km
4. The distance between the sun and Earth is about 1.5 × 1011 m. Express this 5. 1.440 × 103 kg
distance with an SI prefix and in kilometers.
5. The average mass of an automobile in the United States is about 1.440 × 106 g.
Express this mass in kilograms.

Problem Solving The Science of Physics 15

Alternative Approaches
ntitled-189 15
Some students may find it easier to set the 5/11/2011 6:47:14 AM

problem up as a proportion. For Sample

Problem A, show students how to set up the
following proportional equation and solve it
for x.
1 × ​10 ​-15​g _ xg
​ _  ​   
= ​     ​
1 fg 2 fg

The Science of Physics  15

 Accuracy and Precision

 Teach continued
Because theories are based on observation and experiment, careful
measurements are very important in physics. But no measurement is
perfect. In describing the imperfection of a measurement, one must
accuracy a description of how close consider both the accuracy, which describes how close the measurement
a measurement is to the correct or is to the correct value, and the precision, which describes how exact the
Demonstration accepted value of the quantity
measured
measurement is. Although these terms are often used interchangeably in
everyday speech, they have specific meanings in a scientific discussion. A
numeric measure of confidence in a measurement or result is known as
Accuracy and Precision precision the degree of exactness of uncertainty. A lower uncertainty indicates greater confidence.
a measurement
Purpose  Show the difference between Uncertainties are usually expressed by using statistical methods.
accuracy and precision in measuring
length. Error in experiments must be minimized.
Experimental work is never free of error, but it is important to minimize
Materials  shoe, metersticks error in order to obtain accurate results. An error can occur, for example,
Procedure  Have three students if a mistake is made in reading an instrument or recording the results.
One way to minimize error from human oversight or carelessness is to
successively measure the length of a take repeated measurements to be certain they are consistent.
long table with a shoe. Ask students to If some measurements are taken using one method and some are taken
compare the accuracy of each measure- using a different method, a type of error called method error will result.
ment and the precision of the measuring Method error can be greatly reduced by standardizing the method of taking
measurements. For example, when measuring a length with a meterstick,
tool. The measurement has little choose a line of sight directly over what is being measured, as shown in
accuracy; i.e., it is difficult to estimate a Figure 2.6(a). If you are too far to one side, you are likely to overestimate or
fractional part of a shoe. The tool lacks underestimate the measurement, as shown in Figure 2.6(b) and Figure 2.6(c).
precision; i.e., repeated measurements Another type of error is instrument error. If a meterstick or balance is
not in good working order, this will introduce error into any measure-
produce little agreement. Have three ments made with the device. For this reason, it is important to be careful
students repeat the measurement with with lab equipment. Rough handling can damage balances. If a wooden
metersticks and compare their results. meterstick gets wet, it can warp, making accurate measurements difficult.
Are there still differences even though FIGURE 2.6
the meterstick is more precise? Line of Sight Affects Measurements If you measure this window by keeping your line of
sight directly over the measurement (a), you will find that it is 165.2 cm long. If you do not keep your
eye directly above the mark, as in (b) and (c), you may report a measurement with significant error.

Demonstration
Significant Figures
Purpose  Clarify the meaning of
significant figures.
Materials  pan balance, small paper cup,
salt (a) (b) (c)

Procedure  Pour salt into the cup on

one pan until it is balanced with 183 g.
Slowly add small amounts of salt and Differentiated
16 Chapter 1
Instruction
have students note that the reading
remains 183 g until the balance tilts. Try Inclusion
to restore balance by adding 1 g masses Give visually impaired students two rulers, one
Untitled-189 16 5/11/2011 6:47:15 AM

(they will probably be too heavy or too with raised centimeter marks, and another
light). Ask students to guess the mass of with raised centimeter and millimeter marks.
the salt. The answer is actually between Have them use each ruler to measure and cut
183 g and 184 g. two 3.5-cm lengths of string by touching and
counting the raised marks. Have them com-
pare the two lengths of string. Discuss how
the finer spacing affects the precision of their
measurement.

16  Chapter 1
 Because the ends of a meterstick can be easily damaged or worn, it is best FIGURE 2.7
to minimize instrument error by making measurements with a portion of
the scale that is in the middle of the meterstick. Instead of measuring Estimation in Measurement
Even though this ruler is marked in
Teaching Tip
from the end (0 cm), try measuring from the 10 cm line.
only centimeters and half-centimeters, Draw a rectangle on the board and tell
if you estimate, you can use it to
students that the rectangle represents a
Precision describes the limitations of the measuring instrument. report measurements to a precision
of a millimeter. pool that is 50 m long. Ask students how
Poor accuracy involves errors that can often be corrected. On the other
hand, precision describes how exact a measurement can possibly be. For accurately they think a real 50-m pool
example, a measurement of 1.325 m is more precise than a measurement can be constructed. Explain to students
of 1.3 m. A lack of precision is typically due to limitations of the measuring
that in pouring the concrete for pools,
instrument and is not the result of human error or lack of calibration. For
example, if a meterstick is divided only into centimeters, it will be difficult there may be a slight variation in length.
to measure something only a few millimeters thick with it. Might the length of a 50-m pool be
In many situations, you can improve the precision of a measurement. 50.1 m or 49.9 m? Might it be 50.01 m
This can be done by making a reasonable estimation of where the mark on
or 49.99 m? Might it be 50.001 m or
the instrument would have been. Suppose that in a laboratory experiment
you are asked to measure the length of a pencil with a meterstick marked in 49.999 m? Show students lengths of
centimeters, as shown in Figure 2.7. The end of the pencil lies somewhere 10 cm, 1 cm, and 1 mm on a ruler. Then
between 18 cm and 18.5 cm. The length you have actually measured is show students a distance of approxi-
slightly more than 18 cm. You can make a reasonable estimation of how far
between the two marks the end of the pencil is and add a digit to the end of mately 50 m.
the actual measurement. In this case, the end of the pencil seems to be less Have students assume that the pool
than halfway between the two marks, so you would report the measurement
as 18.2 cm.
is 50.00 ± 0.01 m. That would mean that
one swimming pool may be 1 cm shorter
Significant figures help keep track of imprecision. than 50 m and a second pool in another
It is important to record the precision of your measurements so that other location may be 1 cm longer than 50 m.
people can understand and interpret your results. A common convention Because a 1500-m race requires a
used in science to indicate precision is known as significant figures. The significant figures those digits in a swimmer to swim 30 laps, a swimmer
figures that are significant are the ones that are known for certain, as well measurement that are known with
as the first digit that is uncertain.
certainty plus the first digit that is may swim 30 cm less in one pool and
uncertain
In the case of the measurement of the pencil as about 18.2 cm, the 30 cm more in a second pool when
measurement has three significant figures. The significant figures of a completing a 1500 m race. Could this
measurement include all the digits that are actually measured (18 cm), 60-cm difference in the lengths of the
plus one estimated digit. Note that the number of significant figures is
determined by the precision of the markings on the measuring scale. races explain why a new record might
The last digit is reported as a 0.2 (for the estimated 0.2 cm past the be set in the first pool? Before students
18 cm mark). Because this digit is an estimate, the true value for the can answer this question, ask them to
measurement is actually somewhere between 18.15 cm and 18.25 cm. also consider the precision of the time
When the last digit in a recorded measurement is a zero, it is difficult measurement of the race.
to tell whether the zero is there as a placeholder or as a significant digit.
For example, if a length is recorded as 230 mm, it is impossible to tell
whether this number has two or three significant digits. In other words, it
can be difficult to know whether the measurement of 230 mm means the
measurement is known to be between 225 mm and 235 mm or is known
more precisely to be between 229.5 mm and 230.5 mm.

The Science of Physics 17

ntitled-189 17 5/11/2011 6:47:16 AM

The Science of Physics  17

 FIGURE 2.8 One way to solve such problems is to report all values using scientific
notation. In scientific notation, the measurement is recorded to a power

 Teach continued Precision If a mountain’s height

is known with an uncertainty of 5 m,
the addition of 0.20 m of rocks will
of 10, and all of the figures given are significant. For example, if the length
of 230 cm has two significant figures, it would be recorded in scientific
notation as 2.3 × 102 cm. If it has three significant figures, it would be
not appreciably change the height.
Teaching Tip recorded as 2.30 × 102 cm.
Scientific notation is also helpful when the zero in a recorded
Have students assume that the precision measurement appears in front of the measured digits. For example,
of the time measurement in the 1500-m a measurement such as 0.000 15 cm should be expressed in scientific
notation as 1.5 × 10-4 cm if it has two significant figures. The three
race from the previous Teaching Tip is
zeros between the decimal point and the digit 1 are not counted as
0.01 s. Therefore, if the possible 60 cm significant figures because they are present only to locate the decimal
variation in the length is to be ignored point and to indicate the order of magnitude. The rules for determining
how many significant figures are in a measurement that includes zeros
between any two competitions, a
are shown in Figure 2.9.
swimmer would have to swim this
difference in less than 0.01 s. Show that
Significant figures in calculations require special rules.
at a rate of 60 cm/0.01 s, a swimmer In calculations, the number of significant figures in your result depends
would have to swim 60 m (more than on the number of significant figures in each measurement. For example,
30 body lengths) in 1 s. Since it takes if someone reports that the height of a mountaintop, like the one shown
in Figure 2.8, is 1710 m, that implies that its actual height is between 1705
longer than 0.01 s to swim 60 cm, there and 1715 m. If another person builds a pile of rocks 0.20 m high on top of
can be no valid comparisons of time the mountain, that would not suddenly make the mountain’s new height
that differ by less than 0.01 s from one known accurately enough to be measured as 1710.20 m. The final
reported height cannot be more precise than the least precise measure-
1500-m race to the next. The possible
ment used to find the answer. Therefore, the reported height should be
difference in the times may not be due rounded off to 1710 m even if the pile of rocks is included.
to the ability of the individual swimmers;
it may be due to a difference in the FIGURE 2.9
lengths of the two pools. Why do
RULES FOR DETERMINING WHETHER ZEROS ARE SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Olympic judges measure swimming
times to the 0.1 s, 0.01 s, or even 0.001 s? Rule Examples

Students can either explain this or have 1. Zeros between other nonzero digits are significant. a. 50.3 m has three significant figures.
something new to think about as they b. 3.0025 s has five significant figures.
watch or engage in sports activities. 2. Zeros in front of nonzero digits are not significant. a. 0.892 kg has three significant figures.
b. 0.0008 ms has one significant figure.

3. Zeros that are at the end of a number and also to the right of a. 57.00 g has four significant figures.
TEACH FROM VISUALS the decimal are significant. b. 2.000 000 kg has seven significant figures.

FIGURE 2.9  Students may need to 4. Zeros at the end of a number but to the left of a decimal are a. 1000 m may contain from one to four significant
significant if they have been measured or are the first figures, depending on the precision of the
practice with examples in applying the estimated digit; otherwise, they are not significant. In this measurement, but in this book it will be assumed that

©Mike Grandmaison/Corbis
rules shown in Figure 2.9. book, they will be treated as not significant. (Some books measurements like this have one significant figure.
place a bar over a zero at the end of a number to indicate b. 20 m may contain one or two significant figures, but in
Ask  Write each of the examples in that it is significant. This textbook will use scientific notation this book it will be assumed to have one significant figure.
scientific notation. Check the number of for these cases instead.)
significant figures.
Answer: 5.03 × 101 m; 3.0025 s; Differentiated
18 Chapter 1
Instruction
8.92 × 10-1 kg; 8 × 10-4 ms;
5.700 × 101 g; 2.000 000 kg; Below Level (Absent and Atlantic both begin with A.)” Give
1 × 103 m; 2 × 101m Display a simple map of the United States.
Untitled-189 18 students the example 524 000 to apply the 5/11/2011 6:47:17 AM

Tell students that they can refer to the rule. What are its significant digits? The number
Atlantic-Pacific rule when they are working to 524 000 has no decimal point. Students count
determine the significant figures in a number. from the Atlantic side (the right) and count the
To use the Atlantic-Pacific rule, think of the first nonzero numbers they encounter. The
United States map and the following rule: “If numbers from there to the end of the left side
there is a decimal Present in my number, I must are the significant figures.
count from the Pacific. (Present and Pacific
both begin with P.) If the decimal point is
Absent, then I must count from the Atlantic.

18  Chapter 1
 Similar rules apply to multiplication. Suppose that you calculate the
area of a room by multiplying the width and length. If the room’s
dimensions are 4.6 m by 6.7 m, the product of these values would be The Language of
30.82 m2. However, this answer contains four significant figures, which
implies that it is more precise than the measurements of the length and Physics
width. Because the room could be as small as 4.55 m by 6.65 m or as large In mathematics, we use 97.3, 97.30,
as 4.65 m by 6.75 m, the area of the room is known only to be between
30.26 m2 and 31.39 m2. The area of the room can have only two significant 97.300, etc., to represent the same
figures because each measurement has only two. So, the area must be number with a single value (e.g., if
rounded off to 31 m2. Figure 2.10 summarizes the two basic rules for x = 97.3 and y = 97.300, then x = y ).
determining significant figures when you are performing calculations.
When numbers represent the results of
measurements, they are not pure
FIGURE 2.10
mathematical quantities. The numbers
RULES FOR CALCULATING WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES contain additional information about
Type of calculation Rule Examples precision. Measured values actually
stand for a range of possible values. This
addition or subtraction Given that addition and subtraction take place in columns, 97.3
round the final answer to the first column from the left + 5.85
range is defined by the significant digits.
����� round off 103.2 Here, x could be 97.25 cm, 97.26 cm, or
containing an estimated digit. 103.15 ��
97.34 cm. But y could be 97.295 cm,
multiplication or The final answer has the same number of significant figures as the 123
division measurement having the smallest number of significant figures. × 5.35
97.296 cm, or 97.304 cm. There may be a
�����
658.05 round off 658
�� difference between x and y, although it
may not be measurable.

Calculators do not pay attention to significant figures.

When you use a calculator to analyze problems or measurements, you
Misconception Alert!
may be able to save time because the calculator can compute faster than Sometimes, students are reluctant to
you can. However, the calculator does not keep track of significant figures.
round off a product so that it has no
Calculators often exaggerate the precision of your final results by
decimal digits. They might even think
returning answers with as many digits as the display can show.
To reinforce the correct approach, the answers to the sample problems they misapplied a rule. An example
in this book will always show only the number of significant figures may familiarize them with such
that the measurements justify.
counterintuitive results. Ask them to
Providing answers with the correct number of significant figures often
multiply 53.5824 s by 2.14 m/s and
requires rounding the results of a calculation. The rules listed in
Figure 2.11 on the next page will be used in this book for rounding, and the round off. The result, 114.666 336 m,
results of a calculation will be rounded after each type of mathematical needs to be reduced to three
operation. For example, the result of a series of multiplications should be
significant digits, that is, 115 m.
rounded using the multiplication/division rule before it is added to
another number. Similarly, the sum of several numbers should be
rounded according to the addition/subtraction rule before the sum is
multiplied by another number. Multiple roundings can increase the error
in a calculation, but with this method there is no ambiguity about which
Teaching Tip
rule to apply. You should consult your teacher to find out whether to When results are rounded after each type
round this way or to delay rounding until the end of all calculations.
of operation, the order of operations
used to solve a problem sometimes
Problem Solving The Science of Physics 19
affects the answer. For this reason,
students’ answers could differ slightly
Reality Check glasses you are able to fill. If, however, you
from those in this Teacher’s Edition and
Untitled-189 19
The value of significant digits can be empha- knock over one of the filled glasses, that
5/11/2011 6:47:18 AM
still be correct. If you ask students to
sized by asking students to imagine situations in amount of spilled milk would affect the final
round at the end of a calculation instead
which exact counts of items are less meaningful number of glasses that you have.
of after each type of operation, there will
than larger units that contain the items. For be even more variation.
example, if you are pouring a container of milk
into large glasses, you are more concerned
with the number of glasses you can fill than
with the exact amount in each glass. If you
spill a few drops of milk, that amount is not
significant—it will not affect how many

The Science of Physics  19

 FIGURE 2.11

RULES FOR ROUNDING IN CALCULATIONS

 Teach continued What to do When to do it Examples

Misconception Alert! round down • whenever the digit following the last significant figure is a 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 30.24 becomes 30.2
The symmetric rounding rules used
• if the last significant figure is an even number and the next digit is a 5, 32.25 becomes 32.2
when the last digit of a number is a with no other nonzero digits 32.650 00 becomes 32.6
five may appear unusual to students.
Explain that when the last digit is 5, by round up • whenever the digit following the last significant figure is a 6, 7, 8, or 9 22.49 becomes 22.5
convention we round to the nearest
• if the digit following the last significant figure is a 5 followed by a 54.7511 becomes 54.8
even digit. Ask them to apply this to nonzero digit
rounding 12.05, 12.15, 12.25, 12.35, 12.45
• if the last significant figure is an odd number and the next digit is a 5, 54.75 becomes 54.8
and so on until 12.95. 12.0, 12.2, 12.2, 12.4,
with no other nonzero digits 79.3500 becomes 79.4
12.4, etc. Students will realize that they
alternately round up and down. Point
out that this convention allows them
to reduce the average error because
the numbers are sometimes increased
and sometimes decreased. SECTION 2 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Reviewing Main Ideas
1. Which SI units would you use for the following measurements?

 Assess and Reteach a. the length of a swimming pool

b. the mass of the water in the pool
c. the time it takes a swimmer to swim a lap
Assess  Use the Formative Assessment 2. Express the following measurements as indicated.
on this page to evaluate student a. 6.20 mg in kilograms
mastery of the section. b. 3 × 10-9 s in milliseconds
c. 88.0 km in meters
Reteach  For students who need 3. Perform these calculations, following the rules for significant figures.
additional instruction, download the a. 26 × 0.025 84 = ?
Section Study Guide. b. 15.3 ÷ 1.1 = ?
c. 782.45 - 3.5328 = ?
Response to Intervention  To reassess d. 63.258 + 734.2 = ?
students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
available to print or to take directly Critical Thinking
4. The following students measure the density of a piece of lead three
online at [Link]. times. The density of lead is actually 11.34 g/cm3. Considering all of
the results, which person’s results were accurate? Which were precise?
Were any both accurate and precise?
a. Rachel: 11.32 g/cm3, 11.35 g/cm3, 11.33 g/cm3
b. Daniel: 11.43 g/cm3, 11.44 g/cm3, 11.42 g/cm3
c. Leah: 11.55 g/cm3, 11.34 g/cm3, 11.04 g/cm3

Answers
20
to Section Assessment
Chapter 1

1. a. meters 4. a. accurate and precise

b. 20 kilograms
Untitled-189 b. precise 5/11/2011 6:47:18 AM

c. seconds c. neither
2. a. 6.20 × ​10 ​-6​kg
b. 3 × 1​ 0 ​-6​ms
c. 8.80 × 104 m
3. a. 0.67
b. 14
c. 778.92
d. 797.5

20  Chapter 1
 SECTION 3 SECTION  3

The Language of Objectives

Interpret data in tables and Plan and Prepare 
Physics
graphs, and recognize
equations that summarize data.

Distinguish between
Preview Vocabulary
conventions for abbreviating Academic Vocabulary  Explain that the
units and quantities. word expression is used in this chapter
Mathematics and Physics
Use dimensional analysis to
to describe a meaningful combination of
Just as physicists create simplified models to better understand the real
world, they use the tools of mathematics to analyze and summarize their check the validity of equations. mathematical terms, such as those
observations. Then they can use the mathematical relationships among Perform order-of-magnitude
found in a scientific equation.
physical quantities to help predict what will happen in new situations. calculations.

Tables, graphs, and equations can make data easier to understand.

There are many ways to organize data. Consider the experiment shown in
Teach 
Figure 3.1, which tests Galileo’s hypothesis that all objects fall at the same
rate in the absence of air resistance. In this experiment, a table-tennis ball
and a golf ball are dropped in a vacuum. The results are recorded as a set
FIGURE 3.1
Teaching Tip
of numbers corresponding to the times of the fall and the distance each Point out that although the time intervals
ball falls. A convenient way to organize the data is to form a table like Two Balls Falling in a
Figure 3.2. Vacuum This experiment tests shown in Figure 3.2 cannot be measured
Galileo’s hypothesis by having two by direct observation, these data can be
balls with different masses dropped recorded using advanced technological
FIGURE 3.2 simultaneously in a vacuum.
tools, including a com­puter connected
DATA FROM DROPPED-BALL EXPERIMENT
Distance golf ball Distance table-tennis
to a probe.
Time (s)
falls (cm) ball falls (cm)
0.067 2.20 2.20 TEACH FROM VISUALS
0.133 8.67 8.67 FIGURE 3.2  In order to process the
0.200 19.60 19.59 information contained in Figure 3.2,
students need to look at the numbers
0.267 34.93 34.92
closely.
0.333 54.34 54.33 Ask  Were the data collected at regular
time intervals?
©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, New York

0.400 78.40 78.39

1
Answer: Yes, every ​ _  ​ of a second
15
One method for analyzing the data in Figure 3.2 is to construct a graph
Ask  According to the distances
of the distance the balls have fallen versus the elapsed time since they displayed in the table, did one of the
were released. This graph is shown in Figure 3.3 on the next page. Because balls appear to fall faster than the
the graph shows an obvious pattern, we can draw a smooth curve through
the data points to make estimations for times when we have no data. The
other one?
shape of the graph also provides information about the relationship Answer: No, the measured distances
between time and distance.
vary by only one digit in the last
significant figure.
Differentiated Instruction The Science of Physics 21

Ask  According to the distances

Below Level displayed in the table, did the golf ball
ntitled-290 21
Students may better understand the meaning 5/5/2011 6:06:44 PM travel the same distance during every
of data in a table once they are familiar with time interval?
the meaning of the values. Have students Answer: No, the distance traveled
collect their own data in a data table. Allow increased with each time interval.
students to perform a simple experiment, such
as rolling a toy car down a ramp of increasing
height. Students should track the distance the
car moves before stopping for each ramp
height and create a data table. Encourage
students to create a graph of their data.

The Science of Physics  21

 FIGURE 3.3
Distance Dropped Balls Have Fallen versus Time

 Teach continued Graph of Dropped Ball Data 100.00

The graph of these data provides a 90.00
convenient way to summarize the data and 80.00
indicate the relationship between the time 70.00

Distance (cm)
60.00
TEACH FROM VISUALS an object has been falling and the distance
50.00
it has fallen.
40.00
FIGURE 3.3  Have students verify that 30.00
the points on the graph correspond to 20.00
10.00
the numbers listed in Figure 3.2. 0.00
0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500
Ask  How far have the balls fallen after Time (s)

a time of 0.225 s?
Answer: 26 cm (as read from the graph) We can also use the following equation to describe the relationship
Ask  Was the point (0, 0) listed in the between the variables in the experiment:

data table? How would you justify using (change in position in meters) = 4.9 × (time of fall in seconds)2

it in the graph? This equation allows you to reproduce the graph and make predictions
about the change in position for any arbitrary time during the fall.
Answer: No, we assume that the clock
started exactly at the instant the balls
Physics equations describe relationships.
were dropped and that distances were While mathematicians use equations to describe relationships between
measured from the dropping point. variables, physicists use the tools of mathematics to describe measured
or predicted relationships between physical quantities in a situation. For
example, one or more variables may affect the outcome of an experiment.
In the case of a prediction, the physical equation is a compact statement
The Language of based on a model of the situation. It shows how two or more variables are

Physics
related. Many of the equations in physics represent a simple description
of the relationship between physical quantities.
In the first equation on this page, the To make expressions as simple as possible, physicists often use letters
to describe specific quantities in an equation. For example, the letter v is
term change in position stands for the used to denote speed. Sometimes, Greek letters are used to describe
vertical distance from the point where mathematical operations. For example, the Greek letter ∆ (delta) is often
the balls were dropped. Likewise, time used to mean “difference or change in,” and the Greek letter Σ (sigma) is
used to mean “sum” or “total.”
of fall specifies the number of seconds
With these conventions, the word equation above can be written
since the balls were dropped. as follows:
We use the symbols ∆y and ∆t to ∆y = 4.9(∆t)2
represent the vertical distance between
The abbreviation ∆y indicates the vertical change in a ball’s position from
two points and the time interval, its starting point, and ∆t indicates the time elapsed.
respectively. These symbols are used The units in which these quantities are measured are also often
in the second equation shown on abbreviated with symbols consisting of a letter or two. Most physics books
provide some clues to help you keep track of which letters refer to quanti-
the page.
ties and variables and which letters are used to indicate units. Typically,
variables and other specific quantities are abbreviated with letters that
are boldfaced or italicized. (The difference between the two is described

Differentiated
22 Chapter 1
Instruction
English Learners their own definitions of these features and
There are several terms that need to be
Untitled-290 22 color code them to their marked-up graph 5/5/2011 6:06:45 PM

mastered when it comes to making and for future reference.

reading a graph. Provide students learning
English with a blank piece of paper and
highlighter markers. As you walk through the
creation of a graph, encourage students to
highlight areas such as the x-axis, the y-axis,
and individual points. Students should include

22  Chapter 1
 in the chapter “Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors.”) Units are abbre-
viated with regular letters (sometimes called roman letters). Some
examples of variable symbols and the abbreviations for the units that Misconception Alert!
measure them are shown in Figure 3.4.
Students may think that algebraic
As you continue to study physics, carefully note the introduction of new
variable quantities, and recognize which units go with them. The tables symbols representing variable quantities
provided in Appendices C–E can help you keep track of these abbreviations. must always be the same letters shown
in the table. Point out that physicists
FIGURE 3.4 tend to choose different symbols for
ABBREVIATIONS FOR VARIABLES AND UNITS each dimension in different contexts
and that there are few fixed rules. For
Quantity Symbol Units Unit abbreviations
instance, as shown in Figure 3.4, one
change in vertical position ∆y meters m symbol for change in position is ∆y ;
change in position can also by symbol-
time interval ∆t seconds s
ized by ∆x, d, s, l, or h.
mass m kilograms kg

Teaching Tip
Evaluating Physics Equations Point out that dimensional analysis is a
Although an experiment is the ultimate way to check the validity of a good tool for checking whether the
physics equation, several techniques can be used to evaluate whether an equation you are using gives the kind of
equation or result can possibly be valid.
quantity you want to calculate. For
example, when you want to find volume
Dimensional analysis can weed out invalid equations.
Suppose a car, such as the one in Figure 3.5, is moving at a speed of
(V) based on density (ρ) and mass (m),
88 km/h and you want to know how much time it will take it to travel you may find that you erroneously set
ρ
725 km. How can you decide a good way to solve the problem? FIGURE 3.5 V = __
​ m  ​before doing the calculations.
You can use a powerful procedure called dimensional analysis. Dimensional Analysis in Simply replace each variable with its
Dimensional analysis makes use of the fact that dimensions can be treated Speed Calculations dimensions and see whether the
as algebraic quantities. For example, quantities can be added or subtracted Dimensional analysis can be a useful
only if they have the same dimensions, and the two sides of any given check for many types of problems, equation balances.
ρ
equation must have the same dimensions. including those involving how much V = ​ _m  ​ 
Let us apply this technique to the problem of the car moving at a time it would take for this car to travel g
725 km if it moves with a speed _
​   3 ​ 
speed of 88 km/h. This measurement is given in dimensions of length g _
over time. The total distance traveled has the dimension of length. of 88 km/h. cm3 = _ ​  cmg ​   = ​ _    ​ ​ 1 ​  = ​ _
1   ​ 
Multiplying these numbers together gives the following dimensions: cm3 g cm3
This mismatch reveals that the equation
ρ
length
_ length2 V = __
​ m  ​must be invalid.
× length = _
time time
©John P. Kelly/Getty Images

Clearly, the result of this calculation does not have the dimensions of
time, which is what you are calculating. This equation is not a valid one
for this situation.

Problem Solving The Science of Physics 23

Deconstructing Problems This way, students can comprehend that

ntitled-290 23
The given equation may confuse some the term length in the equation is a variable,
5/5/2011 6:06:45 PM

students. similar to the variables used in many math-

length length2 ematical equations.
​ _ ​   × length = ​ _  
 ​ 
time time
Use a dummy variable x as length in the
equation to show that the given equation
is the same as the equation below:
​ _    ​ × x = ​ _
x x2
   ​ 
time time

The Science of Physics  23

 To calculate an answer that will have the dimension of time, you
should take the distance and divide it by the speed of the car, as follows:

 Teach continued __ length

length/time
length × time
= __ = time
length
725 km × 1.0 h = 8.2 h
__
88 km

Teaching Tip In a simple example like this one, you might be able to identify the
valid equation without dimensional analysis. But with more complicated
To expand the method of simplifying problems, it is a good idea to check your final equation with dimensional
analysis before calculating your answer. This step will prevent you from
units in a product such as the one given
wasting time computing an invalid equation.
in the text, use products such as the
example below. Show students that the
Order-of-magnitude estimations check answers.
units in denominators and numerators Did YOU Know? Because the scope of physics is so wide and the numbers may be astro-
act like the factors of a multiplication, The physicist Enrico Fermi made the nomically large or subatomically small, it is often useful to estimate an
although they do not have exactly the first nuclear reactor at the University answer to a problem before trying to solve the problem exactly. This kind
of Chicago in 1942. Fermi was also of estimate is called an order-of-magnitude calculation, which means
same attributes. We can simplify any unit well known for his ability to make quick determining the power of 10 that is closest to the actual numerical value
from one of the denominators with any order-of-magnitude calculations, such of the quantity. Once you have done this, you will be in a position to judge
unit from one of the numerators. In as estimating the number of piano whether the answer you get from a more exacting procedure is correct.
tuners in New York City.
other words, for simplification purposes, For example, consider the car trip described in the discussion of
dimensional analysis. We must divide the distance by the speed to find
it is not necessary to have all the
the time. The distance, 725 km, is closer to 103 km (or 1000 km) than to
simplified units next to one another. 102 km (or 100 km), so we use 103 km. The speed, 88 km/h, is about
Example: 102 km/h (or 100 km/h).

( )( 12 m
)(
4 km
24 h 12 min 34 m )1h
​ ​ _ ​ ​​ ​ _  ​  ​​ ​ _   ​  ​
_103 km = 10 h
102 km/h
This estimate indicates that the answer should be closer to 10 than to
1 or to 100 (or 102). The correct answer (8.2 h) certainly fits this range.
Order-of-magnitude estimates can also be used to estimate numbers
in situations in which little information is given. For example, how could
you estimate how many gallons of gasoline are used annually by all of the
cars in the United States?
To find an estimate, you will need to make some assumptions about
the average household size, the number of cars per household, the
distance traveled, and the average gas mileage.
First, consider that the United States has about 300 million people.
Assuming that each family of about five people has two cars, an estimate
of the number of cars in the country is 120 million.
Next, decide the order of magnitude of the average distance each car
travels every year. Some cars travel as few as 1000 mi per year, while
others travel more than 100 000 mi per year. The appropriate order of
magnitude to include in the estimate is 10 000 mi, or 104 mi, per year.
If we assume that cars average 20 mi for every gallon of gas, each car
needs about 500 gal per year.

(_ 1 year ) ( 20 mi )
10 000 mi _ 1gal
= 500 gal/year for each car

Problem
24
Solving
Chapter 1

Deconstructing Problems
Use the following deconstruction method to
Untitled-290 24 5/5/2011 6:06:46 PM

show an alternative simplification of last

product given in the text:

(​ ​ 10,000
_ mi
year ​    )​× (​ ​ _
20 mi ) ( 20 mi )
1 gal 10,000 mi
  ​ ​= ​ ​ _  ​ 
 ​×

 ​    ​= (​ 500 )​​(​ _  ​  
1 year ) ( 1 ) 1 year )
​(​ _
1 gal
1   ​  ​× ​ ​ _ 1 gal
​=

500 gal/year for each car

24  Chapter 1
 Multiplying this by the estimate of the total number of cars in the
United States gives an annual consumption of 6 × 1010 gal.

(
500 gal
)
(12 × 107 cars) _ = 6 × 1010 gal
Assess and Reteach 
1 car
Assess  Use the Formative Assessment
on this page to evaluate student
SECTION 3 FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT mastery of the section.
Reviewing Main Ideas Reteach  For students who need
1. Indicate which of the following physics symbols denote units and which additional instruction, download the
denote variables or quantities. Section Study Guide.
a. C b. c c. C d. t e. T f. T
Response to Intervention  To reassess
2. Determine the units of the quantity described by each of the following
combinations of units: students’ mastery, use the Section Quiz,
a. kg (m/s) (1/s) b. (kg/s) (m/s2) available to print or to take directly
c. (kg/s) (m/s)2 d. (kg/s) (m/s) online at [Link].
3. Which of the following is the best order-of-magnitude estimate in meters
of the height of a mountain?
a. 1 m b. 10 m c. 100 m d. 1000 m

Interpreting Graphics
4. Which graph in Figure 3.6 best matches the data?
Volume of air (m3) Mass of air (kg)
0.50 0.644
1.50 1.936
2.25 2.899
4.00 5.159
5.50 7.096

FIGURE 3.6

8.000 10.000
6.000 8.000 30.000
Mass (kg)

Mass (kg)

Mass (kg)

4.000 6.000 20.000

2.000 4.000
10.000
0 2.000
0 0
1.00 3.00 5.00 1.00 3.00 5.00 1.00 3.00 5.00
Volume (m³) Volume (m³) Volume (m³)
(a) (b) (c)

Critical Thinking
5. Which of the following equations best matches the data from item 4?
a. (mass)2 = 1.29 (volume) b. (mass)(volume) = 1.29
c. mass = 1.29 (volume) d. mass = 1.29 (volume)2

Answers to Section Assessment The Science of Physics 25

1. units: a, e
ntitled-290 25 variables or quantities: b, c, d, f 5/5/2011 6:06:47 PM

2. a. kg·m/s2
b. kg·m/s3
c. kg·m2/s3
d. kg·m/s2
3. d
4. (a)
5. c

The Science of Physics  25

C H A P T E R s u m m ary
CHAPTER 1 Summary
Teaching Tip
Tell students that they will apply the SECTION 1 What Is Physics? KEY TERMS

material in this chapter as they proceed • Physics is the study of the physical world, from motion and energy to light model
and electricity.
through this book. What they have just system
• Physics uses the scientific method to discover general laws that can be hypothesis
learned will make more sense as they used to make predictions about a variety of situations.
controlled
study different physics topics. They • A common technique in physics for analyzing a complex situation is to experiment
disregard irrelevant factors and create a model that describes the essence
should remember to refer to this of a system or situation.
chapter as needed as they study
motion, light, electricity, atomic physics,
or any other subject. SECTION 2 Measurements in Experiments KEY TERMS

• Physics measurements are typically made and expressed in SI, a system accuracy
that uses a set of base units and prefixes to describe measurements of precision
physical quantities.
significant figures
• Accuracy describes how close a measurement is to reality. Precision results
from the limitations of the measuring device used.
• The significant figures of a measurement include all of the digits that are
actually measured plus one estimated digit.
• Significant-figure rules provide a means to ensure that calculations do not
report results that are more precise than the data used to make them.

SECTION 3 The Language of Physics

• Physicists make their work easier by summarizing data in tables and
graphs and by abbreviating quantities in equations.
• Dimensional analysis can help identify whether a physics equation
is invalid.
• Order-of-magnitude calculations provide a quick way to evaluate the
appropriateness of an answer.

VARIABLE SYMBOLS

Quantities Units

∆y change in vertical
m meters
position
∆t time interval s seconds Problem Solving
If you need more problem-solving practice,
m mass kg kilograms see Appendix I: Additional Problems.

26 Chapter 1

Untitled-220 26 5/4/2011 2:37:59 PM

26  Chapter 1
 CHAPTER REVIEW
CHAPTER 1 Review
Answers
The Science of Physics 4. Consider the phrase, “The quick brown fox jumped
over the lazy dog.” Which details of this situation 1. a. vibrations and wave phenomena,
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS would a physicist who is modeling the path of a electromagnetism
fox ignore?
1. Refer to Figure 1.3 of this chapter to identify at least b. mechanics, vibrations and wave
two areas of physics involved in the following: phenomena
a. building a louder stereo system in your car
b. bungee jumping
SI Units c. optics, thermodynamics
c. judging how hot an electric stove burner is by REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS d. thermodynamics, mechanics
looking at it
5. List an appropriate SI base unit (with a prefix as 2. a, d
d. cooling off on a hot day by diving into a
needed) for measuring the following:
swimming pool
a. the time it takes to play a CD in your stereo
3. Collect information on different cars,
2. Which of the following scenarios fit the approach of b. the mass of a sports car hypothesize about which car best
the scientific method? c. the length of a soccer field suits your needs, test your hypoth-
a. An auto mechanic listens to how a car runs and d. the diameter of a large pizza
e. the mass of a single slice of pepperoni
esis with test drives, interpret the
comes up with an idea of what might be wrong.
The mechanic tests the idea by adjusting the idle f. a semester at your school results of your test drives, rethink
speed. Then the mechanic decides his idea was g. the distance from your home to your school your needs, and choose the best car
wrong based on this evidence. Finally, the h. your mass
mechanic decides the only other problem could be i. the length of your physics lab room to buy.
the fuel pump, and he consults with the shop’s j. your height 4. the fact that the fox is brown and
other mechanics about his conclusion.
6. If you square the speed expressed in meters per the dog is lazy
b. Because of a difference of opinions about where to
second, in what units will the answer be expressed?
take the class trip, the class president holds an 5. Answers may vary.
election. The majority of the students decide to go 7. If you divide a force measured in newtons
to the amusement park instead of to the shore. (1 newton = 1 kg•m/s2) by a speed expressed in
a. s or das
c. Your school’s basketball team has advanced to the meters per second, in what units will the answer b. kg or Mg
regional playoffs. A friend from another school be expressed? c. m
says their team will win because their players want
to win more than your school’s team does. d. cm or dm
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
d. A water fountain does not squirt high enough. The e. g or dag
handle on the fountain seems loose, so you try to 8. The height of a horse is sometimes given in units of
“hands.” Why was this a poor standard of length
f. Ms
push the handle in as you turn it. When you do
this, the water squirts high enough that you can get before it was redefined to refer to exactly 4 in.? g. km
a drink. You make sure to tell all your friends how
9. Explain the advantages in having the meter officially h. kg
you did it.
defined in terms of the distance light travels in a given i. m or dam
3. You have decided to select a new car by using the time rather than as the length of a specific metal bar.
j. cm, dm, or m
scientific method. How might you proceed?
10. Einstein’s famous equation indicates that E = mc 2, 6. m2/s2
where c is the speed of light and m is the object’s
mass. Given this, what is the SI unit for E? 7. kg/s
8. The size of the unit varied depending
on who was doing the measuring.
9. The size of the unit is standardized
and reproducible.
10. kg•m2/s2

Chapter Review 27

Untitled-220 27 5/4/2011 2:38:01 PM

The Science of Physics  27

CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

PRACTICE PROBLEMS 17. The photographs below show unit conversions on the
11. a. 2 × 102 mm labels of some grocery-store items. Check the accuracy
For problems 11–14, see Sample Problem A.
b. 7.8 × 103 s of these conversions. Are the manufacturers using
significant figures correctly?
c. 1.6 × 107 µg 11. Express each of the following as indicated:
a. 2 dm expressed in millimeters
d. 7.5 × 104 cm b. 2 h 10 min expressed in seconds (a) (b)
e. 6.75 × 10-4 g c. 16 g expressed in micrograms
f. 4.62 × 10-2 cm d. 0.75 km expressed in centimeters
e. 0.675 mg expressed in grams
g. 9.7 m/s f. 462 µm expressed in centimeters
(c) (d)
12. a. 1 dekaration g. 35 km/h expressed in meters per second

b. 2 kilomockingbirds 12. Use the SI prefixes in Figure 2.4 of this chapter to

convert these hypothetical units of measure into
c. 1 microphone
appropriate quantities:
d. 1 nanogoat a. 10 rations 18. The value of the speed of light is now known to be
e. 1 examiner b. 2000 mockingbirds 2.997 924 58 × 108 m/s. Express the speed of light in
c. 10-6 phones the following ways:
13. 1.08 × 109 km d. 10-9 goats a. with three significant figures
14. 11 people e. 1018 miners b. with five significant figures
c. with seven significant figures
15. Yes, a set of measurements could be 13. Use the fact that the speed of light in a vacuum is
about 3.00 × 108 m/s to determine how many 19. How many significant figures are there in the following
precise (have a high number of
kilometers a pulse from a laser beam travels in exactly measurements?
significant figures) but not accurate one hour. a. 78.9 ± 0.2 m
due to an error with the measuring 14. If a metric ton is 1.000 × 103 kg, how many 85 kg
b. 3.788 × 109 s
instrument. c. 2.46 × 106 kg
people can safely occupy an elevator that can hold a
d. 0.0032 mm
maximum mass of exactly 1 metric ton?
16. a. 1
20. Carry out the following arithmetic operations:
b. 3 a. find the sum of the measurements 756 g, 37.2 g,
c. 5 Accuracy, Precision, and 0.83 g, and 2.5 g

d. 4 Significant Figures b. find the quotient of 3.2 m/3.563 s

c. find the product of 5.67 mm × π
e. 4 REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS d. find the difference of 27.54 s and 3.8 s
f. 6 15. Can a set of measurements be precise but not 21. A fisherman catches two sturgeons. The smaller of the
17. No, the number of significant figures accurate? Explain. two has a measured length of 93.46 cm (two decimal
places and four significant figures), and the larger fish
is not consistent between the two 16. How many significant figures are in the following has a measured length of 135.3 cm (one decimal place
values in each example. measurements? and four significant figures). What is the total length of
a. 300 000 000 m/s the two fish?
18. a. 3.00 × 108 m/s b. 3.00 × 108 m/s
c. 25.030°C 22. A farmer measures the distance around a rectangular
b. 2.9979 × 108 m/s
d. 0.006 070°C field. The length of each long side of the rectangle is
c. 2.997 925 × 108 m/s e. 1.004 J found to be 38.44 m, and the length of each short side
19. a. 3 f. 1.305 20 MHz is found to be 19.5 m. What is the total distance
around the field?
b. 4
c. 3
d. 2
20. a. 797 g
b. 0.90 m/s
28 Chapter 1
c. 17.8 mm
d. 23.7 s
21. 228.8 cm
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22. 115.9 m

28  Chapter 1
 CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW
Dimensional Analysis and CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
2 3. b, c
Order-of-Magnitude Estimates 28. In a desperate attempt to come up with an equation
to solve a problem during an examination, a student
24. a. 10-2 m
Note: In developing answers to order-of-magnitude tries the following: (velocity in m/s)2 = (acceleration b. 100 m
calculations, you should state your important assumptions, in m/s2) × (time in s). Use dimensional analysis to
including the numerical values assigned to parameters
c. 101 m to 102 m
determine whether this equation might be valid.
used in the solution. Since only order-of-magnitude results d. 101 m
29. Estimate the number of breaths taken by a person
are expected, do not be surprised if your results differ from
during 70 years.
e. 102 m
those of other students.
25. No, dimensional consistency
REVIEWING MAIN IDEAS 30. Estimate the number of times your heart beats in an
average day. indicates that the equation may be
23. Suppose that two quantities, A and B, have different valid, but it is not necessarily valid.
dimensions. Which of the following arithmetic 31. Estimate the magnitude of your age, as measured in
operations could be physically meaningful? units of seconds. 26. The dimensions are consistent.
a. A + B 27. The dimensions are consistent.
32. An automobile tire is rated to last for 50 000 mi.
b. A/B
Estimate the number of revolutions the tire will make
c. A × B
in its lifetime.
28. The equation is not valid.
d. A - B
33. Imagine that you are the equipment manager of a
24. Estimate the order of magnitude of the length in
professional baseball team. One of your jobs is to (Note: Because the following are
meters of each of the following:
a. a ladybug
keep a supply of baseballs for games in your home estimates, student answers may vary
ballpark. Balls are sometimes lost when players hit
b. your leg from those shown here.)
them into the stands as either home runs or foul
c. your school building
d. a giraffe
balls. Estimate how many baseballs you have to buy 2 9. 4 × 108 breaths
per season in order to make up for such losses.
e. a city block 30. 9 × 104 beats
Assume your team plays an 81-game home schedule
in a season.
25. If an equation is dimensionally correct, does this 31. 5.4 × 108 s
mean that the equation is true?
34. A chain of hamburger restaurants advertises that it
32. 4 × 107 revolutions
26. The radius of a circle inscribed in any triangle whose has sold more than 50 billion hamburgers over the
sides are a, b, and c is given by the following equation, years. Estimate how many pounds of hamburger 33. 2 × 103 balls
in which s is an abbreviation for (a + b + c) ÷ 2. meat must have been used by the restaurant chain to
make 50 billion hamburgers and how many head of
34. 1 × 1010 lb, 2 × 107 head of cattle
Check this formula for dimensional consistency.
_______________ cattle were required to furnish the meat for these 35. 7 × 102 tuners
√
(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)
r = __ s
hamburgers.
36. 8 × 105 balls
35. Estimate the number of piano tuners living in New York
27. The period of a simple pendulum, defined as the time
City. (The population of New York City is approximately
necessary for one complete oscillation, is measured in
8 million.) This problem was first proposed by the
time units and is given by the equation
___ physicist Enrico Fermi, who was well known for his

√L
T = 2π _
ag
ability to quickly make order-of-magnitude
calculations.
where L is the length of the pendulum and ag is the 36. Estimate the number of table-tennis balls that would
acceleration due to gravity, which has units of length fit (without being crushed) into a room that is
divided by time squared. Check this equation for 4 m long, 4 m wide, and 3 m high. Assume that the
dimensional consistency. diameter of a ball is 3.8 cm.

Chapter Review 29

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The Science of Physics  29

CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW

3 7. a. 22 cm; 38 cm2 Mixed Review 39. Exactly 1 quart of ice cream is to be made in the form
of a cube. What should be the length of one side in
meters for the container to have the appropriate
b. 29.2 cm; 67.9 cm2 37. Calculate the circumference and area for the
volume? (Use the following conversion: 4 qt =
following circles. (Use the following formulas:
38. Take the $5000 because it would circumference = 2πr and area = πr 2.) 3.786 × 10-3 m3.)
take you 272 years to count out the a. a circle of radius 3.5 cm 40. You can obtain a rough estimate of the size of a
$5 billion in single dollar bills. b. a circle of radius 4.65 cm molecule with the following simple experiment: Let a
38. A billionaire offers to give you (1) $5 billion if you will droplet of oil spread out on a fairly large but smooth
39. 9.818 × 10-2 m water surface. The resulting “oil slick” that forms on
count out the amount in $1 bills or (2) a lump sum of
40. 1.79 × 10-9 m $5000. Which offer should you accept? Explain your the surface of the water will be approximately one
answer. (Assume that you can count at an average molecule thick. Given an oil droplet with a mass of
rate of one bill per second, and be sure to allow for 9.00 × 10-7 kg and a density of 918 kg/m3 that
the fact that you need about 10 hours a day for spreads out to form a circle with a radius of 41.8 cm
sleeping and eating. Your answer does not need to be on the water surface, what is the approximate
limited to one significant figure.) diameter of an oil molecule?

Mass Versus Length

What is the relationship between the mass and length of three In this graphing calculator activity, you will
wires, each of which is made of a different substance? All three • use dimensional analysis
wires have the same diameter. Because the wires have the • observe the relationship between a mathematical function
same diameter, their cross-sectional areas are the same. The and a graph
cross-sectional area of any circle is equal to πr 2. Consider a • determine values from a graph
wire with a diameter of 0.50 cm and a density of 8.96 g/cm3. • gain a better conceptual understanding of density
The following equation describes the mass of the wire as a
Go online to [Link] to find this graphing
function of the length:
calculator activity.
Y1 = 8.96X × π(0.25)2
In this equation, Y1 represents the mass of the wire in grams,
and X represents the length of the wire in centimeters. Each of
the three wires is made of a different substance, so each wire
has a different density and a different relationship between its
mass and length.

30 Chapter 1

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30  Chapter 1
 CHAPTER REVIEW CHAPTER REVIEW
41. An ancient unit of length called the cubit was equal to 44. Assuming biological substances are 90 percent water
approximately 50 centimeters, which is, of course, and the density of water is 1.0 × 103 kg/m3, estimate 41. The ark (6 × 104 m3) was about 100
approximately 0.50 meters. It has been said that the masses (density multiplied by volume) of the times as large as a typical house
Noah’s ark was 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and following:
30 cubits high. Estimate the volume of the ark in a. a spherical cell with a diameter of 1.0 µm (6 × 102 m3).
(volume = _ 4 πr 3)
cubic meters. Also estimate the volume of a typical
3 42. 3.2 × 1010 years
home, and compare it with the ark’s volume. b. a fly, which can be approximated by a cylinder
4.0 mm long and 2.0 mm in diameter 43. 1.0 × 103 kg
42. If one micrometeorite (a sphere with a diameter of (volume = lπr 2 )
1.0 × 10-6 m) struck each square meter of the moon 44. a. 5 × 10-16 kg
each second, it would take many years to cover the 45. The radius of the planet Saturn is 6.03 × 107 m, and
b. 1 × 10-5 kg
moon with micrometeorites to a depth of 1.0 m. its mass is 5.68 × 1026 kg.
Consider a cubic box, 1.0 m on a side, on the moon. a. Find the density of Saturn (its mass divided by its 45. a. 0.618 g/cm3
Estimate how long it would take to completely fill the volume) in grams per cubic centimeter. b. 4.57 × 1016 m2
box with micrometeorites. (The volume of a sphere is given by _4 πr 3.)
3
b. Find the surface area of Saturn in square meters.
43. One cubic centimeter (1.0 cm3) of water has a mass of (The surface area of a sphere is given by 4πr 2.)
1.0 × 10-3 kg at 25°C. Determine the mass of 1.0 m3
of water at 25°C. Alternative
Assessment Answers
3. Find out who were the Nobel laureates for physics 1. Students should recognize that
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
last year, and research their work. Alternatively, preferences for one scheme or the
1. Imagine that you are a member of your state’s explore the history of the Nobel Prizes. Who founded other have nothing to do with the
highway board. In order to comply with a bill passed the awards? Why? Who delivers the award? Where?
Document your sources and present your findings in accuracy of the measurements.
in the state legislature, all of your state’s highway
signs must show distances in miles and kilometers. a brochure, poster, or presentation. 2. Students should recognize that their
Two plans are before you. One plan suggests adding 4. You have a clock with a second hand, a ruler marked approximation of the mass of a
metric equivalents to all highway signs as follows: in millimeters, a graduated cylinder marked in
Dallas 300 mi (483 km). Proponents of the other plan single coin becomes both more
milliliters, and scales sensitive to 1 mg. How would
say that the first plan makes the metric system seem you measure the mass of a drop of water? How would accurate and more precise as they
more cumbersome, so they propose replacing the old you measure the period of a swing? How would you increase the number of coins.
signs with new signs every 50 km as follows: Dallas measure the volume of a paper clip? How can you
300 km (186 mi). Participate in a class debate about improve the accuracy of your measurements? Write 3. Students’ presentations will vary
which plan should be followed. the procedures clearly so that a partner can follow depending on which scientists they
them and obtain reasonable results.
2. Can you measure the mass of a five-cent coin with a choose. Alfred Nobel (1833–1896),
bathroom scale? Record the mass in grams displayed 5. Create a poster or other presentation depicting the
by your scale as you place coins on the scale, one at a
inventor of dynamite, left a fund for
possible ranges of measurement for a dimension,
time. Then, divide each measurement by the number such as distance, time, temperature, speed, or mass. the establishment of annual prizes in
of coins to determine the approximate mass of a Depict examples ranging from the very large to the several fields.
single five-cent coin, but remember to follow the very small. Include several examples that are typical
rules for significant figures in calculations. Which of your own experiences.
4. Students’ procedures should be safe
estimate do you think is the most accurate? Which is and thoroughly explained. In some
the most precise?
cases, they will need to measure
several objects together.
5. Students’ presentations will vary but
should include references for sources
of information. Check that all
examples are within a reasonable
Chapter Review 31 order of magnitude.

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The Science of Physics  31

S TA N D A R D S - B A S E D
ASSESSMENT
Standards-Based Assessment
Answers
MULTIPLE CHOICE 6. If you do not keep your line of sight directly over a
1. B length measurement, how will your measurement
1. What area of physics deals with the subjects of heat
2. J and temperature?
most likely be affected?
F. Your measurement will be less precise.
3. A A. mechanics G. Your measurement will be less accurate.
B. thermodynamics H. Your measurement will have fewer significant
4. H C. electrodynamics figures.
5. C D. quantum mechanics J. Your measurement will suffer from instrument
error.
6. G 2. What area of physics deals with the behavior of
subatomic particles? 7. If you measured the length of a pencil by using the
7. C F. mechanics meterstick shown in the figure below and you report
8. J G. thermodynamics your measurement in centimeters, how many
H. electrodynamics significant figures should your reported measure-
9. B J. quantum mechanics ment have?
3. What term describes a set of particles or interacting
components considered to be a distinct physical 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
entity for the purpose of study?
A. system
A. one
B. model
B. two
C. hypothesis
C. three
D. controlled experiment
D. four
4. What is the SI base unit for length?
8. A room is measured to be 3.6 m by 5.8 m. What is
F. inch
the area of the room? (Keep significant figures in
G. foot
mind.)
H. meter
F. 20.88 m2
J. kilometer
G. 2 × 101 m2
5. A light-year (ly) is a unit of distance defined as the H. 2.0 × 101 m2
distance light travels in one year. Numerically, J. 21 m2
1 ly = 9 500 000 000 000 km. How many meters are
9. What technique can help you determine the power
in a light-year?
of 10 closest to the actual numerical value of a
A. 9.5 × 1010 m
quantity?
B. 9.5 × 1012 m
A. rounding
C. 9.5 × 1015 m
B. order-of-magnitude estimation
D. 9.5 × 1018 m
C. dimensional analysis
D. graphical analysis

32 Chapter 1

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32  Chapter 1
 TEST PREP

1 0. F
10. Which of the following statements is true of any SHORT RESPONSE 11     . C
valid physical equation?
F. Both sides have the same dimensions. 13. Determine the number of significant figures in each 12 . F
G. Both sides have the same variables. of the following measurements. 13  . A. 2
H. There are variables but no numbers. A. 0.0057 kg
J. There are numbers but no variables. B. 5.70 g B. 3
C. 6070 m C. 3
The graph below shows the relationship between time and distance D. 6.070 × 103 m
for a ball dropped vertically from rest. Use the graph to answer D. 4
14. Calculate the following sum, and express the answer
questions 11–12. 14. 26 897 m
in meters. Follow the rules for significant figures.
distance
Graph of experimental data (25.873 km) + (1024 m) + (3.0 cm) 15 . distance ÷ ​ _  ​ 
 
=
100.00 time
90.00 15. Demonstrate how dimensional analysis can be used
​ __ distance ×   time
 ​  = time
80.00 to find the dimensions that result from dividing distance
70.00 distance by speed.
Distance (cm)

60.00 16. Sample answer: Because the type

50.00
EXTENDED RESPONSE of fertilizer is the variable being
40.00
30.00 16. You have decided to test the effects of four different
tested, all other factors should be
20.00
garden fertilizers by applying them to four separate controlled, including the type of
10.00
rows of vegetables. What factors should you control? vegetable, the amount of water, and
0.00
0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 How
0.500could you measure the results?
Time (s) the amount of sunshine. A fifth row
17. In a paragraph, describe how you could estimate the
11. About how far has the ball fallen after 0.200 s? with no fertilizer could be used as
number of blades of grass on a football field.
A. 5.00 cm the control group. Results could be
B. 10.00 cm
C. 20.00 cm
measured by size, quantity, appear-
D. 30.00 cm ance, and taste.
12. Which of the following statements best describes 17  . Paragraphs should describe a process
the relationship between the variables? similar to the following: First, you
F. For equal time intervals, the change in position is
increasing.
could count the number of blades of
G. For equal time intervals, the change in position is grass in a small area, such as a 10 cm
decreasing. by 10 cm square. You would round
H. For equal time intervals, the change in position is
constant. this to the nearest order of magni-
J. There is no clear relationship between time and tude. Then multiply that by the
change in position.
number of such squares along the
length of the field, and then multiply
again by the approximate number of
such squares along the width of the
Test Tip
10
11 12 1
2
If more than one answer to a multiple-
field.
9 3
8 4 choice question seems to be correct,
7 6 5
pick the answer that is most correct or
that most directly answers the question.

Standards-Based Assessment 33

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The Science of Physics  33