UNIT – V

Vector Calculus

Definition: (Scalar)
A scalar is a quantity that is determined by its magnitude.
Examples: distance, length, speed, temperature, voltage, mass, pressure, and work are scalars.
Definition: (Vector)
A vector is a quantity that is determined by both its magnitude and its direction.
Examples: force, displacement, and velocity (which gives the speed and direction of the motion)
are vectors.

Length or magnitude of the vector:

The length or magnitude of the vector a⃗ is the length of the line segment AB and is denoted by

| ⃗a |. If ⃗a =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z ⃗k ;a=|⃗a|=√ x 2 + y 2+z 2 ⇒ a2 =x 2 + y 2 +z 2

Note:

The magnitude of a vector is always a positive number or zero, i.e., it cannot be a negative
number. 
Unit vector:
A vector of magnitude 1 is called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of n⃗ is denoted
⃗n
n^ =
by n^ (read as ‘n cap’ or ‘n hat’). Clearly | n^ |= 1. Clearly, |⃗n| for any non-zero vector.
Scalar product (or dot product):

a =a 1 ⃗i +a2 ⃗j+a3 ⃗k and ⃗b=b 1 ⃗i +b 2 ⃗j+b3 ⃗k be two vectors. Then the scalar product (or dot
Let ⃗
product) is denoted by ⃗a⋅⃗b and is calculated by

⃗a⋅⃗b=a 1 b1 +a2 b2 +a3 b 3

Vector product (or cross product):

The vector product (or cross product) is denoted by ⃗a ×⃗b and is calculated by

⃗i ⃗j ⃗k
⃗a ×⃗b =|a1 a2 a 3 |
b1 b 2 b 3

Note:

⃗a⋅⃗b is a scalar and ⃗a ×⃗b is a vector

Vector Differential Operator

The operator ∇ (to be read as ‘del’ or ‘nabla’) is defined as

∇=⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ +⃗z ∂
∂x ∂ y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ is called the vector differential operator, as it behaves like a vector with ∂x , ∂ y , ∂z as

⃗ ∇=∑ ⃗i ∂ ∂
coefficients of ⃗i , j , ⃗k respectively. When writing ∂x , it should be noted that ⃗i and ∂x
are written as the first and second factors respectively.

GRADIENT – DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE

Vector Differential Operator

The vector differential operator ∇ (to be read as ‘del’ or ‘nabla’) is defined as

∇=⃗i ∂ +⃗j ∂ +⃗k ∂

∂x ∂ y ∂z

where ⃗i ,
⃗j , ⃗k are the unit vectors along the three axes OX, OY and OZ respectively.

Scalar point function

A physical quantity, that is a function of the position of a point in space, is called a scalar point
function.
Scalar point function: 
A scalar point function is a function that assigns a real number (i.e. a scalar) to each point of
some region of space. If to each point (x, y, z) of a region R in space there is assigned a real
number u = ϕ(x, y, z), then ϕ is called a scalar point function.

Examples: 
1. The temperature distribution within some bodies at a particular point in time.
2. The density distribution within some fluid at a particular point in time.
Vector point function:
A vector point function is a function that assigns a vector to each point of some region of space.
⃗ ⃗
If to each point (x, y, z) of a region R in space there is assigned a vector  F = F ( x, y , z ) , then ⃗F is
called a vector point function. Such a function is represented as
⃗F =f 1 ( x , y , z ) ⃗i +f 2 ( x , y , z ) ⃗j +f 3 ( x , y , z ) ⃗k

Gradient (or slope of a scalar point function):

Let ϕ(x, y, z) be a scalar point function and continuously differentiable. Then the vector
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
(
∇ φ= ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ φ=⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k
∂x ∂ y ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂z )
is defined as the gradient of ϕ and denoted as grad ϕ. In other words, grad ϕ = ∇φ .
Note:

∇=∑ ⃗i ∂ =⃗i ∂ +⃗j ∂ +⃗k ∂

1. ∂x ∂x ∂ y ∂z
2. If ϕ is a constant, then ∇ φ=⃗0
3. ∇ φ should not be written as φ ∇ . That is, ∇ φ ≠ φ ∇

4. There will be no ‘·’ or ‘×’ between ∇ and ϕ.

5. If ⃗r =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z ⃗k ;r=|⃗r |=√ x 2 + y 2 +z 2 ⇒r 2=x 2 + y 2 +z 2

∂r ∂r x
2r =2 x ⇒ =
r [Link] x, we get
2 ∂x ∂x r
Partially differentiate
 ∂r ∂r y ∂r ∂r z
2r =2 y⇒ = ;2r =2 z⇒ =
∂y ∂y r ∂z ∂z r
Similarly,

∂ r ⃗ ∂r ⃗ ∂ r ⃗ ∂ r
∇ r=∑ ⃗i = i + j +k
6. ∂ x ∂x ∂ y ∂z
Problems:

If ϕ = log (x2+ y2+ z2), then find ∇φ

Solution:

Given ϕ = log (x2+ y2+ z2)

∂φ ∂ φ ∂ φ
∇ φ=⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k
∂x ∂ y ∂z
∂φ 2x ∂φ 2y ∂φ 2z
= 2 2 2 = 2 2 2 = 2 2 2
∂ x x + y +z ; ∂ y x + y +z ; ∂ z x + y +z

2x 2y ⃗k 2z 2 ( x ⃗i + y ⃗j + z ⃗k ) 2 ⃗r
∇ φ=⃗i + ⃗j + = = 2
x 2+ y 2+ z 2 x 2+ y 2+ z2 x2+ y 2 + z2 x 2 + y 2 + z2 r

If ϕ = 3xy - yz, then find grad ϕ at (1, 1, 1)

Solution:

Given ϕ = 3xy - yz

∂φ ⃗ ∂ φ ⃗ ∂ φ
∇ φ=⃗i + j +k
∂x ∂ y ∂z

∂φ ∂φ
=3 y =3 x−z ∂φ =− y
∂x ; ∂y ; ∂z

∇ φ=⃗i ( 3 y )+ ⃗j ( 3 x−z ) + ⃗k (− y ) =3 y ⃗i + ( 3 x−z ) ⃗j− y ⃗k

∇ φ=3 y ⃗i + ( 3 x−z ) ⃗j− y ⃗k
∇ φ( 1,1,1 )=3 ⃗i +2 ⃗j−⃗k
 ' ' ⃗r
∇ f ( r )=f ( r ) ∇ r=f ( r )
Prove that r where ⃗r =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z ⃗k .

Solution:

⃗r =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z ⃗k ;r=|⃗r |=√ x 2 + y 2 +z 2 ⇒r 2=x 2 + y 2 +z 2

∂r ∂r x
2r =2 x ⇒ =
r2 [Link] x, we get ∂x ∂x r
Partially differentiate

∂r ∂r y ∂r ∂r z
2r =2 y⇒ = ;2 r =2 z⇒ =
∂y ∂y r ∂z ∂z r
Similarly,

(
∇ f ( r )= ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ f ( r )
∂x ∂ y ∂z )
∇ f ( r )=⃗i ∂ f ( r ) + ⃗j ∂ f ( r ) + ⃗k ∂ f ( r )
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂r ∂r ∂r
(
∂ r ∂r ∂r
=⃗i f ' ( r ) + ⃗j f ' ( r ) + ⃗k f ' ( r ) =f ' ( r ) ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂ y ∂z
=f ' ( r ) ∇ r )
' '
x ⃗ ' y ⃗ ' z f (r) ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ f (r )
⃗ '
= i f (r ) + j f (r ) + k f (r ) = ( x i + y j+ z k )= ⃗r
r r r r r
' ' ⃗r
∇ f ( r )=f ( r ) ∇ r=f ( r )
r

⃗
If ⃗r =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z k , then find

i. ∇r ii.
∇ () 1
r iii. ∇ ( log r ) iv. ∇⋅⃗r
Solution:

Given ⃗r =x ⃗i + y ⃗j+ z ⃗k
 r=|⃗r|=√ x 2 + y 2 +z 2 ⇒ r 2 =x2 + y 2 +z 2
(1)

∇r
i.

∂r ∂r ∂r
( )
∇ r= ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ r=⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k
∂x ∂ y ∂ z ∂x ∂ y ∂z
∂r ∂r x
2r =2 x ⇒ =
r2 [Link] x, we get ∂x ∂x r
Partially differentiate

∂r ∂r y ∂r ∂r z
2r =2 y⇒ = ;2 r =2 z⇒ =
∂y ∂y r ∂z ∂z r
Similarly,

x y z 1 ⃗r
∇ r=⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k = ( x ⃗i + y ⃗j+z ⃗k )=
Then, r r r r r

⃗r
∇ r=
r

∇ ( 1r )
ii.

∇ ()(
r
= i + j +k
∂x ∂ y ∂z r )( )
1 ⃗ ∂ ⃗ ∂ ⃗ ∂ 1 ⃗ ∂ ( 1/r ) ⃗ ∂ ( 1/r ) ⃗ ∂ ( 1/r )
=i
∂x
+j
∂y
+k
∂z
∂r ∂r ∂r
=⃗i ( −r−2 ) + ⃗j (−r −2 ) + ⃗k (−r −2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z

(
∂r ∂ r ∂ r
=−r −2 ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k
∂x ∂ y ∂ z )
=(−r −2 ) ∇ r
⃗r
=(−r −2 ) =−r −3 ⃗r
r
∇ ()
1
r
=(−r−3 ) ⃗r
 i. ∇ ( log r )
ii

∂ ( log r ) ⃗ ∂ ( log r ) ⃗ ∂ ( log r )

(
∂x ∂ y ∂z )
∇ ( log r )= ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ ( log r )= ⃗i
∂x
+j
∂y
+k
∂z
1 ∂ r ⃗ 1 ∂r ⃗ 1 ∂ r
=⃗i +j +k
r ∂x r ∂ y r ∂ z
1
= ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ r
(
r ∂x ∂y ∂z )
1
= ∇r
r
=
1 ⃗r ⃗r
r r r2 ()
=
⃗r
∇ ( log r )= 2
r

iv. ∇⋅⃗r

∂ ( x ) ∂( y ) ∂ (z )
(
∂x ∂ y ∂z )
∇⋅⃗r = ⃗i ∂ + ⃗j ∂ + ⃗k ∂ ⋅( x ⃗i + y ⃗j+z ⃗k )= +
∂x ∂y ∂z
+

∂( x ) ∂ ( y ) ∂( z)
= + +
∂x ∂ y ∂z
=1+1+1
=3
∇⋅⃗r =3

Directional Derivative:
⃗n
∇ φ⋅
The directional derivative of ϕ in the direction ⃗n is given by |⃗n| (or) ∇ φ⋅^n .

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Find the directional derivative of ϕ = x2yz + 4xz2 at (1,-2,-1) in the direction of 2 i − j−2 k .
Find the unit normal vector to the surface ϕ = x2+ xy+ y2+xyz at (1,-2, 1).

Solution:

Given ϕ = x2+ xy+ y2+xyz

∇φ
Unit normal vector = |∇ φ|

∂φ ⃗ ∂ φ ⃗ ∂ φ
∇ φ=⃗i + j +k
∂x ∂ y ∂z

∂φ ∂φ
=2 x + y + yz =x+2 y+xz ∂φ =xy
∂x ; ∂y ; ∂z

∇ φ=⃗i ( 2 x + y + yz ) + ⃗j ( x+2 y +xz ) + ⃗k ( xy )

∇ φ( 1,−2,1 )=−2 ⃗i −2 ⃗j−2 ⃗k =−2 ( ⃗i + ⃗j+ ⃗k )
|∇ φ|=√ (−2 ) + (−2 ) + (−2 ) = √ 4+4+4=√12=2 √3
2 2 2

∇ φ −2 ( ⃗i + ⃗j+ ⃗k ) −( ⃗i + ⃗j + ⃗k )
= =
|∇ φ| 2 √3 √3

What is the physical meaning of divergence, curl and gradient of a vector field?
Divergence tells you how much stuff diverges from a point. Think of water coming from a
faucet.
Curl tells you how much stuff is spinning (curling) around a point. Rotating water in a bucket
has curl. You can measure curl by putting a piece of dust in the liquid and seeing if it spins
around its own axis. (Although to confuse you, a whirlpool doesn't have curl. Put a speck of dust
in a whirlpool, and as it spirals down the drain, if you watch it closely it will not spin about its
own axis.)
Gradient tells you how much something changes as you move from one point to another (such as
the pressure in a stream).
Unit normal vector

Let S be any surface. If a vector at some point on S is perpendicular to S at that point, it is called
a normal vector (of S at that point). When a normal vector has magnitude 1, it is called a unit
normal vector.

Note: There will always be two unit normal vectors, each pointing in opposite directions.

Stoke’s theorem
Stoke’s theorem relates a surface integral over a surface S to a line integral around the boundary

∫ ⃗F⋅( dR ) =∭ ( curl ⃗F )⋅n^ ds

curve of S C S

Green’s theroem: 2D-Surface – Converting line integral into surface integral

Stoke’s theroem: 3-Dimension
Gauss Divergence theorem: Surface integral = Volume integral