Big-Bang Theory :

• Proposed by Abbe Lemaitre.

• the universe originated about 20 billion years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion
called Big-bang.
• The Big Bang theory explain to us the origin of universe not the origin of earth.
• About 4.6 billion years ago (bya), the origin of our solar system took place.
• In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been
formed about 4.5 billion years back. There was no atmosphere on early earth.
• Early atmosphere was reducing i.e. there were no free oxygen in the atmosphere.
• Water vapour, methane, carbondioxide and ammonia released from molten mass
covered the surface. Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e.,
almost four billion years back.

Theories for origin of life :

1. Theory of special creation-
➢ Mythology based theory
➢ Earth is about 4000 year old.
➢ The greatest supporter of this theory was father Suarez According to Bible life and
everything was created by god in 6 days.
➢ According to it life has not changed ever since its origin i.e. no evolution took place,
all living organism that we see today were created as such.
➢ The diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future.
➢ Special creation theory lacks scientific evidences so it is not accepted.

2. Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis or Auto genesis)-

➢ Given by Thlaes, Plato, Aristotle etc.
➢ According to this theory life was originated from nonliving things or decaying and
rotting matter.
➢ They believed that the mud of the Nile river could give rise to frogs, snakes,
crocodiles.
➢ Abiogenesis was strongly supported by Von Helmont, he claimed formation of mice
in 21 days. If a sweat soaked dirty shirt is kept in wheat barn.

3. Cosmozoic Theory –
➢ Proposed by Richter.
➢ Protoplasm reached on earth in the form of spores/seed/sperm from some
unknown part of the universe they gave rise to various forms of life.

4. Cosmic panspermia theory –

➢ Proposed by Early Greek thinkers like Arrhenius.
➢ According to this theory organism existed throughout the universe and their spores
could freely travel through space from one star to the other.
➢ ‘Panspermia’ is still a favourite idea for some astronomers
5. Theory of catastrophism-
➢ Given by cuvier
➢ According to him after a certain period the world undergo a catastrophe or calamity
which kills many Of the species living at that time of local region , and later new
generation or life form is formed.

6. Theory of Biogenesis (Omnis vivum ex ovo or vivo.)

➢ Proposed by Harvey and Huxley.
➢ New organism can be originated on earth only by preexisting life.
➢ This theory reject the theory of Spontaneous generation but cannot explain origin of
life.
➢ To prove Biogenesis and to disprove abiogenesis experiments were performed by
followings scientist –

a. Francesco Redi’s Experiment (meat – maggot experiments) –

• He took cooked meat in three jars one was uncovered, the second was covered with
parchment and the third was air tight.
• He observed that maggots developed only in the uncovered jar while maggots could
not developed in the meat in closed jars.
• This proved that larvae were formed from eggs laid by the files in open jars. Since
the meat in closed jars could not be visited by files so no larvae could develop.
Therefore life originated from preexisting life.

b. Lazzaro Spallanzani –
He boiled vegetables and meat form nutritive soup and he kept some
of it in air sealed flasks and some in loosely corked flasks. He observed
life appered in the soup in loosely corked flasks.

c. Louis Pasteur –
• Pasteur is popular for Germ Theory of Diseases or Germ theory
and he finally disproved abiogenesis.
• He prepared sterilized syrup of sugar and yeast by boiling them
in flasks.
• He took two flasks one with straight neck and another of curved
neck (swan neck flask). No life appeared in swan neck flask because
germ with dust particles in the air were trapped by the curved neck which serves as filter
while in straight neck flask colonies of microorganism were developed.
Note: those experiments only proofs origin of new life, it do not explain origin of life

Modern theory of origin of life (Oparin-Haldane theory of origin of life) / Naturalistic

theory OR Theory of Chemical Evolution-
➢ Proposed by Russian Scientist Oparin and Haldane
➢ Oparin’s theory was published in his book ‘ORIGIN OF LIFE’.
➢ They proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-
living organic molecules and that formation of life was preceded by chemical
evolution, i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
➢ The conditions on earth were – high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing
atmosphere containing CH4, NH3,
➢ This theory also states that “first abiogenesis then biogenesis ”

Important Points:
• According to this theory life originated by the composition of chemicals.
• first life originated in the water of oceans. So water is essential for origin of life.
• There is no life on moon due to absence of water.
• At the time of origin of life free O2 was absent, so first life was anaerobic.
• In the primitive atmosphere free oxygen was absent so atmosphere of earth was
reducing.
• Oxygen was produced later by photosynthesis and atmosphere converted in
oxydising.
• Energy sources were high temperature, volcanic eruptions, lightning, which
maintained high temperature on primitive earth

Chemical Evolution

i. The atomic stage –

Atoms like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen formed the primitive atmosphere.
ii. Molecular stage (Origin of molecules and simple Inorganic compounds) –
• Free atoms combined to from molecules and simple inorganic compounds.
• Due to presence of high temperature, active hydrogen atoms combined with all
oxygen atoms to form water vapour and leaving no free oxygen.
• Thus the primitive atmosphere was reducing (without free oxygen) unlike present
oxidizing atmosphere (with free oxygen). Hydrogen atoms also combined with
nitrogen to from NH3.
• The first inorganic compounds formed were probably water and Ammonia.
• These Lighter elements also formed CO2, CO, N2 , H2 etc.

iii. Origin of early organic compounds –

• Inorganic molecules reacted to form the first organic compound Methane(CH 4). Later
on hydrogen cyanide (HCN) was formed.
• Water which formed on earth due to high temperature evapourated so clouds were
formed.
• Water vapour changed into rain drops and by the collection of water on earth
primitive oceans were formed, haldane termed prebiotic soup or hot dilute soup for
these oceans

iv. Origin of simple organic compounds (monomers) –

• Water of primitive oceans contained large amount of methane, ammonia, hydrogen,
cyanides etc. These early compounds interacted and formed simple organic
compounds like, aldehyde, Ketones, Alcoholes, Pentose and Hexose sugar, Amino
Acids, Glycerol, Fatty Acids, Purines, Pyrimidines etc.
• Energy was obtained from U.V. Rays of sunlight, cosmic rays and heat of volcanic
eruption.

v. Origin of complex organic compounds –

• The small simple organic molecules combined to form large complex organic
molecules. e.g.-
- Amino acids Joined to form polypeptides and proteins, which were non-enzymatic.
- Simple sugar units combined to form polysaccharides.
- Fatty acids and glyceroles united to from fats and lipids.
- Sugar, nitrogenous bases, phosphates combined into nucleotides which polymerized
into nucleic acid, which unable to replicate.
• These macromolecules forms main components of protoplasm hence the possibility
of origin of life in primitive oceans could be established.
• After long time the water of primitive oceans became rich mixture of organic
compounds as a result of chemical evolution.

vi. Origin of protobionts:

• Macromolecules like premitive proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, polysaccharides etc.
were synthesized in primitive ocean later came together and formed large
colloidal drop like structures named as Protobionts, these were able to maintain
their internal environment but were unable to reproduce.
• TWO important protobionts are coacervates and microspheres according to 2
scientist
- Oparin named these protobiont “Coacervates” which were not having outer
membranes of lipid
- Sydney Fox named these protobiont “Microspheres” which were having consists of a
lipid bilayer.

vii. Origin of Prokaryotes –

As a result of mutation the protobiont became more complex prokaryotic cells. They
were chemoheterotrophs , respiration was anaerobic.

viii. Origin of Auto tropism –

• It includes the origin of chemosynthesis and photosynthesis.
(a) Chemosynthesis: the organism are called as chemoautotrophs. They did not release
oxygen, such mode of nutrition is found in Bacteria e.g. sulphur bacteria, iron
bacteria, nitrifying bacteria.
(b) Origin of Photosynthesis :
• After some time chlorophyll developed in some autotrophic bacteria like organism
• They performed photosynthesis, called photoautotrophs.
• Such organism which were bearing chlorophyll are similar to today’s Cyanobacteria
([Link]).

Oxygen revolution –

During the origin and evolution of life liberation of free by blue green algae like
prokaryotes due to photosynthesis was a revolutionary change in the history of
earth. It is called oxygen revolution.

It includes important changes like –

(1) Atmosphere of earth changed from reducing to oxidizing

(2) The UV rays from the sun broke up water into Hydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter
H2 escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and
others.
(3) Accumulation of free O2 formed a layer of O3 (ozone) above the atmosphere of earth.
Which started absorbing most of the U.V. rays of sunlight.

Origin of Eukaryotic cell –

• Conditions became suitable for aerobic respiration with the release of free O2 .
Aerobic respiration yields about 20 times more energy than anaerobic respiration
hence the prokaryotes adapted themselves for aerobic mode of respiration.
• Eukaryotes originated about 1.5 billion years ago in the primitive ocean.
 ATOMIC PHASE

SIMPLE INORGANIC MMMOLECULES

SIMPLE ORGANIC MOLECULES

CHEMICAL EVOLTION
(CHEMOGENY)

MONOMERS

POLYMERS

PROTOBIONT

HETEROTROPHIC PROKARYOTES

CHEMOAUTOROTROPHIC PROKARYOTES

PHOTOAUTOROTROPHIC PROKARYOTES (BCG)

ORGANIC EVOLUTION

OXYGEN EVOLUTION

EUKARYOTIC EVOLUTION

RECENT
Experimental evidence for formation
of simple organic compounds –
• Experimental Evidence
proposed by Miller and urey.
• In this experiment Miller took
the mixture of methane,
ammonia and hydrogen (ratio
2:1:2) in a large flask and passed
steam over it by boiling water
and connecting it with a glass
tube..
• Electric spark Of 75,000 volt
was provided by using two tungsten electrodes as source of energy at 800 degree
centigrade.
• The other end of the spark chamber was connected to a trap by a tube that
passed through a condenser (an arrangement for condensation and collection of
aqueous solution, equivalent to rain and Haldane's soup).
• The control apparatus contained every arrangement except that it was devoid
Of energy source.
• After 18 days this fluid was collected and analysed. This dark red fluid was found to
contained Simple amino acids – Glycine, alanine, aspartic acid.

Note:
• Later several Other scientists also conducted similar experiment by changing the
starting materials and sources Of energy like UV radiations and generated sugars
like ribose, hexose. nitrogen bases like adenine. guanine. pygments and fat.
• This version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through
evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is accepted by majority
• Origin of virus like structure is an example of retrogreaaive evolution (complex to
simple). While evolution which inhibits earth surface progressive means simple to
complex.
• The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They
would have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.)
• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till about 2000 million years
ago.
• First land organism were plants.
• First nucleic acid were RNA.
• Chemogeny -Chemical Evolution)
• Biogeny/biological evolution- Formation of Primitive Life and self replicating
molecules
• Cognogeny/organic evolution- Primitive Life and Its Evolution till recent.
 Why abiogenesis is not possible under present day condition, the answer is because-
a. Today’s atmosphere is oxidisisng
b. Lack of primitive energy sources

Organic Evolution –
1. Though life originated by chemical evolution on primitive earth, was later replaced
by organic evolution.
2. Organic evolution states “Descent with modification”. i.e. the present day complex
organism have evolved from earlier simpler organism by small but gradual changes
which have occurred over millions of years.
EVIDENCES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION
1. Paleontological Evidences
2. Morphological and Anatomical Evidences
3. Vestigial organs in Human body
4. Evidences from connecting links
5. Evidences from Atavism (Reversion)
6. Evidences from bio geographical distribution –
7. Evidence from physiology and biochemistry
8. Evidences from Embryology

1. Paleontological Evidences :
The study of fossils is known as Palaeontology.
Father of Palaeontology : Leonard da vinci
Father of Indian Palaeontology : Birbal sahani
Founder of modern palaeontology : George Cuvier
Fossils are Impression of past organism found in Rocks.
Fossils provide one of the most acceptable evidence in support of organic evolution.
Sedimentary rocks are also called as stratified rocks, fossils are mostly found in sedimentary rocks.
Type of Fossils :
1. Unaltered Fossils :
In this type whole bodies of extinct organisms are found forozen in ice at the polar regions eg. Wooly
mammoths

2. Petrified fossils – Most common type of fossil, it consists of only the hard parts e.g. bones,
teeth, shells, wood etc. of extinct organisms.
3. Mould fossils –
Here no part of the original organism is present only an impression of the external structure of
body is preserved in wet soil.
4. Cast fossils – Sometimes minerals fills in the mould, resulting in cast fossils

5. Print Fossils –
Foot print of prints of wings, skin, leaves, stems etc made in soft mud which subsequently become
fossilized are a common type of fossils.

6. Coprolites –
These fossils include the fossil preservation of contents of the intestine or excreta of many ancient
animals

NOTE–
1. Fossils found in older rocks are of simple type and those found in newer rocks are of
complex types.
2. By fossils, we can study the evolutionary pedigree of an animal like stages in evolutution of
horse, elephant and man etc.
 3. Some fossils represent connecting links and missing links between two groups.
4. It telss us about different time zone of earth.

Archaeopteryx:
Missing links / connecting link between reptile and aves

reptilian Characters :
(1) Long tail is present.
(2) Bones were not pneumatic.
(3) Presence of free caudal vertebrae as found in Lizard.
(5) Teeth present in Jaws.

Avian Characters :
(1) Presence of feathers on the body
(2) Jaws were modified into beak
(3) The fore limbs were modified into wings

“Dating of fossils” or “The clock of the Rock”

(1) Lead method
(2) Radio-carbon method
(3) Potassium – Argon method
(4) Electron spin resonance method [ESR method]- most accurate and widely distributed

Evolution (PEDIGREE) of Horse/Phylogeny of Horse

Changes during evolution of horse are as follows –

1. Increment in body height
2. Increment in the length of neck & legs
3. Number of toes or fingers in legs reduced, only middle toe touches the ground,hence it gets developed
other toes re-duced gradually.
4. As new species were formed, previous ones become extinct.
Fossils of important Ancestores of horse
 Recent or modern horse

First one toed horse

It was of the size of modern
pony.

It’s size was like a donkey.

The ruminating horse

It’s size was like a sheep,

somewhat large in size).

Eohippus or Hyracotherium – It
evolved in Eocene Epoch. It’s size
was like a fox.

Geological Time Scale –

Chronological order of the history of organic evolution, It includes the history of earth itself ever
since it was formed till recent
Era Period Epochs Animal sequence Plant sequence (vegetation)

Holocence of Mental age, supremacy of man

QUATER

recent
NARY

(Age fo man)
Pleisitocene Human appear, Appearance of social life of man
(AGE OF MAMMALS)

Pliocene Apelike ancestor of human appeared

COENOZOIC

Miocence (Golden Mammals evolution a hike Continue radiation of angiosperms

age of Mammals)
TERTEORY

Oligocene apes evolved from monkeys

Eocene Mammalian diversity Angiosperms dominance

Plaeoene Major Mammalian and avian diversification.

CRETACEOUS Extinction of dinosaurs and pimit-ive birds. First Angiosperms appeared

modern birds appeared
(AGE OF REPTILES)

JURASSIC Giant reptiles like dinosaurs were at peak, evolution gymnosperins was at peak.
MESOZOIC

of toothed birds like Archaeopteryx, first bird

(REPTILES’S AGE)

TRIASSIC Origin of first dinosaurs, flying reptiles. Gymnosperm dominate

PERMIAN origin of mammals like reptiles. and modern insect

CARBONI FEROUS Abundance of anpmphibians Ancestral gymnosperms & ferns Origin of

first seed plant.
(age of
amphibians)

DEVONIAN Origin and evolution of sharks, bony fishes and lung .

PALAEOZOIC

Appearance of frist amphibians

(age of fishes)

SILURIAN Diversification of vertebrates. Origin of vascular plants

ORDO Age of invertebrates, Origin of jawless fishes.

VICIAN

CAMB

RIAN
PRECABRIAN

ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTES
ORIGIN OF PROKARYOTES
ORIGIN OF PRIMITIVE LIFE
CHEMICAL EVOLUTION
ORIGIN OF EARTH
 Trick to learn ERA- please (precambrian) pay (paleozoic) me (mesozoic) cent (ceozoic)
Trick to learn PERIOD- camel (cambrian) often (ordovician) sit (silurian) down (devonia)
carefully (carboniferous) perhaps (permian) their (triassic) joints (jurassic) creaks
(cretaceous)
Trick to learn EPOCS- put (palaeocene) egg (eocene) on(oligocene) my (miocene)
plate(pliocene) please (pleistocene) honey (holocene)

2. Morphological and Anatomical Evidences –

Comparative anatomy and morphology shows similarities and differences among organisms of
today and those that existed years ago.

1. Homology 2. Analogy

1. Homology / Homologous organ

• Organs similar in basic structure and different in function
• (Similarity in appearance and function is not necessary.)
• Homologous organs support Divergent evolution (adaptive divergence/adaptive
radiation) and common ancestors.
• Homology found in different animals indicate their evolution from common
ancestors. Species which have diverged after origin from common ancestor giving
rise to new species adapted to new habitats exhibit large number of homologous
organs hence homology shows Divergent evolution.

Examples of Homologous organs –

(i) Forelimbs of mammals –
Horse Bat Whale Seal Man
Appearance Foot Wings paddle Flipper Hand
Function Running Flying Swimming Swimming Holding
In their fore limbs similar bones are present like - humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges.

(ii) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of cucurbita (Modification of axillary bud).

(iii) vertebrate hearts or brains.
(iv) Legs of invertebrates –
Cockroach Honey bee
Walking Collecting of pollens
But in both segmented legs are present and segments are same like coax, Trochanter, Femur,
tibia, 1-5 jointed tarsus.
(v) Mouth parts of insects
 Cockroach Honey Bee Mosquito
biting and chewing chewing and lapping Piercing and sucking
In each of these insects the mouth parts comprise labrum, mandibles and maxillae.
(vi) Wings of sparrow and pectoral fins of fish.
(vii) Hind limb of mammals.
(viii) Homology is also seen amongst the molecule. This is called molecular homology. For example
the proteins found in the blood of man and apes are similar.
(ix) Testes in male and Ovaries in female develop from same embryonic tissue.
(x) Pectoral fin of fish and flipper of seal.
(xi) Flipper of penguin (bird) and dolphin (Mammal)

Adaptive radiation:- process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting
from a point and literally radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive
radiation.
For example - Darwin’s finches ,Australian marsupials and placental mammals
Darwin’s finches – Darwin studied Fauna and Flora of Galapagos island situated near South
America (consisted 22 islands). Here he saw nearly 20 types of finches (birds).These birds evolved
into different species as a result of adaptation to environment. These birds are now known as
Darwin’s Finches.

All the varieties, evolved on the island itself from the ancestral seed-eating bird, many other forms
with altered beaks/bill, enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches
 Marsupial radiation: A number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved from
an ancestral stock, but all within the Australian island continent.

2. Analogy/analogous organ –
Organs which have dissimilar structure but have similar
It support convergent evolution/adaptive convergent.
It do not support common ancestory

Examples of Analogous organs –

(i) Wings of bat & birds and wings of insects.
(ii) flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
(iii) Pelvic fins of fish, flipper of seal
(iv) Hands of man and trunk of elephant
(v) Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification)
 (vi) Eyes of Octopus and eyes of mammals (different in their retinal position).
(vii) Dog fish and whale.

Convergent evolution:- when more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred
in an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats), one can call this convergent
evolution.
For Example : Some of the marsupials of Australia resemble equivalent placental mammals
that live in similar habitats of other continents. When adaptive convergence is found in
closely related species, it is called parallel evolution.

3. Evidences from vestigial organs – The organs which are present in reduced form and do not
perform any function They are remainats of organs which were complete and functional in their
ancestors
Vestigial organs are example of lamrckism (Theory of inheritance of acquired charactar)

Vestigial organs in Human body –

Human have 90 vestigial organ

a. nictitating membrane b. muscles of pinna (auricular muscles)

c. vermiform appendix d. coccyx
e. canine teeth f. third molars (Wisdom teeth)
g. segmental muscles of abdomen h. body hairs
i. nipples in male j. scalp muscle

Vestigial organs in other animals –

• Hind limb and pelvic girdle of python

• wings of fightless birds such as ostrich, Emu, Kiwi, Dodo, Reha etc. (Dodo recentely extinct)
• Eyes of deep sea fishes
(4) Evidences from connecting links –
Some animals and plants possess characters of two separate groups. One being primitive and the
other is advanced group.
These species act as bridge between two taxonomic groups such organism is called connecting link.
They provide good example of organic evolution and common ancestry.
(i) Virus : between living and non living
(ii) Euglena : Between plants and animals
(iii) Proterospongia : Between protozoa and Porifera
(iv) Neopilina : Between Mollusca and annelida
(v) Peripatus : Between Annelida and arthropoda
(vi) Archaeopteryx : Between reptiles and birds
(vii) Balanoglossus : Between nonchordates and chordates
(viii) Chimera : Between cartilagenous fish and Boney fish
(ix) Lung fish (Protopterus) : Between fishes and amphibian
Protopterus (African lung fish), Lepiidosiren (South American lung fish) and
Neoceratodus (Australian lung fish)
Latimeria (Coelacanth fish) is also considered a connecting link between fish
and amphibians.
(x) Platypus : Between reptiles and mammals
(xi) Echidina : Between reptiles and mammals.

(5) Evidences from Atavism (Reversion)

characters suddenly appears which used to be present in our ancestors but were lost during
the course of development.

Examples :
1. Human baby with tail
2. Cervical fistula – In some human babies pharyngeal gill slits appears which were
present in aquatic vertebrate ancestors.
3. Long and pointed canine teeth represents carnivorous ancestors.
4. Large and thick body hair reflect our relationship with apes.
5. Extra nipples (more than two)
(6) Evidence from physiology and biochemistry –
Different organism show similarities in physiology and biochemistry. Some clear examples
are -
1. Protoplasm : Structure and chemical composition of protoplasm is same from
protozoa to mammalia.
2. Enzymes : Enzymes perform same function in all animals like Trypsin digest
protein from amoeba to man. Amylase digest starch from porifera to mammalia.
3. Blood : Chordates show almost same composition of blood.
4. ATP : This energy rich molecule is formed for biological oxidation in all animals.
5. Hormones : Secreted in different vertebrates performs same function.
6. Hereditary material: Hereditary material is DNA in all organism and its basic
Structure is same in all animals.
Physiology and biochemistry thus prove that all animals have evolved from some
common ancestor.

(7) Evidences from bio geographical distribution –

The study of geographical distribution of animal and plant species in different parts of earth is called
Biogeography.
Different animal species occurring in an area are called Fauna and those of plants are called Flora.
On the basis of fauna and flora Alfred Russel Wallace divided the whole world into six
major Biogeographical regions called realms which were use to be a Single land PANGEA
Nearctic , Palaearctic, Neotropical, Oriental , Ethiopian , Australian
Oriental realm is separated from Palaearctic realm by Himalayan mountains
Oriental realm and Australian realm are separated by Wallace's line.

Discontinuous Distribution of Closely Related Species : Sometimes closely similar species

exit at widely separated places called discontinuous distribution. examples
(a) Alligators : They occur only in southeastern United States and extern China.
(b) **Lung Fishes : various varieties of lung fish are found.
(c) Camels : They occur in Asia, while their nearest allies Limas are found in South
America.
(d) Elephants : They are found in Africa and India and not in places with identical climate
in Brazil.
 Restricted Distribution :

[Link] -
This is sub class of mammalia, which includes egg laying mammals like Platypus and
Echidna found only in Australia.
In prehistoric time Australia was a part of Asian continent. After the evolution of
prototherians from reptiles Australia got separated from mainland of Asia. Later on
Eutherian mammals evolved in Asia. Due to their carnivorous nature they destroyed
prototherians and metatherians from Asia. So these groups became extinct on the mainland
but they survived in Australia due to absence of Eutherians.

2. Marsupial – The subclass of class mammalia includes kangaroos and opossum

which are found only in Australia.

3. Darwin’s finches – Darwin studied Fauna and Flora of Galapagos Island situated
near South America (consisted 22 islands). Here he saw nearly 20 types of finches (birds).

(8) Evidences from Embryology –

Baer’s Law : An organism show its ancestor stages in its embryonic development. In embryo
stage general characters appear firstly then specialized characters appear.
Recapitulation theory: Firstly proposed MULLER,
But Ernest haeckel explaind it in detail and give
the name ‘Biogenetic law’

- According to it ‘ontogeny recapitulate phylogeny’

or ‘ontogeny repeats phylogeny’ it means any
organism shows its ancestral adult stages during
its embryonic development. It shows that all
organism evolved from a common ancestor.
-
Examples :-
(i) The tadpole larvae of Amphibians bear more
resemblance to the young once of fishes than to
their own Adults. This indicates Origin of
Amphibians from fishes.
For example, in all birds and mammals including
man, the embryos pass through stages resembling
adult’s stage of fishes, Amphibians and reptiles before finally attaining the characters of
their respective classes.
This proves that All Vertebrates have evolved from common fish like Ancestors and also
that both Birds and mammals have evolved from reptiles.

(ii) When the heart first develops in the embryos of Amphibians, reptiles, Birds and
Mammals, it is 2-chambered same as in the embryos and Adults of fishes. In later stages of
Embryonic development in Amphibians, reptiles, Birds and Mammals the heart become, 3-
chambered. This condition is retained in Adults of Amphibians and most reptiles. In Birds
and Mammals the heat becomes 4-chambered in the last embryonic stages to continue as
such in the Adults.
 (iii) Fishes mainly excrete Ammonia. Adult Amphibians Excrete urea, but their tadpoles
excrete Ammonia like the fishes. Birds excrete uric acid, but their embryos excrete first
Ammonia and then urea during earlier stages.

(iv) In embryonic stage birds showed tooth buds for some time, which became extinct later.
It show that birds evolved from toothed reptile like ancestors.

NOTE:- However, this proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by Karl Ernst
von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.

THEORIES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION

1. LAMARCKISM
2. DARWINISM
3. MUTATION THEORY
4. NEW DARWINISM

1. LAMARCKISM

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829)

Book : Philosophie Zoologique
Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Character /Theory of use and disuse of organs–

1. Internal Vital Forces :

Some internal forces are present in all organism to increase the size of their organs or entire
body.
2. Effect of environment and new needs / Doctrine of Appetency:-
Environment influences all type of organisms. Changing environment gives rise to new
needs, New needs or desires produce new structures and change habits of the organism.
3. Use and disuse of organs.
If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed whereas disuse of organ result
in its degeneration.
4. Inheritance of acquired character –
Any acquired characters are inherited from one generation to another. By continuous
inheritance through many generation these acquired characters tend to make new
generation quite different from its Ancestors resulting in the formation of new species.
Examples in support of Lamarckism :
1. Long neck and high fore limb of Giraffe.
2. Aquatic birds stretched their toes and developed wed.
3. Snakes lost their legs.

Criticism of Lamarckism –
1. According to first concept organism tends to increase their size but it is not universally true. For
example among angiosperm the trees seem to be primitive and the shrubs, herbs an grasses have
evolved from trees but the size was reduced during evolution.
2. Second concept is false. Can we sprout wings wishing to fly like birds.
3. The third concept is somewhat true like the well developed biceps muscles of blacksmith and less
developed wings in flight less birds.
4. Fourth concept is completely false because acquired characters are not inherited.
Eg:
• Weismann cut off the tails of rats for about 22 generations but there was no reduction in the
size of tail.
• Pyane kept drosophila in dark up to 69 generation, but there was no reduction in the size or
sight of eyes.
• Boring of ear and nose in Indians.
• Iron shoes of Chinese.

2. DARWINISM
• Darwin traveled by H.M.S. Beagle.
• He traveled South America, South Africa. Australia and Galapagos Islands.
• Darwin was influenced by two books.
“Principles of population” of Thomus Malthus.
• According to thomus Malthus “population tends to increase geometrically whereas food
supply increase arithmetically “
• Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar
conclusions around the same as Darwin at the same time.

• “The theory of Natural Selection “ was proposed jointly by Charles Darwin and A.R. Wallace.
This theory was later on explained by Darwin in his book ‘On the origin of species by the
means of Natural Selection’ (1859).

• There are two main concept of Darwin’s theory – Branching Descent & natural selection.

The main features of theory of Natural Selection are as follows –

(1) Over Production :

All organism have capability to produce number of offspring.
e.g. - Plants produce thousands of seeds.
- Insects lay hundreds of egg.

Some organisms produce more offspring and other produce fewer offspring This is called
differential reproduction.
The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span. Microbes that
divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within hours.

(2) Struggle for existence –

Every individual competes for basic necessities like . space , shelther and food .
The struggle for existence is of three types -
(i) Intra-specific struggle : Competition between the individuals.
(ii) Inter-specific struggle : Between the individuals of different species.
(iii) Environmental struggle : Between the organism and their environment like cold, heat, wind,
rain, drought and flood etc.

(3) Variations and heredity –

• Due to variations some individuals would be better adjusted towards the surrounding than
the others.
• According to Darwin the variations are continuous and those which are helpful in the
adaptations of an organism towards its surroundings would be passed on to the next
generation, while the non useful will disappear.

(4) Survival of the fittest or natural selection –

• The original idea of survival of fittest was proposed by Herbert Spencer.
• According to Darwin most suitable and fit individuals are successful in struggle for existence.
• The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness. Hence,
those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny than others. These, therefore,
will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
(5) Origin of New Species –
Darwin explained that variations appearing due to environmental changes are transmitted
to the next generation. So offspring become different from ancestors.

Note:
Artificial Selection –

Man has bred selected plants and animals for agriculture, horticulture, sport or security. Man has
domesticated many wild animals and crops. This intensive breeding programme has created breeds
that differ from other breeds (e.g., dogs) but still are of the same group. if within hundreds of years,
man could create new breeds, nature could have done the same over millions of years.

Criticism of Darwinism –
1. This theory only explain the survival of fittest but unable to explain arrival of fittest.
2. The main drawback of Darwinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
3. Drawing was unable to explain why nature picks only useful variation.

Theory of Pangenesis:
To explain inheritance of variation Darwin gave this theory
According to this theory all organs of an individual produce Pangenes, which are minute particles
released by modified organs , these travel through the blood stream and reach to the gametes, so that
each gamete will have pangenes for each of the different organs, and therefore these are transferred to
next generation through reproduction.

Theory of continuity of germplasm :-

On the basis of this experiment Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of germplasm to
reject theory of pangenesis.
According to Weismann.
(i) Two type of matters are present in organism, somatoplasm and germplasm.
(ii) Someatoplasm in somatic cells and germplasm in Germinal cell.
(iii) Somatoplasm dies with the death of organism while germplasm transfers into the next
generation.
 (iv) If any variation develops in germplasm, it is inherited, while if variation develop in
somatoplasm it is not transmitted.

MUTATION THEORY
Proposed by Hugo-devries on the basis of his experiments on a plant Oenothera lamarckiana (EVENING
PRIMEROSE)

Main Point mutation theory :

1. Mutation or discontinuous variation are the raw material of evolution.
2. Mutation appears suddenly and produced their effect immediately.
3. Mutation can appear in all direction and all mutations are directionless and inheritable.
4. Mutation is a jerky & discontinuous process. De-vries termed single step large mutation as saltation.
Note :
De-vries mutation theory generally accepted because the mutation were found to be inheritable. It was later
though that evolution cannot occur by mutation alone, natural selection and isolation of mutants are also
necessary for evolution.
Mutations are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and directional.
Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries believed mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation
(single step large mutation).

Difference between variation and mautation

Variation Mutation
 1. Can be genetic as well as somatic 1. Always genetic
2. Unidirectional 2. Directionless
3. Always progressive 3. Progressive as well as retrogressiv

NEODARWINISM –
Neo-Darwinism is a modified form of Darwinism along with recent researches of Weismann, Mendel,
Devries, etc. It concludes that new species develop through mutations with natural selection.
It explains various reason of Mutation / discontinuous variations which develop due to permanaent
changes in genotype.
Mutations are of three types -
- Genomatic mutations : Change in number of chromosme.
- Chromosomal Aberrations : Change in structure of chromosome.
- Gene Mutation : Change in nucleotide.

Examples of Natural Selection –

(1) Industrial Melanism :

❖ There are two varieties are found of peppered moth-Biston betularia (white winged) &
Biston Carbonaria (dark winged/ melanic moths).
❖ in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation set in, it was observed that there were more white-
winged moths on trees than dark-winged or melanised moths because there were less
pollution and lichens grew on tree this condition was favourable to light winged moth for
camouflage but unfavourable for dark winged because the couldn’t hide themselves - in that
background the white winged moth survived but the dark-coloured moth were picked out
by predators.
❖ But after industrialisation, i.e., in 1920, there were more dark-winged moths in the same
area, i.e., the proportion was reversed because lichens stopped growing due to pollution
and the tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke and soots, now this condition was
favourable for dark winged moth, During post industrialisation period,. Under this condition
the white-winged moth did not survive due to predators, dark-winged or melanised moth
survived
❖ Later replacement of coal industry by oil and Electricity industry again pollution decrease
and whte moths increased again.
Note :-
• In areas where industrialisation did not occur e.g., in rural areas, the count of
melanic moths was low.
 • No variant is completely wiped out.
• Melanic form of moth were formed due to mutation not by industrialization.

(2) Drug resistance :

❖ The drugs which eliminate pathogens become ineffective in the course of time because
those individuals of pathogenic species which can tolerate them.
❖ excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc., has only resulted in selection of resistant varieties
in a much lesser time scale. This is also true for microbes against which we employ
antibiotics or drugs against eukaryotic organisms/cell.
❖ Hence, resistant organisms/cells are appearing in a time scale of months or years and not
centuries.

Note:
• Above two examples of evolution is by anthropogenic action i.e. natural selection by human
activity.
• This also tells us that evolution is not a directed process in the sense of determinism. It is a
stochastic process based on chance events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms.

(3) Sickle cell Anaemia in Malaria prone area:

❖ Individuals homozygous recessive for sickle cell Anaemia die at an early age.
❖ Individuals homozygous dominant will not die from sickle cell anaemia but would die from
malaria.
❖ Heterozygous individuals, the cells containing abnormal haemoglobin become Sickle shaped
,individuals are able to cope with malaria infection much better than normal persons.
(4) Malaria and G – 6 – PD deficiency :
❖ Glucose-6-Phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency is a common abnormality in Negroids.
Haemoglobin gest denatured and is deposited on cell membrane. The disease is called
favism .
❖ In these RBC, the malarial parasite cannot complete it’s life cycle. Such persons get
protection from Malaria.

Types of Natural Selection :

Based upon different organism – environment relationship. Following different kinds of
natural selection have been recognised.
- Stabilising selection.
- Directional selection.
- Disruptive selection/diversifying selection
-Balancing selection

(1) Stabilising selection :

• It keeps a population genetically constant. It favours the average or normal
phenotypes and eliminate the extreme variants,
• bell-shaped curve is obtained
• More individuals acquire mean character value
Ex.
 ❖ Mortality in babies: The birth weight of human babies provides another example
influenced by stabilizing selection. The optimum birth weight favoured by stabilizing
selection is 7.3 pounds. New born infants less than 5.5 pounds and more than 10
pounds have the highest mortality rate. The curve for mortality is virtually the
complement of the curve of survival.
❖ Wing size in hawk.
(2) Directional selection of Progressive selection :
• It favour individuals that change in response to the environmental change and
become best adapted to new environmental condition. It favour the phenotype
which is non average or extreme and then pushes the phenotype of the population
in that direction.
• It selects over extreme
• Shifting sand dunes like curve
• More individuals acquire value other than the mean character value
Ex. Industrial melanism, Resistance of insects to DDT, Better adapted or better yielding variety.

(3) Disruptive selection /diversifying selection :

• Nature selects the extremes and eliminates intermediates.
• Curve with 2 peaks.
• More individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve
Eg. Shell pattern in marine limpets –white , light grey , dark tan
Fur colour in rabbits

(4) Balancing selection: it is rare type of natural selection , in which loss of population is
maintained by heterozygous individuals
eg: sickle cell anaemia, G-6-P deficiency
GENETIC BASIS OF ADAPTATIONS
• Joshua Lederberg & Esther Lederberg show genetic basis of adaptations by experimenting
on bacteria. This experiment is know as Lederg’s Replica plate experiment.
• Lederberg cultured the bacterial cells on agar plate, colony is formed by the division of
bacterial cells. This multi colony agar plate is known as master plate.
• On this master plate one sterile velvet plate was pressed slightly so that some bacteria got
stuck on velvet plate and transfer these bacteria on those agar plates whose agar contains
an antibiotic penicillin.
• It was seen that some bacteria failed to grow on penicillin agar plate while some bacteria
were able to grow and developed new colony.
• It was concluded that those bacterial colonies were penicillin resistant. These bacteria have
penicillin resistant mutant gene.
Lamarckian view: Penicillin induced a change in some bacterial cells enabling them to grow in
medium containing penicillin (wrong concept).
Darwin view: some bacteria’s were penicillin resistant in bacterial suspension. In penicillin medium,
normal bacteria did not survive while mutant bacteria survived, as they are adapted, and form
colony.(right concept)
Conclusion:
• These mutations, had arisen by chance not induced by penicillin, Lederberg's experiment
provided evidence that mutations are actually preadaptive. These kinds Of mutations are
regarded as advantageous mutations, preadaptive mutations express themselves only after
exposure to the new environment to which the organisms are to adapt themselves.
• Microbial experiments show that pre-existing advantageous mutations when selected will
result in observation of new phenotypes. Over few generations, this would result in
Speciation.
• Therefore the new environment does not induce the mutation, it only selects the
preadaptive mutation that occurred earlier.
HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE
In a given random mating population the frequency of alleles of a gene or a locus is supposed to
remain fixed and even remain the same through generations
This principle says that allele frequencies in a population are stable
and is constant from generation to generation. The gene pool (total genes
and their alleles in a population) remains a constant. This is called
genetic equilibrium. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1

p2+2pq+q2=1. p+q=1
P=Frequency of dominant allele
q= Frequency of recessive allele
2pq= Heterozygous

Five factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium-

• gene migration or gene flow
• genetic drift
• mutation
• genetic
• recombination
• natural selection.
• Non random mating (selective mating i.e. mating between members randomly )
Gene migration :- migration of a section of population to another place and population occurs, gene
frequencies change in the original as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles
are added to the new population and these are lost from the old [Link] would be a gene
flow if this gene migration, happens multiple times.
Genetic drift/sewall Wright effect :- If the same change occurs by chance, it is called genetic drift. It
always occur in small population, it has two cases-
Bottle neck effect:- Death of several members of a population due to natural calamities
(Earthquake. Storm, Flood etc) also leads to genetic drift. The new population may lack the genes of
certain traits. This may produce a new species after some time. The loss of a section of population by
death and after sometime a new species is formed that effect is known as Bottleneck effect.

Eg;
➢ Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a population
bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the 1890s. Hunting reduced their population size to
as few as 20 individuals at the end of the 19th century. Their population has since
rebounded to over 30,000 but their genes still carry the marks of this bottleneck, they have
much less genetic variation.
➢ As a species, cheetahs have famously low levels of genetic variation due to bottleneck
Founder effect: Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in the new sample of
population that they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes founders
and the effect is called founder effect.
Problems from hardy Weinberg:-

Q 1. The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.20 (A) and 0.8(a). Assume that the population is
in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
(a) Calculate the frequency of heterozygous individuals in the population

(b) Calculate the frequency of homozygous recessives in the population.

Q2. The allele of y occurs with frequency of 0.4 in a population of Elephant, find out the frequency of
YY , Yy, yy
Q3. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, the frequency of the recessive
homozygote genotype of a certain trait is 0.09. Calculate the percentage of individuals homozygous
for the dominant allele.
Q4. In a population that is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 36 % of the individuals are recessive
homozygotes for a certain trait. In a population of 14,500, calculate the percentage of homozygous
dominant individuals and heterozygous individuals.
 Reproductive Isolation –
Reproductive isolation is the prevention of inter breeding between the populations of two different
or closely related species

Two main subtypes of reproductive isolation are -

1. Premating or prezygotic isolation :

Prevent mating or formation of zygote.
(a) Ecological isolation : Two species live in different habitats and do not meet.
(b) Temporal isolation : Breeding seasons or flowering time may be different in the two species.
(c) Behavioural isolation : The males of one animal species are unable to recognise the females of
another species as potential mates.
(d) Mechanical isolation : The structural differences in genitalia of individuals interfere with mating.
(e) Gametic isolation : The sperms and ova of different species of animals are unable to
fuse.

2. Postzygotic mechanisms : A hybrid zygote is formed but it may not develop into a viable fertile
adult.
(a) Hybrid inviability : Hybrid zygotes fail to develop
(b) Hybrid sterility : Hybrid adults do not produce functional gametes. Mules and henny are
common examples
Exception -Africa lioness + Asian tiger = Tigon
- Male lion + Female tiger = Liger

(c) Hybrid breakdown : Sometime inter specific mating produce a hybrid, which give rise to
next offspring , but these offspring are infertile.

Speciation – formation of one or more new species

(1) Divergent speciation (origin of new species from ancestor , in which new species as
well as ancestor species also exist)

Allopatric speciation (speciation due to

geographical isolation) eg. Darwin finches

Divergent speciation

Sympatric speciation (speciation due to other

reproductive isolation method except
geographical isolation ) eg : diversification of
plant due to polyploidy

(2) Transformation speciation/phyletic speciation - only new species exist , ancestors do not
exist eg. Horse evolution
Note: -
Micro evolution :- small-scale changes in gene frequencies in a population occurs at or below the species
level. eg. Formation of new subspecies or races
Macro evolution: - Above the species level and results in the establishment of new genera, families and
order.
Mega evolution: - formation of new classes, phylum.
Unit of natural section- individual
Unit of evolution – population

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION:

• 500 mya- invertebrates were formed and active.
• 350 mya- Jawless fish probably evolved around
• 320 mya- Sea weeds and few plants existed
• 350 mya -Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. In 1938, a fish
caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth (lobefins) which was thought to be extinct. first
amphibians that lived on both land and water, these were ancestors of modern day frogs and
salamanders.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles, they lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike
those of amphibians.
• In the next 200 millions years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth.
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles.
• 200 mya - Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles. (e.g.
Ichthyosaurs)
• The biggest dinosaurs i.e., Tyrannosaurus rex was about 20 feet in height and had huge fearsome
dagger like teeth.
• 65 mya- the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know the true reason ,some
say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them evolved into birds.
• When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.
• The first mammals were like shrews.
• Some mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

primates

prosimian simian

Eg. Eg.
Closer to human
• Tarsier Human
• Loris Apes
• Lemur(Madagascar) Mokeys
• Tree shrew

Mokeys Apes

Old worlds Monkeys New world monkeys

Tail Short or long, Long, prehensile tail
non prehensile tail.

Narrow flat nose Protruding nose with

with downward upward direction of
direction of nostril nostril
Dental 2133
formula as human Dental formula =
2133
2123 36
= 32
2123

(5) Menstruation Menstruation cucle

cycle is present in absent but estrous cycle is
female. present.
Rhesus (Macaca), spider monkey, marmosets
Baboon

So old worlds monkeys are more closer to humans

Similarities between man and apes :-

• Tail absent
• Erect posture
• Grasping hands
• Hairs are present on body
• Larger head, more cranial capacity
• More intelligent than other animals
• Facial muscles are present for expression of surprise, pleasure.
• Menstruation cycle is present in female of both
• Blood group AB series are present in both.
• Composition of Hib is same in both. Only one amino acid is different in human and gorilla.
• Chromosomal similarities :-
• No. of chromosomes are approximately same in man and apes.
▪ Apes = 48
▪ Man = 46
• DNA content and DNA matching is same in both. This similarity is
▪ 100% with Chimpanzee
▪ 94% with Gibbon
▪ 88% with Rhesus monkey
• Banding pattern of ch. no. 3, 6 of human and chimpanzee is 100% similar.
 Dryopithecus
• About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and
Ramapithecus were existing. They were hairy and
walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
• Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus
was more ape-like.
• Fossils discovered from Shivalik hills in india
Ramapithecus

• Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in

Ethiopia and Tanzania
• about 3-4 mya, man-like primates walked in eastern
Africa.
Australopithecus • They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked
( link between up right.
apes and man.) • 2 mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East
African grasslands.
• Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but
essentially ate fruit.
• First who stood erect , Bipedal locomotion (first)
• Prof. Raymond dart discovered a fossil of skull of 5-6
year old baby from the Tuang region (S. Africa). He
named it Tuang baby or lucy, later on he renamed it A.
africanus.

• first human-like being i.e hominid

Homo habils • Brain capacities - 650-800cc.
(Tool maker man • They probably did not eat meat.
or Handy man.) • Prognathous face or protruding out jaw
• They made tools of stones for hunting animals.

• Brain capacity- 900cc.

Homo erectus • probably ate meat.
(direct ancestor of • Prognathous face or protruding out jaw
homo sapiens) • 1.5 mya.

Homo erectus Homo erectus Homo erectus

erectus or java man pekinensis or Heidelbergensis
Peking man Or Heidelberg man
First man who used fire for
hunting, protection,
and cooking
It is also known as erect ape man
Fossils discovered in Java in 1891
 Homo sapiens arose in
HOMO SAPIENS Africa and moved across
continents and developed
into distinct races.

Neanderthal man / Homo Cromagnon man : Homo sapiens Neanderthal man / Homo
sapiens neanderthalensis :- fossilis sapiens neanderthalensis :-
• brain size-1400cc
• brain size-1400cc • 1650 c.c. (maximum) • brain size-1400cc
• lived in near east and • used domesticated dogs in • lived in near east and
central Asia between hunting, so domestication central Asia between
1,00,000-40,000 of animals started by 1,00,000-40,000
• Years back. cromagnon man. • Years back.
• They used hides to protect • They also painted • They used hides to protect
their body and buried their beautiful painting on cave their body and buried their
dead i.e. ceremonial burial walls dead i.e. ceremonial burial
of dead body • Pre-historic cave art of dead body
• First religious. developed about 18,000 • First religious.
• Wore cloths of animal skin years ago. One such cave • Wore cloths of animal skin
• By nature – omnivorous. paintings by Pre-historic • By nature – omnivorous.
• Slightly Prognathous face humans can be seen at • Slightly Prognathous face
• First man believed in Bhimbetka rock shelter in • First man believed in
“immortality of soul” Raisen district of Madhya “immortality of soul”
Pradesh.
• The cromagnon man is
regarded as the direct
ancesntor of modern of
moderf man.
• By nature carnivorous.